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961609	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Koshetz	Alexander Koshetz	After World War I, Koshetz was the co-founder and conductor of the Ukrainian Republic Capella (later renamed Ukrainian National Chorus). The choir toured Europe and the Americas in 1919–1924 and 1926–27, in support of the international Ukrainian community. In 1917 Koshetz married a former student and singer in his choirs Tetyana Koshetz (1892–1966) who was later to become a vocalist in the Ukrainian National Chorus, voice teacher, and after 1944 curator of the Ukrainian Cultural and Educational Centre in Winnipeg. It was Koshetz who introduced the song "Shchedryk" by Mykola Leontovych, at a concert in Kyiv in 1919. Eventually the song became a Christmas classic under the name "Carol of the Bells". He moved to New York City in 1922 where he collected liturgical music, arranged and popularized Ukrainian folk music. Koshetz also documented the choir's travels in the memoir With Song, Around the World (З піснею через світ). In 1926, he settled in New York and worked in the United States and Canada to educate new conductors: he conducted music courses for conductors, etc. He composed church music (5 liturgies, some chants), and arranged folk songs. In New York, he continued to popularize Ukrainian music with his compositions, arrangements, and gramophone recordings, and the music publishing house Witmark & Son published massive editions of forty-two Ukrainian folk songs arranged by Oleksandr Koshyts in English. From 1941 Koshetz spent the summer months teaching in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, where he died in 1944 at age 69. His body is buried at Glen Eden Cemetery, West St. Paul, Manitoba. Commemoration The O. Koshetz Choir in Winnipeg is named in his memory. A unique concert titled the Unknown Koshetz was produced at the University of Manitoba on 26 March 2006. The concert featured the Olexander Koshetz Choir of Winnipeg performing Koshetz "choral orchestrations" of music of Hawaii, Scotland, Afro-Americana, and First Nations, sung in both English and Ukrainian translations.	2.546875
961610	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison%20Lurie	Alison Lurie	Alison Stewart Lurie (September 3, 1926December 3, 2020) was an American novelist and academic. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her 1984 novel Foreign Affairs. Although better known as a novelist, she wrote many non-fiction books and articles, particularly on children's literature and the semiotics of dress. Life Alison Stewart Lurie was born on September 3, 1926, in Chicago, and raised in White Plains, New York. Her father Harry Lawrence Lurie was a sociologist, and her mother Bernice Lurie (née Stewart) was a journalist and book critic. Her father was born in Latvia and her mother was born in Scotland. Her father was the first executive director of the National Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds. Due to complications with a forceps delivery, she was born deaf in one ear and with damage to her facial muscles. She attended a boarding school in Darien, Connecticut, and graduated from Radcliffe College of Harvard University in 1947 with a bachelor's degree in history and literature. Lurie met literary scholar Jonathan Peale Bishop while in college, and they married in 1948. Bishop later taught at Amherst College and Cornell University, and Lurie moved along with him. They had three sons and divorced in 1984. She then married the writer Edward Hower. She spent part of her time in Hampstead, London; part in Ithaca, New York; and part in Key West, Florida. In 1970, Lurie began to teach in the English department at Cornell, where she was tenured in 1979. She taught children's literature and writing. In 1976, she was named the F. J. Whiton Professor of American Literature at Cornell, and upon retirement, professor emerita. In 1981, she published The Language of Clothes, a non-fiction book about the semiotics of dress. Her discussion in Language of Clothes has been compared to Roland Barthes' The Fashion System (1985). Lurie died from natural causes while under hospice care in Ithaca on December 3, 2020, at age 94. Lurie's personal papers are archived at Cornell University.	2.1875
961616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSI%20%28computational%20chemistry%29	PSI (computational chemistry)	Psi is an ab initio computational chemistry package originally written by the research group of Henry F. Schaefer, III (University of Georgia). Utilizing Psi, one can perform a calculation on a molecular system with various kinds of methods such as Hartree-Fock, Post-Hartree–Fock electron correlation methods, and density functional theory. The program can compute energies, optimize molecular geometries, and compute vibrational frequencies. The major part of the program is written in C++, while Python API is also available, which allows users to perform complex computations or automate tasks easily. Psi4 is the latest release of the program package - it is open source, released as free under the GPL through GitHub. Primary development of Psi4 is currently performed by the research groups of David Sherrill (Georgia Tech), T. Daniel Crawford (Virginia Tech), Francesco Evangelista (Emory University), and Henry F. Schaefer, III (University of Georgia), with substantial contributions by Justin Turney (University of Georgia), Andy Simmonett (NIH), and Rollin King (Bethel University). Psi4 is available on Linux releases such as Fedora and Ubuntu. Features The basic capabilities of Psi are concentrated around the following methods of quantum chemistry: Hartree–Fock method Density functional theory Møller–Plesset perturbation theory Coupled cluster CASSCF multireference configuration interaction methods symmetry-adapted perturbation theory Several methods are available for computing excited electronic states, including configuration interaction singles (CIS), the random phase approximation (RPA), time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT), and equation-of-motion coupled cluster (EOM-CCSD). Psi4 has introduced the density-fitting approximation in many portions of the code, leading to faster computations and reduced I/O requirements. Psi4 is the preferred quantum chemistry backend for the OpenFermion project, which seeks to perform quantum chemistry computations on quantum computers.	2.1875
961621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Rondeau	Jim Rondeau	Jim Rondeau (born April 6, 1959) is a former politician in Manitoba, Canada. He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1999 to 2016, and served as cabinet minister in the provincial governments of Gary Doer and Greg Selinger from 2003 to 2013. Rondeau is a member of the New Democratic Party. Rondeau did not seek re-election in the 2016 Manitoba election. Early life and career The son of Gaston Joseph Rondeau and Dorothy Jean Finch, he was born in Winnipeg, and was educated at John Taylor Collegiate. He holds a Bachelor of Education degree from the University of Winnipeg and has completed post-baccalaureate studies at the University of Manitoba. He was a teacher at Norway House High School from 1981 to 1984 and later taught at Cranberry Portage, before becoming coordinator of the Frontier School Division at the University of Winnipeg. Rondeau helped establish several learning centres and libraries throughout the province, and founded a school-to-work transition program for young people from northern Manitoba. He also coached the Winnipeg Eagles Volleyball Club, and was coach and manager of the Manitoba Volleyball team in several North American Aboriginal Games. Politician Government backbencher Rondeau was first elected to the Manitoba Legislature in the 1999 provincial election with a dramatic victory in the west-end Winnipeg riding of Assiniboia, previously regarded as safe for the Progressive Conservative Party. On election night, the final vote totals showed Progressive Conservative incumbent Linda McIntosh winning re-election by two votes. After the institutional ballots were counted, however, Rondeau was declared elected by six votes. A recount later reduced his majority to four, and a subsequent judicial ruling struck it down to three.	2.078125
961621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Rondeau	Jim Rondeau	In December 2003, Rondeau announced that Manitoba would ban all smoking from indoor public places and workplaces within a year. The initiative was described as the most ambitious anti-smoking strategy in Canada, and a February 2004 poll showed that many smokers were considering quitting in light of the ban. Rondeau introduced the anti-smoking bill in March 2004, and the ban came into effect at the beginning of October. The bill exempted tobacco shops as well as native reserves and casinos, which the government argued were outside provincial jurisdiction. In March 2004, Rondeau announced that the Doer government had signed a $2.5-million contract to create a Prostate Centre at CancerCare Manitoba. He later handled negotiations concerning whether or not the Manitoba government would provide funding for an abortion clinic in Winnipeg. Despite some initial reluctance, he announced in July 2004 that the government would fully fund abortions at Jane's Clinic, once owned by Henry Morgentaler. In late April 2004, he announced that the provincial government would pay for child vaccinations against chicken pox, meningitis and pneumococcus. Rondeau and Fort Garry representative Kerri Irvin-Ross co-chaired public hearings on Manitoba's privacy laws in May 2004. Later in the year, he announced that the government would establish a "Healthy Kids, Healthy Futures" committee of the legislature. Minister of Industry, Economic Development and Mines	2.125
961624	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin%20Airlift%20Device	Berlin Airlift Device	The Berlin Airlift Device is miniature gold airplane that was awarded for wear on occupation medals and ribbons issued to United States Armed Forces service personnel for participation in or in direct support of, the Berlin airlift during the Cold War. History The Berlin Airlift Device is awarded for service of 92 consecutive days with a unit credited with participation in the Berlin airlift, or by competent field authority on an individual basis within the period June 26, 1948 to September 30, 1949 inclusive. U.S. Army orders announcing award of the Berlin Airlift device will specifically award the Army of Occupation Medal to persons otherwise not eligible therefor. The device is a gold colored metal miniature of a Douglas C-54 cargo airplane. It is worn centered on the suspension and service ribbon of the Army of Occupation Medal or Navy Occupation Service Medal. When worn on the suspension ribbon, the device is pinned above the Germany medal clasp. Those awarded the Army of Occupation Medal or Navy Occupation Service Medal and the Berlin Airlift Device may also be entitled to the Medal for Humane Action awarded for at least 120 days of service or direct support thereof of the Berlin airlift. The 31 American service personnel and one Army civilian worker of the 101 persons who lost their lives mostly due to plane crashes during the Berlin airlift were awarded the Medal of Humane Action posthumously.	2.3125
961633	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Creek%20Lake	Deep Creek Lake	Deep Creek Lake is a man-made reservoir in the U.S. state of Maryland. It has an area of , a shoreline length of , and a volume of . The lake is home to a wide variety of aquatic life, such as freshwater fish and aquatic birds. Along with the nearby Wisp Ski Resort, the lake is a popular regional vacation and tourism destination. History The lake is a result of the Youghiogheny Hydroelectric Company hydroelectric project on Deep Creek in the 1920s. Deep Creek Dam, located about north of Oakland, Maryland, consists of an earth and rock wall dam across a tributary of the Youghiogheny River. Construction of the dam began in 1923 and was completed in 1925. The hydroelectric plant became operational at 4 p.m. on May 26, 1925. The state of Maryland purchased the lake in 2000 from the Pennsylvania Electric Company, and Deep Creek Lake State Park provides public access to the lake. Fishing Fish commonly caught by anglers include: largemouth bass smallmouth bass rock bass northern pike walleye yellow perch chain pickerel black crappie bluegill redear sunfish common carp shiners minnows Climate Deep Creek Lake has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb).	2.328125
961659	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Bulge%20%281965%20film%29	Battle of the Bulge (1965 film)	Historical inaccuracies The film's opening narration by William Conrad inaccurately states, "To the north stood Montgomery's Eighth Army...." In fact, the British Eighth Army, Montgomery's previous command, was in Italy at the time; Montgomery's northern command was the 21st Army Group. The narration continued, "...To the south, Patton's Third Army." Although Patton's Third Army was indeed to the south it was not tasked in any way with defending the Ardennes. Instead, it was dug in on the west bank of the Rhine River, a component of a much larger force of four American armies of the 12th Army Group under General Omar Bradley poised to cross it into Germany. After the introduction there is no reference to British forces in the area, though they were largely kept behind the Meuse River and thus almost entirely out of the fighting. Consequently, there is no mention of General Eisenhower's decision to split the Bulge front into two, transferring temporary command of two American armies to Field Marshal Montgomery in the northern half of the Bulge. As a result, the film implies an all-American operation. The film was shot on location in the Sierra de Guadarrama mountain range and Madrid, Spain, which bear no resemblance to the rugged, heavily wooded Ardennes of Belgium, Luxembourg and western Germany. Aside from the initial American encounters with the German offensive, the weather during filming was also at odds with the actual battle, which was fought during waves of heavy snow. The film's major tank battle scene, and some other battle scenes, were fought in flat, bare, arid territory. The aviation reconnaissance scenes with Henry Fonda were filmed with one or more Cessna L-19 aircraft, which did not fly until December 1949, instead of the Piper L-4 that was widely used during World War II.	2.109375
961664	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero%20A.10	Aero A.10	The Aero Letňany A.10 was a biplane airliner produced in Czechoslovakia shortly after World War I. It was the first commercial aircraft to be built in Czechoslovakia and was known as the Ae-10 Limousine. It was designed by Husnik and Vlasak and was intended to meet the growing need for aerial communication to and from the country. Behind the single nose-mounted engine was a cabin with seats for three and two tables, upholstered on the underside, and able to be inverted to provide another two seats if required. A double skinned firewall between the engine and cabin, together with double skinned surfaces to the walls, floor and roof and Triplex windows gave a (relatively) quiet ride. A rear window gave communication with the pilot, whose open cockpit was above and behind the cabin. The cockpit also accommodated the navigator who had a seat directly behind the pilot. The upper wings were in three sections with the small center section mounted on a tubular cabane and the lower wings were attached directly to the fuselage. Balanced ailerons were fitted to the top plane only and the petrol tank was fitted in the centre section. The fuselage was a deep rectangular section tapering to a vertical knife-edge at the rear, thus rendering a tail fin unnecessary. The tailplane carried two balanced elevators hinged to the stabilisers, and a balanced rudder was fitted to the top of the fuselage. The first example of the A.10 flew for the first time on 3 January 1922. The A.10 was important as one of Československé Státní Aerolinie - (Czechoslovak State Airlines) first aircraft, with five examples in service with the airline from the time of its inception in 1923 until 1928, on the Prague to Bratislava route. Operators Czechoslovak Airlines Specifications (A.10)	2
961677	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krytron	Krytron	The krytron is a cold-cathode gas-filled tube intended for use as a very high-speed switch, somewhat similar to the thyratron. It consists of a sealed glass tube with four electrodes. A small triggering pulse on the grid electrode switches the tube on, allowing a large current to flow between the cathode and anode electrodes. The vacuum version is called a vacuum krytron, or sprytron. The krytron was one of the earliest developments of the EG&G Corporation. Description Unlike most other gas switching tubes, the krytron conducts by means of an arc discharge, to handle very high voltages and currents (reaching several kilovolts and several kiloamperes), rather than the low-current glow discharge used in other thyratrons. The krytron is a development of the triggered spark gaps and thyratrons originally developed for radar transmitters during World War II. The gas used in krytrons is hydrogen; noble gases (usually krypton), or a Penning mixture can also be used. Operation A krytron has four electrodes. Two are a conventional anode and cathode. One is a keep-alive electrode, placed near the cathode. The keep-alive has a low positive voltage applied, which causes a small area of gas to ionize near the cathode. High voltage is applied to the anode, but primary conduction does not occur until a positive pulse is applied to the trigger electrode ("Grid" in the image above). Once started, arc conduction carries a considerable current. The fourth is a control grid, usually wrapped around the anode, except for a small opening on its top. In place of or in addition to the keep-alive electrode some krytrons may contain a tiny amount of radioactive material (usually less than of nickel-63), which emits beta particles (high-speed electrons) to make ionization easier. The radiation source serves to increase the reliability of ignition and formation of the keep-alive electrode discharge.	2.5
961677	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krytron	Krytron	Sprytrons are evacuated to hard vacuum, typically 0.001 Pa. As kovar and other metals are somewhat permeable to hydrogen, especially during the 600 °C bake-out before evacuation and sealing, all external metal surfaces must be plated with a thick (25 microns or more) layer of soft gold. The same metallization is used for other switch tubes as well. Sprytrons are often designed similar to trigatrons, with the trigger electrode coaxial to the cathode. In one design the trigger electrode is formed as metallization on the inner surface of an alumina tube. The trigger pulse causes surface flashover, which liberates electrons and vaporized surface discharge material into the inter-electrode gap, which facilitates formation of a vacuum arc, closing the switch. The short switching time suggests electrons from the trigger discharge and the corresponding secondary electrons knocked from the anode as the initiation of the switching operation; the vaporized material travels too slowly through the gap to play significant role. The repeatability of the triggering can be improved by special coating of the surface between the trigger electrode and the cathode, and the jitter can be improved by doping the trigger substrate and modifying the trigger probe structures. Sprytrons can degrade in storage, by outgassing from their components, diffusion of gases (especially hydrogen) through the metal components, and gas leaks through the hermetic seals. An example tube manufactured with internal pressure of 0.001 Pa will exhibit spontaneous gap breakdowns when the pressure inside rises to 1 Pa. Accelerated testing of storage life can be done by storing in increased ambient pressure, optionally with added helium for leak testing, and increased temperature storage (150 °C) for outgassing testing. Sprytrons can be made miniaturized and rugged. Sprytrons can be also triggered by a laser pulse. In 1999 the laser pulse energy needed to trigger a sprytron was reduced to 10 microjoules.	2.125
961680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan%20tapir	Malayan tapir	The Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), also called Asian tapir, Asiatic tapir, oriental tapir, Indian tapir, piebald tapir, or black-and-white tapir, is the only living tapir species outside of the Americas. It is native to Southeast Asia from the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra. It has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2008, as the population is estimated to comprise fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. Taxonomy The scientific name Tapirus indicus was proposed by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1819 who referred to a tapir described by Pierre-Médard Diard. Tapirus indicus brevetianus was coined by a Dutch zoologist in 1926 who described a black Malayan tapir from Sumatra that had been sent to Rotterdam Zoo in the early 1920s. Phylogenetic analyses of 13 Malayan tapirs showed that the species is monophyletic. It was placed in the genus Acrocodia by Colin Groves and Peter Grubb in 2011. However, a comparison of mitochondrial DNA of 16 perissodactyl species revealed that the Malayan tapir forms a sister group together with the Tapirus species native to the Americas. It was the first Tapirus species that genetically diverged from the group, estimated about in the Late Oligocene. Description The Malayan tapir is easily identified by its markings, most notably the light-colored patch that extends from its shoulders to its hindquarters. Black hair covers its head, shoulders, and legs, while white hair covers its midsection, rear, and the tips of its ears; these white edges around the rims of the outer ear as is true of other tapirs. The disrupted coloration breaks up its outline, providing camouflage by making the animal difficult to recognize against the varied terrain and dense flora of its habitat; potential predators may mistake it for a large rock, rather than prey, when it is lying down to sleep.	3.21875
