Split (1)

train · 1.04M rows

id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 381	title stringlengths 1 211	text stringlengths 1.02k 2.05k	edu_quality float64 1.91 4.03
4047840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovant	Fovant	Fovant is a village and civil parish in southwest Wiltshire, England, lying about west of Salisbury on the A30 Salisbury-Shaftesbury road, on the south side of the Nadder valley. History The name is derived from the Old English Fobbefunta, meaning "spring of a man called Fobbe". The Domesday Book of 1086 recorded a settlement called Febefonte with 22 households, held by Wilton Abbey. The abbey was surrendered to the Crown in 1539, and Fovant was among the villages granted to Sir William Herbert, later Earl of Pembroke. (Herbert was also granted the site of the abbey, where he built Wilton House). The Pembrokes continued as landowners at Fovant until the estate was broken up in 1919. An elementary school was built in 1847 with places for 100 children, and gained a second classroom in 1875. Children of all ages attended until 1944, when those aged twelve and over transferred to the senior school at Tisbury. By 1958, when the buildings were modernised, there were 58 pupils. In the 1980s children aged 10 and 11 went to a middle school at Tisbury, and falling numbers led to closure of the Fovant school in 1997 when it had 27 pupils. During World War I a training camp was set up at Fovant which, according to one soldier stationed there, was 'as good a camp as Chiseldon was a bad one'. Owing to the leadership of 'a giant colonel now fairly old', the recruits were well cared for and fed. Religious sites Parish church The Church of England parish church of St George dates from the 13th century and has a south doorway taken from a 12th-century building. Much of the church was rebuilt in the 15th century; the tower was built c. 1492 and is surmounted with stone friezes and battlements. In the 16th century the last abbess of Wilton Abbey, Cecily Bodenham, retired to Fovant and is said to have paid for the building or rebuilding of the south aisle.	2.03125
4047849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Garhoud%20Bridge	Al Garhoud Bridge	Al Garhoud Bridge (in Arabic: جسر القرهود) is one of three road bridges over Dubai Creek, and one of five crossings, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Al Garhoud Bridge forms the eastern end of the road toll (called Salik) that went into effect on 1 July 2007. Since the beginning of Salik, Al Garhoud Bridge has seen low amounts of traffic for Dubai. Old Al Garhoud Bridge The old Al Garhoud Bridge was the second bridge constructed that crossed the Creek, after Al Maktoum Bridge. The bridge opened in 1976. In 2007, nearly 9,000 vehicles crossed the bridge every hour at peak flow. It has been the cause of huge traffic jams in Dubai. The main reason for this was the number of roads that fed into the bridge. On the Bur Dubai-bound lanes, seven lanes (from three different roads) converged into three lanes. For the Deira-bound lanes, five lanes converged into three lanes. Also, the bridge had to be closed to allow large boats to pass under it. The bridge had a total of 6 lanes: 3 lanes in each direction. New Al Garhoud Bridge To solve the major traffic problems caused by the old bridge, a replacement was constructed between 2006 and 2008 by Belgian main contractor BESIX. The bridge, which cost 415 million dirhams, is meant to add more lanes of road that cross Dubai Creek. The new Al Garhoud Bridge has a total of 14 lanes, 7 in each direction. It is able to handle 16,000 vehicles per hour. Construction of the bridge began in February 2006 and by 26 September 2007, 76% of the construction was completed. The bridge is long and above the water. On 15 December 2007, four lanes on the Deira-bound side were opened to vehicle traffic. Then on 15 March 2008, as had been scheduled, remaining lanes on both sides were opened. The old bridge was demolished after the new bridge opened. Shortly after the bridge opened, the Roads and Transport Authority announced that Al Garhoud Bridge would be decorated with artwork that look like sand dunes during the day and waves at night with the aid of lighting.	2.296875
4047871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexachlorobenzene	Hexachlorobenzene	Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an aryl chloride and a six-substituted chlorobenzene with the molecular formula C6Cl6. It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment, especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt. Its use has been banned globally under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Physical and chemical properties Hexachlorobenzene is a stable, white, crystalline chlorinated hydrocarbon. It is sparingly soluble in organic solvents such as benzene, diethyl ether and alcohol, but practically insoluble in water with no reaction. It has a flash point of 468 °F and it is stable under normal temperatures and pressures. It is combustible but it does not ignite readily. When heated to decomposition, hexachlorobenzene emits highly toxic fumes of hydrochloric acid, other chlorinated compounds (such as phosgene), carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. History Hexachlorobenzene was first known as "Julin's chloride of carbon" as it was discovered as a strange and unexpected product of impurities reacting in Julin's nitric acid factory. In 1864, Hugo Müller synthesised the compound by the reaction of benzene and antimony pentachloride, he then suggested that his compound was the same as Julin's chloride of carbon. Müller previously also believed it was the same compound as Michael Faraday's "perchloride of carbon" (Hexachloroethane), obtained a small sample of Julin's chloride of carbon to send to Richard Phillips and Faraday for investigation. In 1867, Henry Bassett proved that the compound produced from benzene and antimony was the same as Julian's carbon chloride and named it "hexachlorobenzene". Leopold Gmelin named it "dichloride of carbon" and claimed that the carbon was derived from cast iron and the chlorine was from crude saltpetre. Victor Regnault obtained hexachlorobenzene from the decomposition of chloroform and tetrachloroethylene vapours through a red-hot tube.	2.421875
4047871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexachlorobenzene	Hexachlorobenzene	Hexachlorobenzene is an animal carcinogen and is considered to be a probable human carcinogen. After its introduction as a fungicide in 1945, for crop seeds, this toxic chemical was found in all food types. Hexachlorobenzene was banned from use in the United States in 1966. This material has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a Group 2B carcinogen (possibly carcinogenic to humans). Animal carcinogenicity data for hexachlorobenzene show increased incidences of liver, kidney (renal tubular tumours) and thyroid cancers. Chronic oral exposure in humans has been shown to give rise to a liver disease (porphyria cutanea tarda), skin lesions with discoloration, ulceration, photosensitivity, thyroid effects, bone effects and loss of hair. Neurological changes have been reported in rodents exposed to hexachlorobenzene. Hexachlorobenzene may cause embryolethality and teratogenic effects. Human and animal studies have demonstrated that hexachlorobenzene crosses the placenta to accumulate in foetal tissues and is transferred in breast milk. HCB is very toxic to aquatic organisms. It may cause long term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. Therefore, release into waterways should be avoided. It is persistent in the environment. Ecological investigations have found that biomagnification up the food chain does occur. Hexachlorobenzene has a half life in the soil of between 3 and 6 years. Risk of bioaccumulation in an aquatic species is high.	2.828125
4047871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexachlorobenzene	Hexachlorobenzene	Anatolian porphyria In Anatolia, Turkey between 1955 and 1959, during a period when bread wheat was unavailable, 500 people were fatally poisoned and more than 4,000 people fell ill by eating bread made with HCB-treated seed that was intended for agriculture use. Most of the sick were affected with a liver condition called porphyria cutanea tarda, which disturbs the metabolism of hemoglobin and results in skin lesions. Almost all breastfeeding children under the age of two, whose mothers had eaten tainted bread, died from a condition called "pembe yara" or "pink sore", most likely from high doses of HCB in the breast milk. In one mother's breast milk the HCB level was found to be 20 parts per million in lipid, approximately 2,000 times the average levels of contamination found in breast-milk samples around the world. Follow-up studies 20 to 30 years after the poisoning found average HCB levels in breast milk were still more than seven times the average for unexposed women in that part of the world (56 specimens of human milk obtained from mothers with porphyria, average value was 0.51 ppm in HCB-exposed patients compared to 0.07 ppm in unexposed controls), and 150 times the level allowed in cow's milk. In the same follow-up study of 252 patients (162 males and 90 females, avg. current age of 35.7 years), 20–30 years' postexposure, many subjects had dermatologic, neurologic, and orthopedic symptoms and signs. The observed clinical findings include scarring of the face and hands (83.7%), hyperpigmentation (65%), hypertrichosis (44.8%), pinched faces (40.1%), painless arthritis (70.2%), small hands (66.6%), sensory shading (60.6%), myotonia (37.9%), cogwheeling (41.9%), enlarged thyroid (34.9%), and enlarged liver (4.8%). Urine and stool porphyrin levels were determined in all patients, and 17 have at least one of the porphyrins elevated. Offspring of mothers with three decades of HCB-induced porphyria appear normal.	2.609375
4047933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churching%20of%20women	Churching of women	In Christian tradition the churching of women, also known as thanksgiving for the birth or adoption of a child, is the ceremony wherein a blessing is given to mothers after recovery from childbirth. The ceremony includes thanksgiving for the woman's survival of childbirth, and is performed even when the child is stillborn, or has died unbaptized. Although the ceremony itself contains no elements of ritual purification, it was related to Jewish practice as noted in , where women were purified after giving birth. In light of the New Testament, the Christian ritual draws on the imagery and symbolism of the presentation of Jesus at the Temple (). Although some Christian traditions consider Mary to have borne Christ without incurring impurity, she went to the Temple in Jerusalem to fulfil the requirements of the Law of Moses. The rite is first mentioned in pseudo-Nicene Arabic canon law. The Christian rite for the churching of women continues in Eastern Christianity, the Lutheran Churches, the Anglican Communion and the Methodist Churches; but in the Roman Rite it is found only in the pre-Vatican II form and in Anglican Ordinariate parishes. History The custom of blessing a woman after childbirth recalls the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary mentioned in Luke 2:22. The Jewish practice was based on Leviticus 12:1-8, which specified the ceremonial rite to be performed in order to restore ritual purity. It was believed that a woman becomes ritually unclean by giving birth owing to the presence of blood and/or other fluids at birth. This was part of ceremonial rather than moral law.	2.625
4047933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churching%20of%20women	Churching of women	Prior to the English Reformation, according to the rubric the woman was to occupy the "convenient place" near the narthex. In the first prayer book of Edward VI of England, she was to be "nigh unto the quire door". In the second of his books, she was to be "nigh unto the place where the Table (or altar) standeth". Bishop Matthew Wren orders for the diocese of Norwich in 1636 were that women to be churched would come and kneel at a side near the communion table outside the rail, being veiled according to custom, and not covered with a hat. In some parishes there was a special pew known as the "churching seat". Conducting the ritual inside the church rather than on the porch is an outward sign that ritual impurity of a childbearing woman was no longer presumed. Churchings were formerly registered in some parishes. In Herefordshire it was not considered proper for the husband to appear in church at the service, or to sit with his wife in the same pew. The words in the rubric requiring the woman to come "decently apparelled", refer to the times when it was thought unbecoming for a woman to come to the service with the elaborate head-dress then the fashion. A veil was usually worn. In some parishes a special veil was provided by the church, for an inventory of goods belonging to St Benet Gracechurch in 1560 includes "a churching cloth, fringed, white damask." In pre-Reformation days, it was the custom in Catholic England for women to carry lighted tapers when being churched, an allusion to the Feast of the Purification of the Virgin (February 2), and also celebrated as Candlemas, the day chosen by the Catholic Church for the blessing of the candles for the whole year. At her churching, a woman was expected to make some votive offering to the church, such as the chrisom or alb placed on the child at its christening.	2.25
4047933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churching%20of%20women	Churching of women	Augustine Schulte described the ceremony in the early twentieth century: The mother, kneels in the vestibule, or within the church, carrying a lighted candle. The priest, vested in surplice and white stole, sprinkles her with holy water in the form of a cross. Having recited Psalm 24, "The earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof", he offers her the left extremity of the stole and leads her into the church, saying: "Enter thou into the temple of God, adore the Son of the Blessed Virgin Mary who has given thee fruitfulness of offspring." She advances to one of the altars and kneels before it, whilst the priest, turned towards her, recites the appropriate blessing, and then, having sprinkled her again with holy water in the form of the cross, dismisses her, saying: "The peace and blessing of God Almighty, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, descend upon thee, and remain forever. Amen." According to commentary provided in a modern Catholic tutorial on the mass, the fact that the priest goes to meet the mother and escort her into the church is in itself a mark of respect for her. It was formerly regarded as unwise for a woman to leave her house to go out at all after confinement until she went to be churched. In Anglo-Irish folk tradition, new mothers who had yet to be churched were regarded as attractive to the fairies, and so in danger of being kidnapped by them. However, the origin of the church ritual is unrelated to these later local superstitions, which accrued to it.	2.234375
4047933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churching%20of%20women	Churching of women	In the East In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches of the Byzantine Rite, many jurisdictions still observe the tradition of the woman coming to church on the 40th day after childbirth for special blessings. For forty days a new mother remains at home to recuperate and to care for her child. However, if the child has not survived, the woman still remains at home to heal physically and emotionally. During the time of her confinement, the woman does not normally receive the eucharist, unless she is in danger of death. As the service is practiced in the Byzantine Rite, it involves both the blessing of the mother and the presentation of the child to God. The churching should be distinguished from two other brief rites that take place at childbirth: the Prayers on the First Day After Childbirth, and the Naming of the Child on the Eighth Day. These usually take place in the home. In some traditions, it is customary to baptize the child on the eighth day, following the example of the Old Testament rite of bris or circumcision of boys. In that case, the naming of the child would take place in the temple (church building); however, the mother would not attend, the child being presented by its godparents. Churching of the Woman On the fortieth day after childbirth, the mother is brought to the temple to be churched; that is to say, to receive a blessing as she begins attending church and receiving the sacraments once again. The child (if it has survived) is brought by the mother, who has already been cleansed and washed, accompanied by the intended sponsors (Godparents) who will stand at the child's baptism. They all stand together in the narthex before the doors of the nave, facing east. The priest blesses them and says prayers for the woman and the child, giving thanks for their wellbeing and asking God's grace and blessings upon them. Churching of the Child Then, if the infant has already been baptized, he performs the churching of the child; if not, he does the churching immediately after the baptism.	2.625
4047952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirex	Mirex	Mirex is an organochloride that was commercialized as an insecticide and later banned because of its impact on the environment. This white crystalline odorless solid is a derivative of both cyclopentadiene and cubane. It was popularized to control fire ants but by virtue of chemical robustness and lipophilicity it was recognized as a bioaccumulative pollutant. The spread of the red imported fire ant was encouraged by the use of mirex, which also kills native ants that are highly competitive with the fire ants. The United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited its use in 1976. It is prohibited by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Production and applications Mirex was first synthesized in 1946, but was not used in pesticide formulations until 1955. Mirex was produced by the dimerization of hexachlorocyclopentadiene in the presence of aluminium chloride. Mirex is a stomach insecticide, meaning that it must be ingested by the organism in order to poison it. The insecticidal use was focused on Southeastern United States to control fire ants. Approximately 250,000 kg of mirex were applied to fields between 1962 and 1975 (US NRC, 1978). Most of the mirex was in the form of "4X mirex bait", which consists of 0.3% mirex in 14.7% soybean oil mixed with 85% corncob grits. Application of the 4X bait was designed to give a coverage of 4.2 g mirex/ha and was delivered by aircraft, helicopter or tractor. 1x and 2x bait were also used. Use of mirex as a pesticide was banned in 1978. The Stockholm Convention banned production and use of several persistent organic pollutants, and mirex is one of the "dirty dozen".	2.390625
4047952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirex	Mirex	Degradation Much like other perchlorocarbons such as carbon tetrachloride, mirex does not burn easily; pyrolysis products are expected to include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, phosgene, and possibly other organochlorine species. Slow oxidation of mirex can be used to produce chlordecone ("Kepone"), a related insecticide that is also banned in most of the western world, but is more readily biodegraded. Sunlight degrades mirex to photomirex (8-monohydromirex) and 2,8-dihydromirex. Mirex is highly resistant to microbiological degradation. It only slowly dechlorinates to a monohydro derivative by anaerobic microbial action in sewage sludge and by enteric bacteria. Degradation by soil microorganisms has not been described. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification Mirex is highly cumulative and amount depends upon the concentration and duration of exposure. There is evidence of accumulation of mirex in aquatic and terrestrial food chains to harmful levels. After 6 applications of mirex bait at 1.4 kg/ha, high mirex levels were found in some species; turtle fat contained 24.8 mg mirex/kg, kingfishers, 1.9 mg/kg, coyote fat, 6 mg/kg, opossum fat, 9.5 mg/kg, and racoon fat, 73.9 mg/kg. In a model ecosystem with a terrestrial-aquatic interface, sorghum seedlings were treated with mirex at 1.1 kg/ha. Caterpillars fed on these seedlings and their faeces contaminated the water which contained algae, snails, Daphnia, mosquito larvae, and fish. After 33 days, the ecological magnification value was 219 for fish and 1165 for snails. Although general environmental levels are low, it is widespread in the biotic and abiotic environment. Being lipophilic, mirex is strongly adsorbed on sediments.	2.078125
4047952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirex	Mirex	Safety Mirex is only moderately toxic in single-dose animal studies (oral values range from 365–3000 mg/kg body weight). It can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion, and via the skin. The most sensitive effects of repeated exposure in animals are principally associated with the liver, and these effects have been observed with doses as low as 1.0 mg/kg diet (0.05 mg/kg body weight per day), the lowest dose tested. At higher dose levels, it is fetotoxic (25 mg/kg in diet) and teratogenic (6.0 mg/kg per day). Mirex was not generally active in short-term tests for genetic activity. There is sufficient evidence of its carcinogenicity in mice and rats. Delayed onset of toxic effects and mortality is typical of mirex poisoning. Mirex is toxic for a range of aquatic organisms, with crustacea being particularly sensitive. Mirex induces pervasive chronic physiological and biochemical disorders in various vertebrates. No acceptable daily intake (ADI) for mirex has been advised by FAO/WHO. IARC (1979) evaluated mirex's carcinogenic hazard and concluded that "there is sufficient evidence for its carcinogenicity to mice and rats. In the absence of adequate data in humans, based on above result it can be said, that it has carcinogenic risk to humans". Data on human health effects do not exist . Health effects Per a 1995 ATSDR report mirex caused fatty changes in the livers, hyperexcitability and convulsion, and inhibition of reproduction in animals. It is a potent endocrine disruptor, interfering with estrogen-mediated functions such as ovulation, pregnancy, and endometrial growth. It also induced liver cancer by interaction with estrogen in female rodents.	2.21875
