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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/lists-java | Lists - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Integrate Java SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Java SDK Lists Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Java SDK Lists OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Manage subscriber lists with Java SDK: create or update lists, and modify users in the list. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT The Lists SDK methods lets you create / manage list of subscribers. You can then send broadcast to all the users in the list or create a workflow that triggers when a new user enters / exits list. Create / Update List You can use suprClient.subscriberLists.create method to create a new list Request Response Copy Ask AI import org.json.JSONObject; import suprsend.Suprsend; import suprsend.SuprsendAPIException; import suprsend.SubscriberListBroadcast; import suprsend.SuprsendValidationError; public class Lists { public static void main ( String [] args ) throws Exception { createList (); } private static Subscriber createList () throws SuprsendException { Suprsend suprsendClient = new Suprsend ( "_workspace_key_" , "_workspace_secret_" ); // Create List JSON payload JSONObject payload = new JSONObject (). put ( "list_id" , "_list_id_" ); . put ( "list_name" , "_list_name_ " ); . put ( "list_description" , "_some sample description for the list_" ); try { JSONObject res = suprClient . subscriberLists . create (payload); System . out . println (res); } catch ( SuprsendException e ) { System . out . println (e); } } Guidelines on defining the list_id list_id is case-insensitive. Suprsend first converts list_id to lowercase before storing it or doing any sort of comparison on it. list_id can be of max 64 characters. It can contain characters [a-z0-9_-] that is alphanumeric characters, _(underscore) and -(hyphen). Get list data You can get the latest information of a list using suprClient.subscriberLists.get method. Request Response Copy Ask AI ... String listId = "_list_id_" ; JSONObject res = suprClient . subscriberLists . get (listId); System . out . println (res); Get all lists To get the data of all the lists created in your workspace, use suprClient.subscriberLists.getAll() method Request Response Copy Ask AI ... // To get the list of 20 subscriber lists JSONObject res = suprClient . subscriberLists . getAll (); // Get list with offset = 10 and limit = 20 // JSONObject res = suprClient.subscriberLists.getAll(20,10); System . out . println (res); Add Subscribers to the list Use suprClient.subscriberLists.add() to add list subscribers. There is no limit to the number of subscribers that you can add to a list. Request Response Copy Ask AI //Add one or more distinct ids in the list String distinctId1 = "id-1" ; String distinctId2 = "id-2" ; String distinctId3 = "id-3" ; ArrayList < String > distinctIds = new ArrayList <>( Arrays . asList (distinctId1,distinctId2,distinctId3)); try { String listId = "l-001" ; JSONObject res = suprClient . subscriberLists . add (listId, distinctIds); System . out . println (res); } Remove Subscribers from the list You can remove subscribers from the list using suprClient.subscriberLists.remove() Request Response Copy Ask AI //Add one or more distinct ids in the list String distinctId1 = "id-1" ; String distinctId2 = "id-2" ; ArrayList < String > distinctIds = new ArrayList <>( Arrays . asList (distinctId1,distinctId2,distinctId3)); try { String listId = "l-001" ; JSONObject res = suprClient . subscriberLists . remove (listId, distinctIds); System . out . println (res); } Delete list You can delete a subscriber list using the supr_client.subscriberLists.delete() method. Request Response Copy Ask AI import org.json.JSONObject; import suprsend.Suprsend; import suprsend.SuprsendAPIException; import suprsend.SubscriberListBroadcast; import suprsend.SuprsendValidationError; public class Lists { public static void main ( String [] args ) throws Exception { deleteList (); } private static void deleteList () throws SuprsendException { Suprsend suprsendClient = new Suprsend ( "_workspace_key_" , "_workspace_secret_" ); try { String listId = "_list_id_" ; JSONObject res = suprsendClient . subscriberLists . delete (listId); System . out . println (res); } catch ( SuprsendException e ) { System . out . println (e); } } } Replace users in the List In case you want to refresh a list with a new set of users completely, you can replace users by creating a draft version of the list and updating users in it. 1 Start Sync to create draft version of the list This method will create a draft version of the list where you can add the new set of users to replace users. Request Copy Ask AI JSONObject data = suprClient . subscriberLists . startSync ( "_list_id_" ); 2 Add Subscribers to draft list Add subscribers to the draft version created in Step-1. You’ll get version_id in the Start Sync response. Request Copy Ask AI JSONObject data = suprClient . subscriberLists . addToVersion ( "_list_id_" , "01HHCTXXXXXXXXXXX" , Arrays . asList ( "_user_id_1" , "_user_id_2" )); 3 Remove Subscribers from draft list Remove subscribers from the draft version created in Step-1. Request Copy Ask AI JSONObject data = suprClient . subscriberLists . removeFromVersion ( "_list_id_" , "01HHCTXXXXXXXXXXX" , Arrays . asList ( "_user_id_1" , "_user_id_2" )); 4 Finish Sync to make the draft version live Finalize the sync and make the draft version live. Request Copy Ask AI JSONObject data = suprClient . subscriberLists . finishSync ( "_list_id_" , "01HHCTXXXXXXXXXXX" ); Delete Draft list You can also delete a draft list if it was created by mistake. Request Copy Ask AI JSONObject data = suprClient . subscriberLists . deleteVersion ( "_list_id_" , "01HHCTXXXXXXXXXXX" ); Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Broadcast Trigger broadcast notifications to a list of users with Java SDK. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Create / Update List Get list data Get all lists Add Subscribers to the list Remove Subscribers from the list Delete list Replace users in the List Delete Draft list | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-profile-add | Add Profile - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Profile Add Profile Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Profile Add Profile OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Create a new profile configuration in your SuprSend CLI for managing multiple accounts and workspaces. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Syntax Copy Ask AI suprsend profile add [flags] Flags Flag Description Default -h, --help Show help for the command – --name string Name of the profile (required) – --service-token string Service token (required). You can get service token from SuprSend dashboard → Account Settings → Service Tokens section. – --base-url string Base URL https://hub.suprsend.com/ --mgmnt-url string Management URL https://management-api.suprsend.com/ Examples Copy Ask AI # Add a new profile with required fields suprsend profile add --name staging --service-token your-service-token # Add profile with custom API endpoints suprsend profile add \ --name production \ --service-token your-service-token \ --base-url https://hub.suprsend.com/ \ --mgmnt-url https://management-api.suprsend.com/ Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Use Profile Set the active profile to be used in all subsequent commands Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Syntax Flags Examples | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-... | Glossary — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Previous topic Deprecations Next topic About this documentation This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » Glossary | Theme Auto Light Dark | Glossary ¶ >>> ¶ The default Python prompt of the interactive shell. Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter. ... ¶ Can refer to: The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after specifying a decorator. The three dots form of the Ellipsis object. abstract base class ¶ Abstract base classes complement duck-typing by providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like hasattr() would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with magic methods ). ABCs introduce virtual subclasses, which are classes that don’t inherit from a class but are still recognized by isinstance() and issubclass() ; see the abc module documentation. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for data structures (in the collections.abc module), numbers (in the numbers module), streams (in the io module), import finders and loaders (in the importlib.abc module). You can create your own ABCs with the abc module. annotate function ¶ A function that can be called to retrieve the annotations of an object. This function is accessible as the __annotate__ attribute of functions, classes, and modules. Annotate functions are a subset of evaluate functions . annotation ¶ A label associated with a variable, a class attribute or a function parameter or return value, used by convention as a type hint . Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions can be retrieved by calling annotationlib.get_annotations() on modules, classes, and functions, respectively. See variable annotation , function annotation , PEP 484 , PEP 526 , and PEP 649 , which describe this functionality. Also see Annotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations. argument ¶ A value passed to a function (or method ) when calling the function. There are two kinds of argument: keyword argument : an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g. name= ) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary preceded by ** . For example, 3 and 5 are both keyword arguments in the following calls to complex() : complex ( real = 3 , imag = 5 ) complex ( ** { 'real' : 3 , 'imag' : 5 }) positional argument : an argument that is not a keyword argument. Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list and/or be passed as elements of an iterable preceded by * . For example, 3 and 5 are both positional arguments in the following calls: complex ( 3 , 5 ) complex ( * ( 3 , 5 )) Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body. See the Calls section for the rules governing this assignment. Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the evaluated value is assigned to the local variable. See also the parameter glossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters , and PEP 362 . asynchronous context manager ¶ An object which controls the environment seen in an async with statement by defining __aenter__() and __aexit__() methods. Introduced by PEP 492 . asynchronous generator ¶ A function which returns an asynchronous generator iterator . It looks like a coroutine function defined with async def except that it contains yield expressions for producing a series of values usable in an async for loop. Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an asynchronous generator iterator in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. An asynchronous generator function may contain await expressions as well as async for , and async with statements. asynchronous generator iterator ¶ An object created by an asynchronous generator function. This is an asynchronous iterator which when called using the __anext__() method returns an awaitable object which will execute the body of the asynchronous generator function until the next yield expression. Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the asynchronous generator iterator effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by __anext__() , it picks up where it left off. See PEP 492 and PEP 525 . asynchronous iterable ¶ An object, that can be used in an async for statement. Must return an asynchronous iterator from its __aiter__() method. Introduced by PEP 492 . asynchronous iterator ¶ An object that implements the __aiter__() and __anext__() methods. __anext__() must return an awaitable object. async for resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous iterator’s __anext__() method until it raises a StopAsyncIteration exception. Introduced by PEP 492 . atomic operation ¶ An operation that appears to execute as a single, indivisible step: no other thread can observe it half-done, and its effects become visible all at once. Python does not guarantee that high-level statements are atomic (for example, x += 1 performs multiple bytecode operations and is not atomic). Atomicity is only guaranteed where explicitly documented. See also race condition and data race . attached thread state ¶ A thread state that is active for the current OS thread. When a thread state is attached, the OS thread has access to the full Python C API and can safely invoke the bytecode interpreter. Unless a function explicitly notes otherwise, attempting to call the C API without an attached thread state will result in a fatal error or undefined behavior. A thread state can be attached and detached explicitly by the user through the C API, or implicitly by the runtime, including during blocking C calls and by the bytecode interpreter in between calls. On most builds of Python, having an attached thread state implies that the caller holds the GIL for the current interpreter, so only one OS thread can have an attached thread state at a given moment. In free-threaded builds of Python, threads can concurrently hold an attached thread state, allowing for true parallelism of the bytecode interpreter. attribute ¶ A value associated with an object which is usually referenced by name using dotted expressions. For example, if an object o has an attribute a it would be referenced as o.a . It is possible to give an object an attribute whose name is not an identifier as defined by Names (identifiers and keywords) , for example using setattr() , if the object allows it. Such an attribute will not be accessible using a dotted expression, and would instead need to be retrieved with getattr() . awaitable ¶ An object that can be used in an await expression. Can be a coroutine or an object with an __await__() method. See also PEP 492 . BDFL ¶ Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. Guido van Rossum , Python’s creator. binary file ¶ A file object able to read and write bytes-like objects . Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode ( 'rb' , 'wb' or 'rb+' ), sys.stdin.buffer , sys.stdout.buffer , and instances of io.BytesIO and gzip.GzipFile . See also text file for a file object able to read and write str objects. borrowed reference ¶ In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an object, where the code using the object does not own the reference. It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed. For example, a garbage collection can remove the last strong reference to the object and so destroy it. Calling Py_INCREF() on the borrowed reference is recommended to convert it to a strong reference in-place, except when the object cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference. The Py_NewRef() function can be used to create a new strong reference . bytes-like object ¶ An object that supports the Buffer Protocol and can export a C- contiguous buffer. This includes all bytes , bytearray , and array.array objects, as well as many common memoryview objects. Bytes-like objects can be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket. Some operations need the binary data to be mutable. The documentation often refers to these as “read-write bytes-like objects”. Example mutable buffer objects include bytearray and a memoryview of a bytearray . Other operations require the binary data to be stored in immutable objects (“read-only bytes-like objects”); examples of these include bytes and a memoryview of a bytes object. bytecode ¶ Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation of a Python program in the CPython interpreter. The bytecode is also cached in .pyc files so that executing the same file is faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be avoided). This “intermediate language” is said to run on a virtual machine that executes the machine code corresponding to each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python releases. A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for the dis module . callable ¶ A callable is an object that can be called, possibly with a set of arguments (see argument ), with the following syntax: callable ( argument1 , argument2 , argumentN ) A function , and by extension a method , is a callable. An instance of a class that implements the __call__() method is also a callable. callback ¶ A subroutine function which is passed as an argument to be executed at some point in the future. class ¶ A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the class. class variable ¶ A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class). closure variable ¶ A free variable referenced from a nested scope that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces. May be explicitly defined with the nonlocal keyword to allow write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being read. For example, in the inner function in the following code, both x and print are free variables , but only x is a closure variable : def outer (): x = 0 def inner (): nonlocal x x += 1 print ( x ) return inner Due to the codeobject.co_freevars attribute (which, despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more general free variable term is sometimes used even when the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables. complex number ¶ An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of -1 ), often written i in mathematics or j in engineering. Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a j suffix, e.g., 3+1j . To get access to complex equivalents of the math module, use cmath . Use of complex numbers is a fairly advanced mathematical feature. If you’re not aware of a need for them, it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them. concurrency ¶ The ability of a computer program to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Python provides libraries for writing programs that make use of different forms of concurrency. asyncio is a library for dealing with asynchronous tasks and coroutines. threading provides access to operating system threads and multiprocessing to operating system processes. Multi-core processors can execute threads and processes on different CPU cores at the same time (see parallelism ). concurrent modification ¶ When multiple threads modify shared data at the same time. Concurrent modification without proper synchronization can cause race conditions , and might also trigger a data race , data corruption, or both. context ¶ This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is used. Some common meanings: The temporary state or environment established by a context manager via a with statement. The collection of keyvalue bindings associated with a particular contextvars.Context object and accessed via ContextVar objects. Also see context variable . A contextvars.Context object. Also see current context . context management protocol ¶ The __enter__() and __exit__() methods called by the with statement. See PEP 343 . context manager ¶ An object which implements the context management protocol and controls the environment seen in a with statement. See PEP 343 . context variable ¶ A variable whose value depends on which context is the current context . Values are accessed via contextvars.ContextVar objects. Context variables are primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous tasks. contiguous ¶ A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either C-contiguous or Fortran contiguous . Zero-dimensional buffers are C and Fortran contiguous. In one-dimensional arrays, the items must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of increasing indexes starting from zero. In multidimensional C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when visiting items in order of memory address. However, in Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest. coroutine ¶ Coroutines are a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point. Coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points. They can be implemented with the async def statement. See also PEP 492 . coroutine function ¶ A function which returns a coroutine object. A coroutine function may be defined with the async def statement, and may contain await , async for , and async with keywords. These were introduced by PEP 492 . CPython ¶ The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as distributed on python.org . The term “CPython” is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others such as Jython or IronPython. current context ¶ The context ( contextvars.Context object) that is currently used by ContextVar objects to access (get or set) the values of context variables . Each thread has its own current context. Frameworks for executing asynchronous tasks (see asyncio ) associate each task with a context which becomes the current context whenever the task starts or resumes execution. cyclic isolate ¶ A subgroup of one or more objects that reference each other in a reference cycle, but are not referenced by objects outside the group. The goal of the cyclic garbage collector is to identify these groups and break the reference cycles so that the memory can be reclaimed. data race ¶ A situation where multiple threads access the same memory location concurrently, at least one of the accesses is a write, and the threads do not use any synchronization to control their access. Data races lead to non-deterministic behavior and can cause data corruption. Proper use of locks and other synchronization primitives prevents data races. Note that data races can only happen in native code, but that native code might be exposed in a Python API. See also race condition and thread-safe . deadlock ¶ A situation in which two or more tasks (threads, processes, or coroutines) wait indefinitely for each other to release resources or complete actions, preventing any from making progress. For example, if thread A holds lock 1 and waits for lock 2, while thread B holds lock 2 and waits for lock 1, both threads will wait indefinitely. In Python this often arises from acquiring multiple locks in conflicting orders or from circular join/await dependencies. Deadlocks can be avoided by always acquiring multiple locks in a consistent order. See also lock and reentrant . decorator ¶ A function returning another function, usually applied as a function transformation using the @wrapper syntax. Common examples for decorators are classmethod() and staticmethod() . The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two function definitions are semantically equivalent: def f ( arg ): ... f = staticmethod ( f ) @staticmethod def f ( arg ): ... The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there. See the documentation for function definitions and class definitions for more about decorators. descriptor ¶ Any object which defines the methods __get__() , __set__() , or __delete__() . When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using a.b to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named b in the class dictionary for a , but if b is a descriptor, the respective descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods, and reference to super classes. For more information about descriptors’ methods, see Implementing Descriptors or the Descriptor How To Guide . dictionary ¶ An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The keys can be any object with __hash__() and __eq__() methods. Called a hash in Perl. dictionary comprehension ¶ A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a dictionary with the results. results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)} generates a dictionary containing key n mapped to value n ** 2 . See Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries . dictionary view ¶ The objects returned from dict.keys() , dict.values() , and dict.items() are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the dictionary view to become a full list use list(dictview) . See Dictionary view objects . docstring ¶ A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class, function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is recognized by the compiler and put into the __doc__ attribute of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the object. duck-typing ¶ A programming style which does not look at an object’s type to determine if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply called or used (“If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it must be a duck.”) By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types, well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic substitution. Duck-typing avoids tests using type() or isinstance() . (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented with abstract base classes .) Instead, it typically employs hasattr() tests or EAFP programming. dunder ¶ An informal short-hand for “double underscore”, used when talking about a special method . For example, __init__ is often pronounced “dunder init”. EAFP ¶ Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches exceptions if the assumption proves false. This clean and fast style is characterized by the presence of many try and except statements. The technique contrasts with the LBYL style common to many other languages such as C. evaluate function ¶ A function that can be called to evaluate a lazily evaluated attribute of an object, such as the value of type aliases created with the type statement. expression ¶ A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words, an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals, names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs are expressions. There are also statement s which cannot be used as expressions, such as while . Assignments are also statements, not expressions. extension module ¶ A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the core and with user code. f-string ¶ f-strings ¶ String literals prefixed with f or F are commonly called “f-strings” which is short for formatted string literals . See also PEP 498 . file object ¶ An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as read() or write() ) to an underlying resource. Depending on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes, etc.). File objects are also called file-like objects or streams . There are actually three categories of file objects: raw binary files , buffered binary files and text files . Their interfaces are defined in the io module. The canonical way to create a file object is by using the open() function. file-like object ¶ A synonym for file object . filesystem encoding and error handler ¶ Encoding and error handler used by Python to decode bytes from the operating system and encode Unicode to the operating system. The filesystem encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise UnicodeError . The sys.getfilesystemencoding() and sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors() functions can be used to get the filesystem encoding and error handler. The filesystem encoding and error handler are configured at Python startup by the PyConfig_Read() function: see filesystem_encoding and filesystem_errors members of PyConfig . See also the locale encoding . finder ¶ An object that tries to find the loader for a module that is being imported. There are two types of finder: meta path finders for use with sys.meta_path , and path entry finders for use with sys.path_hooks . See Finders and loaders and importlib for much more detail. floor division ¶ Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor division operator is // . For example, the expression 11 // 4 evaluates to 2 in contrast to the 2.75 returned by float true division. Note that (-11) // 4 is -3 because that is -2.75 rounded downward . See PEP 238 . free threading ¶ A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode simultaneously within the same interpreter. This is in contrast to the global interpreter lock which allows only one thread to execute Python bytecode at a time. See PEP 703 . free variable ¶ Formally, as defined in the language execution model , a free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a local variable in that namespace. See closure variable for an example. Pragmatically, due to the name of the codeobject.co_freevars attribute, the term is also sometimes used as a synonym for closure variable . function ¶ A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also be passed zero or more arguments which may be used in the execution of the body. See also parameter , method , and the Function definitions section. function annotation ¶ An annotation of a function parameter or return value. Function annotations are usually used for type hints : for example, this function is expected to take two int arguments and is also expected to have an int return value: def sum_two_numbers ( a : int , b : int ) -> int : return a + b Function annotation syntax is explained in section Function definitions . See variable annotation and PEP 484 , which describe this functionality. Also see Annotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations. __future__ ¶ A future statement , from __future__ import <feature> , directs the compiler to compile the current module using syntax or semantics that will become standard in a future release of Python. The __future__ module documents the possible values of feature . By importing this module and evaluating its variables, you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it will (or did) become the default: >>> import __future__ >>> __future__ . division _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192) garbage collection ¶ The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore. Python performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles. The garbage collector can be controlled using the gc module. generator ¶ A function which returns a generator iterator . It looks like a normal function except that it contains yield expressions for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be retrieved one at a time with the next() function. Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a generator iterator in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. generator iterator ¶ An object created by a generator function. Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the generator iterator resumes, it picks up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation). generator expression ¶ An expression that returns an iterator . It looks like a normal expression followed by a for clause defining a loop variable, range, and an optional if clause. The combined expression generates values for an enclosing function: >>> sum ( i * i for i in range ( 10 )) # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81 285 generic function ¶ A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is determined by the dispatch algorithm. See also the single dispatch glossary entry, the functools.singledispatch() decorator, and PEP 443 . generic type ¶ A type that can be parameterized; typically a container class such as list or dict . Used for type hints and annotations . For more details, see generic alias types , PEP 483 , PEP 484 , PEP 585 , and the typing module. GIL ¶ See global interpreter lock . global interpreter lock ¶ The mechanism used by the CPython interpreter to assure that only one thread executes Python bytecode at a time. This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model (including critical built-in types such as dict ) implicitly safe against concurrent access. Locking the entire interpreter makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor machines. However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party, are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally intensive tasks such as compression or hashing. Also, the GIL is always released when doing I/O. As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the --disable-gil build configuration. After building Python with this option, code must be run with -X gil=0 or after setting the PYTHON_GIL=0 environment variable. This feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs efficiently. For more details, see PEP 703 . In prior versions of Python’s C API, a function might declare that it requires the GIL to be held in order to use it. This refers to having an attached thread state . global state ¶ Data that is accessible throughout a program, such as module-level variables, class variables, or C static variables in extension modules . In multi-threaded programs, global state shared between threads typically requires synchronization to avoid race conditions and data races . hash-based pyc ¶ A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See Cached bytecode invalidation . hashable ¶ An object is hashable if it has a hash value which never changes during its lifetime (it needs a __hash__() method), and can be compared to other objects (it needs an __eq__() method). Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same hash value. Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member, because these data structures use the hash value internally. Most of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if their elements are hashable. Objects which are instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default. They all compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived from their id() . IDLE ¶ An Integrated Development and Learning Environment for Python. IDLE — Python editor and shell is a basic editor and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of Python. immortal ¶ Immortal objects are a CPython implementation detail introduced in PEP 683 . If an object is immortal, its reference count is never modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the interpreter is running. For example, True and None are immortal in CPython. Immortal objects can be identified via sys._is_immortal() , or via PyUnstable_IsImmortal() in the C API. immutable ¶ An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary. Immutable objects are inherently thread-safe because their state cannot be modified after creation, eliminating concerns about improperly synchronized concurrent modification . import path ¶ A list of locations (or path entries ) that are searched by the path based finder for modules to import. During import, this list of locations usually comes from sys.path , but for subpackages it may also come from the parent package’s __path__ attribute. importing ¶ The process by which Python code in one module is made available to Python code in another module. importer ¶ An object that both finds and loads a module; both a finder and loader object. interactive ¶ Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately execute them and see their results. Just launch python with no arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect modules and packages (remember help(x) ). For more on interactive mode, see Interactive Mode . interpreted ¶ Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one, though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the bytecode compiler. This means that source files can be run directly without explicitly creating an executable which is then run. Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more slowly. See also interactive . interpreter shutdown ¶ When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules and various critical internal structures. It also makes several calls to the garbage collector . This can trigger the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks. Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore (common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery). The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the __main__ module or the script being run has finished executing. iterable ¶ An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as list , str , and tuple ) and some non-sequence types like dict , file objects , and objects of any classes you define with an __iter__() method or with a __getitem__() method that implements sequence semantics. Iterables can be used in a for loop and in many other places where a sequence is needed ( zip() , map() , …). When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the built-in function iter() , it returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call iter() or deal with iterator objects yourself. The for statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also iterator , sequence , and generator . iterator ¶ An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator’s __next__() method (or passing it to the built-in function next() ) return successive items in the stream. When no more data are available a StopIteration exception is raised instead. At this point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its __next__() method just raise StopIteration again. Iterators are required to have an __iter__() method that returns the iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as a list ) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the iter() function or use it in a for loop. Attempting this with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container. More information can be found in Iterator Types . CPython implementation detail: CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define __iter__() . And also please note that free-threaded CPython does not guarantee thread-safe behavior of iterator operations. key function ¶ A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value used for sorting or ordering. For example, locale.strxfrm() is used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort conventions. A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements are ordered or grouped. They include min() , max() , sorted() , list.sort() , heapq.merge() , heapq.nsmallest() , heapq.nlargest() , and itertools.groupby() . There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the str.casefold() method can serve as a key function for case insensitive sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from a lambda expression such as lambda r: (r[0], r[2]) . Also, operator.attrgetter() , operator.itemgetter() , and operator.methodcaller() are three key function constructors. See the Sorting HOW TO for examples of how to create and use key functions. keyword argument ¶ See argument . lambda ¶ An anonymous inline function consisting of a single expression which is evaluated when the function is called. The syntax to create a lambda function is lambda [parameters]: expression LBYL ¶ Look before you leap. This coding style explicitly tests for pre-conditions before making calls or lookups. This style contrasts with the EAFP approach and is characterized by the presence of many if