961680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan%20tapir	Malayan tapir	The Malayan tapir is the largest of the four extant tapir species and grows to between in length, not counting a stubby tail of only in length, and stands tall. It typically weighs between , although some adults can weigh up to . The females are usually larger than the males. Like other tapir species, it has a small, stubby tail and a long, flexible proboscis. It has four toes on each front foot and three toes on each back foot. The Malayan tapir has rather poor eyesight, but excellent hearing and sense of smell. The tapir's unique proboscis is supported by several evolutionary adaptations of its skull. It has a large sagittal crest, unusually positioned orbits, an unusually shaped cranium with elevated frontal bones, and a retracted nasal incision as well as retracted facial cartilage. This evolutionary process is believed to have caused the loss of some cartilages, facial muscles, and the bony wall of the tapir's nasal chamber. Vision Malayan tapirs have very poor eyesight, both on land and in water, instead relying heavily on their excellent senses of smell and hearing to navigate and forage. Their eyes are small and, like many herbivores, positioned on the sides of the face. They have brown irises, but the corneas are often covered in a blue haze; this corneal cloudiness is thought to be caused by repetitive exposure to light. This loss of transparency impacts the ability of the cornea to transmit and focus outside light as it enters the eye, impairing the animal's overall vision. As these tapirs are most active at night on top of having poor eyesight, this habit may make it harder for them to search for food and avoid predators. Color variation Two melanistic Malayan tapirs were observed in Jerangau Forest Reserve in Malaysia in 2000. A black Malayan tapir was also recorded in Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve in Pahang state in 2016.	3.4375
961680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan%20tapir	Malayan tapir	Distribution and habitat The Malayan tapir lives throughout the tropical lowland rainforests of Southeast Asia, including Sumatra in Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand. Pleistocene fossils were found in Java and other locations accompanied by herbivores more typical of grasslands, indicating that it evolved in more open habitats and retreated to closed forests in later times. It was found in Borneo until at least 8,000 years ago during the early Holocene in the Niah Caves of Sarawak, and some 19th century writers mentioned it as a contemporary species in Borneo, likely based on native accounts. It has been proposed to reintroduce the tapir to the island as a conservation measure. In the continent, the Malayan tapir was found in historical times as far north as China. Behaviour and ecology Malayan tapirs are primarily solitary, marking out large tracts of land as their territory, though these areas usually overlap with those of other individuals. Tapirs mark out their territories by spraying urine on plants, and they often follow distinct paths which they have bulldozed through the undergrowth. Exclusively herbivorous, the animal forages for the tender shoots and leaves of more than 115 species of plants, of which around 30 are particularly preferred, moving slowly through the forest and pausing often to eat and note the scents left behind by other tapirs in the area. The tapir can run quickly when threatened or frightened, and if forced to fight can defend itself with its strong jaws and sharp teeth. Malayan tapirs communicate with high-pitched squeaks and whistles. They usually prefer to live near water and often bathe and swim, and they are also able to climb steep slopes. Tapirs are mainly active at night, though they are not exclusively nocturnal; because they tend to eat soon after sunset or before sunrise, and they will often nap in the middle of the night, they are considered to be crepuscular animals. Life cycle	3.25
961680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan%20tapir	Malayan tapir	The gestation period of the Malayan tapir is about 390–395 days, after which a single calf is born that weighs around . Malayan tapirs are the largest of the four tapir species at birth and tend to grow more quickly than their relatives. Young tapirs of all species have brown hair with white stripes and spots, a pattern that enables them to hide effectively in the dappled light of the forest. This baby coat fades into adult coloration between four and seven months after birth. Weaning occurs between six and eight months of age, at which time the babies are nearly full-grown, and the animals reach sexual maturity around age three. Breeding typically occurs in April, May or June, and females generally produce one calf every two years. Malayan tapirs can live up to 30 years, both in the wild and in captivity. Predators Because of its size, the Malayan tapir has few natural predators, and even reports of killings by tigers (Panthera tigris) are scarce. Malayan tapirs can defend themselves with their very powerful bite; in 1998, the bite of a captive female Malayan tapir severed off a zookeeper's left arm at the mid-bicep, likely because she stood between her and her offspring. Threats The main threats to the Malayan tapir are loss and destruction of habitat through deforestation. Large tracts of forests in Thailand and Malaysia have been converted for planting oil palms. Habitat fragmentation in peninsular Malaysia caused displacement of 142 Malayan tapirs between 2006 and 2010; some were rescued and relocated, while 15 of them were killed in vehicle collisions.	3.515625
961694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue%20of%20Jos%C3%A9%20Gervasio%20Artigas%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29	Statue of José Gervasio Artigas (Washington, D.C.)	General Jose Gervasio Artigas is a bronze statue, in Washington, DC, capital of the United States, at the intersection of Constitution Avenue and Virginia Avenue, at 18th Street. It is one of a set called the Statues of the Liberators. José Artigas was a 19th-century general, sometimes called "the father of Uruguayan independence", "Protector de los Pueblos Libres" or "Jefe de los Orientales". The Washington, DC, statue was created before 1948 by Juan Manuel Blanes. At its base are engraved the words "Liberty of America is my dream and its attainment my only hope." Although this statue was delivered before the identical one in Montevideo, Minnesota, Montevideo erected theirs in 1949 and the Washington, DC, Parks Department did not erect its until a year later on 19 June 1950. Both statues were gifts from the people of Uruguay and are replicas of an original in San José de Mayo, Uruguay, created by Italian sculptor Dante Costa. The Uruguayan officer Edgardo Ubaldo Genta had conceived the idea in 1940 as a good-will gesture.	2.078125
961695	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Democratic%20Party%20%28Australia%29	Christian Democratic Party (Australia)	Education and health The Christian Democratic Party believe that parental input in a child's education plus writing, reading and arithmetic are the basis of a good education system. They also support Special Religious Education (SRE). CDP believes that Health Care "should be available, accessible and affordable". Environment and social security According to their 2018 policies, the CDP supports a balanced approach to both environment and social security. They seek a "good and sustainable use of the earth" and social security for "those who genuinely need it". Employment, immigration, and infrastructure The CDP is for local industry and local jobs and "proactively [work] to advocate for jobs growth". Their policy on immigration reads: "Each nation needs to manage its immigration so that there is a balance of visitors and immigrants that will contribute positively to the nation. In the last several years we have seen a rise in immigration that has outpaced infrastructure and potentially affecting housing affordability, health affordability, and employment declines, and a strain on the social security system resulting in community disquiet towards some new immigrants. This has the potential to change the character of the Australian society. Immigration needs to be carefully managed, taken on the advice of demographic experts and not growth economics." The Christian Democrats also support strong infrastructure programs for roads, bridges, hospitals, airports, waterways and power supplies. They state that these should be "steady and affordable" and planned for "future generations", not simply as short-term goals.	2.390625
961703	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Dublin%20postal%20districts	List of Dublin postal districts	Dublin postal districts have been used by Ireland's postal service, known as An Post, to sort mail in Dublin. The system is similar to that used in cities in Europe and North America until they adopted national postal code systems in the 1960s and 1970s. These were incorporated into a new national postcode system, known as Eircode, which was implemented in 2015. Under the Eircode system, the city is covered by the original routing areas D01 to D24, along with A## and K## codes for locations elsewhere in County Dublin. History The postal district system was introduced in 1917 by the British government, as a practical way to organise local postal distribution. This followed the example of other cities, including London, first subdivided into ten districts in 1857, and Liverpool, the first city in Britain or Ireland to have postcodes, from 1864. The letter "D" was assigned to designate Dublin and was retained by the new Irish government. Dublin didn't start using postal district numbers until 1927 when the Department of Posts and Telegraphs initiated a scheme that requested senders to add a code to each address in Dublin City and suburbs. When mail was addressed in English senders were to add an appropriate postman's walk number but when addressed in Irish, different letters were used with the same walk numbers, such as Rathgar Road being D3 on mail addresses in English but S3 on Irish addressed mail. This scheme was not popular and within a few years became defunct. In 1961, a new postal district numbers started and these numbers were added to street signs prior to which street signs only displayed the street name in Irish and English.	2.609375
961757	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uesugi%20Kagekatsu	Uesugi Kagekatsu	was a Japanese samurai daimyō during the Sengoku and Edo periods. He was the adopted son of Uesugi Kenshin and Uesugi Kagetora’s brother in law. Early life and rise Kagekatsu was the son of Nagao Masakage, the head of the Ueda Nagao clan and husband of Uesugi Kenshin's elder sister, Aya-Gozen. After his father died, he was adopted by Kenshin. His childhood name was Unomatsu. In 1577, he participated in Battle of Tedorigawa. Upon Kenshin's death in 1578, Kagekatsu battled Kenshin's other adopted son Uesugi Kagetora for the inheritance, defeating Kagetora in the 1578 Siege of Otate. In 1579, he forced Kagetora to commit suicide, and became head of the Uesugi clan. Kagekatsu married Takeda Katsuyori's sister (Takeda Shingen's daughter) after the Siege of Otate. Conflict with Oda By 1579, Kagekatsu had gained the upper hand and forced Kagetora to commit suicide. This bloody division allowed Oda Nobunaga's generals (headed by Shibata Katsuie) to conquer the Uesugi's lands in Kaga, Noto, and Etchu. In 1582, Kagekatsu led an army into Etchu and was defeated by Oda forces at the Battle of Tenjinyama. He hastily returned to Echigo when he learned that Oda general Mori Nagayoshi had raided Echigo in his absence. When Oda forces under Shibata Katsuie and Sassa Narimasa laid siege to Uozu castle in Etchu, in the course of which a number of important Uesugi retainers were killed, Kagekatsu's fortunes appeared bleak. Kagekatsu sent a letter to Satake Yoshishige, his allies. It was like a suicide note. Please don't worry about us. I was born in a good era. We will fight against over 60 provinces of Japan with only this Echigo province. If we survive, I'll become an unmatched hero. Even if we are destroyed, my name will go down in history. Uozu castle fell on June 3, 1582, and Oda Nobunaga would die eighteen days later, in Kyoto. The Uesugi were given a reprieve with the death of Nobunaga shortly afterwards. Service under Hideyoshi	2.28125
961757	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uesugi%20Kagekatsu	Uesugi Kagekatsu	Kagekatsu made friendly overtures to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and attacked Shibata Katsuie's northern outposts during the Shizugatake Campaign (1583) and went on to support Hideyoshi during the Komaki Campaign (1584), in which he played a limited role by launching a foray into Shinano. As a general under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Kagekatsu took part in the Odawara campaign 1590 under Maeda Toshiie, and rise to prominence to become a member of the Council of Five Elders. Originally holding a 550,000 koku fief in Echigo Province, Kagekatsu received the fief of Aizu, worth a huge 1.2 million koku when Hideyoshi redistributed holdings in 1598. After Hideyoshi's death, that year, Kagekatsu then allied himself with Ishida Mitsunari, against Tokugawa Ieyasu, as the result of some political dispute. Sekigahara Campaign The Sekigahara Campaign 1600 can be said to have begun, at least in part, with Kagekatsu, who was the first daimyō to openly defy the Tokugawa clan. He built a new castle in Aizu, attracting the attention of Ieyasu, who demanded that he explain his conduct at the capital. Kagekatsu refused, and Tokugawa began plans to lead a 50,000 man army north against him. Ishida and Uesugi hoped to occupy Tokugawa Ieyasu with this fighting in the north, distracting him from Ishida Mitsunari's attacks in the west. Anticipating this, Ieyasu remained to engage Mitsunari; his generals Mogami Yoshiaki and Date Masamune would fight Kagekatsu in Tōhoku (northern region Honshū, Japan's main island). Kagekatsu had intended to move his force south, attacking the Tokugawa from the north-east while Ishida attacked from the west, but he was defeated very early in the campaign, at his castle in the Siege of Shiroishi and later in the end of campaign at Siege of Hasedo.	2.53125
961760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20indigo%20snake	Eastern indigo snake	Description The eastern indigo snake has uniform blue-black dorsal scales, with some specimens having a reddish-orange to tan color on the throat, cheeks, and chin. This snake received its common name from the glossy iridescent dorsal and ventral scales which can be seen as blackish-purple in bright light. This smooth-scaled snake is considered to be the longest native snake species in the United States. The longest recorded specimen measured in total length (including tail). Unlike many snakes, mature male indigo snakes are slightly larger than females. This is thought to be due to intraspecies competition and combat with the males. A typical mature male measures in total length, with a reported average of , and weighs , reportedly averaging . Meanwhile, a mature female typically measures around in total length, averaging , and weighs , averaging . Specimens over can weigh up to . Although the eastern indigo snake is similar in average body mass, extremely large specimens of the bulky, sympatric venomous eastern diamondback rattlesnake can outweigh it. Distribution The eastern indigo snake inhabits areas from far southwestern South Carolina through Florida, and west to southern Alabama and southeastern Mississippi. Their historic range extended into Louisiana. A related species, the Texas indigo snake (Drymarchon melanurus erebennus), is found in southern Texas and Mexico. Conservation status Because of habitat loss, the eastern indigo snake is listed as a federally threatened species in Georgia and Florida. In 2012 the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources had listed the species as possibly extirpated within the state. A reintroduction program has shown initial signs of success, with an individual sighted in March 2022.	2.796875
961760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20indigo%20snake	Eastern indigo snake	The eastern indigo snake was largely eliminated from northern Florida due to habitat loss and fragmentation. A restoration program is currently underway at Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines Preserve (ABRP) in northern Florida. The eastern indigo snake was last observed at ABRP in 1982, until 2017 when 12 snakes were released as part of the program. Twenty more snakes were released in 2018, and another 15 (10 female and 5 male) in 2019. The 10-year program is a collaborative effort between the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission and private partners. NatureServe considers the species to be Vulnerable. Another issue the eastern indigo snake is facing would be dealing with infections due to the snake fungal disease (Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola). This fungus infects the dermal layer of snake skin, causing a variety of lesions that commonly manifest on the head and near the vent. Preferred habitat The eastern indigo snake frequents flatwoods, hammocks, dry glades, stream bottoms, cane fields, riparian thickets, and high ground with well-drained, sandy soils. In Georgia, the eastern indigo snake prefers excessively drained, deep sandy soils along major streams, as well as xeric sandridge habitats. In the northern parts range is restricted to sandhills and require Gopher Tortoise burrows during colder seasons Xeric slash pine plantations seem to be preferred over undisturbed longleaf pine habitats. Habitat selection varies seasonally. From December to April, eastern indigo snakes prefer sandhill habitats; from May to July the snakes shift from winter dens to summer territories; from August through November they are located more frequently in shady creek bottoms than during other seasons. In a study in Georgia, winter sightings generally occurred on sandhills, in association with gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) burrows. These burrows can be used as cover from predators, fires, or extreme temperatures that may come through the area.	2.46875
961760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20indigo%20snake	Eastern indigo snake	The eastern indigo snake is most abundant in the sandhill plant communities of Florida and Georgia. These communities are primarily scrub oak-longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) with occasional live oak (Quercus virginiana), laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), Chapman's oak (Q. chapmanii), and myrtle oak (Q. myrtifolia). Other communities include longleaf pine-turkey oak (Q. laevis), slash pine-scrub oak (Pinus elliottii), pine flatwoods, and pine-mesic hardwoods. Cover requirements Because the cover requirements of eastern indigo snakes change seasonally, maintaining corridors that link the different habitats used is important. From the spring through fall snakes must be able to travel from sandhill communities and upland pine-hardwood communities to creek bottoms and agricultural fields. In winter, indigo snakes den in gopher tortoise burrows, which are usually found in open pine forests with dense herbaceous understories. Burrows need to be in areas where there is no flooding. Eastern indigo snakes heavily use debris piles left from site-preparation operations on tree plantations. These piles are often destroyed for cosmetic reasons but should be left intact because they provide important hiding cover for both the snake and its prey. Summer home ranges for the indigo snake can be as large as .	2.71875
961760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20indigo%20snake	Eastern indigo snake	Food habits and behavior The eastern indigo snake is carnivorous, like all snakes, and will eat any other small animal it can overpower. It has been known to kill some of its prey by pressing the prey against nearby burrow walls. Captive specimens are frequently fed dead items to prevent injury to the snake from this violent method of subduing its prey. Chemosensory studies with mice (Mus musculus) have shown that D. couperi responds with significantly elevated rates of tongue flicking and investigation towards visual cues of prey, and not volatile chemical cues. Its diet has been known to include other snakes (ophiophagy), including venomous ones, as it is immune to the venom of the North American rattlesnakes. The eastern indigo snake also eats turtles, lizards, frogs, toads, fish, a variety of small birds and mammals, and eggs. As defensive behavior the eastern indigo snake vertically flattens its neck, hisses, and vibrates its tail. If picked up, it seldom bites. It often will cohabit with gopher tortoises in their burrows, although it will settle for armadillo holes, hollow logs, and debris piles when gopher tortoise burrows can't be found. Hunters, hoping to flush out rattlesnakes, often wind up accidentally killing indigo snakes when they illegally pour gasoline into the burrows of gopher tortoises (a practice referred to as "gassing"), even though the tortoises themselves are endangered and protected.	3.03125
961760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20indigo%20snake	Eastern indigo snake	Predators As an apex predator, indigo snakes have no natural predators. Instead, humans represent the biggest threat to the eastern indigo snake. Highway fatalities, wanton killings, and overcollection for the pet trade adversely affect indigo snake populations. Snakes are taken illegally from the wild for the pet trade. Eastern indigo snakes are sometimes "gassed" in their burrows by rattlesnake hunters. Along with infrastructure and pet trade, indigo snake populations are drastically declining due to habitat fragmentation. The eastern indigo snake's decline is correlated with the gopher tortoise decline as well since they utilize their burrows for brumation. Reproduction The eastern indigo snake is oviparous. The eggs are long by wide. Females will lay a single clutch of 4-14 eggs from late April through early June. The hatchlings are long. Eastern indigo snakes are often referred to as late maturing colubrids; they usually do not reach maturity until they are 3 to 5 years old and around 5 to 6 feet in length. Female eastern indigo snakes have the ability to retain live sperm for long periods, potentially over 4 years. Thus, females are able to choose when to release the sperm to fertilize the eggs. Mating season is at a peak from November to January but can occur from October through March. Captivity and care Due to its generally docile nature and appearance, some people find the eastern indigo snake to be a desirable pet, although its protected status can make owning one, depending on location, illegal without a permit. Only a few states require permits to own an eastern indigo snake, but a federal permit is required to buy one from out of state anywhere in the US. The permit costs $100; information about obtaining one can be found by doing a web search. Most states allow unrestricted in-state sales. To thrive in captivity, this snake requires a larger enclosure than most species do, preferably with something to climb on.	2.859375