4047961	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20A.%20Wilson%20%28gynecologist%29	Robert A. Wilson (gynecologist)	Robert A. Wilson was an American gynecologist who is known for writing the best-selling 1966 book Feminine Forever. He is also known for his organization the Wilson Research Foundation (WRA). In Feminine Forever, Wilson promoted the use of estrogen therapy to avoid the menopause and associated symptoms. He characterized menopause as a serious disease state and made strong claims about the effectiveness and safety of menopausal hormone therapy in alleviating it and improving quality of life and health. Wilson's claims were criticized as not being based on adequate research and evidence. Subsequently, trials such as the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) contradicted Wilson's claims and showed that menopausal hormone therapy could have significant medical risks and that its benefits were not as great as once believed. Wilson's early medical career was unremarkable, and he did not publish his first papers until 1962, when he was in his late 60s. It was revealed by Wilson's son, Ronald Wilson, that Wyeth-Ayerst had secretly paid all of the fees for Wilson to write his book and also helped finance his foundation. Other pharmaceutical companies additionally funded the Wilson Research Foundation. Within 10 years of the publishing of his book, in which Wilson promoted the use of conjugated estrogens (Premarin) and of menopausal hormone therapy in general, Premarin became the fifth most-prescribed drug in the United States. Works Books Journal articles	2.15625
4047983	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akram%20Khan%20%28cricketer%29	Akram Khan (cricketer)	Mohammad Akram Hussain Khan (; born 1 November 1968) is a former Bangladeshi cricketer. A hard hitting middle order batsman, Akram played first-class cricket for Chittagong Division. As captain, he led Bangladesh to being the winners of the 1997 ICC Trophy. He was the chief selector of the BCB, along with Habibul Bashar and Minhajul Abedin. Akram Khan was part of Bangladesh's inaugural Test match, in 2000–01 against India. He had been playing One Day International cricket since 1988. He developed as an international player under the able guidance of Gazi Ashraf Lipu. He retired from international cricket in 2003. Early life Akram Khan was born in the port city of Chittagong. His paternal Khan family is a prestigious family in the city, who originally migrated from Bihar. His brother was a reputed footballer, Iqbal Khan, making Akram the uncle of Bangladeshi cricketers Nafees and Tamim Iqbal. International career He was already well into his 30s when he played in Bangladesh's inaugural match. He finished his short Test career with a moderate average of 16.18 runs. His highest, 44 runs, came against Zimbabwe cricket team at Harare in 2001. He made his One Day International debut in October 1988, in his hometown Chittagong. Batting at No. 8, he defied the strong Pak bowling attack scoring 21* runs of 35 deliveries. He captained Bangladesh in the Asia Cup at Sharjah in 1995. He was the team's most consistent performer scoring 24, 24 & 44 against India, Sri-Lanka and Pakistan respectively. His first ODI 50 came against Pakistan at Colombo in 1997. There he shared a 110 run partnership with Athar Ali Khan. His highest ODI score of 65 runs, came at Dhaka against Kenya in 1999. He followed this with 50* runs against Zimbabwe. He played in two WCs, in 1999 & 2003. He played a large part in Bangladesh's upset win in 1999 World Cup over Pakistan with an innings of 42 runs.	1.96875
4048014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine%20oxidase%20A	Monoamine oxidase A	MAO-A shares 70% amino acid sequence identity with its homologue MAO-B. Accordingly, both proteins have similar structures. Both MAO-A and MAO-B exhibit an N-terminal domain that binds flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), a central domain that binds the amine substrate, and a C-terminal α-helix that is inserted in the outer mitochondrial membrane. MAO-A has a slightly larger substrate-binding cavity than MAO-B, which may be the cause of slight differences in catalytic activity between the two enzymes, as shown in quantitative structure-activity relationship experiments. Both enzymes are relatively large, about 60 kilodaltons in size, and are believed to function as dimers in living cells. Function Monoamine oxidase A catalyzes O2-dependent oxidation of primary arylalkyl amines, most importantly neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. This is the initial step in the breakdown of these molecules. The products are the corresponding aldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and ammonia: R-Amine + + → R-Aldehyde + + This reaction is believed to occur in three steps, using FAD as an electron-transferring cofactor. First, the amine is oxidized to the corresponding imine, with reduction of FAD to FADH2. Second, O2 accepts two electrons and two protons from FADH2, forming and regenerating FAD. Third, the imine is hydrolyzed by water, forming ammonia and the aldehyde. Compared to MAO-B, MAO-A has a higher specificity for serotonin and norepinephrine, while the two enzymes have similar affinity for dopamine and tyramine. MAO-A is a key regulator for normal brain function. In the brain, the highest levels of transcription occur in the brain stem, hypothalamus, amygdala, habenula, and nucleus accumbens, and the lowest in the thalamus, spinal cord, pituitary gland, and cerebellum. Its expression is regulated by the transcription factors SP1, GATA2, and TBP via cAMP-dependent regulation. MAO-A is also expressed in cardiomyocytes, where it is induced in response to stress such as ischemia and inflammation.	2.53125
4048014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine%20oxidase%20A	Monoamine oxidase A	Clinical significance Cancer MAO-A produces an amine oxidase, which is a class of enzyme known to affect carcinogenesis. Clorgyline, an MAO-A enzyme inhibitor, prevents apoptosis in melanoma cells, in vitro. Cholangiocarcinoma suppresses MAO-A expression, and those patients with higher MAO-A expression had less adjacent organ invasion and better prognosis and survival. Cardiovascular disease MAOA activity is linked to apoptosis and cardiac damage during cardiac injury following ischemic-reperfusion. Behavioral and neurological disorders There is some association between low activity forms of the MAOA gene and autism. Mutations in the MAOA gene results in monoamine oxidase deficiency, or Brunner syndrome. Other disorders associated with MAO-A include Alzheimer's disease, aggression, panic disorder, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Effects of parenting on self-regulation in adolescents appear to be moderated by 'plasticity alleles', of which the 2R and 3R alleles of MAOA are two, with "the more plasticity alleles males (but not females) carried, the more and less self-regulation they manifested under, respectively, supportive and unsupportive parenting conditions." Depression MAO-A levels in the brain as measured using positron emission tomography are elevated by an average of 34% in patients with major depressive disorder. Genetic association studies examining the relationship between high-activity MAOA variants and depression have produced mixed results, with some studies linking the high-activity variants to major depression in females, depressed suicide in males, major depression and sleep disturbance in males and major depressive disorder in both males and females.	2.375
4048014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine%20oxidase%20A	Monoamine oxidase A	Other studies failed to find a significant relationship between high-activity variants of the MAOA gene and major depressive disorder. In patients with major depressive disorder, those with MAOA G/T polymorphisms (rs6323) coding for the highest-activity form of the enzyme have a significantly lower magnitude of placebo response than those with other genotypes. Antisocial behavior In humans, an association between the 2R allele of the VNTR region of the gene and an increase in the likelihood of committing serious crime or violence has been found. The VNTR 2R allele of MAOA has been found to be a risk factor for violent delinquency, when present in association with stresses, i.e. family issues, low popularity or failing school. A connection between the MAO-A gene 3R version and several types of anti-social behaviour has been found: Maltreated children with genes causing high levels of MAO-A were less likely to develop antisocial behavior. Low MAO-A activity alleles which are overwhelmingly the 3R allele in combination with abuse experienced during childhood resulted in an increased risk of aggressive behaviour as an adult, and men with the low activity MAOA allele were more genetically vulnerable even to punitive discipline as a predictor of antisocial behaviour. High testosterone, maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy, poor material living standards, dropping out of school, and low IQ predicted violent behavior are associated with men with the low-activity alleles. According to a large meta-analysis in 2014, the 3R allele had a small, nonsignificant effect on aggression and antisocial behavior, in the absence of other interaction factors. Owing to methodological concerns, the authors do not view this as evidence in favor of an effect.	1.960938
4048014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine%20oxidase%20A	Monoamine oxidase A	The MAO-A gene was the first candidate gene for antisocial behavior and was identified during a "molecular genetic analysis of a large, multigenerational, and notoriously violent, Dutch kindred". A study of Finnish prisoners revealed that a MAOA-L (low-activity) genotype, which contributes to low dopamine turnover rate, was associated with extremely violent behavior. For the purpose of the study, "extremely violent behavior" was defined as at least ten committed homicides, attempted homicides or batteries. However, a large genome-wide association study has failed to find any large or statistically significant effects of the MAOA gene on aggression. A separate GWAS on antisocial personality disorder likewise did not report a significant effect of MAOA. Another study, while finding effects from a candidate gene search, failed to find any evidence in a large GWAS. A separate analysis of human and rat genome wide association studies, Mandelian randomization studies, and causal pathway analyses likewise failed to reveal robust evidence of MAOA in aggression. This lack of replication is predicted from the known issues of candidate gene research, which can produce many substantial false positives. Aggression and the "Warrior gene" Low-activity variants of the VNTR promoter region of the MAO-A gene have been referred to as the warrior gene. When faced with social exclusion or ostracism, individuals with the low activity MAO-A variants showed higher levels of aggression than individuals with the high activity MAO-A gene. Low activity MAO-A could significantly predict aggressive behaviour in a high provocation situation: Individuals with the low activity variant of the MAO-A gene were more likely (75% as opposed to 62%, out of a sample size of 70) to retaliate, and with greater force, as compared to those with a normal MAO-A variant if the perceived loss was large.	2.171875
4048014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine%20oxidase%20A	Monoamine oxidase A	The effects of MAOA genes on aggression have also been criticized for being heavily overstated. Indeed, the MAOA gene, even in conjunction with childhood adversity, is known to have a very small effect. The vast majority of people with the associated alleles have not committed any violent acts. Legal implications In a 2009 criminal trial in the United States, an argument based on a combination of "warrior gene" and history of child abuse was successfully used to avoid a conviction of first-degree murder and the death penalty; however, the convicted murderer was sentenced to 32 years in prison. In a second case, an individual was convicted of second-degree murder, rather than first-degree murder, based on a genetic test that revealed he had the low-activity MAOA variant. Judges in Germany are more likely to sentence offenders to involuntary psychiatric hospitalization on hearing an accused's MAOA-L genotype. Epigenetics Studies have linked methylation of the MAOA gene with nicotine and alcohol dependence in women. A second MAOA VNTR promoter, P2, influences epigenetic methylation and interacts with having experienced child abuse to influence antisocial personality disorder symptoms, only in women. A study of 34 non-smoking men found that methylation of the gene may alter its expression in the brain. Animal studies A dysfunctional MAOA gene has been correlated with increased aggression levels in mice, and has been correlated with heightened levels of aggression in humans. In mice, a dysfunctional MAOA gene is created through insertional mutagenesis (called 'Tg8'). Tg8 is a transgenic mouse strain that lacks functional MAO-A enzymatic activity. Mice that lacked a functional MAOA gene exhibited increased aggression towards intruder mice.	2.53125
4048025	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota%20Aurion%20%28XV40%29	Toyota Aurion (XV40)	The Toyota Aurion (XV40) is the original series of the Toyota Aurion, a mid-size car produced by Toyota in Australia and parts of Asia. Designated "XV40", Toyota manufactured the first generation Aurion between 2006 and 2012 until it was fully replaced by the XV50 series. While Asian production of the XV50 series began in late 2011, Toyota's Australian operations did not take on production of the new model until 2012. Although marketed as a separate model, the XV40 series Aurion is essentially a Toyota Camry (XV40) with revised front- and rear-end treatment, along with changes to the interior and Australian tuned suspension. In lieu of the "Aurion" nameplate, the majority of East and Southeast Asian markets received the Camry-based Aurion under the name Toyota Camry. However, in Australasia and the Middle East, Toyota sold the original version of the Camry alongside the Aurion. In these markets, the Aurion replaced the Avalon (XX10) model, which could trace its roots back to 1994 in North America. In the Australasian and Middle Eastern markets, to further differentiate the Aurion from its Camry sibling, Toyota equipped the Aurion exclusively with a 3.5-litre V6 engine. With the Camry, the company only offered the 2.4-litre four-cylinder version. Previously in these markets, prior to the introduction of the Camry XV40, Toyota had offered both four- and a six-cylinder powerplants. The powertrains used in the Asian specification Camry vary slightly from those of the Aurion. As well as the 3.5-litre V6, two four-cylinder engines are offered in either 2.0- or a 2.4-litre form for the Asian markets. These engines are teamed with a six-, four- and five-speed automatic transmissions, respectively. Along with the naturally aspirated version, Toyota produced an Australia-only supercharged TRD Aurion between 2007 and 2009 as tuned by Toyota Racing Development (TRD). At its release, Toyota claimed this performance variant to be the world's most powerful front-wheel drive car. History of development	2.015625
4048037	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolde%C8%99ti-Sc%C4%83eni	Boldești-Scăeni	Boldești-Scăeni (), often spelled Boldești-Scăieni, is a town in Prahova County, southern Romania. Located about north of Ploiești, it is an important oil-extraction center. It is situated in the historical region of Muntenia. History The town was created in 1968 by the unification of two neighbouring communes, Boldești and Scăeni. One village, Seciu, is administered by the town. The phalanstère Scăeni was the location of the only attempt to create a Charles Fourier-type phalanstère in Romania. In 1835, Theodor Diamant, a utopian socialist who had met Fourier in Paris, created the phalanstère, named The Agronomy and Manufacturing Society, on a patch of land provided by Emanoil Bălăceanu, a local land-owner. The Wallachian authorities saw this enterprise as a threat and took a stand against it. Therefore, the phalanstère was disbanded in 1836, a year and a half after it came into existence, with Diamant and Bălăceanu sent into exile. World War II During World War II, the area was extensively bombed, as part of Operation Tidal Wave. Air-raid shelters can still be found on the wooded hills around Boldești. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Boldești-Scăeni depicts a thistle (in Romanian, scai or scaiete) which refers to the name of the old Scăeni commune, as well as a grape, which represents the vineyards on the Seciu hills. The shaking hands is a reminder of the 19th century Scăieni phalanstère experiment, but could also refer to the 1968 union of the Boldești and Scăieni communes. Climate Boldești-Scăeni has a humid continental climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). Economy The town's economy revolves around oil-extraction as well as winemaking. Almost half of the town's surface is cultivated with vine. The Seciu winecellars are located in the direct vicinity of Boldești. Industry developed in the town after 1968, with a glass factory open in Scăeni. Many people who live in Boldești-Scăeni also work in the neighbouring city of Ploiești.	2.15625
4048070	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolintin-Vale	Bolintin-Vale	Bolintin-Vale () is a town in Giurgiu County, Muntenia, Romania with a population of 12,806 . The town administers three villages: Crivina, Malu Spart, and Suseni. It is the second largest city in the county; proximity to the capital, Bucharest, has helped the local economy. It officially became a town in 1989, as a result of the Romanian rural systematization program. The town is situated in the Wallachian Plain, at an altitude of , on the banks of the Sabar River. Demographics According to the 2011 census, Bolintin-Vale was mainly populated by ethnic Romanians, who made up 79.2% of the total population of 12,929, even though it had a significant Romani minority (19.8%). In fact, Bolintin-Vale was at time the Romanian town with the fourth largest percentage of Roma people. Many of the Romani are refugees from neighbouring Bolintin-Deal, who settled here after the ethnic clashes from 1991. As of 2011, the population breakdown of the town and the three adjacent villages was as follows: Bolintin-Vale 7,376, Malu Spart 3,126, Crivina 817, and Suseni 508. At the 2021 census, the town had a population of 12,806, of which 73,2% were Romanians and 14.63% Roma. Natives Dimitrie Bolintineanu (1819 or 1825 – 1872), poet, diplomat, and politician Valeriu Lupu (born 1991), footballer Florentin Matei (born 1993), footballer	2.09375
4048071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Alexandre%20Monsigny	Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny	Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny (; – ) was a French composer and a member of the French Académie des Beaux-Arts (1813). He is considered alongside André Grétry and François-André Danican Philidor to have been the founder of a new musical genre, the opéra comique, laying a path for other French composers such as François-Adrien Boieldieu, Daniel-François-Esprit Auber, Charles Gounod, Georges Bizet, and Jules Massenet in this genre. Biography Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny was born at Fauquembergues, near Saint-Omer, in the former Artois region of France (now Pas-de-Calais), four months before the marriage of his parents, Marie-Antoinette Dufresne and Nicolas Monsigny. He was educated at the Walloon Collége des Jésuites in Saint-Omer. It was here that he first discovered his aptitude for music. As the eldest child, in 1749, a few months after his father's death, he left for Paris with only a few coins in his pocket, a violin and a recommendation letter, in an attempt to further his musical career and provide for his siblings. He entered into the service of the connoisseur of art and the theater, Louis Guillaume Baillet de Saint-Julien, in the bureau of the Comptabilité du Clergé de France. In 1752, after watching a performance of La serva padrona by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi at the Paris Opera, he decided upon his true vocation. He then became Pietro Gianotti's student, and a contra-bassist at the Paris Opéra.	2.34375
4048087	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titu	Titu	Titu () is a town in Dâmbovița County, Muntenia, Romania, with a population of 9,291 . Location The town in located in the southern part of the county, in the center of the Wallachian Plain. It lies at a distance of from the county seat, Târgoviște, from Bucharest, and from Pitești. Titu îs surrounded by several communes: Produlești and Braniștea to the north, Odobești and Potlogi to the south, Conțești and Lungulețu to the east, and Costeștii din Vale to the west. Zones and administration Titu is divided into three main zones: Titu-gară – The main part of the city, it contains the town hall, the main school, the train station and most important buildings. Titu-târg – A rural zone which includes the town's library and the second school. It was also the former center town. Sălcuța – The smallest zone and a village in its own right, it is rural and features a church. It is also the place where the bâlci is held. The town administers five other villages: Fusea, Hagioaica, Mereni, Plopu and Sălcuța. Industry The French automobile manufacturer Renault is operating a technical centre near the town of Titu, that is used for testing and optimizing vehicles of the Dacia brand. It became operational in September 2010 and the cost of the investment raised to 166 million euro. The centre includes 100 testing lines for parts and vehicles and of test tracks that allow simulating various running conditions encountered around the world. It has 300 employees and is located halfway between the Mioveni factory and the research centre in Bucharest. The town holds an annual fair on September 14. Natives Dimitrie Dimăncescu (1896–1984), diplomat Ioan Dimăncescu (1898–1951), army officer Ion Miu (born 1955), virtuoso cimbalom player	2.1875