statements. In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a race condition between “the looking” and “the leaping”. For example, the code, if key in mapping: return mapping[key] can fail if another thread removes key from mapping after the test, but before the lookup. This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach. See also thread-safe . lexical analyzer ¶ Formal name for the tokenizer ; see token . list ¶ A built-in Python sequence . Despite its name it is more akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to elements is O (1). list comprehension ¶ A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and return a list with the results. result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0] generates a list of strings containing even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The if clause is optional. If omitted, all elements in range(256) are processed. lock ¶ A synchronization primitive that allows only one thread at a time to access a shared resource. A thread must acquire a lock before accessing the protected resource and release it afterward. If a thread attempts to acquire a lock that is already held by another thread, it will block until the lock becomes available. Python’s threading module provides Lock (a basic lock) and RLock (a reentrant lock). Locks are used to prevent race conditions and ensure thread-safe access to shared data. Alternative design patterns to locks exist such as queues, producer/consumer patterns, and thread-local state. See also deadlock , and reentrant . loader ¶ An object that loads a module. It must define the exec_module() and create_module() methods to implement the Loader interface. A loader is typically returned by a finder . See also: Finders and loaders importlib.abc.Loader PEP 302 locale encoding ¶ On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale. It can be set with locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale) . On Windows, it is the ANSI code page (ex: "cp1252" ). On Android and VxWorks, Python uses "utf-8" as the locale encoding. locale.getencoding() can be used to get the locale encoding. See also the filesystem encoding and error handler . magic method ¶ An informal synonym for special method . mapping ¶ A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the methods specified in the collections.abc.Mapping or collections.abc.MutableMapping abstract base classes . Examples include dict , collections.defaultdict , collections.OrderedDict and collections.Counter . meta path finder ¶ A finder returned by a search of sys.meta_path . Meta path finders are related to, but different from path entry finders . See importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder for the methods that meta path finders implement. metaclass ¶ The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for taking those three arguments and creating the class. Most object oriented programming languages provide a default implementation. What makes Python special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses. Most users never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide powerful, elegant solutions. They have been used for logging attribute access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing singletons, and many other tasks. More information can be found in Metaclasses . method ¶ A function which is defined inside a class body. If called as an attribute of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as its first argument (which is usually called self ). See function and nested scope . method resolution order ¶ Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched for a member during lookup. See The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order for details of the algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release. module ¶ An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code. Modules have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects. Modules are loaded into Python by the process of importing . See also package . module spec ¶ A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a module. An instance of importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec . See also Module specs . MRO ¶ See method resolution order . mutable ¶ An object with state that is allowed to change during the course of the program. In multi-threaded programs, mutable objects that are shared between threads require careful synchronization to avoid race conditions . See also immutable , thread-safe , and concurrent modification . named tuple ¶ The term “named tuple” applies to any type or class that inherits from tuple and whose indexable elements are also accessible using named attributes. The type or class may have other features as well. Several built-in types are named tuples, including the values returned by time.localtime() and os.stat() . Another example is sys.float_info : >>> sys . float_info [ 1 ] # indexed access 1024 >>> sys . float_info . max_exp # named field access 1024 >>> isinstance ( sys . float_info , tuple ) # kind of tuple True Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples). Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class definition that inherits from tuple and that defines named fields. Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be created by inheriting typing.NamedTuple , or with the factory function collections.namedtuple() . The latter techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in hand-written or built-in named tuples. namespace ¶ The place where a variable is stored. Namespaces are implemented as dictionaries. There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well as nested namespaces in objects (in methods). Namespaces support modularity by preventing naming conflicts. For instance, the functions builtins.open and os.open() are distinguished by their namespaces. Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by making it clear which module implements a function. For instance, writing random.seed() or itertools.islice() makes it clear that those functions are implemented by the random and itertools modules, respectively. namespace package ¶ A package which serves only as a container for subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, and specifically are not like a regular package because they have no __init__.py file. Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages to have a common parent package. Otherwise, it is recommended to use a regular package . For more information, see PEP 420 and Namespace packages . See also module . native code ¶ Code that is compiled to machine instructions and runs directly on the processor, as opposed to code that is interpreted or runs in a virtual machine. In the context of Python, native code typically refers to C, C++, Rust or Fortran code in extension modules that can be called from Python. See also extension module . nested scope ¶ The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to variables in the outer function. Note that nested scopes by default work only for reference and not for assignment. Local variables both read and write in the innermost scope. Likewise, global variables read and write to the global namespace. The nonlocal allows writing to outer scopes. new-style class ¶ Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer, versatile features like __slots__ , descriptors, properties, __getattribute__() , class methods, and static methods. non-deterministic ¶ Behavior where the outcome of a program can vary between executions with the same inputs. In multi-threaded programs, non-deterministic behavior often results from race conditions where the relative timing or interleaving of threads affects the result. Proper synchronization using locks and other synchronization primitives helps ensure deterministic behavior. object ¶ Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior (methods). Also the ultimate base class of any new-style class . optimized scope ¶ A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read and write access to these names. The local namespaces for functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions are optimized in this fashion. Note: most interpreter optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to optimized scopes. optional module ¶ An extension module that is part of the standard library , but may be absent in some builds of CPython , usually due to missing third-party libraries or because the module is not available for a given platform. See Requirements for optional modules for a list of optional modules that require third-party libraries. package ¶ A Python module which can contain submodules or recursively, subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with a __path__ attribute. See also regular package and namespace package . parallelism ¶ Executing multiple operations at the same time (e.g. on multiple CPU cores). In Python builds with the global interpreter lock (GIL) , only one thread runs Python bytecode at a time, so taking advantage of multiple CPU cores typically involves multiple processes (e.g. multiprocessing ) or native extensions that release the GIL. In free-threaded Python, multiple Python threads can run Python code simultaneously on different cores. parameter ¶ A named entity in a function (or method) definition that specifies an argument (or in some cases, arguments) that the function can accept. There are five kinds of parameter: positional-or-keyword : specifies an argument that can be passed either positionally or as a keyword argument . This is the default kind of parameter, for example foo and bar in the following: def func ( foo , bar = None ): ... positional-only : specifies an argument that can be supplied only by position. Positional-only parameters can be defined by including a / character in the parameter list of the function definition after them, for example posonly1 and posonly2 in the following: def func ( posonly1 , posonly2 , / , positional_or_keyword ): ... keyword-only : specifies an argument that can be supplied only by keyword. Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a single var-positional parameter or bare * in the parameter list of the function definition before them, for example kw_only1 and kw_only2 in the following: def func ( arg , * , kw_only1 , kw_only2 ): ... var-positional : specifies that an arbitrary sequence of positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with * , for example args in the following: def func ( * args , ** kwargs ): ... var-keyword : specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with ** , for example kwargs in the example above. Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as default values for some optional arguments. See also the argument glossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters , the inspect.Parameter class, the Function definitions section, and PEP 362 . path entry ¶ A single location on the import path which the path based finder consults to find modules for importing. path entry finder ¶ A finder returned by a callable on sys.path_hooks (i.e. a path entry hook ) which knows how to locate modules given a path entry . See importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder for the methods that path entry finders implement. path entry hook ¶ A callable on the sys.path_hooks list which returns a path entry finder if it knows how to find modules on a specific path entry . path based finder ¶ One of the default meta path finders which searches an import path for modules. path-like object ¶ An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either a str or bytes object representing a path, or an object implementing the os.PathLike protocol. An object that supports the os.PathLike protocol can be converted to a str or bytes file system path by calling the os.fspath() function; os.fsdecode() and os.fsencode() can be used to guarantee a str or bytes result instead, respectively. Introduced by PEP 519 . PEP ¶ Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed features. PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions. See PEP 1 . portion ¶ A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file) that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in PEP 420 . positional argument ¶ See argument . provisional API ¶ A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from the standard library’s backwards compatibility guarantees. While major changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers. 