961776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suryavarman%20II	Suryavarman II	Suryavarman II (, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ), posthumously named Paramavishnuloka, was the ruler of the Khmer Empire from 1113 until his death in 1150. He is most famously known as the builder of Angkor Wat, the largest Hindu temple in the world, which he dedicated to Vishnu. His reign's monumental architecture, numerous military campaigns and restoration of strong government have led historians to rank Suryavarman II as one of the empire's greatest rulers. Early years Suryavarman appears to have grown up in a provincial estate in 1094 or 1098, at a time of weakening central control in the empire. An inscription lists his father as Ksitindraditya and his mother as Narendralakshmi. As a young prince, he maneuvered for power, contending he had a legitimate claim to the throne. “At the end of his studies,” states an inscription, “he approved the desire of the royal dignity of his family.” He appears to have dealt with a rival claimant from the line of Harshavarman III, probably Nripatindravarman, who held sway in the south, then to have turned on the elderly and largely ineffectual king Dharanindravarman I, his great uncle. “Leaving on the field of combat the ocean of his armies, he delivered a terrible battle,” states an inscription. “Bounding on the head of the elephant of the enemy king, he killed him, as Garuda on the edge of a mountain would kill a serpent.” Scholars have disagreed on whether this language refers to the death of the southern claimant or of King Dharanindravarman. Suryavarman II also sent a mission to the Chola dynasty of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola Emperor Kulothunga Chola I in 1114 CE.	2.53125
961776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suryavarman%20II	Suryavarman II	During his decades in power, the king reunited the empire. Vassals paid him tribute. He staged large military operations in the east against the Chams, but these were largely unsuccessful. Inscriptions in the neighboring Indianized state of Champa and accounts left by writers in Đại Việt (Dai Viet), a Vietnamese precursor state, say that Suryavarman II staged 3 major but unsuccessful attacks in Nghệ An province and Quảng Bình province, sometimes with the support of Champa. In 1128, he is said to have led 20,000 soldiers against Dai Viet, but was defeated and chased out. The next year he sent a fleet of more than 700 vessels to attack its coast. In 1132, combined Khmer and Cham forces again invaded Dai Viet, with a final attempt in 1137, to no real success. Later, the Cham king Jaya Indravarman III made peace with Lý king of Dai Viet and refused to support further attacks. In 1145 AD, Suryavarman II appears to have invaded Champa, defeated its king Jaya Indravarman III, and sacked the capital Vijaya with the help of Kulothunga Chola II. On the Cham throne he placed a new king, Harideva, said to be the younger brother of the Khmer ruler's wife. In subsequent fighting, Cham forces under Jaya Harivarman I recaptured the capital and killed Harideva. A final expedition in 1150 ended in a disastrous withdrawal. According to Vietnamese history books, Khmer planned to invade Dai Viet one more time in 1150. But while Khmer troops gathered in Nghe An (in southern Dai Viet), they faced widespread diseases and pandemics, and so retreated just before the invasion.	2.46875
961776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suryavarman%20II	Suryavarman II	In addition to war, Suryavarman practiced diplomacy, resuming formal relations with China in 1116 AD. A Chinese account of the 13th century says that the Khmer embassy had 14 members, who after reaching Chinese soil were given special court garments. “Scarcely have we arrived to contemplate anear your glory than we are already filled with your benefits,” one of the ambassadors is quoted as telling the Chinese emperor. The embassy went home the following year. Another embassy visited in 1120; in 1128, the emperor conferred high dignities on the Khmer ruler, deeming him “great vassal of the empire.” Problems concerning commerce between the two states were examined and regulated. The king's reign saw great innovations in art and architecture and it is believed that the sudden change was due to the presence of Cholas. He presided over the construction of Angkor Wat, the largest temple ever built in the capital, and in many modern minds the ultimate masterpiece of Khmer architecture. Its five central towers evoke the peaks of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods. It was resplendent with more than 1,860 carved apsara, or heavenly nymphs, and hundreds of meters of elaborate bas-reliefs depicting the Hindu legends and scenes from contemporary life. Other temples dating to his reign include Banteay Samre, Thommanon, Chau Say Tevoda, Wat Athvea and, east of the capital, the huge Beng Mealea complex. Suryavarman married, but no record exists of his wives' names. Suryavarman II was unusual among Khmer kings in making Vishnu rather than Shiva the focus of court religious life. The reasons for this decision are not known. Scholars have long debated whether his association with Vishnu helps explain why Angkor Wat faces west, the cardinal direction with which Vishnu is associated, rather than east, the more common orientation for Khmer temples.	2.84375
961776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suryavarman%20II	Suryavarman II	Suryavarman II was the first Khmer king to be depicted in art. A bas-relief in the south gallery of Angkor Wat shows him seated on an elaborate wooden dais whose legs and railings are carved to resemble naga snakes. On his head is a pointed diadem, and his ears have pendants. He wears anklets, armlets and bracelets. His right hand holds what seems to be a small dead snake; the meaning of this is unclear. His torso curves gracefully, his legs folded beneath him. The general image projected is one of serenity, and comfort with power and position. His image is part of a unique and detailed portrait of court life in the Angkor period. The scene's setting appears to be outside, amidst a forest. Kneeling attendants hold over His Majesty a profusion of fans, fly whisks and parasols that denoted rank. Princesses are carried in elaborately carved palanquins. Whiskered Brahman priests look on, some of them apparently preparing things for a ceremony. To the right of His Majesty, a courtier kneels, apparently presenting something. Advisers look on, kneeling, some with hands over hearts in a gesture of obeisance. To the right we see an elaborate procession, with retainers sounding conches, drums and a gong. An ark bearing the royal fire, symbol of power, is carried on his shoulders. Further on in the gallery is a display of Suryavarman's military might. Commanders with armor and weapons stand atop fierce war elephants, with ranks of foot soldiers below, each holding a spear and shield. One of the commanders is the king himself, looking over his right shoulder, his chest covered with armour, a sharp weapon in his right hand.	2.671875
961779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimLife	SimLife	SimLife: The Genetic Playground is a video game produced by Maxis in 1992. The concept of the game is to simulate an ecosystem; players may modify the genetics of the plants and animals that inhabit the virtual world. The point of this game is to experiment and create a self-sustaining ecosystem. SimLife was re-released in 1993 as part of the SimClassics Volume 1 compilation, alongside SimCity Classic and SimAnt for PC, Mac and Amiga. Development The producers of SimLife refer to it as "The Genetic Playground". The game allows users to explore the interaction of life-forms and environments. Users can manipulate the genetics of both plants and animals to determine whether these new species could survive in the Earth's various environments. Players can also create new worlds with distinctive environments to see how certain species (earth's species or their own) fare within them. SimLife gives players the power to: Create and modify worlds. Create and modify plants and animals at the genetic level. Exclusive animals appearing in this game are the Killer Penguin, the Monkeyphant, and the Orgot. Design environments and ecosystems. Study genetics in action. Simulate and control evolution. Change the physics of the universe in your computer. Reception Computer Gaming World in 1993 praised SimLife, stating that "By neatly bridging the gap between entertainment and education, SL brings the engrossing science of genetics within reach of any interested person". Games Finder gave SimLife a score of 7 out of 10. In 1993, SimLife received a Codie award from the Software Publishers Association for Best Simulation.	2.390625
961796	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Wax%20%281953%20film%29	House of Wax (1953 film)	Production Filmed under the working title The Wax Works, House of Wax was Warner Bros.' answer to the surprise 3D hit Bwana Devil, an independent production that premiered in November 1952. Seeing promise in the future of 3D films, Warner Bros. contracted Julian and Milton Gunzburg's Natural Vision 3D system, the same one used for Bwana Devil, and decided to film a remake of their 1933 two-color Technicolor thriller Mystery of the Wax Museum, which was based on Charles S. Belden's three-act play The Wax Works. Although the entire newspaper angle of the earlier film was eliminated and Mystery was set in the year it was released, whereas House of Wax was set in circa 1902, the two films have many similarities in plot and dialogue. Among the foregrounded uses of 3D in the film were scenes featuring fights, can-can girls, and a paddle ball-wielding barker. In what may be the film's cleverest and most startling 3D effect, the shadowy figure of one of the characters seems to spring up out of the theater audience and run into the screen. As director Andre de Toth was blind in one eye, he was unable to experience stereo vision or 3D effects. Vincent Price recalled: "It’s one of the great Hollywood stories. When they wanted a director for [a 3D] film, they hired a man who couldn’t see 3D at all! André de Toth was a very good director, but he may not have been suited to direct a 3D movie. He’d go to the rushes and say 'Why is everybody so excited about this?' It didn’t mean anything to him. But he made a good picture, a good thriller. He was largely responsible for the success of the picture. The 3D tricks just happened—there weren’t a lot of them. Later on, they threw everything at everybody." Some modern critics feel de Toth's inability to see depth is what makes the film superior since he was more concerned with telling a thrilling story and getting believable performances from the actors than simply tossing things at the camera.	2.109375
961805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra%20of%20sets	Algebra of sets	In mathematics, the algebra of sets, not to be confused with the mathematical structure of an algebra of sets, defines the properties and laws of sets, the set-theoretic operations of union, intersection, and complementation and the relations of set equality and set inclusion. It also provides systematic procedures for evaluating expressions, and performing calculations, involving these operations and relations. Any set of sets closed under the set-theoretic operations forms a Boolean algebra with the join operator being union, the meet operator being intersection, the complement operator being set complement, the bottom being and the top being the universe set under consideration. Fundamentals The algebra of sets is the set-theoretic analogue of the algebra of numbers. Just as arithmetic addition and multiplication are associative and commutative, so are set union and intersection; just as the arithmetic relation "less than or equal" is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, so is the set relation of "subset". It is the algebra of the set-theoretic operations of union, intersection and complementation, and the relations of equality and inclusion. For a basic introduction to sets see the article on sets, for a fuller account see naive set theory, and for a full rigorous axiomatic treatment see axiomatic set theory. Fundamental properties of set algebra The binary operations of set union () and intersection () satisfy many identities. Several of these identities or "laws" have well established names. Commutative property: Associative property: Distributive property: The union and intersection of sets may be seen as analogous to the addition and multiplication of numbers. Like addition and multiplication, the operations of union and intersection are commutative and associative, and intersection distributes over union. However, unlike addition and multiplication, union also distributes over intersection.	3
961805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra%20of%20sets	Algebra of sets	Two additional pairs of properties involve the special sets called the empty set and the universe set ; together with the complement operator ( denotes the complement of . This can also be written as , read as "A prime"). The empty set has no members, and the universe set has all possible members (in a particular context). Identity: Complement: The identity expressions (together with the commutative expressions) say that, just like 0 and 1 for addition and multiplication, and are the identity elements for union and intersection, respectively. Unlike addition and multiplication, union and intersection do not have inverse elements. However the complement laws give the fundamental properties of the somewhat inverse-like unary operation of set complementation. The preceding five pairs of formulae—the commutative, associative, distributive, identity and complement formulae—encompass all of set algebra, in the sense that every valid proposition in the algebra of sets can be derived from them. Note that if the complement formulae are weakened to the rule , then this is exactly the algebra of propositional linear logic. Principle of duality Each of the identities stated above is one of a pair of identities such that each can be transformed into the other by interchanging and , while also interchanging and . These are examples of an extremely important and powerful property of set algebra, namely, the principle of duality for sets, which asserts that for any true statement about sets, the dual statement obtained by interchanging unions and intersections, interchanging and and reversing inclusions is also true. A statement is said to be self-dual if it is equal to its own dual. Some additional laws for unions and intersections The following proposition states six more important laws of set algebra, involving unions and intersections. PROPOSITION 3: For any subsets and of a universe set , the following identities hold: idempotent laws: domination laws: absorption laws:	2.46875
961805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra%20of%20sets	Algebra of sets	As noted above, each of the laws stated in proposition 3 can be derived from the five fundamental pairs of laws stated above. As an illustration, a proof is given below for the idempotent law for union. Proof: The following proof illustrates that the dual of the above proof is the proof of the dual of the idempotent law for union, namely the idempotent law for intersection. Proof: Intersection can be expressed in terms of set difference: Some additional laws for complements The following proposition states five more important laws of set algebra, involving complements. PROPOSITION 4: Let and be subsets of a universe , then: De Morgan's laws: double complement or involution law: complement laws for the universe set and the empty set: Notice that the double complement law is self-dual. The next proposition, which is also self-dual, says that the complement of a set is the only set that satisfies the complement laws. In other words, complementation is characterized by the complement laws. PROPOSITION 5: Let and be subsets of a universe , then: uniqueness of complements: If , and , then Algebra of inclusion The following proposition says that inclusion, that is the binary relation of one set being a subset of another, is a partial order. PROPOSITION 6: If , and are sets then the following hold: reflexivity: antisymmetry: and if and only if transitivity: If and , then The following proposition says that for any set S, the power set of S, ordered by inclusion, is a bounded lattice, and hence together with the distributive and complement laws above, show that it is a Boolean algebra. PROPOSITION 7: If , and are subsets of a set then the following hold: existence of a least element and a greatest element: existence of joins: If and , then existence of meets: If and , then The following proposition says that the statement is equivalent to various other statements involving unions, intersections and complements.	2.3125
961811	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Kapleau	Philip Kapleau	Philip Kapleau (August 20, 1912 – May 6, 2004) was an American Zen Buddhist teacher. He trained in the Harada–Yasutani tradition, which is rooted in Japanese Sōtō and incorporates Rinzai-school koan study. He established Rochester Zen Center, which grew to become one of the most influential Zen communities in the West. His independent lineage includes teachers active in the USA, Canada, Costa Rica, Mexico, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the UK and New Zealand. Early life Kapleau was born in New Haven, Connecticut. As a teenager he worked as a bookkeeper. He briefly studied law and later became an accomplished court reporter. In 1945 he served as chief Allied court reporter for the Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, which judged the leaders of Nazi Germany. It was the first of the series commonly known as the Nuremberg Trials. Kapleau later covered the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, commonly known as the Tokyo War Crimes Trials. While in Japan he became intrigued by Zen Buddhism. He became acquainted with Karlfried Graf Dürckheim, then a prisoner at Sugamo Prison, who recommended that Kapleau attend informal lectures given by D.T. Suzuki in Kita-Kamakura. After returning to America, Kapleau renewed his acquaintance with D.T. Suzuki who had left Kita-Kamakura to lecture on Zen at Columbia University. Disaffected with a primarily intellectual treatment of Zen, he moved to Japan in 1953 to seek its deeper truth. Zen training He trained initially with Soen Nakagawa, then rigorously with Daiun Harada at the temple Hosshin-ji. Later he became a disciple of Hakuun Yasutani, a dharma heir of Harada. After 13 years' training, Kapleau was ordained as a priest by Yasutani in 1965 "according to the rites prescribed by the Patriarch Eihei Dogen" as described by Yasutani in a certificate from the Sanbo "Three Treasures" Buddhist Religious Association, dated June 28, 1964, and given permission to teach. Work and teaching	2.21875
961811	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Kapleau	Philip Kapleau	According to James Ishmael Ford, "Kapleau had completed about half of the Harada-Yasutani kōan curriculum, the koans in the Gateless Gate and the Blue Cliff Record," and was entitled to teach, but did not receive dharma transmission. According to Andrew Rawlinson, "Kapleau has created his own Zen lineage." Kapleau's dharma heir Bodhin Kjolhede has been offered tranmission in the Sōto lineage, which he declined. He explained his decision in a teisho: Writings Kapleau was an articulate and passionate writer. His emphasis in writing and teaching was that insight and enlightenment are available to anyone, not just austere and isolated Zen monks. Also well known for his views on vegetarianism, peace and compassion, he remains widely read, and is a notable influence on Zen Buddhism as it is practiced in the West. Today, his dharma heirs and former students teach at Zen centers around the world. Kapleau's book To Cherish All Life: A Buddhist Case for Becoming Vegetarian condemns meat-eating. He argued that Buddhism enjoins vegetarianism on the principle of nonharmfulness. Grist for the mill A favorite saying of Philip Kapleau was "grist for the mill" which means that all of our troubles and trials can be useful or contain some profit to us. In this spirit, his gravestone is one of the millstones from Chapin Mill, the Buddhist retreat center whose land was donated by a founding member of the Rochester Zen Center, Ralph Chapin. Later life and death He suffered from Parkinson’s Disease for several years. While his physical mobility was reduced, he enjoyed lively and trenchant interactions with a steady stream of visitors throughout his life. On May 6, 2004, he died peacefully in the backyard of the Rochester Zen Center, surrounded by many of his closest disciples and friends.	2.109375
961816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Ryder	Robert Ryder	Captain Robert Edward Dudley Ryder (16 February 1908 – 29 June 1986) was a Royal Navy officer and a British recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He became a Conservative Member of Parliament after retiring from the navy. Early life Ryder was born in India in 1908 to Colonel Charles Henry Dudley Ryder, Surveyor General of India, and Ida Josephine Grigg. He was a great-grandson of the Right Reverend Henry Ryder, youngest son of Nathaniel Ryder, 1st Baron Harrowby. Ryder had two brothers; both were killed in the Second World War. Lisle Charles Dudley Ryder was killed in the Le Paradis massacre of 1940 in France. Ernle Terrick Dudley Ryder died in captivity after the defence of Singapore. Ryder was educated at Hazelhurst School and Cheltenham College before he entered the Royal Navy in 1926. Naval career Ryder served on several ships throughout his career. He served as a midshipman on the battleship from 1927 to 1929. As a lieutenant he served in the submarine as part of the 4th Flotilla in China from 1930 to 1933. Ryder also commanded several expeditions. This included captaining the ketch Tai-Mo-Shan on a 16,217 mile voyage from Hong Kong to Dartmouth, England during 1933–1934. Investigative work by the London Times in 2007 found that the voyage was more than a great yachting exploit. The young naval officers were spying on Imperial Japanese Navy anchorages in the Kurile Islands to survey the isles for potential Allied submarine bases for an attack on the Japanese Navy. That same base in the Kurile Islands was later used for the attack on Pearl Harbor. The yacht Tai-Mo-Shan was resold and repaired numerous times and later reached a wider audience when she starred in the box office hit Mama Mia in 2008. From 1934 to 1937 he captained the schooner Penola during the British Graham Land Expedition in Antarctica.	2.390625