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	ARCA organized a public presentation of their Orizont spaceplane in front of the Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest. Because of financial problems encountered with the construction of Orizont, ARCA decided to suspend its development and instead design a new, much smaller rocket called Stabilo. It was designed to be launched from a stratospheric solar balloon and carry one person into space. Design and construction of large scale polyethylene balloons started and on December 2, 2006, at Onesti, Bacau, the crew capsule of Stabilo rocket was lifted to an altitude of 14,700 m. The capsule was safely recovered that evening. The event was transmitted live on several Romanian TV stations. On 27 September 2007, the entire Stabilo rocket (crew capsule + rocket booster) was lifted to an altitude of 12,000 m using the largest solar balloon constructed until that date. The mission was launched from Cape Midia Air Force Base, and the rocket was recovered from the Black Sea surface by Romanian Navy divers. At this moment ARCA proved its ability to conduct large-scale operations and to coordinate military institutions like the Romanian Navy and the Romanian Air Force. In 2007 ARCA won two governmental contracts with the Research Ministry for a suborbital rocket and a solar balloon. The Romanian Space Agency, the University of Bucharest and other Romanian institutions were subcontractors to ARCA for these projects.	2.546875
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	In early 2008 ARCA joined the Google Lunar X Prize competition and designed the Haas orbital launcher. Their lunar rover was named European Lunar Lander and used a monopropellant rocket engine for landing and hovering. Haas was a three-stage orbital rocket powered by hybrid engines using a bitumen-based fuel and hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer. It was supposed to be launched from 18,000 m carried by the largest solar balloon ever constructed, having a volume of 2 million cubic meters. For the Haas rocket, they created a three-stage much smaller demonstrator called Helen that was intended to test technologies and operation. The Helen rocket was intentionally not aerodynamically stabilized, being intended to use a technique based on the pendulum rocket fallacy. The Romanian bank BRD – Groupe Société Générale awarded ARCA a 300,000 euro sponsorship for their activities. Romanian cosmonaut Dumitru Prunariu highly praised ARCA's achievements and noted their ability to efficiently utilize private funds. In 2009 ARCA performed a series of engine tests using the Stabilo rocket engine in order to validate the design for the Helen rocket. The first attempt to launch the Helen rocket took place on November 14, 2009. Romanian Naval Forces participated with the NSSL 281 Constanta ship, the Venus divers ship, the Fulgerul fast boat and two other fast craft boats. For this mission, ARCA constructed a massive 150,000 cubic meter solar balloon, approximately five times as large as their previous balloon. After the balloon began inflating, the mission crew discovered that the balloon inflation arms were wrapped around the lower part of the balloon. Inflation was halted and the crew attempted to unwrap the arms. Three hours later the arms were repositioned and inflation was ready to resume but the sun was already nearing the horizon, and heating the solar balloon was no longer possible. The decision was made to cancel the mission.	2.515625
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	By 2011 all the fiberglass molds for the aircraft were finished and one-third of the aircraft structure was completed. The crew capsule escape system was tested on September 26, 2011, when a Mil Mi-17 helicopter belonging to the Special Aviation Unit dropped the capsule from an altitude of 700 m over the Black Sea. The emergency parachute deployed successfully and the capsule was recovered from the sea surface by the Romanian Coast Guard. In 2012 ARCA decided to focus on the construction of the rocket engine of the IAR-111 aircraft. The engine, named Executor, is made of composite materials, has a thrust of 24 tons force (52,000 lbf) and is turbopump fueled. It uses ablative cooling for the main chamber and nozzle where the outer layers of the composite material vaporize in contact with the high temperature exhaust mixture and prevent overheating. ARCA also presented a long-term space program, until 2025, that besides IAR-111 envisioned a small scale orbital rocket (Haas 2C), a suborbital crewed rocket (Haas 2B) and a medium scale crewed orbital rocket (Super Haas). In March 2012, ARCA tested an extremely lightweight composite materials kerosene tank that is intended to be used for the Haas 2C rocket. After criticism from the Romanian Space Agency (ROSA) intensified in printed media and television, ARCA decided to send a public letter to the Romanian Prime Minister to intervene in this matter. ARCA mentioned that the Romanian Space Agency is in no position to criticize after the failure of their cubesat Goliat recently launched with a Vega rocket. Furthermore, ARCA was privately funded compared with ROSA which uses public funding.	2.046875
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	AMi Cargo The AMi Cargo vehicle is the vehicle designed to support ARCA's asteroid mining operations, and as the primary payload for the EcoRocket Heavy. The AMi Cargo vehicle will approach an asteroid, and then release the battery-powered Recovery Capsule (which, in the first iteration, appeared to be derived from the earlier suborbital capsule for the Haas 2B), which will use the engine on its service module to approach the target asteroid. The spacecraft will then harpoon the asteroid, then reel itself in to begin mining operations. Upon completion of mining, it will return to the AMi Cargo vehicle, which will propel it back to Earth. Upon reaching Earth, the capsule will detach and jettison the service module prior to reentry. The capsule will then perform a high-velocity landing at sea, without the use of a parachute, relying on the structural integrity of the 7-meter diameter heat shield on the front of the return capsule for safe recovery of the material inside. A subscale demonstration of this technique was performed in October 2023, using a manned hot air balloon during Mission 12, carried out alongside the RTV’s Mission 16. ARCA intends to eventually upgrade the spacecraft for uncrewed missions to other planets. To support deep space operations, ARCA intends to construct their own Deep Space Network, akin to NASA's system.	2.28125
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	A1 Interceptor The A1 is a strategic anti-ballistic interceptor system, based on the EcoRocket technology, announced in December of 2023. The commercially available vehicle comes in two versions; the A1A & A1B. The basic premise and interception method of the vehicle consists of a 6-10 metric ton device (referred to as the “warhead”) carrying between 200,000-2,000,000 metal pellets, chaff, and flares, all of which are “electromechanically” deployed. Following the deployment of the warhead, the enemy ICBM, IRBM, CM, HM, or other form of conventional or nuclear weapon, impacts the dome, cloud, or dome sector created by the warhead. The impact either compromises the enemy weapon’s airframe, deceives and deviates it from the target, or destroying it before reaching the target. As of May 2024, ARCA has constructed one A1 vehicle, and plans to launch it on a demonstration flight in August of 2024. ARCA has stated that the interception method was tested and/or demonstrated by the US government under the “Star Wars” program in the 1980s.	2.109375
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	The Executor was a liquid-fueled rocket engine intended to power the IAR-111 Excelsior supersonic plane and Haas 2B and 2C rockets. Executor was an open cycle gas generator rocket engine, that uses liquid oxygen and kerosene and has a maximum thrust of 24 tons force. ARCA decided to use composite materials and aluminum alloys on a large scale. The composite materials offer low construction costs and reduced weight of the components. They were used in the construction of the combustion chamber and the nozzle, and also the gas generator and some elements in the turbopumps. The combustion chamber and the nozzle are built from two layers. The internal layer is made of silica fiber and phenolic resin, and the external one is made of carbon fiber and epoxy resin. The phenolic resin reinforced with silica fiber pyrolyzes endothermally in the combustion chamber walls, releasing gases like oxygen and hydrogen, leaving a local carbon matrix. The gases spread through the carbon matrix and reach the internal surface of the wall where they meet the hot combustion gases and act as a cooling agent. Furthermore, the engine is equipped with a cooling system that injects 10 percent of the total kerosene mass onto the internal walls.	2.40625
4048091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace	ARCAspace	The pump volutes were made of 6062 type aluminum alloy. The pump rotors are made through lathing and milling using 304 type steel. The supersonic turbine was made of refractory steel, both the core and the blades. The turbine rotation speed was 20,000 rpm and has a 1.5 MW power. The intake gas temperature was 620 °C. The main engine valves were made of 6060 type aluminum and were pneumatically powered, without adjustment. The engine injector and the liquid oxygen intake pipes were made of 304 L type steel and the kerosene intake pipe was made of composite materials. The engine had the possibility to shift the thrust by 5 degrees on two axes. The articulated system was made of composite materials and high-grade steel alloy. The engine is rotated using two hydraulic pistons that use kerosene from the pump exhaust system. ARCA announced that the Executor engine had a thrust/mass ratio of 110. Venator Venator was a liquid-fueled pressure-fed rocket engine that will be used to power the second stage of the Haas 2C rocket. It burned liquid oxygen and kerosene and had a maximum thrust of . The engine had no valves on the main pipes. Instead, it used burst disks on the main pipes, between the tanks and the engine. The second stage was pressurized at at lift-off and after the first stage burn-out, the second stage would be pressurized at 16 atm. At that pressure the disks would burst and the fuel would flow through the engine.	2.0625
4048100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%20wrist-guard	Stone wrist-guard	Early Bronze Age stone wrist-guards are found across Europe from around 2400-1900 BC and are closely associated with the Beaker culture and Únětice culture. In the past they have been variously known as stone bracers, stone arm-guards and armlets, although "stone wrist-guard" is currently the favoured terminology; and it is no longer thought that they were functional archer's bracers. Description The wrist-guards are small rectangles of stone (often slate) with a number of perforations, typically between two and six, which might allow attachment to the arm with cord. One, from Hemp Knoll in Wiltshire, had markings which clearly indicate its attachment to the arm by two cords. The shapes of the wrist-guard are stereotyped, and common forms exhibit a narrowed 'waist' and curved cross-section (presumably so they fit the arm better). Stone wrist-guards are exclusively found in the graves of males, frequently lying next to the body's wrist. Rare examples – three in Great Britain – use rare imported greenstone and are decorated with gold-capped rivets or foil, clearly representing an elite form. The three British examples are from burials at Driffield and Barnack in England, and Culduthel Mains in Scotland. Original use It was originally thought that these stone wrist-guards were bracers, used by archers to protect their bow arms from the string of the bow. However, recent research has highlighted that (in Britain at least) they do not commonly occur in graves in association with arrowheads (the Amesbury Archer being a notable exception), nor are they commonly found on the part of the arm that would need protection from the bowstring (on a right-handed archer, the inside left wrist). However, of the 12 items identified as wrist-guards found in the burial ground in Holešov, in the Nitra culture graves most of them (7 of 9), and in the Bell Beaker culture graves some of them (1 of 3) were found in graves which also contained arrowheads.	2.8125
4048100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%20wrist-guard	Stone wrist-guard	They are usually found on the outside of the arm, where they would have been more conspicuous. Many have only two holes which would make them difficult to fasten securely to the arm, and some have projecting rivets which would catch on the bowstring and make them unsuitable for use as a bracer. When the objects occur in barrows, they always occur in the central primary grave, a place thought to be reserved for heads of family and other important people. Many show great skill in polishing and stone working, and few are found in areas from which their stone originates. It seems likely that, as found in graves, these objects were used as symbols of status within family groups. They may have been status symbols of prowess in hunting or war, possibly mounted as decorations on functional bracers. However, one at least (from Barnack in Cambridgeshire) had eighteen holes and each one was filled with a foil-thin disc of gold; these caps would have prohibited any form of rivet or cord being used as a means of attachment. A few prehistoric wrist-guards made of gold or amber have also been found; these are generally accepted not to be functional. Famous burials containing stone wrist-guards include the Amesbury Archer and the Barnack burial. Terminology The wrist-guards are commonly classified following either the 1970 Atkinson classification (cited in Clarke 1970) or the 2006 Smith classification. Of the two, it is the 2006 Smith classification which is less rigid and more descriptive. It uses a three-character system to classify the objects on three simple characteristics: Total number of perforations: (e.g. 2, 4, 6 etc.) Shape in plan: described as- 'Waisted', having a narrow midsection 'Tapered', having narrow ends 'Straight-sided', having a rectangular plan Shape in transverse cross-section: described as- 'Curved', having a concavo-convex cross-section 'Plano-Convex', having a plano-convex cross-section, (i.e. one side flat and the other curved) 'Flat', having a flat or slightly bi-convex cross-section	2.609375
4048111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Sail	Operation Sail	Many nations maintain sailing ships in this machine age because they believe there is no better way to build character in young men than sail training. It encourages initiative, steadfastness, leadership and personal courage .... the records of the brotherhood of the sea sparkle with innumerable examples of the value of such training. The prestige of having served aboard a windjammer is no small matter. To reach New York for the July 14 parade up the Hudson River, some of these tall ships will have sailed from their home ports as long ago as early March. Some will have raced from Plymouth, England, to Lisbon, Portugal, then 3000 miles across the Atlantic to Bermuda rendezvous, and a 630-mile northwest run, in company, to New York. These ships are specifically built for training under sail. As these tall ships plough the oceans, the men who man this great fleet are helping to forge a bond of understanding and mutual respect around the world. As you visit the ships and talk with their officers, crews, and trainees, consider the thirteen participating nations, the thousands of people involved in such a gathering, the countless man hours spent in preparations which have resulted in this great spectacle OPERATION SAIL.	2.515625
4048122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad%20Sharif%20%28cricketer%29	Mohammad Sharif (cricketer)	Mohammad Sharif () (born 12 December 1985 in Narayanganj, Dhaka) is a Bangladeshi cricketer. He is a right-handed player. The right-arm pacer has returned to cricket after a short break. He has played for Bangladesh, Dhaka Warriors, ICL Bangladesh, Bangladesh A, Barisal Division, Biman Bangladesh Airlines, Bangladesh Invitation XI, Dhaka Division, Khulna Division, Sylhet Sixers, Rangpur Riders, Bangladesh Central Zone, Prime Bank Cricket Club, Kalabagan Cricket Academy, He also played for Victoria Sporting Club, Legends of Rupganj, Comilla Victorians, Gazi Group. Career He has played 10 Tests and 9 ODIs in his entire playing career. Five and a half years after taking part in the one-day international series in Zimbabwe, India are on tour. He holds the record for most first-class matches among Bangladesh fast bowlers. He has taken 393 wickets in 132 matches. There are more records next to Sharif's name. No other fast bowler in the country has the reputation of taking 5 wickets 15 times in the first class. He also did a hat trick. He has scored 3,222 runs in 199 innings with the bat. There are 10 half-centuries with 1 century. International career He made his Test and ODI debut against Zimbabwe in April 2001. He played in ten Tests and nine ODIs for the Bangladeshi cricket team. He was called in the national side after five years for the Bangladesh tour of Zimbabwe for ODIs, and was recalled for Tests after five and a half years for the Indian tour of Bangladesh. He last played for Bangladesh in 2007. International One Day Cricket Match lists:	1.953125
4048134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valea%20lui%20Mihai	Valea lui Mihai	Valea lui Mihai (; ) is a town in Bihor County, Crișana, Romania. Geography The town is located at the northern tip of Bihor County, around north-east of the county seat, Oradea, on the border with Hungary. It is crossed by national road (on this segment, part of European route E671), which runs from Oradea all the way to Sighetu Marmației, on the border with Ukraine. From Valea lui Mihai, road branches off, leading to the Hungarian border, away, where it connects to Main road 48. History In 1312, under Charles I, it was allowed new trade privileges and then in 1459 was also allowed tax benefits privileges for its citizens. Later it was part of the Ottoman Empire, which resulted in its depopulation, but the inhabitants subsequently returned. From the late 17th century (formally the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz), it was part of Hungary within the Habsburg monarchy (the Austrian Empire from 1804) and from the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the Kingdom of Hungary (Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen) within Austria-Hungary.	2.03125
4048140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enamul%20Haque%20%28cricketer%2C%20born%201966%29	Enamul Haque (cricketer, born 1966)	Enamul Haque Moni (; born 27 February 1966), also known as Enamul Haq Moni, is a Bangladeshi former cricketer who played in 10 Tests and 29 One Day Internationals (ODIs) from 1990 to 2003. After retiring from competitive cricket, he became an umpire, and made his first appearance in an ODI between Bangladesh and Zimbabwe on 3 December 2006. He is the first Bangladeshi Test cricketer to umpire in international cricket. Early years Moni first came to prominence in the 1988–89 season, as he helped Bangladesh Biman cricket team to the Dhaka league title. He was selected for the national side next season, and remained an integral part of the team for more than a decade. Though he failed to impress at the highest level, he was a lot more successful against the lesser lights. In ICC Trophy Though he was an all-rounder, he was most successful with his bowling in ICC Trophy cricket. In total, he took 35 wickets in three ICC Trophy tournaments, in 1990, 1994 and 1997. His most memorable match was the 2nd round encounter against Denmark in the 1990 ICC Trophy. batting first the Danes reached 233/9 from their 60 overs. In reply, the Chittagong trio Nurul Abedin (85), Akram Khan 50, & Minhajul Abedin 37 kept Bangladesh in the hunt; but it was Moni's quickfire 17* and his explosive hitting in the final over, that took Bangladesh to the target, with just 2 balls to spare. With the ball, Enamul Haque took 2/26 from 12 overs; and he was the obvious choice for the MOM award. In contrast, his biggest disappointment came in Feb. 1994, in the do-or-die game against the hosts Kenya at Nairobi. The hosts batted first scoring 295/6 from 50 overs, thanks mainly to Maurice Odumbe who scored 119. In reply, Bangladesh started their chase well with the opening pair of Jahangir Alam and Aminul Islam Bulbul putting on a 139 run partnership. After that, Minhajul Abedin contributed 68, but Moni fell for a duck, at a crucial stage of the match, and eventually Kenya won by 13 runs.	2.015625