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https://docs.sui.io/guides/developer/objects/object-model | Object Model | Sui Documentation Skip to main content Sui Documentation Guides Concepts Standards References Search Overview Getting Started Install Sui Install from Source Install from Binaries Configure a Sui Client Create a Sui Address Get SUI from Faucet Hello, World! Connect a Frontend Next Steps Sui Essentials Objects Object Model Object Ownership Transfers Derived Objects Dynamic Fields Object and Package Versioning Packages Currencies and Tokens NFTs Cryptography Nautilus Advanced App Examples Dev Cheat Sheet Operator Guides SuiPlay0X1 🗳️ Book Office Hours → 💬 Join Discord → Objects Object Model On this page Object Model An object is a fundamental unit of storage on the network. Every resource, asset, or piece of data on-chain is an object. Many other blockchains structure storage around accounts containing key-value stores. Sui's storage is structured around objects addressable by unique IDs on-chain. Every object has the following components: A globally unique ID. An owner, which might be an address or an object. A version number that increments every time a change is made to the object. Metadata, such as the digest of the last transaction that used the object. Object types There are 3 types of objects: Sui object: Every resource, asset, or piece of data. Sui objects are what transactions interact with, and are the building blocks for all on-chain state. Sui Move object: An object defined using the Move language. To create a Move object, you must use sui::object::new to create a struct. This struct must have the key ability and include a field id: UID as the first defined field. The struct can also contain primitive types, such as integers and addresses, other objects, and non-object structs. This struct can be stored on-chain as a Sui object. Sui Move package: A smart contract that can manipulate other objects. Each Move package is a set of Sui Move bytecode modules. The modules within the package each have a name that's unique within the containing package. The combination of the package's on-chain ID and the name of a module uniquely identifies the module. When you publish smart contracts to Sui, a package is the unit of publishing. After you publish a package object, it is immutable and can never be changed or removed. A package object can depend on other package objects that were previously published to Sui. Referring to objects You can refer to objects by their: ID: The globally unique ID of the object. It is a stable identifier for the object that does not change and is useful for querying the current state of an object or describing which object was transferred between two addresses. Versioned ID: An (ID, version) pair. It describes the state of the object at a particular point in the object's history and is useful for asking what the value of the object was at some point in the past or determining how recently an object was updated. Object reference: An (ID, version, object digest) triple. The object digest is the hash of the object's contents and metadata. An object reference provides an authenticated view of the object at a particular point in the object's history. Transactions require object inputs to be specified through object references to ensure the transaction's sender and a validator processing the transaction agree on the contents and metadata of the object. Object ownership Every object has an owner field that dictates who can use it in transactions. This field can contain one of the following options: Address owned : Owned by a specific 32-byte address that is either an account address derived from a particular signature scheme or an object ID. Immutable : Not owned by anyone, so anyone can use it. It cannot be mutated, transferred, or deleted. Party : Transferred using the sui::transfer::party_transfer or sui::transfer::public_party_transfer function and is accessible by the Party to which it is transferred. Party objects can be singly owned, but unlike address-owned objects, they are versioned by consensus. Shared : Ownership is shared using the sui::transfer::share_object function and is accessible to everyone. Wrapped : A data structure containing one struct type nested in another. Object metadata Every object has the following metadata: A 32-byte globally unique ID: Derived from the digest of the transaction that created the object and a counter encoding the number of IDs generated by the transaction. An 8-byte unsigned integer version: Monotonically increases with every transaction that modifies it . A 32-byte transaction digest: Indicates the last transaction that included this object as an output. A 32-byte owner field: Indicates how this object can be accessed . In addition to common metadata, objects have a category-specific, variable-sized contents field containing a Binary Canonical Serialization (BCS) -encoded payload: Move objects contain their Move type, whether the object can be transferred using public_transfer , and its fields. Move packages contain the bytecode modules in the package, a table identifying which versions of a package introduced each of its types (type origin table), and a table mapping each of its transitive dependencies to a specific version of that package to use (linkage table). The transaction-object DAG: Relating objects and transactions Transactions take objects as input, read, write, or mutate these inputs, then produce mutated or freshly created objects as output. Each object knows the hash of the last transaction that produced it as an output. A natural way to represent the relationship between objects and transactions is a directed acyclic graph (DAG) where nodes are transactions and directed edges go from transaction A to transaction B if an output object of A is an input object of B . They are labeled by the reference of the object in question, which specifies the exact version of the object created by A and used by B . The root of this DAG is a genesis transaction that takes no inputs and produces the objects that exist in the system's initial state. You can extend the DAG by identifying mutable transaction outputs that have not yet been consumed by any committed transaction and sending a new transaction that takes these outputs and optionally, immutable transaction outputs as inputs. Live objects are available as input for a transaction. The global state maintained by Sui consists of the totality of such objects. The live objects for a particular Sui address A are all objects owned by A , along with all shared and immutable objects in the system. When this DAG contains all committed transactions in the system, it forms a complete and cryptographically auditable view of the system's state and history. In addition, you can use the scheme above to construct a DAG of the relevant history for a subset of transactions or objects, for example, the objects owned by a single address. Limits on transactions, objects, and data Sui has some limits on transactions and data used in transactions, such as a maximum size and number of objects used . The ProtocolConfig struct in the sui-protocol-config crate itemizes these limits: Click to open lib.rs crates/sui-protocol-config/src/lib.rs /// Constants that change the behavior of the protocol. /// /// The value of each constant here must be fixed for a given protocol version. To change the value /// of a constant, advance the protocol version, and add support for it in `get_for_version` under /// the new version number. /// (below). /// /// To add a new field to this struct, use the following procedure: /// - Advance the protocol version. /// - Add the field as a private `Option<T>` to the struct. /// - Initialize the field to `None` in prior protocol versions. /// - Initialize the field to `Some(val)` for your new protocol version. /// - Add a public getter that simply unwraps the field. /// - Two public getters of the form `field(&self) -> field_type` /// and `field_as_option(&self) -> Option<field_type>` will be automatically generated for you. /// Example for a field: `new_constant: Option<u64>` /// ```rust,ignore /// pub fn new_constant(&self) -> u64 { /// self.new_constant.expect(Self::CONSTANT_ERR_MSG) /// } /// pub fn new_constant_as_option(&self) -> Option<u64> { /// self.new_constant.expect(Self::CONSTANT_ERR_MSG) /// } /// ``` /// With `pub fn new_constant(&self) -> u64`, if the constant is accessed in a protocol version /// in which it is not defined, the validator will crash. (Crashing is necessary because /// this type of error would almost always result in forking if not prevented here). /// If you don't want the validator to crash, you can use the /// `pub fn new_constant_as_option(&self) -> Option<u64>` getter, which will /// return `None` if the field is not defined at that version. /// - If you want a customized getter, you can add a method in the impl. #[skip_serializing_none] #[derive(Clone, Serialize, Debug, ProtocolConfigAccessors, ProtocolConfigOverride)] pub struct ProtocolConfig { pub version : ProtocolVersion , feature_flags : FeatureFlags , // ==== Transaction input limits ==== /// Maximum serialized size of a transaction (in bytes). max_tx_size_bytes : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of input objects to a transaction. Enforced by the transaction input checker max_input_objects : Option < u64 > , /// Max size of objects a transaction can write to disk after completion. Enforce by the Sui adapter. /// This is the sum of the serialized size of all objects written to disk. /// The max size of individual objects on the other hand is `max_move_object_size`. max_size_written_objects : Option < u64 > , /// Max size of objects a system transaction can write to disk after completion. Enforce by the Sui adapter. /// Similar to `max_size_written_objects` but for system transactions. max_size_written_objects_system_tx : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum size of serialized transaction effects. max_serialized_tx_effects_size_bytes : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum size of serialized transaction effects for system transactions. max_serialized_tx_effects_size_bytes_system_tx : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of gas payment objects for a transaction. max_gas_payment_objects : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum number of modules in a Publish transaction. max_modules_in_publish : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum number of transitive dependencies in a package when publishing. max_package_dependencies : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum number of arguments in a move call or a ProgrammableTransaction's /// TransferObjects command. max_arguments : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum number of total type arguments, computed recursively. max_type_arguments : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum depth of an individual type argument. max_type_argument_depth : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum size of a Pure CallArg. max_pure_argument_size : Option < u32 > , /// Maximum number of Commands in a ProgrammableTransaction. max_programmable_tx_commands : Option < u32 > , // ==== Move VM, Move bytecode verifier, and execution limits === /// Maximum Move bytecode version the VM understands. All older versions are accepted. move_binary_format_version : Option < u32 > , min_move_binary_format_version : Option < u32 > , /// Configuration controlling binary tables size. binary_module_handles : Option < u16 > , binary_struct_handles : Option < u16 > , binary_function_handles : Option < u16 > , binary_function_instantiations : Option < u16 > , binary_signatures : Option < u16 > , binary_constant_pool : Option < u16 > , binary_identifiers : Option < u16 > , binary_address_identifiers : Option < u16 > , binary_struct_defs : Option < u16 > , binary_struct_def_instantiations : Option < u16 > , binary_function_defs : Option < u16 > , binary_field_handles : Option < u16 > , binary_field_instantiations : Option < u16 > , binary_friend_decls : Option < u16 > , binary_enum_defs : Option < u16 > , binary_enum_def_instantiations : Option < u16 > , binary_variant_handles : Option < u16 > , binary_variant_instantiation_handles : Option < u16 > , /// Maximum size of the `contents` part of an object, in bytes. Enforced by the Sui adapter when effects are produced. max_move_object_size : Option < u64 > , // TODO: Option<increase to 500 KB. currently, publishing a package > 500 KB exceeds the max computation gas cost /// Maximum size of a Move package object, in bytes. Enforced by the Sui adapter at the end of a publish transaction. max_move_package_size : Option < u64 > , /// Max number of publish or upgrade commands allowed in a programmable transaction block. max_publish_or_upgrade_per_ptb : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum gas budget in MIST that a transaction can use. max_tx_gas : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum amount of the proposed gas price in MIST (defined in the transaction). max_gas_price : Option < u64 > , /// For aborted txns, we cap the gas price at a factor of RGP. This lowers risk of setting higher priority gas price /// if there's a chance the txn will abort. max_gas_price_rgp_factor_for_aborted_transactions : Option < u64 > , /// The max computation bucket for gas. This is the max that can be charged for computation. max_gas_computation_bucket : Option < u64 > , // Define the value used to round up computation gas charges gas_rounding_step : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of nested loops. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_loop_depth : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of type arguments that can be bound to generic type parameters. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_generic_instantiation_length : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of parameters that a Move function can have. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_function_parameters : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of basic blocks that a Move function can have. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_basic_blocks : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum stack size value. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_value_stack_size : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of "type nodes", a metric for how big a SignatureToken will be when expanded into a fully qualified type. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_type_nodes : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of push instructions in one function. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_push_size : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of struct definitions in a module. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_struct_definitions : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of function definitions in a module. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_function_definitions : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of fields allowed in a struct definition. Enforced by the Move bytecode verifier. max_fields_in_struct : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum dependency depth. Enforced by the Move linker when loading dependent modules. max_dependency_depth : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of Move events that a single transaction can emit. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_event_emit : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of new IDs that a single transaction can create. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_new_move_object_ids : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of new IDs that a single system transaction can create. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_new_move_object_ids_system_tx : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of IDs that a single transaction can delete. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_deleted_move_object_ids : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of IDs that a single system transaction can delete. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_deleted_move_object_ids_system_tx : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of IDs that a single transaction can transfer. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_transferred_move_object_ids : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of IDs that a single system transaction can transfer. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_num_transferred_move_object_ids_system_tx : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum size of a Move user event. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_event_emit_size : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum size of a Move user event. Enforced by the VM during execution. max_event_emit_size_total : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum length of a vector in Move. Enforced by the VM during execution, and for constants, by the verifier. max_move_vector_len : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum length of an `Identifier` in Move. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_move_identifier_len : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum depth of a Move value within the VM. max_move_value_depth : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of variants in an enum. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_move_enum_variants : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of back edges in Move function. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_back_edges_per_function : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of back edges in Move module. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_back_edges_per_module : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of meter `ticks` spent verifying a Move function. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_verifier_meter_ticks_per_function : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of meter `ticks` spent verifying a Move module. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_meter_ticks_per_module : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of meter `ticks` spent verifying a Move package. Enforced by the bytecode verifier at signing. max_meter_ticks_per_package : Option < u64 > , // === Object runtime internal operation limits ==== // These affect dynamic fields /// Maximum number of cached objects in the object runtime ObjectStore. Enforced by object runtime during execution object_runtime_max_num_cached_objects : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of cached objects in the object runtime ObjectStore in system transaction. Enforced by object runtime during execution object_runtime_max_num_cached_objects_system_tx : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of stored objects accessed by object runtime ObjectStore. Enforced by object runtime during execution object_runtime_max_num_store_entries : Option < u64 > , /// Maximum number of stored objects accessed by object runtime ObjectStore in system transaction. Enforced by object runtime during execution object_runtime_max_num_store_entries_system_tx : Option < u64 > , // === Execution gas costs ==== /// Base cost for any Sui transaction base_tx_cost_fixed : Option < u64 > , /// Additional cost for a transaction that publishes a package /// i.e., the base cost of such a transaction is base_tx_cost_fixed + package_publish_cost_fixed package_publish_cost_fixed : Option < u64 > , /// Cost per byte of a Move call transaction /// i.e., the cost of such a transaction is base_cost + (base_tx_cost_per_byte * size) base_tx_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , /// Cost per byte for a transaction that publishes a package package_publish_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Per-byte cost of reading an object during transaction execution obj_access_cost_read_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Per-byte cost of writing an object during transaction execution obj_access_cost_mutate_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Per-byte cost of deleting an object during transaction execution obj_access_cost_delete_per_byte : Option < u64 > , /// Per-byte cost charged for each input object to a transaction. /// Meant to approximate the cost of checking locks for each object // TODO: Option<I'm not sure that this cost makes sense. Checking locks is "free" // in the sense that an invalid tx that can never be committed/pay gas can // force validators to check an arbitrary number of locks. If those checks are // "free" for invalid transactions, why charge for them in valid transactions // TODO: Option<if we keep this, I think we probably want it to be a fixed cost rather // than a per-byte cost. checking an object lock should not require loading an // entire object, just consulting an ID -> tx digest map obj_access_cost_verify_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Maximal nodes which are allowed when converting to a type layout. max_type_to_layout_nodes : Option < u64 > , // Maximal size in bytes that a PTB value can be max_ptb_value_size : Option < u64 > , // === Gas version. gas model === /// Gas model version, what code we are using to charge gas gas_model_version : Option < u64 > , // === Storage gas costs === /// Per-byte cost of storing an object in the Sui global object store. Some of this cost may be refundable if the object is later freed obj_data_cost_refundable : Option < u64 > , // Per-byte cost of storing an object in the Sui transaction log (e.g., in CertifiedTransactionEffects) // This depends on the size of various fields including the effects // TODO: Option<I don't fully understand this^ and more details would be useful obj_metadata_cost_non_refundable : Option < u64 > , // === Tokenomics === // TODO: Option<this should be changed to u64. /// Sender of a txn that touches an object will get this percent of the storage rebate back. /// In basis point. storage_rebate_rate : Option < u64 > , /// 5% of the storage fund's share of rewards are reinvested into the storage fund. /// In basis point. storage_fund_reinvest_rate : Option < u64 > , /// The share of rewards that will be slashed and redistributed is 50%. /// In basis point. reward_slashing_rate : Option < u64 > , /// Unit gas price, Mist per internal gas unit. storage_gas_price : Option < u64 > , /// Per-object storage cost for accumulator objects, used during end-of-epoch accounting. accumulator_object_storage_cost : Option < u64 > , // === Core Protocol === /// Max number of transactions per checkpoint. /// Note that this is a protocol constant and not a config as validators must have this set to /// the same value, otherwise they *will* fork. max_transactions_per_checkpoint : Option < u64 > , /// Max size of a checkpoint in bytes. /// Note that this is a protocol constant and not a config as validators must have this set to /// the same value, otherwise they *will* fork. max_checkpoint_size_bytes : Option < u64 > , /// A protocol upgrade always requires 2f+1 stake to agree. We support a buffer of additional /// stake (as a fraction of f, expressed in basis points) that is required before an upgrade /// can happen automatically. 10000bps would indicate that complete unanimity is required (all /// 3f+1 must vote), while 0bps would indicate that 2f+1 is sufficient. buffer_stake_for_protocol_upgrade_bps : Option < u64 > , // === Native Function Costs === // `address` module // Cost params for the Move native function `address::from_bytes(bytes: vector<u8>)` address_from_bytes_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `address::to_u256(address): u256` address_to_u256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `address::from_u256(u256): address` address_from_u256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // `config` module // Cost params for the Move native function `read_setting_impl<Name: copy + drop + store, // SettingValue: key + store, SettingDataValue: store, Value: copy + drop + store, // >(config: address, name: address, current_epoch: u64): Option<Value>` config_read_setting_impl_cost_base : Option < u64 > , config_read_setting_impl_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // `dynamic_field` module // Cost params for the Move native function `hash_type_and_key<K: copy + drop + store>(parent: address, k: K): address` dynamic_field_hash_type_and_key_cost_base : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_hash_type_and_key_type_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_hash_type_and_key_value_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_hash_type_and_key_type_tag_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `add_child_object<Child: key>(parent: address, child: Child)` dynamic_field_add_child_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_add_child_object_type_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_add_child_object_value_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_add_child_object_struct_tag_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `borrow_child_object_mut<Child: key>(parent: &mut UID, id: address): &mut Child` dynamic_field_borrow_child_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_borrow_child_object_child_ref_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_borrow_child_object_type_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `remove_child_object<Child: key>(parent: address, id: address): Child` dynamic_field_remove_child_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_remove_child_object_child_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_remove_child_object_type_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `has_child_object(parent: address, id: address): bool` dynamic_field_has_child_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `has_child_object_with_ty<Child: key>(parent: address, id: address): bool` dynamic_field_has_child_object_with_ty_cost_base : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_has_child_object_with_ty_type_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , dynamic_field_has_child_object_with_ty_type_tag_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // `event` module // Cost params for the Move native function `event::emit<T: copy + drop>(event: T)` event_emit_cost_base : Option < u64 > , event_emit_value_size_derivation_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , event_emit_tag_size_derivation_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , event_emit_output_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , event_emit_auth_stream_cost : Option < u64 > , // `object` module // Cost params for the Move native function `borrow_uid<T: key>(obj: &T): &UID` object_borrow_uid_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `delete_impl(id: address)` object_delete_impl_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `record_new_uid(id: address)` object_record_new_uid_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Transfer // Cost params for the Move native function `transfer_impl<T: key>(obj: T, recipient: address)` transfer_transfer_internal_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `party_transfer_impl<T: key>(obj: T, party_members: vector<address>)` transfer_party_transfer_internal_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `freeze_object<T: key>(obj: T)` transfer_freeze_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function `share_object<T: key>(obj: T)` transfer_share_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Cost params for the Move native function // `receive_object<T: key>(p: &mut UID, recv: Receiving<T>T)` transfer_receive_object_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // TxContext // Cost params for the Move native function `transfer_impl<T: key>(obj: T, recipient: address)` tx_context_derive_id_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_fresh_id_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_sender_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_epoch_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_epoch_timestamp_ms_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_sponsor_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_rgp_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_gas_price_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_gas_budget_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_ids_created_cost_base : Option < u64 > , tx_context_replace_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // Types // Cost params for the Move native function `is_one_time_witness<T: drop>(_: &T): bool` types_is_one_time_witness_cost_base : Option < u64 > , types_is_one_time_witness_type_tag_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , types_is_one_time_witness_type_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Validator // Cost params for the Move native function `validate_metadata_bcs(metadata: vector<u8>)` validator_validate_metadata_cost_base : Option < u64 > , validator_validate_metadata_data_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // Crypto natives crypto_invalid_arguments_cost : Option < u64 > , // bls12381::bls12381_min_sig_verify bls12381_bls12381_min_sig_verify_cost_base : Option < u64 > , bls12381_bls12381_min_sig_verify_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , bls12381_bls12381_min_sig_verify_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // bls12381::bls12381_min_pk_verify bls12381_bls12381_min_pk_verify_cost_base : Option < u64 > , bls12381_bls12381_min_pk_verify_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , bls12381_bls12381_min_pk_verify_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // ecdsa_k1::ecrecover ecdsa_k1_ecrecover_keccak256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_ecrecover_keccak256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_ecrecover_keccak256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_ecrecover_sha256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_ecrecover_sha256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_ecrecover_sha256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // ecdsa_k1::decompress_pubkey ecdsa_k1_decompress_pubkey_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // ecdsa_k1::secp256k1_verify ecdsa_k1_secp256k1_verify_keccak256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_secp256k1_verify_keccak256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_secp256k1_verify_keccak256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_secp256k1_verify_sha256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_secp256k1_verify_sha256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_k1_secp256k1_verify_sha256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // ecdsa_r1::ecrecover ecdsa_r1_ecrecover_keccak256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_ecrecover_keccak256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_ecrecover_keccak256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_ecrecover_sha256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_ecrecover_sha256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_ecrecover_sha256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // ecdsa_r1::secp256k1_verify ecdsa_r1_secp256r1_verify_keccak256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_secp256r1_verify_keccak256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_secp256r1_verify_keccak256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_secp256r1_verify_sha256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_secp256r1_verify_sha256_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecdsa_r1_secp256r1_verify_sha256_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // ecvrf::verify ecvrf_ecvrf_verify_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ecvrf_ecvrf_verify_alpha_string_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ecvrf_ecvrf_verify_alpha_string_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // ed25519 ed25519_ed25519_verify_cost_base : Option < u64 > , ed25519_ed25519_verify_msg_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , ed25519_ed25519_verify_msg_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // groth16::prepare_verifying_key groth16_prepare_verifying_key_bls12381_cost_base : Option < u64 > , groth16_prepare_verifying_key_bn254_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // groth16::verify_groth16_proof_internal groth16_verify_groth16_proof_internal_bls12381_cost_base : Option < u64 > , groth16_verify_groth16_proof_internal_bls12381_cost_per_public_input : Option < u64 > , groth16_verify_groth16_proof_internal_bn254_cost_base : Option < u64 > , groth16_verify_groth16_proof_internal_bn254_cost_per_public_input : Option < u64 > , groth16_verify_groth16_proof_internal_public_input_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , // hash::blake2b256 hash_blake2b256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , hash_blake2b256_data_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , hash_blake2b256_data_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // hash::keccak256 hash_keccak256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , hash_keccak256_data_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , hash_keccak256_data_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // poseidon::poseidon_bn254 poseidon_bn254_cost_base : Option < u64 > , poseidon_bn254_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // group_ops group_ops_bls12381_decode_scalar_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_decode_g1_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_decode_g2_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_decode_gt_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_scalar_add_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_add_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_add_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_gt_add_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_scalar_sub_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_sub_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_sub_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_gt_sub_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_scalar_mul_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_mul_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_mul_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_gt_mul_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_scalar_div_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_div_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_div_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_gt_div_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_hash_to_base_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_hash_to_base_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_hash_to_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_hash_to_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_msm_base_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_msm_base_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_msm_base_cost_per_input : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g2_msm_base_cost_per_input : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_msm_max_len : Option < u32 > , group_ops_bls12381_pairing_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_g1_to_uncompressed_g1_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_uncompressed_g1_to_g1_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_uncompressed_g1_sum_base_cost : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_uncompressed_g1_sum_cost_per_term : Option < u64 > , group_ops_bls12381_uncompressed_g1_sum_max_terms : Option < u64 > , // hmac::hmac_sha3_256 hmac_hmac_sha3_256_cost_base : Option < u64 > , hmac_hmac_sha3_256_input_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , hmac_hmac_sha3_256_input_cost_per_block : Option < u64 > , // zklogin::check_zklogin_id check_zklogin_id_cost_base : Option < u64 > , // zklogin::check_zklogin_issuer check_zklogin_issuer_cost_base : Option < u64 > , vdf_verify_vdf_cost : Option < u64 > , vdf_hash_to_input_cost : Option < u64 > , // nitro_attestation::load_nitro_attestation nitro_attestation_parse_base_cost : Option < u64 > , nitro_attestation_parse_cost_per_byte : Option < u64 > , nitro_attestation_verify_base_cost : Option < u64 > , nitro_attestation_verify_cost_per_cert : Option < u64 > , // Stdlib costs bcs_per_byte_serialized_cost : Option < u64 > , bcs_legacy_min_output_size_cost : Option < u64 > , bcs_failure_cost : Option < u64 > , hash_sha2_256_base_cost : Option < u64 > , hash_sha2_256_per_byte_cost : Option < u64 > , hash_sha2_256_legacy_min_input_len_cost : Option < u64 > , hash_sha3_256_base_cost : Option < u64 > , hash_sha3_256_per_byte_cost : Option < u64 > , hash_sha3_256_legacy_min_input_len_cost : Option < u64 > , type_name_get_base_cost : Option < u64 > , type_name_get_per_byte_cost : Option < u64 > , type_name_id_base_cost : Option < u64 > , string_check_utf8_base_cost : Option < u64 > , string_check_utf8_per_byte_cost : Option < u64 > , string_is_char_boundary_base_cost : Option < u64 > , string_sub_string_base_cost : Option < u64 > , string_sub_string_per_byte_cost : Option < u64 > , string_index_of_base_cost : Option < u64 > , string_index_of_per_byte_pattern_cost : Option < u64 > , string_index_of_per_byte_searched_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_empty_base_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_length_base_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_push_back_base_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_push_back_legacy_per_abstract_memory_unit_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_borrow_base_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_pop_back_base_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_destroy_empty_base_cost : Option < u64 > , vector_swap_base_cost : Option < u64 > , debug_print_base_cost : Option < u64 > , debug_print_stack_trace_base_cost : Option < u64 > , // ==== Ephemeral (consensus only) params deleted ==== // // Const params for consensus scoring decision // The scaling factor property for the MED outlier detection // scoring_decision_mad_divisor: Option<f64>, // The cutoff value for the MED outlier detection // scoring_decision_cutoff_value: Option<f64>, /// === Execution Version === execution_version : Option < u64 > , // Dictates the threshold (percentage of stake) that is used to calculate the "bad" nodes to be // swapped when creating the consensus schedule. The values should be of the range [0 - 33]. Anything // above 33 (f) will not be allowed. consensus_bad_nodes_stake_threshold : Option < u64 > , max_jwk_votes_per_validator_per_epoch : Option < u64 > , // The maximum age of a JWK in epochs before it is removed from the AuthenticatorState object. // Applied at the end of an epoch as a delta from the new epoch value, so setting this to 1 // will cause the new epoch to start with JWKs from the previous epoch still valid. max_age_of_jwk_in_epochs : Option < u64 > , // === random beacon === /// Maximum allowed precision loss when reducing voting weights for the random beacon /// protocol. random_beacon_reduction_allowed_delta : Option < u16 > , /// Minimum number of shares below which voting weights will not be reduced for the /// random beacon protocol. random_beacon_reduction_lower_bound : Option < u32 > , /// Consensus Round after which DKG should be aborted and randomness disabled for /// the