961817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Oregon Institute of Technology	The campus was transferred to its current location in 1964, followed by another name change to the Oregon Institute of Technology in 1973. In 2012, the Oregon Institute of Technology officially rebranded to its current name "Oregon Tech". Oregon Tech's four locations in the Portland metropolitan area were consolidated into a single campus in Wilsonville in 2012 at InFocus' former headquarters. By 2015, the Oregon Institute of Technology became an independent public body governed by Board of Trustees. On April 26, 2021, the faculty went on strike after more than 500 days of initial contract negotiations between the faculty union and administrators. This was the first strike conducted by a public college or university faculty union in Oregon's history. Campuses Oregon Tech Klamath Falls, the University Residential Campus Oregon Tech Wilsonville, the University Urban Campus Athletics The Oregon Tech (OIT) athletic teams are called the Owls and Lady Owls (sometimes known as the "Hustlin' Owls"). The institute of technology is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Cascade Collegiate Conference (CCC) since the 1993–94 academic year. Oregon Tech competes in 13 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, track & field and volleyball. The mascot for Oregon Tech Athletics is Hootie the Owl. Rivalries Oregon Tech's traditional athletic nemesis is Southern Oregon University in Ashland, Oregon. The close proximity of the schools and alternate academic foci (science and technology at Oregon Tech, liberal arts at SOU) result in a natural rivalry between the two.	2.15625
961850	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retention%20rate	Retention rate	Retention rate is a statistical measurement of the proportion of people that remain involved with a group from one time period to another. The concept is used in many contexts, including marketing, investment, education, employee management, research, and clinical trials. The exact definition depends on the context. As a general rule, high retention corresponds to a positive outcome. In marketing, retention rate count customers and their activity irrespective transactions they make. "Retention rate is the ratio of the number of retained customers to the number at risk". In contractual situations, it makes sense to talk about the number of customers currently under contract and the percentage retained when the contract period runs out." This term should not be confused with growth (decline) in customer counts; retention refers only to existing customers in contractual situations. "In non-contractual situations (such as catalog sales), it makes less sense to talk about the current number of customers, but instead to count the number of customers of a specified recency." In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 63 percent responded that they found the "retention rate" metric very useful. Purpose The purpose of the "retention rate" metric in a marketing atmosphere is to monitor firm performance in attracting and retaining customers. "Only recently have most marketers worried about developing metrics that focus on individual customers. In order to begin to think about managing individual customer relationships, the firm must first be able to count its customers. Although consistency in counting customers is probably more important than formulating a precise definition, a definition is needed nonetheless. In particular, we think the definition of and the counting of customers will be different in contractual versus non-contractual situations." Since there are multiple definitions of retention rates this could cause issues with interpreting retention rates in practice.	2.703125
961851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepomis	Lepomis	Lepomis or true sunfish is a genus of North American freshwater fish from the family Centrarchidae in the order Centrarchiformes. The generic name Lepomis derives from the Greek ("scale") and ("cover", "plug", "operculum"). The genus' most recognizable species is perhaps the bluegill. Some Lepomis species can grow to a maximum overall length of , though most average around . Many species are sought by anglers as popular panfishes, and large numbers are bred and stocked in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands. They are widely distributed throughout the freshwater lakes and river tributaries of the United States and Canada, and several species have been translocated and flourished around the world, even becoming pests. Aquarium trade in some Lepomis species is prohibited in Germany for this reason. Lepomis species, among others, are sometimes referred to as bream, but the term is also used to refer explicitly to the unrelated European cypriniform fish of genus Abramis. Phylogeny Phylogeny of all Lepomis species based on a partitioned mixed-model Bayesian analysis of a seven gene dataset of mitochondrial and nuclear gene DNA sequences by Near et al. (2005), expanded with fossil species. Subgenera in bold follow Bailey (1938): ) L. peltastes was not originally included in the analysis by Near et al. (2005) and is included here based on commonly accepted sister relationship to L. megalotis. ) See section 'Evolutionary History' below for explanation. **) Phylogenetic position in clade II uncertain. See section 'Fossil record' for clarification.	2.78125
961851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepomis	Lepomis	Evolutionary history Phylogenetic reconstructions using a combination of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences calibrated with fossils to estimate ages of divergences suggests that the genus Lepomis diverged from the black bass in genus Micropterus, its sister taxon, about 25 million years ago. The deepest split among currently living species of Lepomis is dated to ~15 million years ago and separates genus Lepomis into two clades: clade I that leads to the modern bluegill, orange-spotted, green, and warmouth sunfish, and a clade II that includes the modern long-ear, red-breasted, pumpkinseed, redear, and red-spotted sunfish (see section 'Phylogeny' above). The timing of this speciation event roughly corresponds with the Middle Miocene disruption that resulted in increased aridity on the plains of North America and a transition from savannah to grasslands, although the relevance of these environmental changes to the evolution of Lepomis is unclear. Fossil record No fossils unambiguously assigned to genus Lepomis are currently known from the putative stem-lineage that must have existed between 25 and 15 million years ago, spanning most of the early Miocene. Currently, four extinct species of Lepomis are known from the fossil record: There are at least two as yet undescribed fossil species of Lepomis that reach back to the middle Miocene: Lepomis sp. A consists of fragmentary fossils of its lower jaw from Nebraska, dated to 13.5 million years ago, and shows morphological similarities to the modern Lepomis microlophus, although its great age means that this species predates the divergence of any of the living species. Lepomis sp. B was found in deposits in Kansas, dated to 12 million years ago.	2.65625
961851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepomis	Lepomis	Two other more recent fossil species appear to be closely allied to Lepomis gulosus, and indeed their earliest occurrence may be close to the divergence of the lineage leading to the modern warmouth from other species of Lepomis: Lepomis kansasensis lived 6.6 million years ago, and had pterygoid teeth, indicating a close relationship to the warmouth. Lepomis serratus is known from 3.4 to 2.0 million year old deposits in Nebraska, and also appears to be closely related to or ancestral to the warmouth on the basis of its preopercle. Species There are currently 13 recognized species in this genus: Lepomis frequently hybridize and many different hybrid combinations have been observed in the wild. Some of these hybrids include: Lepomis macrochirus × cyanellus (greengill sunfish) Lepomis macrochirus x microlophus (gillcracker) Lepomis cyanellus x gibbosus (pumpgreen sunfish) Lepomis cyanellus x gulosus (green sunfish x warmouth) Lepomis gulosus x macrochirus (warmouth x bluegill) Lepomis macrochirus x megalotis (bluegill x longear sunfish) Lepomis gibbosus x macrochirus (pumpkingill) Lepomis auritus x cyanellus (redbreast x green sunfish) Lepomis microlophus x cyanellus (redear x green sunfish) Lepomis auritus x microlophus (redbreast x redear sunfish) Lepomis macrochirus x punctatus (bluegill x spotted sunfish) Lepomis gibbosus x peltastes (pumpkinseed x northern sunfish) Lepomis megalotis x cyanellus (longear x green sunfish) Lepomis miniatus x punctatus (redspotted x spotted sunfish)	2.453125
961852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eltham%2C%20New%20Zealand	Eltham, New Zealand	Eltham is a small inland town in South Taranaki, New Zealand, located south of the city of New Plymouth and southeast of the volcanic cone of Mount Taranaki. Stratford is north, Kaponga 13 km west, and Hāwera is south. State Highway 3 runs through the town. Eltham is South Taranaki's second largest town. Eltham is known as the cradle of the Taranaki dairy industry (the co-operative system in particular), and for being the one place in New Zealand that manufactured rennet which is important in cheesemaking. It was also the first place to export butter to England. History European settlement began in Eltham in the 1870s, with blocks of densely forested land being taken up mainly to the north of Mountain Road. A profusion of sawmilling companies cleared the district which, when grassed, proved ideal for dairy farming. In 1884, the year Eltham was declared a town district, settlers, mainly from England, arrived there and the town had a population of 25. Eltham was declared a borough in 1901, and became part of South Taranaki District with the local body amalgamations of 1989. High Street (which runs through the centre of town - as part of State Highway 3 connecting Stratford, Ngaere, Normanby and Hāwera) and Bridge Street (which heads westward towards Kaponga and joins State Highway 45 near Ōpunake), were the first tar-sealed roads in New Zealand. Geography Rivers and lakes The two main watercourses which run through Eltham itself are the Mangawharawhara Stream, and the Waingongoro River. The Mangawharawhara Stream runs to the east of the Main Trunk railway line, flows under the central business district via a culvert, and on past Eltham School and the Eltham Golf Club to the south of the town.	2.25
961852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eltham%2C%20New%20Zealand	Eltham, New Zealand	The Waingongoro River forms a western boundary to the town itself, flowing through the Presbyterian Church campsite (in the town's northwest) and Taumata Park (the town's main camping area and sports ground - in the western part of the town) and winding itself southwestward to meet the Tasman Sea at Ohawe Beach, near Hāwera. Eltham is also the gateway to Lake Rotokare, a scenic, natural lake surrounded by native bush (to the east of the town), and to the man-made Lake Rotorangi. Demographics Eltham covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2. Before the 2023 census, Eltham had a smaller boundary, covering . Using that boundary, Eltham had a population of 1,935 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 81 people (4.4%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 36 people (1.9%) since the 2006 census. There were 801 households, comprising 984 males and 951 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.03 males per female. The median age was 39.7 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 423 people (21.9%) aged under 15 years, 315 (16.3%) aged 15 to 29, 870 (45.0%) aged 30 to 64, and 321 (16.6%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 79.4% European/Pākehā, 30.2% Māori, 3.4% Pacific peoples, 3.7% Asian, and 1.9% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. The percentage of people born overseas was 8.4, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 53.5% had no religion, 30.1% were Christian, 2.2% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.2% were Hindu, 0.9% were Muslim, 0.3% were Buddhist and 2.8% had other religions.	2.03125
961852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eltham%2C%20New%20Zealand	Eltham, New Zealand	Of those at least 15 years old, 102 (6.7%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 510 (33.7%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $24,400, compared with $31,800 nationally. 111 people (7.3%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 684 (45.2%) people were employed full-time, 189 (12.5%) were part-time, and 90 (6.0%) were unemployed. Local administration Eltham and the surrounding community enjoys a full library and council service (coming under the aegis of the South Taranaki District Council, based in Hāwera). Services provided include being able to register your dog, pay your rates or inquire about obtaining a building permit. The LibraryPlus is also a NZ Post agency. Other services include a Tot Time for the under 5s and regular ‘coffee and blog’ meetings for locals to learn about new technologies in a friendly environment. The LibraryPlus also has three APN computers, offering free internet and Skype to the public. Industry The town's main industry is cheese production, with much of Mainland Cheese's speciality range such as feta and camembert being produced in the Bridge Street factory. Other cheese products such as the processed cheese used in many burgers are produced at the company's Collingwood Street site, formerly occupied by the Taranaki Co-operative Dairy Company's milk powder plant, but now extensively remodelled. Cheese has been used as a central symbol of the town, and to reinforce this view, the town's water supply tank was painted to represent a large block of cheese in 2002. Eltham's other significant industry is the ANZCO ( formerly Riverlands) freezing works, which has a satellite plant in Bulls, in Manawatu. Both plants can process up to 1250 head of cattle daily. Education Eltham School is a coeducational full primary school (years 1-8), with a roll of as of The school was founded in 1886.	2.40625
961880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Wynkoop	Henry Wynkoop	Henry Wynkoop (March 2, 1737March 25, 1816) was an American politician, who was member of the Continental Congress (from 1779) and later a United States representative for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania during the First United States Congress, 1789 to 1791. Formative years and family Wynkoop was born in Northampton Township in the Province of Pennsylvania on March 2, 1737. His father engaged in the practice of chattel slavery to operate the family's 153-acre farm in Newtown. Raised on the farm, Henry Wynkoop was subsequently admitted to Princeton University, but opted not to complete his studies, choosing instead to enter into local politics. In 1759, when his father died, he inherited both the farm and the people that his father had enslaved. Wynkoop married three times and had eight children. In 1761, he wed Susannah Wanshaer, who died in 1776. In 1777, he wed Maria Cummings, who died in 1781. He then married his third wife, Sarah Newkirk, who died in 1813. Career As a farm owner in Pennsylvania, Wynkoop benefitted financially from the practice of chattel slavery, as his father did before him. Prior to his term as a representative, Wynkoop served as a justice of the Court of Common Pleas and the orphan's court in Kingston, Pennsylvania, from 1780 to 1789. After his term in Congress, he was appointed as an associate judge in Bucks County, a post he held until his death. Later years, death and interment During his later years, Wynkoop created a will in which he decreed that, upon his death, the people he had been enslaving should be freed by manumission, a process which finally occurred on March 25, 1816, when he died in Bucks County. Some of the individuals who were freed stayed and continued to work for the family. Following his death, Wynkoop was interred in the graveyard of the Low Dutch Reformed Church in Richboro, Pennsylvania.	2.25
961896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmon%20Trophy	Harmon Trophy	The Harmon Trophy is a set of three international trophies, to be awarded annually to the world's outstanding aviator, aviatrix, and aeronaut (balloon or dirigible). A fourth trophy, the "National Trophy", was awarded from 1926 through 1938 to the most outstanding aviator in each of the twenty-one member countries and again from 1946–1948 to honor Americans who contributed to aviation. The award was established in 1926 by Clifford B. Harmon, a wealthy balloonist and aviator. The awards are described by the Clifford B. Harmon Trust as: "American awards for the most outstanding international achievements in the arts and/or science of aeronautics for the preceding year, with the art of flying receiving first consideration." World War II and Harmon's death Prior to World War II, the award was administered by the International League of Aviators (Ligue Internationale des Aviateurs), an organization founded by Harmon to serve as "an agent for Peace and National security." The League became defunct during the war and Harmon's death on June 25, 1945 in Cannes, France put the awards in turmoil. Harmon left $55,000 of his estate to continue funding the award in "perpetuity," but Harmon's relatives challenged the bequest. Ultimately, a trust fund of $48,431 was created in 1948.	2.46875
961896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmon%20Trophy	Harmon Trophy	During the period the awards were in litigation (1945–1948), the American Section of the League awarded the International Aviator Trophy to three U.S. leaders in aviation. However, since the awards were not approved by other League Sections, the awards are technically invalid. Also, these three awards were given without consideration to the "art of flying" and the awards did not recognize a superlative aviation achievement, rather recognized American aviation industry leaders. President Truman's staff questioned the award to Alexander de Seversky, Secretary of the Air Force Stuart Symington stating, "he [de Seversky] did absolutely nothing to deserve it." Truman also did not make time to present the 1948 award to Trans World Airlines CEO Ralph Damon or Brazilian aviation pioneer Francisco Pignatari The award to Pan American World Airways President Juan Trippe in 1946 was the only one presented without debate. Since 1997 or 1998, the National Aeronautic Association has been responsible for awarding the trophies. With the exception of the Aeronaut trophy, all are inactive. The trustees wrestled with how to treat space flight. Bound by the court to offer only three trophies, the trustees first agreed that "feats of piloting in both earth orbiting or outer space vehicles will be considered for the Harmon Awards provided the vehicles are controlled by their pilots rather than from the ground." The advisory committee directed the trustees to alternate awarding the aeronaut trophy between balloonists and astronauts, but the trustees decided to offer the aviator award to aviation and astronaut recipients. A fifth trophy was created in 1969 to honor achievements in space flight. Some aviatrix awards from 1980–1990 were awarded by the Ninety-Nines based on research performed by Fay Gillis Wells. This work was not coordinated with the NAA or Smithsonian.	2.4375
961911	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheaf%20toss	Sheaf toss	The sheaf toss () is a traditional Scottish agricultural sport event originally contested at country fairs. A pitchfork is used to hurl a hessian bag stuffed with straw over a horizontal bar above the competitor's head. Typical weight for the bag is 16 or 20 pounds (7.3 or 9.1 kg). Three chances are given to each competitor to cleanly go over the bar. After all challengers have made their attempts, the bar is raised and all successful competitors move on to the new height. This continues until all but one athlete is eliminated. The Sheaf toss has been incorporated as an event at many of the Scottish highland games although technically it is not itself a heavy athletics event. The sheaf toss is also a traditional sport in the Basque Country. It is a feature of the annual Sykehouse Show in South Yorkshire, England. Sheaf tossing is also contested in Ireland and Australia particularly at agricultural shows and at fairs; Irish sheaf tossing differs from sheaf tossing in Scotland and France in that the sheaf is made of rushes which are bound tightly with baling twine and are not placed in a bag. The rules are the same as the Scottish version and a pitchfork is used. The same pitchfork is usually used for all competitors so as not to give anybody an unfair advantage by allowing them use their own customised pitchfork. A variation of this rule is that if one brings a custom pitchfork to the competition, they must allow any other competitor to use that fork. World records – by Spencer Tyler (2019 Chicago Highland Games) – by Zach Riley (2017 Bartholomew Scottish Festival)	1.976563
961912	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs%20T.%20Pi%C3%B1ero	Jesús T. Piñero	Jesús T. Piñero Jiménez (April 16, 1897 – November 19, 1952) was the first and only native Puerto Rican to be appointed governor of Puerto Rico by the Government of the United States. Early years Jesús Toribio Piñero Jiménez was born in Carolina, Puerto Rico, to Emilio Piñero Estrella (son of Basilio Piñero) and Josefa Jiménez Sicardó into a wealthy family with roots in the Canary Islands. His direct ancestor was Domingo Antonio José Piñero Pineda from Hermigua, La Gomera arriving in Puerto Rico around 1816. He obtained his primary and secondary education in his hometown. In 1914, he attended the College of Liberal Arts of the University of Puerto Rico. He also attended the School of Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Political career Between 1920 and 1944, Piñero's interest in agriculture kept him engaged in the dairy business and in the cultivation of sugar cane. His interest in the agricultural development of Puerto Rico led him to participate in politics, particularly those concerning the issues of the cultivation of sugar cane and development of the industry. Between 1928 and 1932, a period during which Puerto Rico's internal government was still run by continental Americans appointed by the President of the United States, Piñero was president of the Assembly of the Municipality of Carolina. Between 1934 and 1937, he was the president of the Association of the Sugar Cane Industry and was elected to the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico. In 1938, Piñero was one of the founders, along with Luis Muñoz Marín, of the Partido Popular Democrático (PPD). In the elections of 1940, he was elected to the House of Representatives. In 1944, he was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, and represented the island in the United States House of Representatives in Washington, D.C. His position did not have voting powers in Congress. First Puerto Rican governor appointed by the U.S.	2.5