4048163	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Provinces	Central Provinces	The Central Provinces was a province of British India. It comprised British conquests from the Mughals and Marathas in central India, and covered parts of present-day Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra states. Nagpur was the primary winter capital while Pachmarhi served as the regular summer retreat. It became the Central Provinces and Berar in 1903. The Central Provinces was formed in 1861 by the merger of the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories and Nagpur Province. The district of Nimar which was administered by the Central India Agency was added in 1864. It was almost an island encircled by a sea of "native States" such as Bhopal State and Rewa State to the north, the Chota Nagpur States and Kalahandi State to the east, and the Nizam's territories of Hyderabad to the south and Berar to the west. Geography The Central Provinces was landlocked, occupying the mountain ranges, plateaus, and river valleys in the centre of the Indian subcontinent. The northernmost portion of the state extended onto the Bundelkhand upland, whose northward-flowing rivers are tributaries of the Yamuna and Ganges. The Vindhya Range runs east and west, forming the watershed between the Ganges-Yamuna basin and the Narmada River basin, which occupies the center and west of the province, and flows westward to empty into the Arabian Sea. The upper Narmada valley forms the center of the Mahakoshal region. Jabalpur (formerly Jubbulpore) lay on the upper Narmada, and was an important railway junction. The Satpura Range divides the Narmada valley from the Deccan Plateau to the south. The Central Provinces included the northeastern portion of the Deccan, drained by tributaries of the Godavari River including the Wainganga, Wardha, and Indravati. These flow east towards the Bay of Bengal. A portion of Berar lay in the upper basin of the Tapti River, which drains westward into the Arabian Sea. The portion of the Central Provinces on the Deccan Plateau formed the Vidarbha region, which includes Nagpur, the capital of the province.	3.046875
4048163	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Provinces	Central Provinces	The eastern portion of the state lay in the upper Mahanadi River basin, which forms fertile rice-growing region of Chhattisgarh. The Maikal Range separates the basins of the Narmada and the Mahanadi. The Chota Nagpur Plateau extended into the northeast corner of the province. Demographics General censuses were held in 1866, 1872, 1881, 1891 and 1901. The population in 1866 was over 9 million, and in 1872 over 9.25 million. 1869 was a famine year. There were epidemics of smallpox and cholera in 1872, 1878, and 1879. By 1881 the population had risen to 11.5 million, and by 1891 to nearly 13 million. The population in 1901 was 11,873,029, a reduction of 800,000 from 1891. The lack of summer monsoon rains in 1897 and 1900 led to widespread crop failures and huge famines in those years, and there were partial crop failures in four other years in the decade, with epidemics of cholera in seven of the ten years. A portion of the decrease (between one-eighth and one-quarter) was from emigration to Assam and other provinces of India. Linguistic regions The central Provinces contained two distinct linguistic regions: Mahakoshal, consisting mainly of Hindi-speaking districts, and Vidarbha, chiefly, but not exclusively, a Marathi-speaking area. The linguistic regions could not be fully integrated as a unit. In the 1901 census, 6,111,000 (63% percent) of the population spoke variants of Hindi, chiefly Chhattisgarhi (27%), Bundeli (15%), Bagheli (10%) and Malvi or Rajasthani (5%). 2,107,000 (20%) spoke Marathi, the majority language of Wardha, Nagpur, Chanda, and Bhandara districts, and the southern portions of Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, and Balaghat districts. Oriya speakers numbered 1,600,000, or 13.5%, but the transfer of Sambalpur District to Bengal in 1905 reduced the number of Oriya speakers to 292,000. There were 94,000 Telugu speakers, mostly in Chanda District. Of the 730,000 who spoke other Dravidian languages, the majority spoke Gondi, and 60,000 spoke Korku. 74,000 spoke Munda languages.	2.890625
4048180	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartan%E2%80%93Dieudonn%C3%A9%20theorem	Cartan–Dieudonné theorem	In mathematics, the Cartan–Dieudonné theorem, named after Élie Cartan and Jean Dieudonné, establishes that every orthogonal transformation in an n-dimensional symmetric bilinear space can be described as the composition of at most n reflections. The notion of a symmetric bilinear space is a generalization of Euclidean space whose structure is defined by a symmetric bilinear form (which need not be positive definite, so is not necessarily an inner product – for instance, a pseudo-Euclidean space is also a symmetric bilinear space). The orthogonal transformations in the space are those automorphisms which preserve the value of the bilinear form between every pair of vectors; in Euclidean space, this corresponds to preserving distances and angles. These orthogonal transformations form a group under composition, called the orthogonal group. For example, in the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, every orthogonal transformation is either a reflection across a line through the origin or a rotation about the origin (which can be written as the composition of two reflections). Any arbitrary composition of such rotations and reflections can be rewritten as a composition of no more than 2 reflections. Similarly, in three-dimensional Euclidean space, every orthogonal transformation can be described as a single reflection, a rotation (2 reflections), or an improper rotation (3 reflections). In four dimensions, double rotations are added that represent 4 reflections. Formal statement Let be an n-dimensional, non-degenerate symmetric bilinear space over a field with characteristic not equal to 2. Then, every element of the orthogonal group is a composition of at most n reflections.	2.234375
4048189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20Society%20for%20Racial%20Hygiene	German Society for Racial Hygiene	The German Society for Racial Hygiene () was a German eugenic organization founded on 22 June 1905 by the physician Alfred Ploetz in Berlin. Its goal was "for society to return to a healthy and blooming, strong and beautiful life" as Ploetz put it. The Nordic race was supposed to regain its "purity" through selective reproduction and sterilization. The society became defunct after World War II. History Soon after the society was founded, it received generous support by the German imperial government and it was not the only organization of its kind in the world. Many organizations existed post World War I with similar goals. Notable members comprised Ploetz' brother-in-law Ernst Rüdin and his childhood friend Gerhart Hauptmann, Wilhelm Bölsche, Max von Gruber, Agnes Bluhm, Wilhelm Filchner, Anastasius Nordenholz, and Ludwig Hermann Plate. The biologists Ernst Haeckel and August Weismann, as well as the gynecologist Ernst Ludwig Alfred Hegar, became honorary members. Since Ploetz wanted to establish an international movement, the society was soon renamed International Society for Racial Hygiene with branches in Berlin including Erwin Baur, in Munich, in Freiburg with the well-known human geneticists Fritz Lenz and Eugen Fischer and from 1910 in Stuttgart, which included the geneticist Wilhelm Weinberg. The organization was affiliated with the British Eugenics Education Society under Francis Galton; branches in Sweden, the United States, and the Netherlands were also established in the early 20th century. In 1924, the organization was named back to German Society for Racial Hygiene.	2.625
4048234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizard%20Lick%2C%20North%20Carolina	Lizard Lick, North Carolina	Lizard Lick is an unincorporated community in Wake County, North Carolina, United States. The community is located at the crossroads of Lizard Lick Road and NC 97. Lizard Lick has frequently been noted on lists of unusual place names. The community is approximately east of the state capital of Raleigh, along NC 97. It is about north of Wendell and west of Zebulon. History According to North Carolina historian William S. Powell, the town got its name from a "passing observer who saw many lizards sunning and licking themselves on a rail fence." Regardless of the town name, local community members who are native to the area are proud of their origins, and their economic future in the area. In May 1997, the state installed the first traffic light in Lizard Lick, marking a new period of "increasing property values" and growth. Media attention In March 1998 the small town received publicity when Nintendo first released the Nintendo 64 game, "Yoshi's Story" there, with the name of the host town reflecting the Nintendo character Yoshi's ability to extend his tongue over a long distance. The pre-launch choice of Lizard Lick was the idea of Pasadena, California-based PR consultant Dereck Andrade. Andrade had been retained by the public relations firm Golin-Harris in Los Angeles to launch Yoshi's Story. Andrade chose two cities - French Lick, Indiana and Lizard Lick, as possible launch sites for the game. Lizard Lick was finally chosen over French Lick because the character of Yoshi was a dinosaur, which was related to a lizard. The game's launch in Lizard Lick was the largest event ever covered by the news media for a Nintendo product, bringing national and international news media to the crossroads town, including ABC World News Tonight, the CBS Evening News and NBC's The Today Show.	2.09375
4048451	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20College%20of%20General%20Practitioners	Royal College of General Practitioners	In 2007 a new system of assessment was introduced, delivered locally in conjunction with deaneries, with the qualification awarded on completion of a three-year specialty training programme. Doctors with a licence to practise who successfully complete the MRCGP are eligible for inclusion on the General Medical Council's (GMC) GP Register as well use of the post nominals that indicate membership of the RCGP (MRCGP). Immediately after the introduction of the 2007 changes the term "nMRCGP" had helped to differentiate between old and new assessment procedures (with n meaning new). After several years, once all trainees were being assessed using the new methods, the "n" was dropped. Training and assessment comprises three components, which cover the general practice specialty training curriculum. The Applied Knowledge Test (AKT) is a multiple-choice computer-based assessment that tests the knowledge base underpinning general practice in the UK. It covers clinical medicine, critical appraisal/evidence-based clinical practice and health informatics/administrative issues. The Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) assesses a doctor's ability to integrate and apply clinical, professional, communication and practical skills to general practice. It simulates patient consultations based on scenarios drawn from general practice. Each consultation is marked by a different assessor, and the role of the patient is taken by a trained role-player. The Workplace-Based Assessment (WPBA) evaluates a doctor's performance over time in the twelve professional competence areas that make up "Being a General Practitioner". This assessment takes place in the workplace throughout a GP's training.	2.484375
4048451	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20College%20of%20General%20Practitioners	Royal College of General Practitioners	The college's coat of arms and inscription Cum Scientia Caritas were designed by Perry Harrison, a founder member of the college. The college received the letters patent for its Arms in 1961. The elements represent historical context and themes relevant to general medical practice: The ancient lineage of medicine – the gavel entwined with the serpent of Asclepius (the Greek God of Medicine). The owl of the crest represents wisdom, and night visits; the gavel, authority and decision-making. The shield itself is derived from that of St Bartholomew's Hospital (the oldest extant hospital site in the UK). Its chevron in these arms represents a roof (of the house in which general practice takes place), and day and night (black/white) alluding to the 24-hour commitment of GPs to their patients. The lamp represents enlightenment, the importance of study/research, and links with the lamp of nursing. The doctor's compassionate and healing relationship with their patient is represented by the white poppy (symbolising the relief of pain) and the blue gentian (representing the restorative and rehabilitative role of the GP). The supporters are a unicorn (from the arms of the Society of Apothecaries, the forerunners of General Practitioners in the UK and in whose Hall the College of General Practitioners was first housed, but also representing medicine), and a lynx (from the Arms of the Company of Barbers and subsequently the Royal College of Surgeons, representing surgery). The spots on the lynx indicate its all-seeing nature, which is thought appropriate for general practice. The motto is Cum Scientia Caritas (Compassion [empowered] with Knowledge). From 1962 the headquarters of the college were at 14 Princes Gate, Kensington, London. By 1970 the college had 7,500 members.	2.40625
4048455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanically%20interlocked%20molecular%20architectures	Mechanically interlocked molecular architectures	In chemistry, mechanically interlocked molecular architectures (MIMAs) are molecules that are connected as a consequence of their topology. This connection of molecules is analogous to keys on a keychain loop. The keys are not directly connected to the keychain loop but they cannot be separated without breaking the loop. On the molecular level, the interlocked molecules cannot be separated without the breaking of the covalent bonds that comprise the conjoined molecules; this is referred to as a mechanical bond. Examples of mechanically interlocked molecular architectures include catenanes, rotaxanes, molecular knots, and molecular Borromean rings. Work in this area was recognized with the 2016 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Bernard L. Feringa, Jean-Pierre Sauvage, and J. Fraser Stoddart. The synthesis of such entangled architectures has been made efficient by combining supramolecular chemistry with traditional covalent synthesis, however mechanically interlocked molecular architectures have properties that differ from both "supramolecular assemblies" and "covalently bonded molecules". The terminology "mechanical bond" has been coined to describe the connection between the components of mechanically interlocked molecular architectures. Although research into mechanically interlocked molecular architectures is primarily focused on artificial compounds, many examples have been found in biological systems including: cystine knots, cyclotides or lasso-peptides such as microcin J25 which are proteins, and a variety of peptides. Residual topology Residual topology is a descriptive stereochemical term to classify a number of intertwined and interlocked molecules, which cannot be disentangled in an experiment without breaking of covalent bonds, while the strict rules of mathematical topology allow such a disentanglement. Examples of such molecules are rotaxanes, catenanes with covalently linked rings (so-called pretzelanes), and open knots (pseudoknots) which are abundant in proteins.	2.640625
4048455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanically%20interlocked%20molecular%20architectures	Mechanically interlocked molecular architectures	Mechanical bonding effects on non-covalent interactions The strength of non-covalent interactions in a mechanically interlocked molecular architecture increases as compared to the non-mechanically bonded analogues. This increased strength is demonstrated by the necessity of harsher conditions to remove a metal template ion from catenanes as opposed to their non-mechanically bonded analogues. This effect is referred to as the "catenand effect". The augmented non-covalent interactions in interlocked systems compared to non-interlocked systems has found utility in the strong and selective binding of a range of charged species, enabling the development of interlocked systems for the extraction of a range of salts. This increase in strength of non-covalent interactions is attributed to the loss of degrees of freedom upon the formation of a mechanical bond. The increase in strength of non-covalent interactions is more pronounced on smaller interlocked systems, where more degrees of freedom are lost, as compared to larger mechanically interlocked systems where the change in degrees of freedom is lower. Therefore, if the ring in a rotaxane is made smaller the strength of non-covalent interactions increases, the same effect is observed if the thread is made smaller as well. Mechanical bonding effects on chemical reactivity The mechanical bond can reduce the kinetic reactivity of the products, this is ascribed to the increased steric hindrance. Because of this effect hydrogenation of an alkene on the thread of a rotaxane is significantly slower as compared to the equivalent non interlocked thread. This effect has allowed for the isolation of otherwise reactive intermediates. The ability to alter reactivity without altering covalent structure has led to MIMAs being investigated for a number of technological applications.	2.078125
4048461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Alexis%20Tremblay	Pierre-Alexis Tremblay	Pierre-Alexis "Pitre" Tremblay (December 27, 1827 – January 4, 1879) was a surveyor and Quebec political figure. He was a Liberal Member of Parliament from 1867 to 1875 and 1878 to 1879. He was born in La Malbaie, Lower Canada, in 1827 and studied at the Petit Séminaire of Quebec. Near the end of 1853, he began carrying out surveys in the Saguenay region. As a journalist, he contributed to a number of newspapers of the time: Le Canadien, La Nation, Le National, L’Événement and L’Éclaireur. He was elected to Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada for Chicoutimi—Saguenay in an 1865 by-election. In 1867, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec in Chicoutimi-Saguenay; in the same year he was elected to the House of Commons of Canada in the same riding; such dual mandates were legal at the time. He was re-elected provincially in 1871 in the same seat, and in 1872 he was elected in Charlevoix federally. He resigned from the Quebec seat in 1874 when holding seats in both legislatures became illegal. His election in Charlevoix was invalidated in August 1875. He was defeated in a by-election held in 1876 but was able to overturn this result in the Supreme Court of Canada in 1877 by demonstrating that the Quebec clergy had exerted undue influence against him during the election. He represented Charlevoix federally from 1878 until his death in Quebec City in 1879. From 1862 to 1868, he was involved with Félicité Angers, better known as the author Laure Conan, but he married Mary Ellen Connoly in 1870.	2.0625
4048468	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Frei	Christian Frei	War Photographer (2001) received an Academy Award nomination for Best Documentary and numerous prizes worldwide. For this feature-length documentary, Frei spent two years accompanying war photographer James Nachtwey to different war zones around the world. The film shows his protagonist to be a shy and reserved man, far from the hothead image associated with his profession. Frei intelligently plays with the role of the spectator, confronting him with the ambivalence of war photography and the role of the media. The documentary appeals to the spectators' sense for compassion and thematically approaches the theme of war itself. With The Giant Buddhas (2005), Frei once again deals with a subject of strong political and global interest: The film revolves around the destruction of the two giant Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan's remote Bamiyan Valley. It is an essay "on faith and fanaticism, tolerance and terrorism, identity and ignorance, the ephemeral and our feeble attempts to preserve it". The film turned out to be a documentary that filled a necessary gap of knowledge far from the everyday media war reportage. At the Sundance Film Festival in 2010 Frei won the "World Cinema Directing Award" for his film Space Tourists (2009). The documentary juxtaposes the journeys of the extremely rich tourists traveling with the astronauts into space with the poor Kazakh metal collectors risking their lives in search for rocket waste fallen down into the planes once the space shuttle has left. As a result, the film turns out to be a humorous and poetic declaration of love for planet earth. Critics acclaimed this film for its breathtaking imagery and richness of insights.	1.945313
4048476	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell%20albatross	Campbell albatross	The Campbell albatross (Thalassarche impavida) or Campbell mollymawk, is a medium-sized mollymawk in the albatross family. It breeds only on Campbell Island and the associated islet of Jeanette Marie, in a small New Zealand island group in the South Pacific. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the black-browed albatross. It is a medium-sized black and white albatross with a pale yellow iris. Taxonomy Mollymawks are a type of albatross that belong to family Diomedeidae of the order Procellariiformes, along with shearwaters, fulmars, storm petrels, and diving petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns, although the nostrils on the albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy-rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. They also have a salt gland situated above the nasal passage which helps desalinate their bodies, necessary due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a high saline solution from their nose. In 1998, Robertson and Nunn suggested the species be split off of the black-browed albatross, Thalassarche melanophrys. Over the course of the next few years more experts agreed, starting with BirdLife International in 2000, followed by Brooke in 2004. James Clements did not agree, the ACAP has not agreed yet, and SACC recognizes the need for a proposal.	2.5