961943	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization%20of%20Ukrainian	Romanization of Ukrainian	The romanization of Ukrainian, or Latinization of Ukrainian, is the representation of the Ukrainian language in Latin letters. Ukrainian is natively written in its own Ukrainian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic script. Romanization may be employed to represent Ukrainian text or pronunciation for non-Ukrainian readers, on computer systems that cannot reproduce Cyrillic characters, or for typists who are not familiar with the Ukrainian keyboard layout. Methods of romanization include transliteration (representing written text) and transcription (representing the spoken word). In contrast to romanization, there have been several historical proposals for a native Ukrainian Latin alphabet, usually based on those used by West Slavic languages, but none have been widely accepted. Romanization systems Transliteration Transliteration is the letter-for-letter representation of text using another writing system. Rudnyckyj classified transliteration systems into scientific transliteration, used in academic and especially linguistic works, and practical systems, used in administration, journalism, in the postal system, in schools, etc. Scientific transliteration, also called the scholarly system, is used internationally, with very little variation, while the various practical methods of transliteration are adapted to the orthographical conventions of other languages, like English, French, German, etc. Depending on the purpose of the transliteration it may be necessary to be able to reconstruct the original text, or it may be preferable to have a transliteration which sounds like the original language when read aloud.	2.546875
961943	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization%20of%20Ukrainian	Romanization of Ukrainian	Official geographic names are romanized directly from the original Ukrainian and not translated. For example, Kyivska oblast not Kyiv Oblast, Pivnichnokrymskyi kanal not North Crimean Canal. Romanization for other languages than English Romanization intended for readers of other languages than English is usually transcribed phonetically into the familiar orthography. For example, y, kh, ch, sh, shch for anglophones may be transcribed j, ch, tsch, sch, schtsch for German readers (for letters й, х, ч, ш, щ), or it may be rendered in Latin letters according to the normal orthography of another Slavic language, such as Polish or Croatian (such as the established system of scientific transliteration, described above). Czech and Slovak standard transliteration uses letters with diacritics (ž, š, č, ď, ť, ň, ě) and letters i, y, j, h, ch, c in the local meaning. Diphthong letters are transcribed as two letters (ja, je, ji, ju, šč). Czech transliteration was used, for example, on hiking signs in Transcarpathia, which was established according to the methodology of the Czech Tourists Club – the Ukrainian markers replaced that later with the English transcription. However, the fact that Ukraine itself has started to use English transliteration on its documents and boards, also influences the practice in Czech and Slovak, which is also penetrated by English transliteration of Ukrainian. Ad hoc romanization Users of public-access computers or mobile text messaging services sometimes improvise informal romanization due to limitations in keyboard or character set. These may include both sound-alike and look-alike letter substitutions. Example: YKPAIHCbKA ABTOPKA for "УКРАЇНСЬКА АВТОРКА". See also Volapuk encoding. This system uses the available character set.	2.28125
961943	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization%20of%20Ukrainian	Romanization of Ukrainian	Typically such a modified transliteration is based on the ALA-LC, or Library of Congress (in North America), or, less commonly, the British Standard system. Such a simplified system usually omits diacritics and ligatures (tie-bars) from, e.g., i͡e, ï or ĭ, often simplifies -yĭ and -iĭ word endings to "-y", omits romanizing the Ukrainian soft sign (ь) and apostrophe ('), and may substitute ya, ye, yu, yo for ia, ie, iu, io at the beginnings of words. It may also simplify doubled letters. Unlike in the English language where an apostrophe is punctuation, in the Ukrainian language it is a letter. Therefore sometimes Rus' is translated with an apostrophe, even when the apostrophe is dropped for most other names and words. Conventional transliterations can reflect the history of a person or place. Many well-known spellings are based on transcriptions into another Latin alphabet, such as the German or Polish. Others are transcribed from equivalent names in other languages, for example Ukrainian Pavlo ("Paul") may be called by the Russian equivalent Pavel, Ukrainian Kyiv by the Russian equivalent Kiev. The employment of romanization systems can become complex. For example, the English translation of Kubijovyč's Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopædia uses a modified Library of Congress (ALA-LC) system as outlined above for Ukrainian and Russian names—with the exceptions for endings or doubled consonants applying variously to personal and geographic names. For technical reasons, maps in the Encyclopedia follow different conventions. Names of persons are anglicized in the encyclopedia's text, but also presented in their original form in the index. Various geographic names are presented in their anglicized, Russian, or both Ukrainian and Polish forms, and appear in several forms in the index. Scientific transliteration is used in linguistics articles. The Encyclopedia's explanation of its transliteration and naming convention occupies 2-1/2 pages.	2.109375
961949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstars%20%28British%20TV%20programme%29	Superstars (British TV programme)	Superstars is a TV sports competition in which elite athletes from a variety of sports compete against each other in a number of events, resembling a decathlon. The athletes must not compete in the sport for which they practice as their profession. Points are awarded for the position in which the competitor places in each event. The competitor with the most points at the end of all ten events is declared the champion. On the original ABC version, an athlete was able to compete in a maximum of seven events, but no athlete was permitted to compete in the sport(s) of his or her profession. In the World, International, European, and British versions of the contest, athletes would compete in 8 out of 10 events, with no one allowed to take part in their own sport, although some handicapping rules did apply. The idea was developed by 1948 and 1952 Olympic figure skating champion Dick Button. He shopped the idea to all three U.S. television networks, and ABC bought it as a special for the winter of 1973. The first Superstars competition was held in Rotonda West, Florida in February 1973 and was won by pole vaulter Bob Seagren. The BBC covered the competition and aired their own programme, featuring British athletes, on December 31, 1973, which was won by 400-meter hurdles Olympic champion David Hemery. Television broadcasts of the competitions were popular both in Europe and North America in the 1970s and 1980s. Further events featuring European athletes started in 1975, with six World Superstar championships taking place from 1977 to 1982.	2.515625
961949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstars%20%28British%20TV%20programme%29	Superstars (British TV programme)	With the Superstars franchise nearing its zenith of popularity, the World Championship returned in 1978 with a 12-man field consisting of the national champions from Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the top three finishers from the 1977 European Superstars final, and the top five from the 1978 US National Championship. Completing the line-up was the returning champion, Bob Seagren. Though the 1977 runner-up Kjell Isaksson was missing (he would not compete in Superstars again until 1980), Europe was strongly represented by Jean-Paul Coche, Keith Fielding and Ties Kruize, while Wayne Grimditch, Greg Pruitt and Dwight Stones (who could famously jump up the 10-feet high obstacle course wall in one stride) represented the US. It was the Canadian champion however, Brian Budd, who would completely dominate the contest, and World Superstars for the next three years. Budd was a strong all-round athlete, his soccer training covering swimming, running, bike racing and gym work. He also understood that the key to winning Superstars was to win as many points as possible in the events you were good at, and to hold on for as many points as possible in the others. He turned out to be nearly unbeatable in the gym, half-mile race and the swimming, and more than competent in cycling and rowing. In 1978 he won 44 points from these five events alone, ten points more than he needed to become World Champion.	1.90625
961958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing%20International%20Studies%20University	Beijing International Studies University	Development The original curriculum framework of the university was built upon its core units in foreign languages, in addition to Chinese literature, arts and philosophy, international/domestic relations, political economy and physical education. It offered degree programs for 14 foreign languages, including English, French, Spanish, Arabic, German, Japanese, Albanian, Romanian, Hungarian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Serbian and Vietnamese. Affiliated with the Commission for Cultural Relations of Foreign Countries—the predecessor of today's Culture Ministry—the university underwent rapid growth until 1966, when the Cultural Revolution started. The university then changed administration several times over this period, successively administered by the Foreign Ministry (1968), the Beijing Government (1971), the Ministry of Education (1978) and the National Tourism Administration (1983). In 1981, the report jointly submitted by the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade and the university was approved at the Education Ministry; the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade was established at BISU. Concurrently, in the same year, the National Tourism Administration set up the major of tourism management in BISU, making it the earliest shaper of Chinese tourism education. During the 1980s and 1990s, Beijing International Studies University, also known as the China Tourism Institute, prevailed in both teaching and research and was recognized as one of the foremost tertiary institutions for tourism studies. 2003–present	2.0625
961958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing%20International%20Studies%20University	Beijing International Studies University	A Discipline in the Beijing International Studies University is a broad administrative concept for categorising related academic units. The disciplinary divisions usually differentiate the degrees awarded. Currently, the academic system of Beijing International Studies University is made up of four disciplines: Arts (languages, literature, cultural studies and philosophy), Business Administration, Economics Sciences and Law and Political Sciences. Teaching and research at BISU is organized by departments, schools and institutes. Schools may establish subsidiary departments and other subordinate institutions because of the organisational history or operational needs. Institutes are graduate schools that conduct research projects aside of the course plan, usually in collaboration with the municipality government or national institutes (otherwise graduate schools are affiliated to schools and departments themselves). In addition, there are supporting entities for teaching and research, including six teaching and research offices for compulsory subjects, the University Press, and the University Library. As of 2013, there are about 50 departments, schools and other institutions running the four disciplines of the university. The major academic units are: School of English Language, Literature and Culture School of Japanese Language, Literature and Culture School of Arabic Language, Literature and Culture School of Western European Languages School of Central European Languages School of Oriental Languages School of Interpreting and Translation Russian Department School of Tourism Management School of Hospitality Management School of Economics, Trade and Event Management School of Arts and Humanities School of Chinese School of Marxism School of English Education International School of Business International School of Law School of International Communication Institute of International Relations School of Non-common Languages School of Continuing Education School of General Education	2
961958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing%20International%20Studies%20University	Beijing International Studies University	Organisations Institute of Tourism Development Founded in 1984, the Research Institute of Tourism Development is one of the oldest and foremost intelligence units in the field of tourism development planning in China. Equipped with its three research affiliates, i.e. Center for Strategic Planning, Center for Theoretical Research and Center for Industry Consulting, the Institute cooperates extensively with the National Tourism Administration, local authorities and key industry players, contributing to around 20 provincial and municipal industry development projects including those of the renowned tourism cities of Sanya, Haikou and Zhangjiagang, in addition to more than 50 executive and feasibility reports on national resorts districts, national nature reserve areas and ecotourism destinations, such as the Lake Tai Resort in Suzhou, the Changbai Mountains Natural Reserve in Jilin, and the Pagsum Lake Ecotourism Area in Tibet. In 1998, the institute became part of the National Database for Tourism Management; since 1999, authorized by the Education Ministry, it starts to provide postgraduate coursework and research programs for Tourism Management, with research directions on theory-based strategic study of the operational mechanisms and policy-making within tourism sectors, and on practice-led tourism planning and development projects, integrating theories from business management, science, sociology and architecture. The institute maintains strong links with China Tourism Academy and leading enterprises within the industry. Institute for Transcultural Studies The Institute for Transcultural Studies (ITS) is a specialized research institution for arts and humanities. Initially founded as Institute for Comparative Literature and Transcultural Studies in 2001, the Institute aims to increase intercultural understanding and to promote global presence of Chinese culture by studying classic and contemporary works on philosophy, art and literature from a cross-cultural scope.	1.953125
961961	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20gun	Gene gun	In genetic engineering, a gene gun or biolistic particle delivery system is a device used to deliver exogenous DNA (transgenes), RNA, or protein to cells. By coating particles of a heavy metal with a gene of interest and firing these micro-projectiles into cells using mechanical force, an integration of desired genetic information can be introduced into desired cells. The technique involved with such micro-projectile delivery of DNA is often referred to as biolistics, short for "biological ballistics". This device is able to transform almost any type of cell and is not limited to the transformation of the nucleus; it can also transform organelles, including plastids and mitochondria. Gene gun design The gene gun was originally a Crosman air pistol modified to fire dense tungsten particles. It was invented by John C Sanford, Ed Wolf, and Nelson Allen at Cornell University along with Ted Klein of DuPont between 1983 and 1986. The original target was onions (chosen for their large cell size), and the device was used to deliver particles coated with a marker gene which would relay a signal if proper insertion of the DNA transcript occurred. Genetic transformation was demonstrated upon observed expression of the marker gene within onion cells. The earliest custom manufactured gene guns (fabricated by Nelson Allen) used a 22 caliber nail gun cartridge to propel a polyethylene cylinder (bullet) down a 22 caliber Douglas barrel. A droplet of the tungsten powder coated with genetic material was placed onto the bullet and shot down into a Petri dish below. The bullet welded to the disk below the Petri plate, and the genetic material blasted into the sample with a doughnut effect involving devastation in the middle of the sample with a ring of good transformation around the periphery. The gun was connected to a vacuum pump and was placed under a vacuum while firing. The early design was put into limited production by a Rumsey-Loomis (a local machine shop then at Mecklenburg Road in Ithaca, NY, USA).	2.546875
961961	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20gun	Gene gun	Advantages Biolistics has proven to be a versatile method of genetic modification and it is generally preferred to engineer transformation-resistant crops, such as cereals. Notably, Bt maize is a product of biolistics. Plastid transformation has also seen great success with particle bombardment when compared to other current techniques, such as Agrobacterium mediated transformation, which have difficulty targeting the vector to and stably expressing in the chloroplast. In addition, there are no reports of a chloroplast silencing a transgene inserted with a gene gun. Additionally, with only one firing of a gene gun, a skilled technician can generate two transformed organisms in certain species. This technology has even allowed for modification of specific tissues in situ, although this is likely to damage large numbers of cells and transform only some, rather than all, cells of the tissue. Limitations Biolistics introduces DNA randomly into the target cells. Thus the DNA may be transformed into whatever genomes are present in the cell, be they nuclear, mitochondrial, plasmid or any others, in any combination, though proper construct design may mitigate this. The delivery and integration of multiple templates of the DNA construct is a distinct possibility, resulting in potential variable expression levels and copy numbers of the inserted gene. This is due to the ability of the constructs to give and take genetic material from other constructs, causing some to carry no transgene and others to carry multiple copies; the number of copies inserted depends on both how many copies of the transgene an inserted construct has, and how many were inserted. Also, because eukaryotic constructs rely on illegitimate recombination—a process by which the transgene is integrated into the genome without similar genetic sequences—and not homologous recombination, they cannot be targeted to specific locations within the genome, unless the transgene is co-delivered with genome editing reagents.	2.359375
961971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester%20Commodore	Chester Commodore	Chester Commodore (August 22, 1914 – April 10, 2004) was an African-American cartoonist who made political cartoons and comic strips. He won numerous awards from 1972 to 1980. Early life Born in Racine, Wisconsin, Commodore was a descendant of Peter D. Thomas, a former slave and the first African-American elected official in Wisconsin. His parents and sisters moved to Chicago in 1923, but Chester and his older brother stayed in Racine with his maternal grandmother in her boarding house until he moved to Chicago in 1927. Commodore developed an interest in comics and art at an early age, and was encouraged by his uncle John Prophet. While living with his grandmother, he had the opportunity to meet prominent African-American musicians and entertainers who were turned away from white-owned hotels and restaurants in the Chicago and Milwaukee area. Career While studying at Tilden Technical High School, he continued to practice art. After graduation, he worked various odd jobs to support himself, including as a chauffeur and a mechanic, and got a job with the Pullman Company. He was always drawing, and posted his drawings on company bulletin boards. American lawyer and comics writer James Rice was impressed by Commodore's work and recommended him as an artist to the Minneapolis Star in 1938, and the newspaper offered Commodore a job. However, the job offer was rescinded after he arrived, as the staff had been unaware that he was African-American.	2.34375
961978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Boy%20from%20Oz	The Boy from Oz	The Boy from Oz is an Australian jukebox musical based on the life of singer and songwriter Peter Allen, featuring songs written by him. The book commissioned for the musical is by Nick Enright, based on Stephen MacLean's 1996 biography of Allen. Premiering in Australia in 1998 starring Todd McKenney, a revised version of the musical, written by Martin Sherman, opened on Broadway in 2003, with Hugh Jackman in the title role. At the ARIA Music Awards of 1998 the cast recording won the ARIA Award for Best Original Soundtrack, Cast or Show Album. Plot This synopsis applies to the North American production. Act I The musical begins with Australian performer Peter Allen recalling his life story, coming to terms with who he was ("The Lives of Me"). Afterwards, we go back to Allen's childhood in Tenterfield, Australia, where a young boy named Peter Woolnough is performing in local bars for money ("When I Get My Name in Lights"). Peter grows up and joins with Chris Bell to become the Allen Brothers, and they perform in Australian Bandstand ("Love Crazy"). After great success in Australia, the Allen Brothers perform in a Hong Kong Hilton hotel to Chinese businessmen. One evening, another person is watching them from the bar: the legendary The Wizard of Oz star Judy Garland. Peter convinces Judy to perform with them ("All I Wanted Was the Dream"), and Judy takes Peter to be the opening act in her concert in New York ("Only an Older Woman"). While in New York, Peter is introduced to Judy's daughter, Liza Minnelli, and they fall in love ("Best That You Can Do"). There are rumors of Peter's homosexuality, and Judy warns Liza ("Don't Wish Too Hard"). Liza gives no attention to her warning and marries Peter ("Come Save Me").	2.109375
961978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Boy%20from%20Oz	The Boy from Oz	Peter returns to Australia and tries to tell his mother about his illness, but ultimately can't find a way to tell her. He then performs one last magnificent concert for Australia ("I Still Call Australia Home"), and witnesses a last flashback of his mother's love for him ("Don't Cry Out Loud"). Peter reflects on his life, realizing he has no regrets, before he ultimately succumbs to his disease ("Once Before I Go"), but not before going out in style with a farewell performance ("I Go to Rio"), joined by the entire cast. Production history Script Stephen MacLean idolised Allen, followed his career all over the world, interviewed him many times, and filmed his Australian solo cabaret debut. After Allen's death in 1992, MacLean started work on his biography of Allen, which was published in 1996, entitled Peter Allen: The Boy from Oz, (alternative title The Boy from Oz: The Peter Allen Story). While working on the biography, MacLean suggested making a biographical film about Allen to producer Ben Gannon, having previously alerted Gannon to Allen's work back in the early 1970s. Gannon, however, thought that a documentary should come first, and produced The Boy from Oz, written and directed by MacLean. This screened on ABC Television in 1995. After the biography was published in 1996, Gannon and Robert Fox decided to use the work as the basis for a stage musical. The book to be used for the show was commissioned from Nick Enright, and MacLean acted as consultant on workshopping the musical. Original Australian production The Boy from Oz had its world premiere, directed by Gale Edwards, at Her Majesty's Theatre, Sydney, Sydney on 5 March 1998 and toured Brisbane, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth, playing to over 1.2 million theatre patrons. It ran for a total 766 performances over two years. The production starred Todd McKenney as Allen and Divinyls frontwoman Chrissy Amphlett as Judy Garland, Angela Toohey as Liza Minnelli, and introduced Mathew Waters as Young Peter.	2.015625
961986	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragon%20Oil	Paragon Oil	Growth of the company As time went on, Paragon Oil eventually switched its focus from building and selling these new residential oil burners to that of an oil distribution company, to supply the residential buildings that now had their new oil burners installed. They eventually won a major contract with New York City in the early 1930s to supply fuel oil to several city-run buildings. Despite this success, they still primarily remained a local operation in the New York area until the end of World War II. Europe was destroyed, and in desperate need of fuel oil. Because of their location close to the New York docks and their unique five gallon container packaging, Paragon Oil won the U.S. government contract as the only oil company to supply Europe with fuel oil during the post-war reconstruction. This contract catapulted the company into national prominence. Later, during the early days of the Cold War, Paragon supplied the U.S. government with oil for their submarines. The company operated a large fleet of fuel delivery trucks around the Northeastern United States, and eventually had several oil tankers. Toy versions of the fuel delivery trucks were even manufactured by the Corgi company. Sale of the company The company continued in operation until the late 1950s. At that point, the brothers were getting older and wished to retire. The company was sold to Texaco in the late 1950s, with the sale becoming final in the early 1960s. The estimated sale price was in excess of $75 million, with the family receiving consulting fees of nearly $1 million per year afterward, as well as Texaco stock.	1.953125
961986	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragon%20Oil	Paragon Oil	Most of the brothers used the profits from the sale to co-found the Brookdale Foundation, whose research focuses on gerontology and geriatric medicine. They also endowed many other charitable enterprises, primarily centered in the New York metropolitan area. These included the Metropolitan Opera at then-newly built Lincoln Center, several buildings and lecture programs at New York University, several New York City and Long Island hospitals including Mount Sinai Hospital, Fifth Avenue Synagogue, the Maimonides Foundation for Gifted Youth, and at least three graduate schools. Eldest brother Henry Schwartz was married quite late in life to a former nun named Caroline Di Donato (b. 1896 in Ohio), who was also a former nurse and the former Dean of Women at Seton Hall University in New Jersey. Thus, despite his Orthodox Jewish background, he also donated heavily to many Catholic charities and organizations, including endowing The Caroline Di Donato Schwartz building at Seton Hall, which was completed in 1973. Schwartz family history Sam's father, Chaim Yael "Hyman" Chernofski, married Gittel Rifka "Gertrude" Bobrutsky, daughter of Mordkho "Max" Bobrutsky and Sarah Fuchs, probably around 1863. Chaim and Sam had started the family into the Whale Oil business during the late 1880s. After the purges in the early 1890s, one part of the family decided to go to America, while others stayed behind in Russia to continue the exporting of Whale Oil. The family immigrated through the port of Bremen, Germany, where their name was changed from "Chernofski", which had at its root the Russian word for black, to "Schwartz", the German word for black. The family traveled to London, England during the early part of 1895 to strengthen contacts they had previously made with the Royal Court of Queen Victoria that would serve them later with Paragon Oil. According to old family documents, the majority of the family finally traveled to America during late 1895 as First Class passengers on the White Star liner Teutonic.	2.328125
962007	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne%20Zoo	Melbourne Zoo	History In October 1857, the Zoological Society of Victoria was formed with the aim of introducing animals and plants from overseas. Its first collections of animals were housed in Richmond Paddock. In 1861 the organisation changed its name to the "Acclimatisation Society of Victoria". On 6 October 1862, the organisation opened a new Melbourne Zoo in Royal Park on of land donated by the City of Melbourne. Melbourne Zoo was modelled on London Zoo. Initially the zoo was important for the acclimatisation of domestic animals recovering from their long trip to Australia. It was only with the appointment of Albert Alexander Cochrane Le Souef in 1870 that more exotic animals were procured for public display, and the gardens and picnic areas were developed. 1870 also saw the Society change its name to the "Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of Victoria", and was granted the prefix "Royal" in 1910. One of the most famous exhibits from the early 1900s to the 1940s was Queenie the elephant. In the mid-1930s, the Society had financial troubles. In response the Zoological Gardens Act 1936 was passed, handing the Zoo to a newly appointed Zoological Board of Victoria on behalf of the state government in 1937. In 1964, the acclaimed Lion Park exhibit opened, with an elevated walkway overlooking and separating two exhibits. It was demolished and replaced by a new lion exhibit in 2014. Australia's first gorilla birth occurred at Melbourne Zoo in 1984. Giant pandas were loaned to the zoo from China for an exhibition to celebrate Australia's bicentennial in 1988. In 1989, a 35-year-old man died when he was partially eaten by a lion after he entered its pen. The Trail of the Elephants exhibit was unveiled in 2003 and won numerous awards. On 15 January 2010 Melbourne Zoo welcomed its first elephant calf, Mali. This is the second elephant calf born in Australia, the first being in Sydney in July 2009. Mali is the first female calf born in Australia and the first calf born via artificial insemination.	2.71875
962020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbed-bit%20signaling	Robbed-bit signaling	In communications systems, robbed-bit signaling (RBS) is a scheme to provide maintenance and line signaling services on many T1 digital carrier circuits using channel-associated signaling (CAS). The T1 carrier circuit is a type of dedicated circuit currently employed in North America and Japan. Overview T1 is a protocol for digital transmission over telephone networks. A T1 circuit combines 24 DS0 channels through time-division multiplexing. Data is transmitted in frames, where each frame contains an 8-bit sample of each of the 24 channels, plus one extra framing bit for a total of 193 bits. Each channel carries 8,000 samples per second. The frames are transmitted either in sequences of 12 frames, known as superframes (SF), or sequences of 24 frames, known as extended superframes (ESF). Robbed-bit signaling is a method to provide signaling information alongside data within a superframe. Robbed-bit signaling uses the least-significant bit of every channel in every sixth frame for signaling instead of data. These bits convey on or off hook, and busy signal status on telephone lines. Since a superframe consists of 12 frames, robbed-bit signaling provides two bits for signaling per channel in a superframe, or four bits per channel in an extended superframe. The first robbed bit in a superframe is called A bit, and the second bit is called the B bit. Extended superframes have two extra robbed bits, called the C and D bits.	2.5
962040	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Brown%20%28South%20Carolina%20politician%29	Henry Brown (South Carolina politician)	Henry Edward Brown Jr. (born December 20, 1935) is an American politician who was the U.S. representative for from 2001 to 2011. He is a member of the Republican Party. He did not stand for re-election in 2010. The district is based in Charleston and during Brown's tenure in office, took in almost all of the state's share of the Atlantic coastline (except for Beaufort and Hilton Head Island, which at that time were in the 2nd district). Early life Brown was born in Bishopville, South Carolina. After graduating from Berkeley High School of Moncks Corner, South Carolina in 1953, Brown attended college at Charleston Southern University but did not graduate. He instead entered the IBM Management and Technical School. He then worked for the Piggly Wiggly grocery chain, becoming a vice president. Brown also spent 10 years as a member of the United States National Guard. Political career Brown was elected to the Hanahan city council in 1981 and was later elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives in 1985 as a Republican from Berkeley County. Incumbent Francis Archibald resigned the seat and Brown won handily over opponent Ed Sessions in a June 1985 special election. When the Republicans gained control of the state house in 1994, Brown became chairman of the Ways and Means committee and helped deliver the largest tax cut in state history. He also served as chairman of the state's Joint Tax study Committee and was one of the vocal leaders of a massive 1998 tax proposal.	2.359375
962043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier%2035	Messier 35	Messier 35 or M35, also known as NGC 2168 or the Shoe-Buckle Cluster, is a relatively close open cluster of stars in the west of Gemini, at about the declination of the Sun when the latter is at June solstice. It was discovered by Philippe Loys de Chéseaux around 1745 and independently discovered by John Bevis before 1750. It is scattered over part of the sky almost the size of the full moon and is away. The compact open cluster NGC 2158 lies directly southwest of it. Leonard & Merritt (1989) computed the mass of M35 using a statistical technique based on proper motion velocities of its stars. The mass within the central was found to be between 1600 and 3200 solar masses, consistent with the mass of a realistic stellar population within the same radius. Bouy et al. in 2015 found a mass of around within the central . There are 305 stars that can be intrinsically shown to be extremely likely to be members, and up to 4,349 averaging the 50% membership probability, from the kinematic (such as parallax and proper motion) and spectral data published before 2015. The cluster's metallicity is [Fe/H] = , where −1 would be ten times less metallic than the sun. Of 418 probable members, Leiner et al. in 2015 found 64 that have variable radial velocities thus are binary star systems. Four probable members are chemically peculiars, while HD 41995, which in the (telescopic angular) cluster field, shows emission lines. Hu et al. in 2005 found 13 variable stars in the field; at least three are suspect as cluster members. To be a member means to have a gravitational tie or, if recently freed, having been created by the same event.	2.296875
962085	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuskovo	Kuskovo	The Palace of Kuskovo The palace was designed in the new neoclassical style, then becoming popular for state buildings in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The exterior was made of wooden planks, which were plastered and painted in soft pastel colors. The palace looked out onto a court of honor, formed by the palace, the church and the large lake. The six-column portico at the front of the house was designed with a ramp so that carriages with as many as eight horses could come directly to the front door. When the carriage arrived, servants would rush out the front doors and hold the horses while the guests descended. The Park of Kuskovo The park of Kuskovo was created between 1750 and 1780 as a formal Garden à la française, with large ornamental parterres of flowers, carefully trimmed hedges, and alleys which met at either right or diagonal angles, and were ornamented with statues, and lined with either rows of trees trimmed into spheres, large vases; orange trees; or myrtle trees trimmed into cones. Eight park alleys converge in a single point, where the circular Hermitage pavilion (1764–77) now stands. Count Sheremetev spent most of his time in the Hermitage, coming to the Palace only for formal occasions and holidays. The Grotto The grotto was constructed between 1755 and 1761 by the architect F. Argunov, and was intended to represent the palace of the King of the Seas. The Dutch House A traditional brick Dutch house was constructed in the 1750s on a small pond near the Palace. the house has kitchen on the ground floor decorated from floor to ceiling with tiles from Delft. The Orangerie The orangerie (1761–1764) was designed by F. Argounov. In 1919 the palace was nationalized, and it was declared the State Museum of Ceramics twenty years later.	2.28125
962091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier%2038	Messier 38	Messier 38 or M38, also known as NGC 1912 or Starfish Cluster, is an open cluster of stars in the constellation of Auriga. It was discovered by Giovanni Batista Hodierna before 1654 and independently found by Le Gentil in 1749. The open clusters M36 and M37, also discovered by Hodierna, are often grouped together with M38. Distance is about away from Earth. The open cluster NGC 1907 lies nearby on the sky, but the two are most likely just experiencing a fly-by, having originated in different parts of the galaxy. The cluster's brightest stars form a pattern resembling the Greek letter Pi or, according to Webb, an "oblique cross". Walter Scott Houston described its appearance as follows: Photographs usually show a departure from circularity, a feature quite evident to visual observers. Older reports almost always mention a cross shape, which seems more pronounced with small instruments. A view with a 24-inch reflector on a fine Arizona night showed the cluster as irregular, and the host of stars made fruitless any effort to find a geometrical figure. At its distance of 1066 pc., its angular diameter of about 20 arc minutes corresponds to about 4.0 parsecs (13 light years), similar to that of its more distant neighbor M37. It is of intermediate age at about 290 million years. From the population of about 100 stars, this open cluster features a prominent yellow giant with the apparent magnitude +7.9 and spectral type G0 as its brightest member. This corresponds to an absolute magnitude of -1.5, or a luminosity of 900 Suns. For comparison, the Sun would appear as a faint magnitude +15.3 star from the distance of M38. Components	2.421875
962100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelodeon%20Studios	Nickelodeon Studios	Nickelodeon Studios was a production studio and theme park attraction run by the television network Nickelodeon at Universal Studios Florida. Opening on June 7, 1990, as The First World Headquarters for Kids, the studio attracted young tourists as contestants and audience members for Nickelodeon's live-action programming. At its peak, the studio employed 400 people and was the largest production studio in Florida, bringing $110 million in business to the state by 1994. The studio closed permanently on April 30, 2005, after much of Nickelodeon's production had moved to Nickelodeon on Sunset in Los Angeles. Nickelodeon Studios produced over 2,000 episodes of original programming. History Planning and construction In November 1988, Nickelodeon contracted space within the soon to be built Universal Studios Florida for its first production studio. Universal had determined through market research that a working studio was crucial in attracting guests to a movie themed park, and they offered Nickelodeon a sweetheart deal to supply that production. The promise of a custom-built studio at no expense, coupled with rent-free production, lured Nickelodeon away from negotiating with Disney-MGM Studios. The contract stipulated that Nickelodeon promote Universal Studios Florida on-air 1,000 times per year, while also broadcasting the park's television commercials. Turner Construction Company began erecting two soundstages (18 and 19) and an adjacent video production facility (Building 17) within the Production Central area of the park in 1989. The exterior of the facility was designed by network production designer Byron Taylor, and the interior was designed by network art director Don St. Mars. Viacom senior vice president Scott Davis would supervise the design and construction of the complex, and he was later named the first general manager of Nickelodeon Studios.	2.328125
962100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelodeon%20Studios	Nickelodeon Studios	Daily tours were given of the studio, starting with a queue area outside Soundstage 18 that led into Building 17. The 45-minute tours took park guests upstairs through the control room, through a viewing area that allowed glimpses of Soundstages 18 and 19, then downstairs through the wardrobe department and Gak Kitchen, with the tour concluding in Building 17's large audition room. While game shows were often shot 5 days a week while in production, sitcoms such as Welcome Freshmen would rehearse during the week and only shoot on weekends. This became problematic, as Nickelodeon's contract with Universal stipulated that their guests would be able to witness shows being filmed, "seven days a week, 52 weeks a year, during all hours of the tour’s operation". To remedy this, the audition room was renamed Soundstage 17 and began hosting Game Lab, a mock game show at the end of every tour that culminated with one of the guests getting slimed. Nickelodeon unveiled its Slime Geyser (also known as the Gak Geyser) in front of the studio on October 27, 1990. Russell Johnson, famous for playing The Professor on Gilligan's Island, appeared at the unveiling ceremony. The 17-foot high fountain would "erupt" with green colored water every 10 minutes. The network subsequently used a recording of the Geyser erupting as the sign-on for their broadcasting day.	2.265625
962100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelodeon%20Studios	Nickelodeon Studios	The Mystery Files of Shelby Woo was shut down by a labor strike in August 1997 when the production switched from videotape to film stock. Movies and television shows shot on film stock were regulated by the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees. The show's producer, Alan Goodman, would move production of The Mystery Files of Shelby Woo to Montreal for the filming of its final season. Canada was attracting American productions at the time with tax incentives and a favorable exchange rate. Nickelodeon opened two new studios in California, the live-action studio Nickelodeon on Sunset in 1997, and the Nickelodeon Animation Studio in 1998. Nickelodeon Studios partnered with visual effects company Kinetix in August 1998 to upgrade Building 17 with a training center for Kinetix software, attempting to remain viable against Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Nickelodeon Games and Sports for Kids launched in 1999, airing reruns of game shows produced by the network with new wraparound segments filmed at Nickelodeon Studios. The studio began laying off employees in March 2001 since a majority of Nickelodeon's closed-set productions had moved to California, game shows were no longer being produced, and the network's highest rated programming was animated. The studio auctioned off its remaining props in storage at their offsite scene shop in June 2001. The final program taped at the facility was Nickelodeon Splat!, which aired live on August 17, 2004. The studio closed permanently on April 30, 2005. Legacy Nickelodeon Studios was responsible for producing over 2,000 episodes of original, live-action programming for Nickelodeon. The facility employed 400 people at its peak, at which point it was the largest production studio in Florida.	1.960938