4048476	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell%20albatross	Campbell albatross	Description It weighs and is long. The adult is very similar to the black-browed albatross, differing in eye color. It has a white head, neck, rump, and underparts, with a black upperwing, back, and tail. The underwing is white with broad black edging. It has a black triangle around the eye that reaches the bill, which is yellow with an orange tip. They also have a pale yellow iris. The juveniles have a brown-grey bill with a black tip, dark eyes and less black on the underwing. The average life expectancy is given as 28 years, though this is likely due to lack of study as most albatross can live to well beyond 50 years. Range and habitat The Campbell albatross breeds on the northern and western coastline of Campbell Island and the islet Jeanette Marie, part of the Campbell Islands group, one of New Zealand's five subantarctic island groups. When breeding they forage from South Island and the Chatham Rise to the Ross Sea. Juveniles and non-breeders will go only through south Australian water, the Tasman Sea, and southwestern Pacific Ocean. Behavior Feeding The Cambell albatross feeds on fish, squid, crustacea, carrion, and gelatinous organisms. Reproduction Breeding birds like to nest on ledges and steep slopes covered with low grass, tussock, or mud. They start breeding at 10 years and they have a breeding success rate of 66%. Adults return to the breeding colony in early August and begin laying in late September. The single egg is incubated for around 70 days. The chicks fledge after about 130 days after hatching. Conservation The IUCN classifies this species as vulnerable due to the limited number of breeding locations. The most recent estimate was in 1997 and counted 24,600 pairs. Between 1992 and 1997 sampled colonies have been increasing at the rate of 1.8%. Adult survival rate is at 94.5%. It has an occurrence range of and a breeding range of . The largest threat to this species are fisheries, both longline and trawlers.	2.859375
4048492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaforde	Seaforde	Seaforde is a small village in County Down, Northern Ireland. It is within the townland of Naghan, one mile (1.6 km) north of Clough on the main Ballynahinch to Newcastle road. It is part of the Newry, Mourne and Down area. History The village is named after the Forde family, who descend from Nicholas Forde of Dunboyne County Meath, who held the post of Deputy Victualler in Cork in 1580, as supplier to Elizabeth I of England's army in Ireland. The village lands were purchased by Nicholas's fifth son, Mathew Forde (who later sat in the Irish House of Commons in 1642) as part of a wider acquisition of estate lands in Kinelarty in County Down, which he purchased from Thomas Cromwell, Viscount Lecale between the years 1615 and 1636. Mathew Forde, who also owned properties in Fishamble-street in Dublin, had already purchased estate lands in and around the village of Coolgreany in County Wexford in 1617. Although Coolgreany was the principal seat of the Forde family during the 17th century, after the Battle of the Boyne Seaforde became the family's principal place of residence. Seaforde House Mathew Forde (1675-1729) built the original mansion on the Seaforde demesne, which lies to the north of the village. It was rebuilt in 1819, after a destructive fire, by Mathew Forde, MP (1785-1837) to create the present house, a neo-classical building of seven bays and three storeys over a basement, the top storey being treated as an attic. There is a five-bay frontage faced in sandstone ashlar. The estate was at one time the home of the Lecale Hunt, and later the East Down Hunt. Seaforde was the birthplace of Colonel Francis Forde (1718 to 1770), who fought and served with Clive of India. The Forde family still resides at Seaforde House. The present occupant being Lady Anthea Forde, widow of Patrick Mathew Desmond Forde J.P. D.L. and daughter of the Earl of Belmore of Castle Coole in Co. Fermanagh.	1.921875
4048512	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biathlon%20at%20the%202006%20Winter%20Olympics%20%E2%80%93%20Men%27s%20individual	Biathlon at the 2006 Winter Olympics – Men's individual	The Men's 20 kilometre individual biathlon competition at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy was held on 11 February, at Cesana San Sicario. The individual race consisted of five laps around a four kilometre loop with four stops at the shooting range. During each shooting section, each biathlete fired five shots at five targets. Misses resulted in penalties of one minute per miss being added to the time for the course. The first and third shooting sections were conducted in the prone position, while the second and fourth were done standing. A total of 88 biathletes competed, starting with a staggered start and 30 seconds behind each competitor. Michael Greis of Germany hit 19 of the 20 targets and used a net time of 54:23.0 (with one penalty minute) to clinch the gold medal, 16 seconds ahead of Norway's Ole Einar Bjørndalen. Norway also won the bronze medal, with Halvard Hanevold beating Sergei Tchepikov by 0.8 seconds despite two penalty minutes to the Russian's one. The previous year's trial World Cup event at this track saw Michael Greis of Germany win the event in a time of 53:18.7. At the 2005 World Championships in Hochfilzen, Austria, the Czech Roman Dostál won, while Ole Einar Bjørndalen was the defending Olympic champion, as he was in all the other men's events (except the mass start, which is held for the first time at the Olympics). However, neither Bjørndalen (9th) nor Dostal (33rd) headed the men's individual World Cup standings—the German Michael Greis did.	1.96875
4048582	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhruva%20Dharavarsha	Dhruva Dharavarsha	Dhruva (r. 780 – 793 CE) was one of the most notable rulers of the Rashtrakuta Empire. He ascended the imperial throne after replacing his elder brother Govinda II. Govinda II had become unpopular among his subjects on account of his various misconducts as a monarch, including excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures. This according to the historian Kamath is evident from the Karhad plates of Krishna III. The Dhulia grant of 779 and Garugadahalli inscription of 782 proclaim Dhruva the emperor. Though some historians claim that Dhruva revolted and grabbed the throne, other historians feel the transition of the throne from Govinda II to Dhruva was peaceful and may have happened willingly. He earned titles like Kalivallabha, Srivallabha, Dharavarsha, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara. Success in north and east Dhruva Dharavarsha had a high political aspiration and he actively pursued the goal of expanding the frontiers of Rashtrakuta dominion. In Northern India, he subjugated the rulers of Kanyakubja. In central India, he defeated Vatsaraja of the Gurjara Prathihara Empire, and Dharmapala of the Pala Empire (who was eager to rule Kanyakubja) in a battle in the Ganges - Yamuna doab. However, these great victories brought him no permanent land gains but only a lot of material gain and fame. However another historian has claimed that Dhruva's empire stretched from Ayodhya in the north to Rameshvaram in the south. Victories in the Deccan and the South He humbled Vishnuvardhana IV, an Eastern or Vengi Chalukya king in 784 and forged an alliance by marrying his daughter named Silabhattarika as per the Jetvai grant of 786. Thereafter, he defeated Shivamara II, the Western Ganga Dynasty ruler of Gangavadi, and imprisoned him and appointed his own son, the Prince Kambarasa as the governor. He also forced the Pallava monarch Nandivarman II to accept the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas who paid him handsomely with many elephants. He undertook campaigns to Kanchi in 785 and again against the Western Ganga Dynasty in 788.	2.15625
4048588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Chagas%20Filho	Carlos Chagas Filho	Carlos Chagas Filho (September 10, 1910 – February 16, 2000) was a Brazilian physician, biologist and scientist active in the field of neuroscience. He was internationally renowned for his investigations on the neural mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of electrogenesis by the electroplaques of electric fishes. He was also an important scientific leader, being one of the founders of the Biophysics Institute of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and was also a president for 16 years of the Vatican's Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and president of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences (1965–1967). Life He was the second son of Carlos Chagas (1879–1934), an eminent scientist who is credited with the discovery of Chagas disease. His oldest brother was Evandro Chagas (1905–1940), also a physician and scientist specialized, like his father, in tropical medicine. He studied medicine from 1926 to 1931 at the Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Brasil (presently the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro). While a student he worked at Manguinhos, where the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz was founded by the physician Oswaldo Cruz (1872–1917) and where his father worked, as well as at a hospital in Lassance, state of Minas Gerais, where his father had discovered Chagas disease. After graduation, he went to become a director of this hospital during 1932. But what he really liked to do was biomedical research, following the example of his father and colleagues, so in the next years he worked with several leaders in the field of physiology, such as Miguel Osório de Almeida (1890–1952) and José Carneiro Felippe. One year after graduation, he accepted a teaching post as assistant professor at the Medical School, in the chair of Biological Physics. With the death of its incumbent, Lafayette Rodrigues Pereira, he became its chairman and full professor.	2.640625
4048588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Chagas%20Filho	Carlos Chagas Filho	Feeling the need to specialize further in neurophysiology, Filho travelled to France, where he worked with René Wurmser and Alfred Fessard, in Paris, and to England, where he worked with A.V. Hill (1886–1977). Returning to Brazil, he established a Laboratory of Biophysics at the Medical School and assembled a group of students and researchers. In 1945 he achieved the elevation of the Laboratory to the Biophysics Institute, which in a short time became one of the most important and excellent research centers in Brazil. He was its director for a long time, as well as the dean of the Medical School. The Institute presently bears his name. Carlos Chagas Filho retired in 1980, but continued to work steadfastly almost until his death, at 89 years of age. Work Filho's main scientific contribution was centered on the study of the electroplaques of the "poraquê" or electric eel (Electrophorus electricus), actually a fresh water electric fish native to the Amazon. With his group, he made important and original advances in the elucidation of its anatomy and electrophysiology, cytochemistry, as well as its nervous control. He discovered the brain command structures which control electrical discharges. He discovered also that the electroplaques has two kinds of excitability, one which is direct, and another which is reflex via the nervous pathways. He studied also the effects of curare on the electroplaques, which are modified striated muscles and thus have synaptic transmission based on acetylcholine (curare is an antagonist of this neurotransmitter). Filho also isolated the ACh membrane receptor.	2.53125
4048588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Chagas%20Filho	Carlos Chagas Filho	As an educator, Filho left an important influence on biomedical research in Brazil, through his many scientific disciples and colleagues at the Biophysics Institute, such as Aristides Azevedo Pacheco Leão. It was during the initial years of the Institute, also, that Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909-), then a young researcher of Jewish descent who had to escape fascism, worked towards her important discoveries on neurotrophic factors, supported by Carlos Chagas Filho. She later received the Nobel Prize of Physiology and Medicine. He published several books, including an autobiography, a biographical memoir about his father and more than 100 scientific papers. Scientific leadership and honours Dr. Chagas Filho played a significant role as international leader and representative of Brazilian science abroad. He was a Brazilian delegate and ambassador (1966) to UNESCO in Paris, and member of the Research Council of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), in Washington, DC. At the United Nations he was president of the Special Committee for the Application of Science and Technology to Development. Together with Nobel Prize winner, physicist Abdus Salam (1926–1996), he founded the International Federation of Institutes for Advanced Sciences (IFIAS). In 1972, he was appointed by Pope Paul VI to the presidency of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, which he occupied until 1989. During his tenure, he was distinguished with the historical task of rehabilitating Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Church and with coordinating a study of the historical and scientific validity of the Turin shroud. He was deeply religious and sought to reconcile science and religion as best as possible. Thus, he led the Academy of Sciences through a number of important meetings and publications, examining controversial issues such as the brain and conscience, and attracting great scientific personalities to the Academy, including a number of Nobel awardees.	2.75
4048588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Chagas%20Filho	Carlos Chagas Filho	In Brazil he was a member, vice-president and president of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences (1941–2000) and member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters (1974–2000), a member of the National Research Council and one of the founders and member of the Brazilian Society for the Advancement of Science. Carlos Chagas Filho was awarded with 16 titles of Honoris Causa Doctor in many national and foreign universities, and 19 decorations, including that of Légion d'Honneur (1979) and the Brazilian Order of Scientific Merit. He was a member of the French Académie des Sciences and Académie Nationale de Médecine, Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, American Philosophical Academy, Royal Academy of Belgium, Romanian Academy of Sciences and the International Academy of the History of Science. Among his many scientific awards, he received the Moinho Santista Science Prize (1960); the Prêmio Álvaro Alberto para a Ciência e Tecnologia (1988); and the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca, by the Fondation Simone et Cino Del Duca, France (1989). Bibliography Chagas Filho, C. Carlos Chagas, Meu Pai. Rio de Janeiro, Casa de Oswaldo Cruz/Fiocruz, 1993. E Gomes-Quintana, RD Machado, C Chagas Filho. Cholinergic membranes from normal and denervated electric organ of Electrophorus electricus (L.). IRCS Med. Sci Biochem, 1980. CS Mermelstein, V Moura Neto, C Chagas Filho . Desmin expression in the electric organs of Electrophorus electricus (L.). J Cell Biochem, 1988. H Meyer, G Oliveira Castro, C Chagas Filho. Quelques aspects de l’histogenese et de l’ontogenese des organes électriques chez l’ Electrophorus electricus… CR Acad Sci Paris, 1971. C Chagas Filho, E Penna-Franca, A Hassón-Voloch. Studies of the mechanism of curarization. An Acad Bras Cien, 1957.	1.929688
4048600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoff%20Humpage	Geoff Humpage	Geoffrey William Humpage (born 24 April 1954) is a former England cricketer who played in three One Day Internationals in 1981. Humpage played in county cricket as a hard-hitting middle-order batsman and wicketkeeper for Warwickshire from 1974 to 1990. He was born at Sparkbrook in Birmingham in 1954. , he still holds the Warwickshire batting record for the fourth wicket: a stand of 470 with Alvin Kallicharran against Lancashire at Southport in 1982, of which Humpage contributed 254 (his highest first-class score), in a match which Warwickshire lost by ten wickets. As of 2022, this is the fourth highest fourth-wicket partnership in first-class cricket anywhere, and the highest ever in England. He went on the rebel tour to South Africa in 1981–82, which effectively ended his international career after just three ODIs, despite it having no similar effect on the international careers of other rebel tourists including Graham Gooch, John Emburey and Peter Willey. Humpage remains the only tourist on this tour who never played Test cricket. He was named one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1985. An occasional bowler, while bowling in a John Player League match in 1980 he was credited with effecting an unusual run out (of Sussex's Colin Wells) after a delivery hit back by the batsman deflected via Humpage's trouser leg onto the non-striker's stumps. In this year, Humpage helped his county win the John Player League, and he also helped them to win the NatWest Trophy in 1989. On retirement Humpage become a policeman. In 2001 he spoke out about possible match-fixing in the English game twenty years earlier, saying: "In one game we found ourselves up against a side who [were] suddenly playing kids in important positions. In the Sunday game it was a little bit easier than it should have been. Other people have now said that there are question marks over the two games".	1.976563
4048612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rantoul%20Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr. (August 13, 1805August 7, 1852) was an American lawyer and politician from Massachusetts. Rantoul was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1835–1839), the commission to revise the laws of Massachusetts, and the Massachusetts Board of Education (1837–1842). He was the United States Attorney for the District of Massachusetts (1846–1849). He was elected in 1850 to the United States House of Representatives for the 32nd Congress. Before his term there began, he was named as a Democrat to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Robert Charles Winthrop, who had been appointed after the resignation of Daniel Webster and resigned when he failed to win election to a full term. Rantoul served in the Senate from February 1 to March 3, 1851, and then in the House from March 4, 1851, until his death. He was buried in Central Cemetery, Beverly, Massachusetts. Rantoul had a wife, Jane Elizabeth Woodbury, and two children, Robert S. Rantoul and Charles W. Rantoul. Early life Rantoul was born on August 13, 1805, in Beverly, Massachusetts. He was the eldest son of Robert and Joanna Lovett Rantoul. He attended the common schools and Phillips Academy, Andover, and graduated from Harvard University in 1826. From his early years, Rantoul exhibited a precociousness, maturity, and love for learning that made an indelible impression on those around him. As a child, Rantoul was known for his "ingeniousness, veracity, modesty, docility, and tender conscientiousness." An extract taken from his childhood journal, written at age 8, reads: "Jan. 4, 1814. Gained the following idea, namely, that I had better sometimes be imposed upon, than never to trust."	1.984375
4048612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rantoul%20Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr.	Professional life After graduating from Harvard in 1826, Rantoul began studying law in Salem, Massachusetts, under the tutelage of John Pickering and later under the Hon. Leverett Saltonstall. In 1829, Rantoul was admitted to the Massachusetts state bar. In 1830, Rantoul took his first case: the defense of one Knapps for the murder of one Mr. White, a wealthy and well-liked man from Salem. Rantoul's decision to defend Knapps was unpopular amongst the citizens of Salem, and Rantoul knew it. Public feelings toward the accused in Salem at that time were particularly negative and hostile. This unhappy state of affairs, made Rantoul all the more resolute in his decision to provide counsel to Knapps; Rantoul "felt in every way the unjust and sickening effects of this excited state of feeling in the public; an excitement which he regarded not only as hostile to the accused, but to the calmness and the fairness of judicial proceedings, in a case of life and death." Rantoul's decision to defend Knapps under these circumstances was in many ways symbolic of the type of dedication to fairness and justice that would characterize the remainder of Rantoul's career. Unfortunately, the decision also came at a cost: for his role in the defense of Knapps, Rantoul lost many friends, earned widespread public ire, and was ultimately forced to leave Salem. Upon leaving Salem, Rantoul moved to South Reading, Massachusetts, in 1830. In 1832, Rantoul move to Gloucester, Massachusetts, where in four successive years he was voted to the Massachusetts state legislature.	2.078125
4048612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rantoul%20Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr.	In 1838, Rantoul moved to Boston, Massachusetts. In Boston, Rantoul would come across many of the same challenges that he faced as a young lawyer in Salem, namely opposition from the wealthy and elite whose political views differed so starkly from his own. As a liberal fighting on behalf of the common man in a city so dominated by a wealthy and conservative few, Rantoul earned himself a reputation as "a bold champion of political justice; an inflexible and eloquent advocate of the rights of man, as above those of property, whether held by individuals, or corporations. He had a sincere and just respect for mental power, exerted in any useful direction, and, especially, for that intelligence, which, triumphing over adverse circumstances, is able to secure success to enterprise and reward to industry. But he had a higher respect for integrity, justice, and truth; a higher respect for the rights of the poor, the weak, and defenceless. He acknowledged no authority in an oligarchy of wealth; no other nobility than that conferred by beneficence to mankind, by services actually rendered to his fellow-creatures. What he regarded as the humanity and justice of his political opinions, were treated, by the selfish and the arrogant, as treasonable to wealth. And hence the fact that neither the extent, nor the emoluments of his professional practice, indicated his merit as a lawyer, or its just reward. In short, he was a democratic lawyer in the city of Boston." While in Boston, Rantoul took on a number of landmark cases, always in pursuit of what he believed to be right and just.	2.0625