962112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Brady	Kevin Brady	Kevin Patrick Brady (born April 11, 1955) is an American politician who served as the U.S. representative for from 1997 to 2023. He is a member of the Republican Party. The district includes northern Houston, including The Woodlands. He retired after the 2022 election cycle. Early life, education, and early political career Brady was born in Vermillion, South Dakota, one of five children of William F. and Nancy A. Brady. His father, a lawyer, was killed in 1967 in a courtroom shooting in Rapid City when Brady was 12 and his mother was in her early 30s. He graduated from Central High School in 1973. Brady has a degree in mass communications from the University of South Dakota in Vermillion. Brady worked for the Rapid City area Chamber of Commerce. He was elected to the Rapid City common council at age 26. In 1982, he moved to Texas to work for the Beaumont, Texas Chamber of Commerce. In 1985, he went to work for the South Montgomery County Woodlands Chamber of Commerce. Texas House of Representatives In 1990, Brady was elected to the Texas House of Representatives, district 15, representing The Woodlands, parts of Montgomery County, and five other counties west and north of Houston. He succeeded Mike McKinney as a representative of the 15th district in the Texas House of representatives on January 10, 1991. U.S. House of Representatives Elections	2.1875
962112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Brady	Kevin Brady	1996 Incumbent U.S. Representative Jack Fields of Texas's 8th congressional district decided to retire. Brady ran for the seat and ranked second in the Republican primary with 22% of the vote in a six-candidate field. The candidate who ranked first, Gene Fontenot, received 36% of the vote, short of the 50% threshold. In the runoff election, Brady defeated him, 53%–47%. But the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Bush v. Vera that three of Texas's congressional districts were unconstitutional. After hearings, the court concluded that there was no longer time to hold primaries and instead forced all candidates (Democrats and Republicans) be listed together on the November general election ballot in a jungle primary. If no candidate reached 50%, a special runoff would be held on December 10 between the two highest-ranking candidates. In the November election, Brady ranked first with 41% of the vote. In the December runoff, he defeated Fontenot again, 59%–41%. 1998–2008 During this period, Brady never received less than 67% of the vote. 2010 For the first time since 1998, Brady was challenged in the Republican primary. Three candidates filed against him. He defeated all of them in the March primary with 79% of the vote. He was reelected with 80% of the vote. 2012 In the May Republican primary, in a newly redrawn district, he defeated his challenger with 76% of the vote. In the November 6 general election, he defeated the Democratic nominee with over 77% of the vote. 2014 Brady won the March 4 Republican primary with 41,549 votes (68%) to Craig McMichael's 19,508 (32%). In the November 4 general election, Brady was reelected with 124,897 votes (89.32%) to Democratic nominee Ken Petty's 14,930 (10.67%). 2016 In November 2015, Steve Toth, a former state representative from The Woodlands, Texas, announced that he would run against Brady.	2.078125
962116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformed%20services%20diver%20insignia%20%28United%20States%29	Uniformed services diver insignia (United States)	In 2001, the Marine Corps authorized the creation of a new badge, the Combatant Diver Insignia, attesting to the wearer's closed-circuit rebreather and reconnaissance combat diver training; the gold-colored combatant diver insignia depicts a wetsuit hood, low-profile diving mask, and chest-mounted rebreather. The naval deep sea diver qualification insignia are awarded in four degrees: second-class diver; first-class diver; master diver; and diving officer. However, the Marine Corps does not award the Diving Officer Insignia to its officers. In the Navy, the master diver is the most qualified diver; he must be a chief petty officer before applying to attend the master diver course. The Diving Medical Officer Insignia and the Diving Medical Technician Insignia are awarded to naval medical personnel qualified as divers or medical technicians, respectively. The Diving Medical Insignia resembles the Master Diver Insignia, but is decorated with a caduceus. The Diving Medical Officer Insignia is gold in color while the enlisted version—the Diving Medical Technician Insignia—is silver in color. Since the Marine Corps and the Coast Guard have no organic medical officers, they do not issue the Diving Medical Officer Insignia. However, like all medicine, the Marine Corps is served by US Navy Diving Medical Officers and Diving Medical Technicians. The Diving Medical Officers attend their own training course that often has Air Force, Army, and foreign doctors all who, upon completion, wear the Navy Diving Medical Officer insignia. The enlisted Diving Medical Technicians attend the same course as Navy divers training to become second-class divers, but with slight changes to the curriculum for medicine. They enter that class having already trained as Navy hospital corpsmen.	2.296875
962118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier%2039	Messier 39	Messier 39 or M39, also known as NGC 7092, is an open cluster of stars in the constellation of Cygnus, sometimes referred to as the Pyramid Cluster. It is positioned two degrees south of the star Pi Cygni and around 9° east-northeast of Deneb. The cluster was discovered by Guillaume Le Gentil in 1749, then Charles Messier added it to his catalogue in 1764. When observed in a small telescope at low power the cluster shows around two dozen members but is best observed with binoculars. It has a total integrated magnitude (brightness) of 4.6 and spans an angular diameter of – about the size of the full Moon. It is centered about away. This cluster has an estimated mass of and a linear tidal radius of . Of the 15 brightest components, six form binary star systems; one more is suspected. HD 205117 is a probable eclipsing binary system with a period of 113.2 days that varies by 0.051 in visual magnitude. Both members seem to be subgiants. Within are at least five chemically peculiar stars and ten suspected short-period variable stars. Map	2.5625
962130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnecke%204	Winnecke 4	Winnecke 4 (also known as Messier 40 or WNC 4) is an optical double star consisting of two unrelated stars in a northerly zone of the sky, Ursa Major. The pair were discovered by Charles Messier in 1764 while he was searching for a nebula that had been reported in the area by Johannes Hevelius. Not seeing any nebulae, Messier catalogued this apparent pair instead. The pair were rediscovered by Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke in 1863, and included in the Winnecke Catalogue of Double Stars as number 4. Burnham calls M40 "one of the few real mistakes in the Messier catalog," faulting Messier for including it when all he saw was a double star, not a nebula of any sort. In 1991 the separation between the components was measured at 51.7″, an increase since 1764. Data gathered by astronomers Brian Skiff (2001) and Richard L. Nugent (2002) strongly suggested the subject was merely an optical double star rather than a physically connected (binary) system. The A star that seems the brighter is over twice as far as B. Parallax measurements from the Gaia satellite show the two stars, HD 238107 and HD 238108, are at distances of and respectively. HD 238108 is itself a genuine binary star, with an 18th magnitude white dwarf companion 5 arcseconds away and a parallax distance of .	2.453125
962140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Bishop	Tim Bishop	Timothy Howard Bishop (born June 1, 1950) is an American politician who served as a U.S. Representative for from 2003 to 2015. He is a member of the Democratic Party. The district includes most of Central and Eastern Suffolk County, including most of Smithtown, as well as the entirety of the towns of Brookhaven, Riverhead, Southold, Southampton, East Hampton, and Shelter Island. The district encompasses wealthy enclaves such as the Hamptons, middle-class suburban towns such as Selden, Centereach and Lake Grove, working-class neighborhoods such as Mastic and Riverhead, and rural farming communities such as Mattituck and Jamesport on the North Fork. Early life, education and career Bishop is a twelfth-generation resident of Southampton, New York, where he was born on June 1, 1950. He is the son of Catherine (Roesel) and Howard Cortland Bishop. He is the great-grandson of Benjamin H. Bishop, a mayor of Southampton, and has English, Irish, and German ancestry. He received a bachelor's degree in history from the College of the Holy Cross and a master's degree in public administration from Long Island University. Bishop served as Provost of Southampton College for 16 years, where he began working in 1973 as an admissions counselor. He served as the college's director of financial aid, assistant director of admissions, registrar, director of institutional research and planning, dean for enrollment services, and dean for administrative and student services. During his tenure, several academic programs were improved. Southampton College of Long Island University produced 36 Fulbright Scholars. Four new graduate programs were added to the curriculum, and a new academic center, Chancellors Hall, was built. Along with the Southampton College Chancellor, Robert F. X. Sillerman, Bishop developed the most successful single fund-raising event in the college's history, the All for the Sea rock concerts which grossed as much as $1 million annually. Congressional tenure	2.0625
962148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive%20Cluster	Beehive Cluster	The Beehive Cluster (also known as Praesepe (Latin for "manger", "cot" or "crib"), M44, NGC 2632, or Cr 189), is an open cluster in the constellation Cancer. One of the nearest open clusters to Earth, it contains a larger population of stars than other nearby bright open clusters holding around 1,000 stars. Under dark skies, the Beehive Cluster looks like a small nebulous object to the naked eye, and has been known since ancient times. Classical astronomer Ptolemy described it as a "nebulous mass in the breast of Cancer". It was among the first objects that Galileo studied with his telescope. Age and proper motion coincide with those of the Hyades, suggesting they may share similar origins. Both clusters also contain red giants and white dwarfs, which represent later stages of stellar evolution, along with many main sequence stars. Distance to M44 is often cited to be between 160 and 187 parsecs (520–610 light years), but the revised Hipparcos parallaxes (2009) for Praesepe members and the latest infrared color-magnitude diagram favors an analogous distance of 182 pc. There are better age estimates of around 600 million years (compared to about 625 million years for the Hyades). The diameter of the bright inner cluster core is about 7.0 parsecs (23 light years). At 1.5° across, the cluster easily fits within the field of view of binoculars or low-powered small telescopes. Regulus, Castor, and Pollux are guide stars.	2.75
962148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive%20Cluster	Beehive Cluster	History In 1609, Galileo first telescopically observed the Beehive and was able to resolve it into 40 stars. Charles Messier added it to his famous catalog in 1769 after precisely measuring its position in the sky. Along with the Orion Nebula and the Pleiades cluster, Messier's inclusion of the Beehive has been noted as curious, as most of Messier's objects were much fainter and more easily confused with comets. Another possibility is that Messier simply wanted to have a larger catalog than his scientific rival Lacaille, whose 1755 catalog contained 42 objects, and so he added some well-known bright objects to boost his list. Wilhelm Schur, as director of the Göttingen Observatory, drew a map of the cluster in 1894.Ancient Greeks and Romans saw this object as a manger from which two donkeys, the adjacent stars Asellus Borealis and Asellus Australis, are eating; these are the donkeys that Dionysos and Silenus rode into battle against the Titans. Hipparchus (c.130 BC) refers to the cluster as Nephelion ("Little Cloud") in his star catalog. Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest includes the Beehive Cluster as one of seven "nebulae" (four of which are real), describing it as "The Nebulous Mass in the Breast (of Cancer)". Aratus (c.260–270 BC) calls the cluster Achlus or "Little Mist" in his poem Phainomena. Johann Bayer showed the cluster as a nebulous star on his Uranometria atlas of 1603, and labeled it Epsilon. The letter is now applied specifically to the brightest star of the cluster Epsilon Cancri, of magnitude 6.29. This perceived nebulous object is in the Ghost (Gui Xiu), the 23rd lunar mansion of ancient Chinese astrology. Ancient Chinese skywatchers saw this as a ghost or demon riding in a carriage and likened its appearance to a "cloud of pollen blown from willow catkins". It was also known by the somewhat less romantic name of Jishi qi (積屍氣, also transliterated Tseih She Ke), the "Exhalation of Piled-up Corpses". It is also known simply as Jishi (積屍), "cumulative corpses".	2.765625
962148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive%20Cluster	Beehive Cluster	Morphology and composition Like many star clusters of all kinds, Praesepe has experienced mass segregation. This means that bright massive stars are concentrated in the cluster's core, while dimmer and less massive stars populate its halo (sometimes called the corona). The cluster's core radius is estimated at 3.5 parsecs (11.4 light years); its half-mass radius is about 3.9 parsecs (12.7 light years); and its tidal radius is about 12 parsecs (39 light years). However, the tidal radius also includes many stars that are merely "passing through" and not bona fide cluster members. Altogether, the cluster contains at least 1000 gravitationally bound stars, for a total mass of about 500–600 Solar masses. A recent survey counts 1010 high-probability members, of which 68% are M dwarfs, 30% are Sun-like stars of spectral classes F, G, and K, and about 2% are bright stars of spectral class A. Also present are five giant stars, four of which have spectral class K0 III and the fifth G0 III. So far, eleven white dwarfs have been identified, representing the final evolutionary phase of the cluster's most massive stars, which originally belonged to spectral type B. Brown dwarfs, however, are rare in this cluster, probably because they have been lost by tidal stripping from the halo. A brown dwarf has been found in the eclipsing binary system AD 3116. The cluster has a visual brightness of magnitude 3.7. Its brightest stars are blue-white and of magnitude 6 to 6.5. 42 Cancri is a confirmed member. Planets In September 2012, two planets which orbit separate stars were discovered in the Beehive Cluster. The finding was significant for being the first planets detected orbiting stars like Earth's Sun that were situated in stellar clusters. Planets had previously been detected in such clusters, but not orbiting stars like the Sun.	2.875
962152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier%2043	Messier 43	Messier 43 or M43, also known as De Mairan's Nebula and NGC 1982, is a star-forming nebula with a prominent H II region in the equatorial constellation of Orion. It was discovered by the French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan some time before 1731, then catalogued by Charles Messier in 1769. It is physically part of the Orion Nebula (Messier 42), separate from that main nebula by a dense lane of dust known as the northeast dark lane. It is part of the much larger Orion molecular cloud complex. The main ionizing star in this nebula is HD 37061 (variable star designation NU Ori), the focus of the H II region, away. This is a triple star system with the brighter component being a single-lined spectroscopic binary. The main component is a blue-white hued B-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of B0.5V or B1V. It has times the mass of the Sun () and times the Sun's radius (). It is radiating over 26,000 times the Sun's luminosity () from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 31,000 K. It is spinning rapidly with a projected rotational velocity of around 200 km/s. The H II region is a roundish volume of ionized hydrogen. It has a diameter of about , at its distance meaning it measures . The net (meaning omitting the star) hydrogen alpha luminosity of this region is ; equivalent to . There is a dark lane crossing the whole west-centre strip from north to south, known as the M43 dark lane, which forming a swirling belt extension to the south links to Orion's northeast dark lane. All of these resemble a mixture of smoke rising from a chimney and in watercolour broad and fine dark brushstrokes, at many wavelengths. Gallery	2.6875
962165	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Brady	Bob Brady	Brady has been a professor at the University of Pennsylvania where he instructs graduate students in management and political science. In April 1991 he was appointed to the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission by Governor Bob Casey Sr., a position he held until his election to United States Congress in 1998. In 1999 he married Debra Savarese, a former Philadelphia Eagles cheerleader. U.S. House of Representatives Elections In November 1997, 17-year U.S. Congressman Tom Foglietta resigned from his seat in the House of Representatives after being named U.S. Ambassador to Italy by Bill Clinton. After a 1992 redistricting, the First District was becoming a majority Black district. Foglietta had defeated Black candidates in Democratic primaries in 1994 and 1996 and political observers assumed that his successor would be Black. In February 1998, Brady announced he would be running in the special election for Foglietta's vacated seat, despite not living within the district. When asked his position on NAFTA, Brady said "I don't know what that was about." When asked his position on abortion Brady said he had no position. On May 11, Brady left a debate between the congressional candidates early to attend a ward meeting. The special election and primary election were held on May 19, 1998, with Brady running in both elections. He faced three opponents in the special election and three in the primary election. Brady won the special election with 74% of the vote and the primary election with 59% of the vote. His closest challenger in the Democratic primary was State Representative Andrew Carn, who received 21% of the vote. Brady was sworn in by Newt Gingrich on May 21, 1998. In his first general election in November 1998 he defeated Republican William M. Harrison, winning 81% of the vote. In his victory speech he defended President Bill Clinton, saying "We have business to take care of in Washington and it's not this business of embarrassing our President."	2.15625
962169	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrelink	Centrelink	Origin In 2016, Centrelink began using a new automated technique (later found to be fatally flawed and unlawful) for reconciling welfare recipients' records against data from the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) in order to allegedly uncover fraud and overpayment, thus facilitating the scrape-back of these alleged debts from clients. In January 2017, it was reported that the scheme was touted to save the government $300m and consideration was also being given to recovery action against Centrelink clients on both the Aged Pension and the Disability Support Pension, which allegedly could have raised in revenue. In a process that had previously seen 20,000 debt recovery letters issued per year, this new automated data-matching technique, with less human oversight, saw that number increase to 169,000 letters during July-December 2016. Injustice, trauma, and suicide Critics and opponents of the automated process revealed and documented that the errors in the system, which became known colloquially as 'Robodebt' (a title later used officially), had coerced welfare recipients into paying either nonexistent debts, or debts that were vastly larger than what they actually may have owed, with the real amount often being a trivial sum of a few dollars or nothing at all. Some welfare recipients were required by Centrelink to make repayments for the fabricated debts while having to simultaneously engage in official reviews and legal challenges to the sham debt claims.	2.0625
962170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20NASCAR%20schedule%20realignments	History of NASCAR schedule realignments	History of NASCAR schedule realignments refers to changes in the schedule of the NASCAR Cup Series, NASCAR Xfinity Series and NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series. First Cup schedule in 1949 The first season in 1949 consists of 8 races, exclusively on dirt tracks. The season began on June, 19 at Charlotte Speedway, a 3/4-mile short track in the Charlotte area in North Carolina The second race took place on the first Sunday after Independence Day (July 10) at Daytona Beach in Florida. The third race was run at Occoneechee Speedway (Hillsboro, North Carolina) on the first Sunday in August. In September, there were three races, first at Langhorne Speedway in Pennsylvania, second at Hamburg Speedway in New York and third at Martinsville Speedway in Virginia. The last two races, one at Heidelberg Raceway near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and one at North Wilkesboro Speedway in North Carolina, was run in October, with the last race run at Sunday the 16th. 1972 Changes 1972 was the first year of NASCAR's 'modern era'. All races for the Cup Series at ovals under 0.5 miles in length (and under 250 miles in distance), and dirt ovals, were removed from the schedule, that included popular tracks like Greenville-Pickens Speedway, Hickory Motor Speedway, and Columbia Speedway. Some of these venues were still used for races in NASCAR's second-tier series. This resulted in the Cup schedule being reduced from 48 races, to 31, with all races now being run on the weekends to reduce exhausting travel for the teams and drivers, and to maximize attendance/viewership (with the exception of the Southern 500, which ran on Labor Day).	2.453125