4048612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rantoul%20Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr.	Sims Case In 1851, Rantoul became involved in one of the most infamous cases in Massachusetts history. On the morning of April 4, 1851, Thomas Sims, an escaped slave arrested in Boston under the Fugitive Slave Act, was being held by guards outside the state courthouse in Boston. On his way to his office, Rantoul noticed the crowd and stopped to ask what was going on, to which someone in the crowd replied: "They have caught a negro." At the request of fellow attorney Charles Greely Loring, Rantoul made his way into the courthouse. When a friend of Rantoul's went to the court house in search of Rantoul later that morning, he found Rantoul already engaged in the service of counsel for the alleged fugitive without having had a moment's preparation. Although the case was ultimately lost (Rantoul, Loring, and Samuel Edmund Sewall served as defense council) and Sims was returned to servitude, Rantoul is remembered for his willingness to defend Thomas Sims on a moment's notice, his able defense of Sims during trial, and his portentous objection to the constitutionality of the law at issue: the Fugitive Slave Act. Views While Rantoul was undoubtedly among the ablest lawyers of his time, and committed to furthering just ends in all manners of cases, many of his strongest efforts to promote social justice came outside of the courtroom. There were certain causes of social reform and progress to which Rantoul was so committed, and to which he would devote so much time and effort, that it was said one could have been in Rantoul's company for weeks at a time without ever being reminded that he was a lawyer or politician. Among these causes were the codification of the common law, the promotion of public education through lyceums, and the abolishment of capital punishment in the United States.	2.296875
4048612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rantoul%20Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr.	Codification of the law Throughout his life, Rantoul was a fierce advocate for the codification of the common law. He believed that judge-made rules were tantamount to judicial legislation, and he argued that freemen should be amenable to no law but the written law as sanctioned by representatives of the people. In 1836, as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, Rantoul delivered a speech summarizing his views on the common law, which read: "Judge-made law is ex-post facto law, and therefore unjust. An act is not forbidden by statute, but it becomes void by judicial construction. The legislature could not effect this, for the Constitution forbids it . . . . No man can tell what the common law is; therefore it is not law: for the law is a rule of action; but a rule which is unknown can govern no man's conduct. Not withstanding this, [the common law] has been called the perfection of human reason. The Common Law is the perfection of human reason,--just as alcohol is the perfection of sugar. The subtle spirit of the Common Law is reason double distilled, till what was wholesome and nutritive becomes rank poison . . . . The judge makes law, by extorting from precedents something which they do not contain. He extends his precedents, which were themselves the extension of others, till, by this accommodating principle, a whole system of law is built up without the authority or interference of the legislator." The Massachusetts Legislature eventually established a committee, chaired by Justice Joseph Story, to consider the expediency of codifying the common law of Massachusetts. Although the legal profession of the time continued the historical preference for the common law, one sees echoes of Rantoul's sentiments even today through efforts like the Restatements (summations of common law standards widely adopted by state legislatures as statute) and the judicial trend toward textualist interpretations.	2.296875
4048612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Rantoul%20Jr.	Robert Rantoul Jr.	Capital punishment Owing to the influence of his father, who was himself strongly against the death penalty, Rantoul was from his earliest days a strong advocate for the abolishment of capital punishment. In 1835, Rantoul formed a committee in the Massachusetts State Legislature to propose the repeal of all capital punishment laws in the state. On March 31, 1835, Rantoul delivered a speech in support of the proposed repeal of the death penalty, leading all but 13 members of the house to vote in favor of the proposal. His floor speeches on the subject of capital punishment were printed, and eventually became so widely distributed that they became regarded as authoritative in France, Belgium, Germany, and Italy. Years later, upon learning of Rantoul's death, U.S. Senator Charles Sumner stated in Congress: "Some of [Rantoul's] most devoted labors, commencing in the legislature of Massachusetts, were for the abolition of capital punishment. Perhaps no person since the consummate jurist, Edward Livingston, has done so much by reports, articles, letters, and speeches, to commend this reform to the country. With its final triumph, in the progress of civilization, his name will be indissolubly connected."	2.59375
4048634	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Mordechai%20Goldschmidt	Victor Mordechai Goldschmidt	Born 1853 in Mainz, Goldschmidt was the son of the merchant Salomon Benedikt from the wealthy Goldschmidt family and Josephine Edle von Portheim who came from a wealthy family in Prague. The family wanted him to work in metallurgy and he attended the Bergakademie Freiberg in Saxony where he was influenced by Albin Weisbach. He graduated in metallurgical engineering in 1874. He received his doctorate in 1880 under Heinrich Rosenbusch in Heidelberg for his work on mechanical rock analysis and continued his studies in Vienna from 1882 to 1887. He worked with Aristides Brezina and Heinrich von Foullon. In 1888, he wrote his habilitation about "Projektion und graphische Krystallberechnung" (Projection and graphical Crystal Classification) under the same supervisor as his doctoral dissertation. He married Leontine Porges von Portheim, the daughter of his mother's brother the textile manufacturer Eduard Porges, in 1888. He converted to Christianity as his wife was Catholic. He founded the Institut für Mineralogie und Kristallographie in Heidelberg in association with the Josefine and Eduard von Portheim Stiftung, named in memory of his maternal ancestors. He and his wife travelled around the world collecting art and ethnographic objects. The made their collections public in the Palais Weimar in Heidelberg that they purchased. In 1893, he became an adjunct professor (Honorarprofessor) at the University of Heidelberg and in 1909 he was made a full honorary professor. In 1913, he was awarded membership in the Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften (Heidelberg Academy of Sciences). During his time on the faculty at Heidelberg, one of his famous students was the American volcanologist Thomas Jaggar.	2.3125
4048642	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara%20I	Harihara I	Ballappa Dandanayaka, a nephew of the Hoysala king Veera Ballala III, had married a daughter of Harihara. This shows that Harihara was associated with the Hoysala Court. Immediately after coming to power, he built a fort at Barkuru, on the west coast of present-day Karnataka. It appears from inscriptions that he was administering the northern parts of present-day Karnataka from his seat at Gooty (Gutti), Ananthpur district in 1339. He initially controlled the northern portions of the Hoysala Kingdom before taking full control over its entire range after the death of Hoysala Veera Ballala III in 1343. Kannada inscriptions of his time call him Karnataka Vidya Vilas ("master of great knowledge and skills"), Bhashege tappuva rayara ganda ("punisher of those feudatories who don't keep their promise"), and Arirayavibhada ("fire to enemy kings"). Among his brothers, Kampana governed the Nellur region, Muddppa administered the Mulabagalu region, Marappa oversaw Chandragutti and Bukka Raya was his second in command. His initial military exploits established his control over the valley of Tungabhadra River, and gradually he expanded his control to certain regions of Konkan and Malabar Coast. By that time, the Hoysala ruler Veera Ballala III had died fighting the Sultan of Madurai, and the vacuum thus created allowed Harihara to emerge as a sovereign power with all the Hoysala territories under his rule. An inscription dated 1346 regarding a grant to the Sringeri matha describes Harihara I as the ruler of "whole country between the eastern and the western seas" and describes Vidya Nagara (that is, the city of learning) as his capital. Harihara I was succeeded by his brother Bukka I who emerged as the most distinguished amongst the five rulers (Panchasangamas) of the Sangama dynasty. Administration	2.546875
4048662	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oreochromis	Oreochromis	Oreochromis is a large genus of oreochromine cichlids, fishes endemic to Africa and the Middle East. A few species from this genus have been introduced far outside their native range and are important in aquaculture. Many others have very small ranges; some are seriously threatened, and O. ismailiaensis and O. lidole possibly are extinct. Although Oreochromis primarily are freshwater fish of rivers, lakes and similar habitats, several species can also thrive in brackish waters and some even survive in hypersaline conditions with a salinity that far surpasses that of seawater. In addition to overfishing and habitat loss, some of the more localized species are threatened by the introduction of other, more widespread Oreochromis species into their ranges. This is because they—in addition to competing for the local resources—often are able to hybridize. Oreochromis are fairly robust fish, and medium–small to very large cichlids that can reach up to in total length depending on the exact species. Taxonomy Species in this genus, as well as those in several other oreochromine and tilapiine genera, share the common name "tilapia" and historically most were included in the genus Tilapia.	2.96875
4048667	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarotherodon	Sarotherodon	Sarotherodon is a genus of oreochromine cichlids that are native to the northern half of Africa (south as far as the Congo River basin), with a single species, S. galilaeus, also ranging into the Levant. A couple of species from this genus have been introduced far outside their native range, and are important in aquaculture (S. galilaeus and to a lesser degree S. melanotheron). Most other species have small ranges and some are seriously threatened. They mainly inhabit fresh and brackish water, but a few can live in salt water (at least for a period). Species in this genus, as well as those in several other oreochromine and tilapiine genera, share the common name "tilapia" and historically they were included in the genus Tilapia. Based on mtDNA sequence analysis, there seem to be several clades in this genus, and a few species of the much larger genus Oreochromis (such as Oreochromis urolepis and the blue tilapia O. aureus) seem closer to Sarotherodon according to the mtDNA data (see discussion at Wami tilapia). Research is hampered by the fact that hybridization runs rampant in these fishes, which confounds mtDNA data, and that the fast speed of evolution makes choice of appropriate nuclear DNA sequences difficult.	3.046875
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford, 9th Lord of Skipton (8 April 1435 – 28 March 1461) was a Lancastrian military leader during the Wars of the Roses in England. The Clifford family was one of the most prominent families among the northern English nobility of the fifteenth century, and by the marriages of his sisters, John Clifford had links to some very important families of the time, including the earls of Devon. He was orphaned at twenty years of age when his father was slain by partisans of the House of York at the first battle of the Wars of the Roses, the Battle of St Albans in 1455. It was probably as a result of his father's death there that Clifford became one of the strongest supporters of Margaret of Anjou, wife of King Henry VI, who ended up as effective leader of the Lancastrian faction. Clifford had already achieved prominence in the north where, as an ally of the son of the earl of Northumberland, he took part in a feud against the Neville family, the Percy's natural rivals in Yorkshire. This consisted of a series of armed raids, assaults and skirmishes, and included an ambush on one of the younger Nevilles' wedding parties in 1453. Historians have seen a direct connection between his involvement in the local feud in the north with the Nevilles, and his involvement in the national struggle against the duke of York, with whom the Nevilles were closely allied with in the late 1450s. Although this was supposedly a period of temporary peace between the factions, Clifford and his allies appear to have made numerous attempts to ambush the Neville and Yorkist lords.	2.40625
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	Armed conflict erupted again in 1459, and again Clifford was found on the side of King Henry and Queen Margaret. Clifford took part in the parliament that attainted the Yorkists – by now in exile – and he took a share of the profits from their lands, as well as being appointed to offices traditionally in their keeping. The Yorkist lords returned from exile in June 1460 and subsequently defeated a royal army at Northampton. As a result of the royalist defeat, Clifford was ordered to surrender such castles and offices as he had from the Nevilles back to them, although it is unlikely that he did so. In fact, he and his fellow northern Lancastrian lords merely commenced a campaign of destruction on Neville and Yorkist estates and tenantry, to such an extent that in December 1460, the duke of York and his close ally, the earl of Salisbury, raised an army and headed north to crush the Lancastrian rebellion. This winter campaign culminated in the Battle of Wakefield in the last days of the year, and was a decisive victory for the Lancastrian army, of which Clifford was by now an important commander. The battle resulted in the deaths of both York and Salisbury, but was probably most notorious for Clifford's slaying of Edmund, Earl of Rutland, York's seventeen-year-old second son and the younger brother of the future King Edward IV. This may have resulted in Clifford's being nicknamed 'Butcher Clifford', although historians disagree as to how widely used by contemporaries this term was.	2.84375
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	Clifford accompanied the royal army on its march south early the next year, where, although wounded, he played a leading part in the second Battle of St Albans, and then afterwards with the Queen to the north. The Yorkist army, now under the command of Edward of York and Richard, Earl of Warwick, pursued the Lancastrians to Yorkshire and eventually defeated them at the Battle of Towton on 29 March 1461. Clifford though was not present; he had been slain in a skirmish with a Yorkist advance party the previous day. Following the coronation of the by-then victorious Edward IV, he was attainted and his lands confiscated by the Crown. Background, youth, marriage and family The Clifford family has been described as one of the greatest fifteenth-century families "never to receive an earldom." John Clifford was born and baptised at Conisborough Castle on 8 April 1435, the son of Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron Clifford (1414–1455) by his wife Joan Dacre (bef. 1424 – bef. 1455). She was the daughter of Thomas de Dacre, 6th Baron Dacre of Gilsland, and Philippa de Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland. One of his godparents was his great-aunt Maud Clifford, Countess of Cambridge, whose dower house was Coningsburgh Castle. When she died in 1446, she left him numerous silver plate in her will. She had been the widow of Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge, executed on 5 August 1415 for his part in the Southampton Plot, and she was said to have lived "in great estate" in the castle.	2.53125
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	Clifford had three younger brothers and five sisters. Sir Roger Clifford, who married Joan Courtenay (born c. 1447), the eldest daughter of Thomas de Courtenay, 5th Earl of Devon, by Margaret Beaufort, the daughter of John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset. She married secondly, Sir William Knyvet of Buckenham, Norfolk. Next was Sir Robert Clifford, who eventually involved himself in the Perkin Warbeck plot against Henry VII. John Clifford's youngest brother was Sir Thomas Clifford, and his nearest sister was Elizabeth. She married firstly, Sir William Plumpton (1435–1461), who was probably slain at the Battle of Towton in 1461, and secondly, John Hamerton. Another sister was Maud, who married firstly Sir John Harrington, and secondly, Sir Edmund Sutton. There was also Anne Clifford, who married firstly, Sir William Tempest, and secondly, William Conyers, esquire. John Clifford's youngest sisters were Joan (who married Sir Simon Musgrave) and Margaret (who married Robert Carr). In 1454, John Clifford married Margaret Bromflete (1443 – 12 April 1493), who was the only daughter and heiress of Sir Henry Bromflete, Baron Vessy, and his second wife Eleanor FitzHugh. With her, Clifford had two sons and a daughter; his heir, Henry, who would become 10th baron, a younger son Richard, and a daughter Elizabeth. Elizabeth was later the wife of Sir Robert Aske (d. 21 February 1531) of Aughton, Yorkshire. Margaret Clifford survived her husband, and at some time before 14 May 1467 had remarried, to Sir Lancelot Threlkeld. Historian Henry Summerson has described his marriage, which gained the Cliffords estates, as he put it, "in parts of the north relatively free from Neville domination."	2.40625
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	Early career Little is known of Clifford's early life or career until he appears on the records of 24 August 1453, as supporting the traditional allies of his family, the Percy family. The Percys were at that time engaged in a bitter feud – known as the Percy–Neville feud by historians – with their rivals for power in Yorkshire, the House of Neville. On this day Clifford joined Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont and Sir Richard Percy, sons of the earl of Northumberland, at Heworth Moor in their attempt to ambush the returning wedding party of Thomas Neville. Clifford's career was transformed when, on 22 May 1455, his father was killed fighting Richard, Duke of York and York's Neville allies, the earls of Salisbury and Warwick at the first Battle of St Albans. John Clifford was still under age at the time, and was not able to prove his age in order to obtain livery of his lands until 16 June 1456. He entered into his inheritance less than a month later, and was appointed a Justice of the peace in Westmorland. Clifford inherited the barony of Clifford, the family seat at Skipton Castle and the hereditary office of High Sheriff of Westmorland. He was summoned to Parliament on 30 July 1460.	2.34375
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	It is likely that for him, the death of his father personalised an already bitter struggle with the Nevilles. Michael Hicks, for example, has suggested that "the heirs of the dead lords... now wanted revenge for their fathers' deaths. They were not particular whether by constitutional trial or by assassination." Warwick especially was held accountable. King Henry VI imposed a reconciliation between the warring factions of St Albans in early 1458, and commanded the various parties, including Clifford, to London. Clifford arrived there, a contemporary chronicler recorded, "with a grete power," and demanded compensation for his father's death. In this, he was accompanied by the other "yong lordes whoos fadres were sleyne at Seynt Albonys." Jointly with Lord Egremont and the new earl of Northumberland, Clifford is believed to have had an army of around 1,500 men in London in early 1458 where, with Egremont and the duke of Exeter, he attempted to ambush Warwick and York on their way to Westminster. It is likely that they had organised armed gangs for the purpose of arresting the Yorkist lords, if not assassinating them. The Mayor of London believed they came "agaynst the peas," and excluded them from the city. Thus, Clifford and the others were forced to lodge at Temple Bar, between the city and Westminster, probably in a house of one of the various bishops that lined the route. The king, as arbitrator, resided out of London, at Berkhamsted Castle, and Clifford visited him there on 1 March – "presumably to influence the result [but] probably unsuccessfully," says Hicks. Clifford later participated in what was known ceremonially as the 'Loveday' on the 24th of the month, which saw the king arbitrate a settlement between the warring parties. As a result of this, and as part of a general compensation package between the families of the battle's victors and losers, Clifford was to be paid £666 by the earl of Warwick. This was to be shared between John and his siblings.	2.265625
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	The next point at which Clifford appears to have been fully involved in national politics was attending the parliament summoned to Coventry in November 1459. By this time the civil wars had broken out again in earnest: the Neville earl of Salisbury had defeated an attempted Lancastrian ambush of him at the Battle of Blore Heath that September, and had joined with the duke of York at the latter's castle in Ludlow. There, however, they had been forced into exile by superior crown forces, and as a result, a parliament had been called to attend to the Yorkists' attainders. This was the Parliament of Devils, and here Clifford swore allegiance to the new heir to the throne, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, on 11 December. As a result of the exiled Yorkists' attainders, their estates were available for redistribution by the crown to those who had remained loyal to it, and Clifford was granted the Honour of Penrith and the Penrith Castle, which had formerly been held by Salisbury. This was close enough to their own estates Westmorland – particularly their caput of Brougham Castle, near Penrith – that it has been suggested that it had been a particular bone of contention between the two families. In April the following year he was appointed warden of the western marches, an important position in the defence of the Anglo-Scottish border. It was also a traditional office of the Nevilles, and had most recently been held jointly by the earls of Salisbury and Warwick; now Clifford was ordered to raise a force to resist the Yorkists.	2.234375
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	In June 1460 the exiled Yorkists successfully invaded England, and on 10 July they defeated a royal army at the Battle of Northampton, and captured the king. As a result, Clifford was now ordered to surrender Penrith castle and Honour back to the earl of Salisbury. But although the now-Yorkist government repeatedly sent messages, orders and instructions to Clifford in the north, he did not acknowledge them, and with Northumberland and Lord Roos, remained in control of most of the region. In October 1460, the duke of York claimed the throne, and a parliament was summoned to discuss this. The result of its deliberations was the Act of Accord, which disinherited the Prince of Wales in favour of York and his heirs. This, it has been said, was 'repugnant' to Clifford and his colleagues and strengthened their support for the queen. It seems that, although Clifford was summoned to attend, he stayed away, and probably met with Queen Margaret in Kingston upon Hull, where she was gathering Lancastrian lords and their retainers to her. Together, they had soon gathered a fighting force of thousands. Clifford was one of these lords who was subsequently accused of 'systematically' pillaging and looting the Yorkshire estates and tenants of York and Salisbury. In response to these attacks, York, Salisbury, and the latter's son Thomas led an army to the north. Encamped at York's castle at Sandal, on 30 December 1460, the two armies met at the Battle of Wakefield, where Clifford commanded one of the wings of the Lancastrian army. The Yorkist army was routed, and all three Yorkist lords were killed. Clifford was knighted by the Lancastrian commander, Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset prior to the battle commencing.	2.84375
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	Death of the earl of Rutland One modern historian has noted, however, that although Rutland's death brought Clifford "considerable notoriety, much of it [was] first reported only several decades after the event." Henry Summerson dates the first published description of 'Butcher Clifford' as being not until the 1540s, by John Leland in his Itinerary, when he wrote that "for killing of men at this bataill [Clifford] was caullid the boucher." The annalist William Worcester, writing contemporaneously says that Clifford killed Rutland on Wakefield Bridge, whilst the latter fled the battle. In the sixteenth century, this report was expanded by Edward Hall, which became the source of Shakespeare's account. This included the addition of various confirmed historical inaccuracies, such as describing Rutland as being aged twelve rather than seventeen, and that Clifford also beheaded York after the battle, whereas the duke almost certainly fell in the fighting. Historian J.R. Lander has said that most of the later descriptions of Clifford at Wakefield "appear too late to be worthy of much credence".	2.046875
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	Death and attainder Following the victory at Wakefield, Clifford and other Lancastrian lords in the north attended Queen Margaret's Royal council in January; they soon led their army south. Gregory's Chronicle reports that everyone wore the Prince of Wales' cognizance, the ostrich feather badge. On 17 February 1461 they encountered a Yorkist army, led by Warwick and his brother John Neville, at St Albans. This resulted in another resounding victory for the Lancastrians, and Henry VI was captured from Warwick and returned to his wife and son. It is possible that this reunion occurred in John Clifford's own tent after the battle. Instead of marching on London however, the royal army retreated to the north, Clifford with it, and a Yorkist force slowly trailing them from London. On 28 March 1461 portions of the two armies clashed whilst attempting to cross the River Aire at Ferrybridge, now called the Battle of Ferrybridge. The Lancastrian force, under Clifford, captured the bridge, but the Yorkists had forded the river upstream and flank-attacked Clifford's men. Traditionally, Clifford was killed at Dittingdale, possibly by a headless arrow in the throat, and buried in a common burial pit, along with the rest of the dead from that encounter. Despite being only a few miles away, the main Lancastrian army held its position and either did not or could not come to his aid.	2.65625
4048682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clifford%2C%209th%20Baron%20Clifford	John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford	The day after Clifford's death the bulk of the Yorkist and Lancastrian armies faced each other at the Battle of Towton. After what is now considered the biggest and possibly bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil, the Lancastrians were routed, and the son of the duke of York was crowned King Edward IV. On 4 November 1461, at Edward's first parliament, Clifford was attainted and his estates and barony forfeited to the king; a large portion was later granted to the earl of Warwick. The story – which would later be repeated by George Edward Cokayne in his Complete Peerage – of how Clifford's widow, fearing her son, Henry, would be slain in retaliation for Rutland's death, sent him into hiding as a shepherd, is almost certainly a folklore. As Dr James Ross has pointed out, the young Henry Clifford was pardoned in 1472, and as early as 1466 was named publicly as receiving a bequest, although Ross does suggest that Henry may well have gone into hiding for a time from his father's enemies. Fictional portrayals and later reputation According to Shakespeare's play Henry VI, Part 3, following Hall's Chronicle and Holinshed's Chronicles, John Clifford, after the Battle of Wakefield, slew in cold blood the young Edmund, Earl of Rutland, son of Richard, 3rd Duke of York. However, later authorities state that Rutland was slain during the battle. Clifford is depicted in Sharon Kay Penman's historical novel, The Sunne in Splendour.	2.828125
4048692	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrigley%2C%20County%20Down	Shrigley, County Down	Shrigley is a small village in County Down, Northern Ireland about a mile north-west of Killyleagh. It is named after Pott Shrigley in Cheshire. In the 2001 Census it had a population of 456. It lies within the Down District Council area. History Shrigley is a small satellite industrial village which grew up around the large six-storey cotton mill built in 1824 by John Martin. In 1836, Shrigley mill had more power looms than any other factory in Ireland. In the following year, Samuel Lewis described it at length: The Grecian gate pillars, and some of the subsidiary stone buildings, were probably survivors of the original mill and stood until recently. Naturally, the mill became the principal source of employment in the locality. Most of the workers lived in Killyleagh, but a number of blackstone workers' cottages were built in a cluster along the three streets at the mill gate. During his lifetime, the people of the district resolved to commemorate the contribution John Martin had made to their prosperity; a competition was held in 1870 for designs for a clock tower and drinking fountain in his honour; the premium was awarded to Timothy Hevey, a young Belfast architect apparently then working with Pugin and Ashlin in Dublin. The work was executed in 1871, and a High Victorian monument was erected at the cross-roads outside the mill gate. John Martin died in 1876 at the age of 79; Timothy Hevey died in 1878 at the age of 33. Between 1968 and 1972, according to the Downpatrick Area Plan, 'a very extensive redevelopment project was completed involving the replacement of the early industrial village, the construction of 154 houses and two shops'. The new construction was suburban in style, and the people were all rehoused in a housing estate on the opposite hillside. Of the original buildings the Martin monument still stands, in isolation, at the mill gate. Shrigley Monument (Martin Memorial)	2.171875
4048755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Schoemaker	Hubert Schoemaker	Hubert Jacob Paul Schoemaker (March 23, 1950 – January 1, 2006) was a Dutch biotechnologist. He was a co-founder and the president of one of America's first biotechnology companies, Centocor, which was founded in 1979 for the commercialising of monoclonal antibodies. In 1999 he founded Neuronyx, Inc., for the manufacture of stem cells and the development of stem-cell therapies. Early life and education Schoemaker was born in Deventer, Netherlands. He attended St. Bernardus School in Deventer, and Canisius College, Nijmegen. In 1969 he moved to the United States to attend the University of Notre Dame, where he majored in chemistry, graduating in May 1972. Soon after he married Ann Postorino. He then earned a doctorate in biochemistry in 1975 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Supervised by Paul Schimmel, his doctoral research was an investigation of the structure function relationships of transfer RNAs and their complexes. Career After declining postdoctoral research positions with Stanley Cohen and Klaus Weber, Schoemaker chose to work as a research scientist in industry. His choice was influenced by the severe disabilities suffered by his first daughter, Maureen, who was born with lissencephaly and needed specialised care. This inspired Schoemaker to become involved in commercial biotechnology. In 1976 Schoemaker joined Corning Medical, a Boston-based division of Corning Glass Works. At Corning Schoemaker rapidly progressed from being a specialist in immunoassay development for diagnostics to heading research and development. Among his achievements at the company was devising effective diagnostic kit tests for thyroid disorders.	2.09375
4048769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20Steward%20Davis	J. Steward Davis	Upon returning from the war, Davis quickly built a thriving practice as a trial lawyer in Baltimore. At six feet tall, and with a polished air and winning smile, Davis had an impressive presence which sometimes drew crowds to the courtroom. In 1921, he appeared in 48 cases mentioned in The Afro-American newspaper, mostly divorces and criminal defense, including the highly publicized capital murder case of Henry Brown, an Annapolis sailor. Said Davis of his legal career, "The law offers a most attractive (spot) for colored men. We get a fair show in the courts and the people appreciate our efforts". Though his legal career put him in the limelight, Davis did not run for political office and instead worked behind the scenes as a campaign organizer. He was the chairman of the committee supporting W. Ashbie Hawkins's revolt against the established Republican Party in 1920. Like other independent Republicans, Davis later switched to the Democratic Party, and managed the Colored City Democratic campaign for Al Smith's 1928 bid against Herbert Hoover. Davis said of his political activism, "It is time that we look after our own political affairs, and not entrust them to whites who are indifferent to our welfare". Ironically, Davis supported Herbert O'Conor's (white) campaign for State's Attorney for Baltimore City in 1926. As Attorney General, O'Conor would argue against the admission of Donald Gaines Murray to the University of Maryland law school in 1935. Davis married Blanche Moore, a public school teacher, in 1920 and they had two children, Suzanne and Blanche. During the 1920s Davis was a well-respected lawyer in Baltimore who was embraced by the legal community and social circles. In April 1929, Davis vanished.	2.125
4048811	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Davies%20%28historian%29	John Davies (historian)	John Davies, FLSW (25 April 1938 – 16 February 2015) was a Welsh historian, and a television and radio broadcaster. He attended university at Cardiff and Cambridge and taught Welsh at Aberystwyth. He wrote a number of books on Welsh history, including A History of Wales (Hanes Cymru in Welsh). Education Davies was born in the Rhondda, Wales, and studied at both University College, Cardiff, and Trinity College, Cambridge. Life and work Davies was married with four children. In later life he acknowledged that he was bisexual. After teaching Welsh history at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, he retired to Cardiff, and appeared frequently as a presenter and contributor to history programmes on television and radio. In the mid-1980s, Davies was commissioned to write a concise history of Wales by Penguin Books to add to its Pelican series of the histories of nations. The decision by Penguin to commission the volume in Welsh was "unexpected and highly commendable," wrote Davies. The Welsh version is titled Hanes Cymru, whilst the English version is titled A History of Wales. "I seized the opportunity to write of Wales and the Welsh. When I had finished, I had a typescript which was almost three times larger than the original commission," wrote Davies. The original voluminous typescript was first published in hardback under the Allen Lane imprint. Davies took a sabbatical from his post at the University College of Wales and wrote most of the chapters while touring Europe. Davies dedicated Hanes Cymru to his wife, Janet Mackenzie Davies. Hanes Cymru was translated into English and published in 1993, as there was "a demand among English-speakers to read what was already available to Welsh-speakers," wrote Davies. A revised edition was published (in both languages) in 2007. In 2005, Davies received the Glyndŵr Award for an Outstanding Contribution to the Arts in Wales during the Machynlleth Festival. He won the 2010 Wales Book of the Year for Cymru: Y 100 lle i'w gweld cyn marw.	2.046875
4048838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballylongford	Ballylongford	Ballylongford (historically Bealalongford, from ) is a village near Listowel in northern County Kerry, Ireland. As of the 2022 census, it had a population of 415. Geography The village is situated near the estuary of the Ballyline River, on Ballylongford Bay, a tidal estuary of the River Shannon, close to Carrigafoyle Island and on the coast road between Tarbert and the seaside town of Ballybunion. The farmland in the area is used primarily for dairying, which is a mainstay of the local economy. Three kilometers to the north, on Carrigafoyle Island, stands the castle and anchorage commemorated in the name of the village. For centuries, Ballylongford shared the political, military and religious fate of the castle and the nearby Franciscan Lislaughtin Abbey. History Carrigafoyle Castle was built between 1490 and 1500 by Conchuir Liath Uí Conchuir (Connor Liath O’Connor) using a design borrowed from the Normans. In addition to its windows and archways, it features a spiral staircase of 104 steps that visitors can climb today. The castle, now a listed National Monument, stands 100 feet (almost 30 m) high and its battlements provide views of the estuary and the monastic Scattery Island in County Clare. The O'Connors of Kerry held political sway from this strategic base which allowed them to "inspect" ships passing to and from the port of Limerick. Thus, "taxation" and smuggling were the main sources of income. The castle was fortified and the narrow spiral staircase ascends clockwise thus disadvantaging any attacker.	2.3125
4048838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballylongford	Ballylongford	In 1580, during the Second Desmond Rebellion, the castle was defended by a garrison composed of some 70 Irish, Italian and Spanish troops, led by Captain Julian, an Italian. The Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle by Elizabethan forces under Lord Justice Sir William Pelham began on Palm Sunday. After two days, it was breached by cannon fire and taken, following which the surviving defenders were all hanged. The cannon breach remains visible to this day. Towards the end of the Nine Years War, taking advantage of the distraction of the English, Chieftain John O'Connor briefly re-occupied the castle only to be put out again in 1603 by George Carew, the Governor of Munster. King James I restored the castle to the O'Connors in 1607 but in 1651 during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, it was again captured, this time by Cromwellian forces under Edmund Ludlow. Ludlow was Henry Ireton's second in command and, after Ireton's death, commander in chief in Ireland. Ludlow ensured that the castle could never again be fortified and garrisoned, by knocking the outer defensive walls. The O'Connor lands were confiscated under the Act for the Settlement of Ireland of 1652 and given to William Sandes of Cumberland, who had arrived in Ireland with Oliver Cromwell in 1649. Following the restoration of the monarchy the lands were subsequently granted to Trinity College Dublin in 1666. The college remained the principal landlord in the Ballylongford area up to the passage of the Land Act 1903. Some land titles are still vested in the college to this day.	2.78125
4048838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballylongford	Ballylongford	On the other side of the creek, the O'Connors built the Friary of Lislaughtin in 1478, known locally as Lislaughtin Abbey (Lios Laichtin, meaning Lachtin's Enclosure). St Lachtin was the first to preach Christianity in the area. Two of the O'Connor chiefs are buried within its walls. The abbey was raided twice by English forces coinciding with the military action against Carrigafoyle Castle. The abbey was dissolved in the 17th century. A processional cross, possibly buried by the friars for safekeeping, survived the raids and was later discovered by a farmer. This processional cross, known as Lislaughtin Cross, is now on display in the National Museum in Dublin. Today, the abbey and its grounds serve as the town's primary Roman Catholic cemetery. The village in its present form dates from the end of the eighteenth century, though a bridge over the ford existed long before then. The old bridge was destroyed by flood in 1926. A reinforced concrete bridge was completed in 1930 and stands to this day. Photographs taken at the turn of the century show the village to have been largely made up of thatched houses, but many of these were burned by the Black and Tans during the War of Independence. A concrete coastal artillery fort, Fort Shannon, is located six kilometers from the village. Constructed in 1940, it is the only such fortification built by the Irish Defence Forces during World War II, termed the Emergency in Ireland. Economy and amenities Farming, fishing and tourism are key contributors to the local economy. there were renewed proposals to open a liquefied natural gas terminal in the area.	3.015625
4048845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Socialist%20Workers%20Party%20%28Britain%29	History of the Socialist Workers Party (Britain)	The history of the Socialist Workers Party begins with the formation of the Socialist Review Group in 1950, followed by the creation of the International Socialists in 1962 and continues through to the present day with the formation of the Socialist Workers Party in 1977. Origins The SWP's origins lie in the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP), which Tony Cliff joined on his arrival from the territory of Palestine where he had been the central leader of that region's small section of the Fourth International (FI). Given his international reputation, Cliff was co-opted onto the leadership body of the RCP although his impact was small at the time given his limited command of English. Indeed, his idiosyncratic use of the English language was to be a subject of jest by both Cliff and his supporters in later years. In the RCP, Cliff was a supporter of the majority tendency of that party around Jock Haston and Ted Grant. Therefore, he supported the perspectives of the RCP at the end of the Second World War which placed the small party in opposition to the new leadership of the Fourth International around Ernest Mandel, then known as Germain, and Michel Raptis, better known as Pablo, which was backed by the American Socialist Workers' Party. In this capacity he wrote All That Glitters is not Gold in which he discussed his view that, contrary to the opinion of the International Secretariat of the Fourth International, there was not going to be a major slump.	2.25