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	The experiment is normally conducted using electrically neutral particles such as silver atoms. This avoids the large deflection in the path of a charged particle moving through a magnetic field and allows spin-dependent effects to dominate. If the particle is treated as a classical spinning magnetic dipole, it will precess in a magnetic field because of the torque that the magnetic field exerts on the dipole (see torque-induced precession). If it moves through a homogeneous magnetic field, the forces exerted on opposite ends of the dipole cancel each other out and the trajectory of the particle is unaffected. However, if the magnetic field is inhomogeneous then the force on one end of the dipole will be slightly greater than the opposing force on the other end, so that there is a net force which deflects the particle's trajectory. If the particles were classical spinning objects, one would expect the distribution of their spin angular momentum vectors to be random and continuous. Each particle would be deflected by an amount proportional to the dot product of its magnetic moment with the external field gradient, producing some density distribution on the detector screen. Instead, the particles passing through the Stern–Gerlach apparatus are deflected either up or down by a specific amount. This was a measurement of the quantum observable now known as spin angular momentum, which demonstrated possible outcomes of a measurement where the observable has a discrete set of values or point spectrum. Although some discrete quantum phenomena, such as atomic spectra, were observed much earlier, the Stern–Gerlach experiment allowed scientists to directly observe separation between discrete quantum states for the first time. Theoretically, quantum angular momentum of any kind has a discrete spectrum, which is sometimes briefly expressed as "angular momentum is quantized".	2.40625
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	Experiment using particles with +1/2 or −1/2 spin If the experiment is conducted using charged particles like electrons, there will be a Lorentz force that tends to bend the trajectory in a circle. This force can be cancelled by an electric field of appropriate magnitude oriented transverse to the charged particle's path. Electrons are spin-1/2 particles. These have only two possible spin angular momentum values measured along any axis, or , a purely quantum mechanical phenomenon. Because its value is always the same, it is regarded as an intrinsic property of electrons, and is sometimes known as "intrinsic angular momentum" (to distinguish it from orbital angular momentum, which can vary and depends on the presence of other particles). If one measures the spin along a vertical axis, electrons are described as "spin up" or "spin down", based on the magnetic moment pointing up or down, respectively. To mathematically describe the experiment with spin particles, it is easiest to use Dirac's bra–ket notation. As the particles pass through the Stern–Gerlach device, they are deflected either up or down, and observed by the detector which resolves to either spin up or spin down. These are described by the angular momentum quantum number , which can take on one of the two possible allowed values, either or . The act of observing (measuring) the momentum along the axis corresponds to the -axis angular momentum operator, often denoted . In mathematical terms, the initial state of the particles is	2.96875
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	where constants and are complex numbers. This initial state spin can point in any direction. The squares of the absolute values and are respectively the probabilities for a system in the state to be found in and after the measurement along axis is made. The constants and must also be normalized in order that the probability of finding either one of the values be unity, that is we must ensure that . However, this information is not sufficient to determine the values of and , because they are complex numbers. Therefore, the measurement yields only the squared magnitudes of the constants, which are interpreted as probabilities. Sequential experiments If we link multiple Stern–Gerlach apparatuses (the rectangles containing S-G), we can clearly see that they do not act as simple selectors, i.e. filtering out particles with one of the states (pre-existing to the measurement) and blocking the others. Instead they alter the state by observing it (as in light polarization). In the figure below, x and z name the directions of the (inhomogenous) magnetic field, with the x-z-plane being orthogonal to the particle beam. In the three S-G systems shown below, the cross-hatched squares denote the blocking of a given output, i.e. each of the S-G systems with a blocker allows only particles with one of two states to enter the next S-G apparatus in the sequence. Experiment 1 The top illustration shows that when a second, identical, S-G apparatus is placed at the exit of the first apparatus, only z+ is seen in the output of the second apparatus. This result is expected since all particles at this point are expected to have z+ spin, as only the z+ beam from the first apparatus entered the second apparatus.	2.015625
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	Experiment 2 The middle system shows what happens when a different S-G apparatus is placed at the exit of the z+ beam resulting of the first apparatus, the second apparatus measuring the deflection of the beams on the x axis instead of the z axis. The second apparatus produces x+ and x- outputs. Now classically we would expect to have one beam with the x characteristic oriented + and the z characteristic oriented +, and another with the x characteristic oriented - and the z characteristic oriented +. Experiment 3 The bottom system contradicts that expectation. The output of the third apparatus which measures the deflection on the z axis again shows an output of z- as well as z+. Given that the input to the second S-G apparatus consisted only of z+, it can be inferred that a S-G apparatus must be altering the states of the particles that pass through it. This experiment can be interpreted to exhibit the uncertainty principle: since the angular momentum cannot be measured on two perpendicular directions at the same time, the measurement of the angular momentum on the x direction destroys the previous determination of the angular momentum in the z direction. That's why the third apparatus measures renewed z+ and z- beams like the x measurement really made a clean slate of the z+ output. History	2.109375
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	The Stern–Gerlach experiment was conceived by Otto Stern in 1921 and performed by him and Walther Gerlach in Frankfurt in 1922. At the time of the experiment, the most prevalent model for describing the atom was the Bohr-Sommerfeld model, which described electrons as going around the positively charged nucleus only in certain discrete atomic orbitals or energy levels. Since the electron was quantized to be only in certain positions in space, the separation into distinct orbits was referred to as space quantization. The Stern–Gerlach experiment was meant to test the Bohr–Sommerfeld hypothesis that the direction of the angular momentum of a silver atom is quantized. The experiment was first performed with an electromagnet that allowed the non-uniform magnetic field to be turned on gradually from a null value. When the field was null, the silver atoms were deposited as a single band on the detecting glass slide. When the field was made stronger, the middle of the band began to widen and eventually to split into two, so that the glass-slide image looked like a lip-print, with an opening in the middle, and closure at either end. In the middle, where the magnetic field was strong enough to split the beam into two, statistically half of the silver atoms had been deflected by the non-uniformity of the field. Note that the experiment was performed several years before George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit formulated their hypothesis about the existence of electron spin in 1925. Even though the result of the Stern−Gerlach experiment has later turned out to be in agreement with the predictions of quantum mechanics for a spin-1/2 particle, the experimental result was also consistent with the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory.	2.65625
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	In 1927, T.E. Phipps and J.B. Taylor reproduced the effect using hydrogen atoms in their ground state, thereby eliminating any doubts that may have been caused by the use of silver atoms. However, in 1926 the non-relativistic scalar Schrödinger equation had incorrectly predicted the magnetic moment of hydrogen to be zero in its ground state. To correct this problem Wolfgang Pauli considered a spin-1/2 version of the Schrödinger equation using the 3 Pauli matrices which now bear his name, which was later shown by Paul Dirac in 1928 to be a consequence of his relativistic Dirac equation. In the early 1930s Stern, together with Otto Robert Frisch and Immanuel Estermann improved the molecular beam apparatus sufficiently to measure the magnetic moment of the proton, a value nearly 2000 times smaller than the electron moment. In 1931, theoretical analysis by Gregory Breit and Isidor Isaac Rabi showed that this apparatus could be used to measure nuclear spin whenever the electronic configuration of the atom was known. The concept was applied by Rabi and Victor W. Cohen in 1934 to determine the spin of sodium atoms. In 1938 Rabi and coworkers inserted an oscillating magnetic field element into their apparatus, inventing nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. By tuning the frequency of the oscillator to the frequency of the nuclear precessions they could selectively tune into each quantum level of the material under study. Rabi was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1944 for this work. Importance The Stern–Gerlach experiment was the first direct evidence of angular-momentum quantization in quantum mechanics, and it strongly influenced later developments in modern physics:	2.515625
962171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach%20experiment	Stern–Gerlach experiment	In the decade that followed, scientists showed using similar techniques, that the nuclei of some atoms also have quantized angular momentum. It is the interaction of this nuclear angular momentum with the spin of the electron that is responsible for the hyperfine structure of the spectroscopic lines. Norman F. Ramsey later modified the Rabi apparatus to improve its sensitivity (using the separated oscillatory field method). In the early sixties, Ramsey, H. Mark Goldenberg, and Daniel Kleppner used a Stern–Gerlach system to produce a beam of polarized hydrogen as the source of energy for the hydrogen maser. This led to developing an extremely stable clock based on a hydrogen maser. From 1967 until 2019, the second was defined based on 9,192,631,770 Hz hyperfine transition of a cesium-133 atom; the atomic clock which is used to set this standard is an application of Ramsey's work. The Stern–Gerlach experiment has become a prototype for quantum measurement, demonstrating the observation of a discrete value (eigenvalue) of a physical property, previously assumed to be continuous. Entering the Stern–Gerlach magnet, the direction of the silver atom's magnetic moment is indefinite, but when the atom is registered at the screen, it is observed to be at either one spot or the other, and this outcome cannot be predicted in advance. Because the experiment illustrates the character of quantum measurements, The Feynman Lectures on Physics use idealized Stern–Gerlach apparatuses to explain the basic mathematics of quantum theory.	2.40625
962172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare%20card%20%28Australia%29	Medicare card (Australia)	A Medicare card is a plastic card, the same size as a typical credit card, issued to Australian citizens and permanent residents and their families. The card or the Medicare number is required to be provided to enable the cardholder to receive a rebate of medical expenses under Australia's Medicare system, as well as subsidised medications under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS). The card is usually green in colour, although interim cards are light blue and cards for Reciprocal Health Care Agreement visitors are light yellow. The cards are issued by a government agency called Services Australia. All permanent residents of Australia are entitled to a Medicare card, except for those who are deemed to be not residing in Australia. Citizenship is not necessary to be eligible for a Medicare card. The card lists an individual as well as any members of his or her family he or she chooses to add who are also permanent residents and meet the Medicare definition of dependent. The card must be produced or the Medicare number provided if the Medicare rebate is paid directly to the doctor under the bulk billing system. The doctor can retain the Medicare number for use when the patient returns for another consultation. It is also necessary to provide a Medicare number (although not necessarily show the card) to gain access to the public hospital system to be treated at no cost as a public patient. For non-elective treatment (e.g. emergency), public hospitals will admit patients without a number or card and resolve Medicare eligibility issues after treatment. Use of the card Services Australia supplies Medicare cards and numbers. Almost every eligible person has a card: in June 2002 there were 20.4 million Medicare cardholders, and the Australian population was less than 20 million at the time (overseas Australian cardholders may still have a card).	2.46875
962172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare%20card%20%28Australia%29	Medicare card (Australia)	The use of the card is relevant only to consultations with medical practitioners who have been issued with a Medicare provider number. Such access has been made subject to increasing requirements since the mid-1990s. The Medicare card is used for health care purposes only and cannot be used to track in a database a number of activities. It contains a name and number, and no visible photograph. Individuals are not legally required to have a Medicare card, to carry it with them, or to produce it on request. The primary purpose of the Medicare card is to prove eligibility when seeking Australian Medicare-subsidised care from a medical practitioner or hospital. Legally, the card need not be produced and a Medicare number is sufficient. Since 2002, a Medicare card has been required to be shown at a pharmacy when collecting Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) medications. The pharmacy can retain the number for use when the cardholder returns with another prescription. The Medicare card is used as a recognised form of ID in opening bank accounts or obtaining a driver's license. On the ‘100 point scale’, on which 100 points of ID are required for proof of identity, a Medicare card generally counts for 30 points. The Medicare card will also be required when accessing medical, hospital or pharmaceutical services in a country with which Australia has a reciprocal health care agreement. Rebates The Medicare scheme entitles most Australian residents to a rebate of medical and some other expenses paid for consultations with a medical practitioner who holds a current Medicare provider number. The medical practitioner will usually apply for, maintain and quote a provider number on their tax invoices. Without quoting a valid provider number, a practitioner's patients will not be entitled to a rebate of their medical expenses.	2.296875
962172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare%20card%20%28Australia%29	Medicare card (Australia)	A practitioner who is in breach of a contract with the Commonwealth may face a 12-year prohibition on access to a provider number. This means that a Medicare cardholder cannot obtain a rebate of expenses paid to a prohibited practitioner regardless of the practitioner's registration at any (state) board or specialty for the period that the practitioner is without a provider number. Issue of Medicare cards Medicare cards are issued by Services Australia (until late 2005 known as the Health Insurance Commission or HIC) to individuals and their families. A maximum of five names can be included on a card. Families with more than five members will have additional names listed on additional cards, while retaining the same card number. Children are listed on their parent's card – a family may be all on one card, or a child may be listed on one parent's card, or both parents' cards, or even in some cases, alone on their own card if their name exceeds a specific number of letters. Children who are wards of the state will be listed on a card with the Department of Children's Services as cardholder. Medicare cards may be used to show a relationship when parents have different surnames to their children. Individual Medicare cards are generally only issued to people over 15. This is a Medicare Australia policy (not legislation) and there are exceptions for people at boarding schools or away from home. Significantly, this policy may detract from the right of a mature minor to gain confidential medical care. Using their family's Medicare card (and presenting the card) could potentially notify their parents of the consultation, but only if the parents request information about their child's medical claims and for a person to request information about medical claims for people 14 years and over they must have the permission of that person they are requesting the information for.	2.078125
962174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node%20of%20Ranvier	Node of Ranvier	The segment between nodes of Ranvier is termed as the internode, and its outermost part that is in contact with paranodes is referred to as the juxtaparanodal region. The nodes are encapsulated by microvilli stemming from the outer aspect of the Schwann cell membrane in the PNS, or by perinodal extensions from astrocytes in the CNS. Structure The internodes are the myelin segments and the gaps between are referred to as nodes. The size and the spacing of the internodes vary with the fiber diameter in a curvilinear relationship that is optimized for maximal conduction velocity. The size of the nodes span from 1–2 μm whereas the internodes can be up to (and occasionally even greater than)1.5 millimetres long, depending on the axon diameter and fiber type. The structure of the node and the flanking paranodal regions are distinct from the internodes under the compact myelin sheath, but are very similar in CNS and PNS. The axon is exposed to the extra-cellular environment at the node and is constricted in its diameter. The decreased axon size reflects a higher packing density of neurofilaments in this region, which are less heavily phosphorylated and are transported more slowly. Vesicles and other organelles are also increased at the nodes, which suggest that there is a bottleneck of axonal transport in both directions as well as local axonal-glial signaling. When a longitudinal section is made through a myelinating Schwann cell at the node, three distinctive segments are represented: the stereotypic internode, the paranodal region, and the node itself. In the internodal region, the Schwann cell has an outer collar of cytoplasm, a compact myelin sheath, and inner collar of cytoplasm, and the axolemma. At the paranodal regions, the paranodal cytoplasm loops contact thickenings of the axolemma to form septate –like junctions. In the node alone, the axolemma is contacted by several Schwann microvilli and contains a dense cytoskeletal undercoating.	2.359375
962174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node%20of%20Ranvier	Node of Ranvier	Myelination of nerve fibers The complex changes that the Schwann cell undergoes during the process of myelination of peripheral nerve fibers have been observed and studied by many. The initial envelopment of the axon occurs without interruption along the entire extent of the Schwann cell. This process is sequenced by the in-folding of the Schwann cell surface so that a double membrane of the opposing faces of the in-folded Schwann cell surface is formed. This membrane stretches and spirally wraps itself over and over as the in-folding of the Schwann cell surface continues. As a result, the increase in the thickness of the extension of the myelin sheath in its cross-sectional diameter is easily ascertained. It is also evident that each of the consecutive turns of the spiral increases in size along the length of the axon as the number of turns increase. However, it is not clear whether or not the increase in length of the myelin sheath can be accounted solely by the increase in length of axon covered by each successive turn of the spiral, as previously explained. At the junction of two Schwann cells along an axon, the directions of the lamellar overhang of the myelin endings are of opposite sense. This junction, adjacent of the Schwann cells, constitutes the region designated as the node of Ranvier.	2.3125
962174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node%20of%20Ranvier	Node of Ranvier	Action potential An action potential is a spike of both positive and negative ionic discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell. The creation and conduction of action potentials represents a fundamental means of communication in the nervous system. Action potentials represent rapid reversals in voltage across the plasma membrane of axons. These rapid reversals are mediated by voltage-gated ion channels found in the plasma membrane. The action potential travels from one location in the cell to another, but ion flow across the membrane occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier. As a result, the action potential signal jumps along the axon, from node to node, rather than propagating smoothly, as they do in axons that lack a myelin sheath. The clustering of voltage-gated sodium and potassium ion channels at the nodes permits this behavior. Saltatory conduction Since an axon can be unmyelinated or myelinated, the action potential has two methods to travel down the axon. These methods are referred to as continuous conduction for unmyelinated axons, and saltatory conduction for myelinated axons. Saltatory conduction is defined as an action potential moving in discrete jumps down a myelinated axon. This process is outlined as the charge passively spreading to the next node of Ranvier to depolarize it to threshold which will then trigger an action potential in this region which will then passively spread to the next node and so on. Saltatory conduction provides one advantage over conduction that occurs along an axon without myelin sheaths. This is that the increased speed afforded by this mode of conduction assures faster interaction between neurons. On the other hand, depending on the average firing rate of the neuron, calculations show that the energetic cost of maintaining the resting potential of oligodendrocytes can outweigh the energy savings of action potentials. So, axon myelination does not necessarily save energy. Formation regulation	3.4375

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