4048845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Socialist%20Workers%20Party%20%28Britain%29	History of the Socialist Workers Party (Britain)	International Socialists (1962–1977) In 1962 the Socialist Review Group became the International Socialists (IS) taking the name of their new journal International Socialism. The journal had briefly appeared in 1958 as a cyclostyled magazine and a second issue, publishing Cliff's essay on Rosa Luxemburg had appeared in 1959, but began regular publication in 1960. The group also began publishing a paper called Industrial Worker in 1961 which was renamed Labour Worker in 1962. This was replaced by Socialist Worker, launched in 1968, with Roger Protz being the first editor. However, for much of the 1960s the most important group publication was Young Guard. Working within the Young Socialists the IS had issued a youth magazine called Rebel from 1960 onwards as the YS was, along with similarly youth oriented Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, the greatest source of recruits to IS. Within the highly factionalised atmosphere of the YS, however, Rebel soon disappeared as the IS forged an alliance with the supporters of Ted Grant around the Rally paper. The two tendencies jointly launched Young Guard as their challenge to both Transport House and the Keep Left grouping of Gerry Healy's supporters. The editorial content and most contributors to Young Guard were firmly in support of IS, with Grant's supporters playing a minor role. After Healy's followers in the Socialist Labour League left what was renamed the Labour Party Young Socialists, IS was briefly able to take the leadership of that organisation. But by this point much of the life had gone out of the youth movement and Young Guard ceased publication in 1965, being superseded by a new run of Rebel which lasted in its turn until 1967. By this time though, IS as a whole was drifting away from entrist work within the Labour Party as the industrial struggle developed.	2.125
4048852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Gustaf%20Mannerheim%20%28naturalist%29	Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (naturalist)	Count Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (10 August 1797 – 9 October 1854) was a Finnish nobleman, amateur entomologist and governor of the Viipuri province in the Grand Duchy of Finland. He collected beetles from across the Arctic region from Alaska to Russia through northern Scandinavia making use of a network of aristocratic amateurs and Finnish settlers resulting in a personal collection of nearly 100000 specimens of beetles representing 20,000 species made over a period of 40 years. Life and career Mannerheim was born in Askainen, the son of Vendla Sofia von Willebrand and Count Carl Erik Mannerheim (1759–1837), the first vice-chairman of the finance ministry of the senate, now equivalent to being the Prime Minister of Finland. He graduated from the University of Turku in 1819 where he was influenced by the teaching of C. R. Sahlberg. Shortly after graduating he became the secretary to the Finnish Minister Secretary of State in Saint Petersburg. In 1833 he was appointed governor of the Vaasa Province and soon after of Viipuri and Savonlinna County. From 1835 he served as the chief judge of the newly formed Imperial Court of Appeals (“Kayserlichen Hofgerichtes”, hovioikeus) in Vyborg. Scientific contributions	1.914063
4048856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmykian%20Cavalry%20Corps	Kalmykian Cavalry Corps	The Kalmykian Cavalry Corps (; also known as: , , , Dr. Doll Kalmyk Formation (Dr. Doll was an alias of )) was a unit of about 5,000 ethnic Kalmyk volunteers who chose to join the German Army in 1942 rather than remain in Kalmykia as German forces retreated before the Red Army. Stalin subsequently declared the Kalmyk population as a whole to be German collaborators in 1943 and ordered mass deportations to Siberia suffering great loss of life. Origins When Erich von Manstein led the 16th Motorized Infantry Division into Kalmykia in early 1942 he already had some Kalmyk advisors from a committee drawn together by Goebbels for propaganda purposes. These were supplemented by other Kalmyks who had settled in Belgrade following their flight with White Russian emigres after the Russian October Revolution. Organization The KKK acted within the German Wehrmacht as an independent allied force with all leadership positions taken by Kalmyks. Most of the officers were Kalmyks themselves with previous Soviet military experience. A few Germans that were present within the corps performed only auxiliary and administrative functions. Military actions The Kalmykian Cavalry Corps fought with the Wehrmacht behind the lines, especially around the Azov Sea. At the end of 1944, the surviving Kalmyk cavalry troops, together with their families, retreated with the German army. About 2,000 went to Silesia, Poland and 1,500 to Zagreb, Croatia, where they were reorganized to fight against the partisans. End of the war After the war, nearly all of the surviving Kalmyk soldiers along with the Kalmyk families that accompanied them were forcibly repatriated to the Soviet Union. Despite the fact that 23,750 Kalmyks served in the Red Army during World War II, the Kalmykian people were internally deported for 13 years as collective punishment for the actions of the Kalmykian Cavalry Corps.	2.734375
4048959	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon%20Rodan	Gideon Rodan	Gideon Alfred Rodan (June 14, 1934 – January 1, 2006) was a Romanian-born American biochemist and Doctor of Medicine. Formative years Rodan was born in Bucharest, Romania on June 14, 1934. He completed his doctor of medicine degree at Hebrew University in Jerusalem and was awarded a doctor of philosophy degree by the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. Career From 1970 to 1985, Rodan taught at the University of Connecticut School of Dental Medicine. He was then hired by Merck Research Laboratories. In 1987, he became president of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. His most notable work involved the study of Osteoporosis. Rodan researched the deformation of bone cells. Investigating the connection between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, he helped to analyze and describe the two. As director of the department for bone biology and osteoporosis at Merck during the 1990s, he helped to create a compound to block osteoclast-mediated bone resorption. This compound became known as Alendronate or Fosamax. He also examined the role of steroid in bone metabolism and the communication between bones and hormones. In 1996, he edited the book, Principles of Bone Biology. Death Rodan died from cancer on January 1, 2006, in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Legacy The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research presented Rodan with its Excellence in Mentorship Award, and then renamed the award in his honor. The Gideon A. Rodan Excellence in Mentorship Award has recognized leading scientist-educators every year since 2001.	2.265625
4048960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fmak%C3%A7%C4%B1	Başmakçı	Başmakçı is a town of Afyonkarahisar Province in the Aegean region of Turkey, closer to Denizli than to the city of Afyon itself. It is the seat of Başmakçı District. Its population is 4,993 (2021). The mayor is Selçuk Gönüllü (CHP). History The history of Başmakçı goes back to the Hittite era, 1750-1200 BC. It then became a colony of the Phrygians of nearby Dinar. It was subsequently possessed by Lydians, Persians, Ancient Macedonians and Seleucids, the kings of Pergamon, Romans and then Byzantines. Turkish tribes arrived in Anatolia in 1071, and one of these was the Başmakçı, who came through Azerbaijan, settling near Tarsus on the Mediterranean, where there is a village called Başmakçı still today, and then sometime between 1100 and 1200 moving west to settle in this district of Afyon that has been called Başmakçı ever since. This part of Anatolia was subsequently controlled by the Germiyan dynasty, who gave the town as dowry when marrying their daughter to the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I. Thus Başmakçı, a village of 47 families at the time, became an Ottoman land. Başmakçı was badly damaged in an earthquake in August 1892 when 300 homes were destroyed. However, no one was killed, as it was harvest time and all were in the fields. Başmakçı was not occupied during the Turkish War of Independence but many of its sons died in that war and World War I previous to it. Başmakçı today Başmakçı is well-established as the leading egg producing area in Turkey.	2.21875
4048980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Finch	Albert Finch	Albert Finch (16 May 1926 – 23 January 2003) was a British boxer from Croydon in South London, who was active from 1945 to 1958. He fought as both a middleweight and light-heavyweight, becoming British middleweight champion in 1950. He was one of seven children and learnt to box at the age of eight. He had a successful amateur career, winning 63 out of 68 contests. Professional career He had his first professional fight on 14 August 1945 at the Queensbury Club, Soho, London. He fought a draw over six rounds against Eddie Starrs. He continued to build up a successful domestic record with the odd defeat. In October 1948 he beat Mark Hart for the Southern Area middleweight title, winning on points over 12 rounds. In April 1948, he fought the promising young middleweight, Randolph Turpin, at the Royal Albert Hall, and inflicted Turpin's first defeat, winning on points over eight rounds. In June 1949, he challenged Dick Turpin, elder brother of Randolph, for his British and Commonwealth middleweight titles. The fight was held in Birmingham and Turpin won on points over fifteen rounds. In April 1950, he had a re-match with Dick Turpin, who in the meantime had lost his Commonwealth title. The fight was held in Nottingham and Finch won on points over fifteen rounds after having been knocked down twice. He was now the British middleweight champion. Finch held the British title for only six months before losing it to Dick Turpin's brother, Randolph in October 1950. They met at Harringay Arena, and Turpin, who had a powerful punch, knocked Finch out in the fifth round. Finch began to find it difficult to make the middleweight weight limit and so moved up to fight as a light-heavyweight. Following the Turpin defeat, he had a run of seven straight victories against light-heavyweights before fighting Don Cockell for his British and European light-heavyweight titles. The fight was in October 1951, at the Harringay Arena, and Cockell won by a knockout in the seventh round.	1.90625
4048989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei%20Buturlin	Sergei Buturlin	A scion of one of the oldest families of Russian nobility, Buturlin spent most his life in Russia although he was born in the Swiss town of Montreux along with a twin brother Alexander who died at the age of seven. His father A.S Buturlin (1845-1916) was physician, writer and Marxist friend of Leo Tolstoy. He went to a classical gymnasium in Simbirsk (modern Ulyanovsk) and studied jurisprudence in St. Petersburg from 1890 and graduated with a gold medal in 1894-95. He took an interest in hunting at a young age and became a friend of Boris Mikhailovich Zhitkov at an early age. Buturlin married Vera Vladimirovna Markova, the sister of a law school classmate, in 1898. The couple moved to Wesenberg (Estonia) where he served as a justice of peace until 1918. The marriage however did not last. Although his position paid a salary, his interest in zoology was greater and he spent most of his career collecting specimens across Russia and Siberia and describing the results of his observations. Until 1892 he collected in the Volga region, then in the Baltic region; from 1900 to 1902, along with B.M. Zhitkov, on the islands of Kolguyev and Novaya Zemlya. Between 1904 and 1906 he took part in an expedition to the Kolyma River in Siberia, and in 1909 he visited the Altai Mountains, and he made his final expedition in 1925 on the Chukchi Peninsula. He received a doctorate in 1936 without a dissertation. During World War I, many of Buturlin's collections were stored on the estate of his neighbour, the Krotkovs. These were raided during the 1917 revolution and thought to be lost, however some of the material was rediscovered after Buturlin's death in the Simbirsk Folk Museum. This was also a time when his mother died and a brother was shot. In 1918 he joined the zoological museum of the University of Moscow, and in 1924 he donated his collection of palaearctic birds.	2.21875
4048991	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinanpa%C5%9Fa	Sinanpaşa	Sinanpaşa (or Sincanlı) is a town of Afyonkarahisar Province, Turkey on a plain surrounded by pine-covered mountains, 33 km from the city of Afyon on the road to Uşak and İzmir. It is the seat of Sinanpaşa District. Its population is 3,544 (2021). The mayor is Erdal Karaman (AKP). Winters are cold and snowy, and summers are dry and hot. History The area has been a crossroads since antiquity, with archaeological evidence indicating habitation since 4000 BC. Surface excavations in the village of Küçükhöyük go back to 3000 BC. The name Sinan Paşa comes from the son of a lord of the Akkoyunlu Turks who in 1473 took refuge with Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II during the war between the Akkoyunlu and the warrior Uzun Hasan (the Otlukbeli War). Later in the Ottoman period the important general Hersekzade Ahmet Paşa settled here in the village still known as Ahmet Paşa today. The town was occupied by Greek forces during the Turkish War of Independence, but was recovered during the great Turkish counter-attack in 1922. Sinanpaşa today Nowadays Sinanpaşa is a country town providing schools, hospital and other infrastructure to the surrounding countryside, where poppy seeds, wheat and other grains are grown.	2.125
4048994	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanda%C4%9F%C4%B1	Sultandağı	Sultandağı is a town of Afyonkarahisar Province in the Aegean region of Turkey. It is the seat of Sultandağı District. Its population is 5,195 (2021). It is located at 68 km from the city of Afyon on the road to Konya, near Lake Akşehir at the foothills of the Sultan Mountains (Sultandağ), a meeting point of the Aegean and central Anatolian geographical zones. The mayor is Osman Acar (CHP). History The area has been settled since antiquity but the town that stands today, formerly known as İshaklı, was founded by the Seljuk lord İshak Bey and named after him. The name Sultandağı comes from the mountains' use as a stronghold for the armies of the Seljuk sultan when fighting the Byzantines. At that time the Silk Road from the Arabian Peninsula passed through here on the way to the Aegean coast. Sultandağı is famous for cherries which is exported to over 50 countries. Every year, "Cherry Festival" takes places in Sultandagi. In this festival, the farmers competes to exhibit their cherries to the jury. taking the "size" criteria into consideration, the jury tries to decide the owner of the biggest cherries in the related year. Usually, the first winner is awarded with gold, fuel for their tractors, etc. During the festival, famous singers performs on the stage. Some of these singers are Orhan Hakalmaz, Murat Basaran, Izzet Altinmese, Lara, Sumer Ezgu, etc. There was a large earthquake in 2001 which caused little loss of life; it was this event which led most people to focus their attention on the town.	1.921875
4049012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enez	Enez	Enez is a town in Edirne Province, in East Thrace, Turkey. The ancient name of the town was Ainos (), Latinised as Aenus. It is the seat of Enez District. Its population is 4,301 (2022). The mayor is Özkan Günenç (CHP). Enez consists of an old town centre, backing on to the Meriç/Evros river forming the border with neighbouring Greece; the harbour and Pırlanta Beach, 3 km southwest across the lagoon; and Altınkum Sahili (Golden Sands Beach), another 2 km south, which has been developed as a resort strip mainly catering for domestic tourists. Despite Enez's proximity to the Greek border there is no crossing point by land here. To cross the border into Greece it is necessary to travel north to İpsala. Location The town is located on the left (eastern) bank of the river Meriç (Greek: Evros, historically the Hebrus) where its estuary broadens to flow into the Gulf of Saros (the ancient Melas Gulf) and so into the Aegean Sea. Enez occupies a ridge of rock surrounded by broad marshes. In ancient Greek times it lay on a land route for trade from the Black Sea to the Aegean and was a port for transporting the wood and fruit produced in eastern and central Thrace. History Antiquity The mythical and eponymous founder of the ancient Greek city of Ainos/Aenus was said to be Aeneus, a son of the god Apollo and father of Cyzicus. Another mythical ruler, named Poltys, son of Poseidon, entertained Heracles when he came to Aenus. On that occasion, Heracles slew Poltys' insolent brother Sarpedon on the beach of Aenus. According to Strabo, Sarpedon is the name of the coastline near Aenus, so both Poltys and Sarpedon would appear to be eponyms.	1.945313
4049012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enez	Enez	The Suda suggests that the first settlers were Greeks from the Alopeconnesus and later more settlers came from Mytilene and Kyme which agrees with what Harpocration had written. Presumably because of the similarity of the names, Virgil had Aeneas founding the city after the destruction of Troy. A surer sign of its antiquity comes from the Iliad, where Homer mentions that Peirous, who led Troy's Thracian allies, came from Aenus. Herodotus (7.58) and Thucydides say Aenus was an Aeolian colony. Pseudo-Scymnus and Scymnus Chius (696) say that the colonists came from Mytilene on Lesbos Island, while Stephanus Byzantius says they came (also?) from Cumae. According to Strabo (p. 319), a more ancient name for the place was Poltyobria while Stephanus says it was also called Apsinthus. As a subject ally of Athens, Aenus provided peltasts at the Battle of Sphacteria in 425 BC and sent forces to the Sicilian Expedition in 415. During the Hellenistic period Ainos changed hands multiple times. After a spell of Macedonian rule, the city passed to Lysimachos of Thrace after the death of Alexander the Great, and was subsequently taken by the Seleucid Empire after his defeat and death at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. It then became a possession of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, when it was captured as a result of the Third Syrian War around 246 BC, it was subsequently captured by Philip V of Macedon in 200 BC, and later by Antiochus the Great, who lost it to the Romans in 185 BC, whereupon the Romans declared Aenus a free city. It was still a free city in the time of Pliny the Elder.	2.921875
4049012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enez	Enez	Byzantine period The city is mentioned first among the cities of the province of Rhodope in the 6th-century Synecdemus of Hierocles. Under Justinian I (r. 527–565), the city wall was heightened and the previously unprotected shore fortified. In the middle Byzantine period, the city was part of the Theme of Thrace. In 1091, in the nearby hamlet of Lebounion, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and his Cuman allies dealt a crushing defeat on the Pechenegs. In 1189, the town was plundered by soldiers of the Third Crusade under Duke Frederick of Swabia, with the inhabitants fleeing by ship. In the Partitio Romaniae of 1204, the city is attested as a distinct district (catepanikium de Eno). Under Latin rule, it was the seat of a Catholic bishop (a suffragan of Trajanopolis), while in a document of 1219 the Crusader barons Balduin de Aino and Goffred de Mairi are mentioned as lords of the city. In 1237 a Cuman raid reached the city, and in 1294 it was besieged by the Bulgarians under Constantine Tikh and his Tatar allies until the Byzantines released Sultan Kaykawus II. In June 1265 Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos granted the Venetians the right to settle and trade in the city.	2.734375
4049012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enez	Enez	In 1463 Ainos was given by Mehmed II to the deposed Despot of the Morea, Demetrios Palaiologos, as an appanage (along with parts of Thasos and Samothrace). He remained in possession of the town until 1467, when he fell into disgrace. The Venetians briefly captured the city in 1469. Modern period The town gave its name to the Enos-Midia line, which briefly marked the border of the Ottoman Empire in Europe in the disastrous aftermath of the First Balkan War. The border was shifted further northwest after the Turks made some limited gains in the Second Balkan War, recapturing the city of Edirne. Enez had a large Greek population, and was affected from the 19th century onwards by ethnic conflicts and nationalistic aspirations. After the Turkish War of Independence (1919–23), the Treaty of Lausanne drew the current borders of Turkey and required Greek communities to leave Turkey while Turkish communities left Greece and Bulgaria. Overnight Enez became a provincial backwater, a dead-end, up against an unfriendly border. It was a garrison town and military zone, off-limits to foreigners, right into the 21st century. Although foreigners are now allowed to visit, modern Enez makes a living largely from local tourism. Improved highways bring many weekenders from Istanbul. - the original town has a steady population while that of the beach strip soars in summer and drops to near zero in winter. Enez remains the westernmost Turkish town on the European continent (excluding Imbros which is an island). The town of Alexandroupoli (Dedeağaç) lies just across the border with Greece but the two towns are separated by a swampland reserve and the Evros/Meriç River delta so that what should be a short journey actually takes about 1.5 hours. In the late 2010s and early 2020s the area became especially sensitive since it separates Turkey from the European Union. The tense situation around the border has tended to limit development in the area which has been a boon for the delta wildlife.	2.671875

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.