epoch, if it hasn't already completed. random_beacon_dkg_timeout_round : Option < u32 > , /// Minimum interval between consecutive rounds of generated randomness. random_beacon_min_round_interval_ms : Option < u64 > , /// Version of the random beacon DKG protocol. /// 0 was deprecated (and currently not supported), 1 is the default version. random_beacon_dkg_version : Option < u64 > , /// The maximum serialised transaction size (in bytes) accepted by consensus. That should be bigger than the /// `max_tx_size_bytes` with some additional headroom. consensus_max_transaction_size_bytes : Option < u64 > , /// The maximum size of transactions included in a consensus block. consensus_max_transactions_in_block_bytes : Option < u64 > , /// The maximum number of transactions included in a consensus block. consensus_max_num_transactions_in_block : Option < u64 > , /// The maximum number of rounds where transaction voting is allowed. consensus_voting_rounds : Option < u32 > , /// DEPRECATED. Do not use. max_accumulated_txn_cost_per_object_in_narwhal_commit : Option < u64 > , /// The max number of consensus rounds a transaction can be deferred due to shared object congestion. /// Transactions will be cancelled after this many rounds. max_deferral_rounds_for_congestion_control : Option < u64 > , /// DEPRECATED. Do not use. max_txn_cost_overage_per_object_in_commit : Option < u64 > , /// DEPRECATED. Do not use. allowed_txn_cost_overage_burst_per_object_in_commit : Option < u64 > , /// Minimum interval of commit timestamps between consecutive checkpoints. min_checkpoint_interval_ms : Option < u64 > , /// Version number to use for version_specific_data in `CheckpointSummary`. checkpoint_summary_version_specific_data : Option < u64 > , /// The max number of transactions that can be included in a single Soft Bundle. max_soft_bundle_size : Option < u64 > , /// Whether to try to form bridge committee // Note: this is not a feature flag because we want to distinguish between // `None` and `Some(false)`, as committee was already finalized on Testnet. bridge_should_try_to_finalize_committee : Option < bool > , /// The max accumulated txn execution cost per object in a mysticeti. Transactions /// in a commit will be deferred once their touch shared objects hit this limit, /// unless the selected congestion control mode allows overage. /// This config plays the same role as `max_accumulated_txn_cost_per_object_in_narwhal_commit` /// but for mysticeti commits due to that mysticeti has higher commit rate. max_accumulated_txn_cost_per_object_in_mysticeti_commit : Option < u64 > , /// As above, but separate per-commit budget for transactions that use randomness. /// If not configured, uses the setting for `max_accumulated_txn_cost_per_object_in_mysticeti_commit`. max_accumulated_randomness_txn_cost_per_object_in_mysticeti_commit : Option < u64 > , /// Configures the garbage collection depth for consensus. When is unset or `0` then the garbage collection /// is disabled. consensus_gc_depth : Option < u32 > , /// DEPRECATED. Do not use. gas_budget_based_txn_cost_cap_factor : Option < u64 > , /// DEPRECATED. Do not use. gas_budget_based_txn_cost_absolute_cap_commit_count : Option < u64 > , /// SIP-45: K in the formula `amplification_factor = max(0, gas_price / reference_gas_price - K)`. /// This is the threshold for activating consensus amplification. sip_45_consensus_amplification_threshold : Option < u64 > , /// DEPRECATED: this was an ephemeral feature flag only used in per-epoch tables, which has now /// been deployed everywhere. use_object_per_epoch_marker_table_v2 : Option < bool > , /// The number of commits to consider when computing a deterministic commit rate. consensus_commit_rate_estimation_window_size : Option < u32 > , /// A list of effective AliasedAddress. /// For each pair, `aliased` is allowed to act as `original` for any of the transaction digests /// listed in `tx_digests` #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty" )] aliased_addresses : Vec < AliasedAddress > , /// The base charge for each command in a programmable transaction. This is a fixed cost to /// account for the overhead of processing each command. translation_per_command_base_charge : Option < u64 > , /// The base charge for each input in a programmable transaction regardless of if it is used or /// not, or a pure/object/funds withdrawal input. translation_per_input_base_charge : Option < u64 > , /// The base charge for each byte of pure input in a programmable transaction. translation_pure_input_per_byte_charge : Option < u64 > , /// The multiplier for the number of type nodes when charging for type loading. /// This is multiplied by the number of type nodes to get the total cost. /// This should be a small number to avoid excessive gas costs for loading types. translation_per_type_node_charge : Option < u64 > , /// The multiplier for the number of type references when charging for type checking and reference /// checking. translation_per_reference_node_charge : Option < u64 > , /// The multiplier for each linkage entry when charging for linkage tables that we have /// created. translation_per_linkage_entry_charge : Option < u64 > , /// The maximum number of updates per settlement transaction. max_updates_per_settlement_txn : Option < u32 > , } Select a network from the following tabs to see the currently configured limits and values. Loading... Related links • Object and Package Versioning Versioning provides the ability to upgrade packages and objects on the Sui network. • Object Ownership On Sui, object ownership can be represented in different ways. Weigh the benefits of each to decide the best approach for your project. • `sui-protocol-config` Crate that defines the ProtocolConfig struct with limit definitions. • Building against Limits The Move Book provides a concise overview for limits most projects deal with. • The Move Book A comprehensive guide to the Move programming language used on the Sui network. • The Move Reference Reference guide for the Move language. Edit this page Previous Simulating References Next Object Ownership Object types Referring to objects Object ownership Object metadata The transaction-object DAG: Relating objects and transactions Limits on transactions, objects, and data Related links © 2026 Sui Foundation | Documentation distributed under CC BY 4.0 | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-sequence | Glossary — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Previous topic Deprecations Next topic About this documentation This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » Glossary | Theme Auto Light Dark | Glossary ¶ >>> ¶ The default Python prompt of the interactive shell. Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter. ... ¶ Can refer to: The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after specifying a decorator. The three dots form of the Ellipsis object. abstract base class ¶ Abstract base classes complement duck-typing by providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like hasattr() would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with magic methods ). ABCs introduce virtual subclasses, which are classes that don’t inherit from a class but are still recognized by isinstance() and issubclass() ; see the abc module documentation. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for data structures (in the collections.abc module), numbers (in the numbers module), streams (in the io module), import finders and loaders (in the importlib.abc module). You can create your own ABCs with the abc module. annotate function ¶ A function that can be called to retrieve the annotations of an object. This function is accessible as the __annotate__ attribute of functions, classes, and modules. Annotate functions are a subset of evaluate functions . annotation ¶ A label associated with a variable, a class attribute or a function parameter or return value, used by convention as a type hint . Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions can be retrieved by calling annotationlib.get_annotations() on modules, classes, and functions, respectively. See variable annotation , function annotation , PEP 484 , PEP 526 , and PEP 649 , which describe this functionality. Also see Annotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations. argument ¶ A value passed to a function (or method ) when calling the function. There are two kinds of argument: keyword argument : an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g. name= ) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary preceded by ** . For example, 3 and 5 are both keyword arguments in the following calls to complex() : complex ( real = 3 , imag = 5 ) complex ( ** { 'real' : 3 , 'imag' : 5 }) positional argument : an argument that is not a keyword argument. Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list and/or be passed as elements of an iterable preceded by * . For example, 3 and 5 are both positional arguments in the following calls: complex ( 3 , 5 ) complex ( * ( 3 , 5 )) Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body. See the Calls section for the rules governing this assignment. Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the evaluated value is assigned to the local variable. See also the parameter glossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters , and PEP 362 . asynchronous context manager ¶ An object which controls the environment seen in an async with statement by defining __aenter__() and __aexit__() methods. Introduced by PEP 492 . asynchronous generator ¶ A function which returns an asynchronous generator iterator . It looks like a coroutine function defined with async def except that it contains yield expressions for producing a series of values usable in an async for loop. Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an asynchronous generator iterator in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. An asynchronous generator function may contain await expressions as well as async for , and async with statements. asynchronous generator iterator ¶ An object created by an asynchronous generator function. This is an asynchronous iterator which when called using the __anext__() method returns an awaitable object which will execute the body of the asynchronous generator function until the next yield expression. Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the asynchronous generator iterator effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by __anext__() , it picks up where it left off. See PEP 492 and PEP 525 . asynchronous iterable ¶ An object, that can be used in an async for statement. Must return an asynchronous iterator from its __aiter__() method. Introduced by PEP 492 . asynchronous iterator ¶ An object that implements the __aiter__() and __anext__() methods. __anext__() must return an awaitable object. async for resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous iterator’s __anext__() method until it raises a StopAsyncIteration exception. Introduced by PEP 492 . atomic operation ¶ An operation that appears to execute as a single, indivisible step: no other thread can observe it half-done, and its effects become visible all at once. Python does not guarantee that high-level statements are atomic (for example, x += 1 performs multiple bytecode operations and is not atomic). Atomicity is only guaranteed where explicitly documented. See also race condition and data race . attached thread state ¶ A thread state that is active for the current OS thread. When a thread state is attached, the OS thread has access to the full Python C API and can safely invoke the bytecode interpreter. Unless a function explicitly notes otherwise, attempting to call the C API without an attached thread state will result in a fatal error or undefined behavior. A thread state can be attached and detached explicitly by the user through the C API, or implicitly by the runtime, including during blocking C calls and by the bytecode interpreter in between calls. On most builds of Python, having an attached thread state implies that the caller holds the GIL for the current interpreter, so only one OS thread can have an attached thread state at a given moment. In free-threaded builds of Python, threads can concurrently hold an attached thread state, allowing for true parallelism of the bytecode interpreter. attribute ¶ A value associated with an object which is usually referenced by name using dotted expressions. For example, if an object o has an attribute a it would be referenced as o.a . It is possible to give an object an attribute whose name is not an identifier as defined by Names (identifiers and keywords) , for example using setattr() , if the object allows it. Such an attribute will not be accessible using a dotted expression, and would instead need to be retrieved with getattr() . awaitable ¶ An object that can be used in an await expression. Can be a coroutine or an object with an __await__() method. See also PEP 492 . BDFL ¶ Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. Guido van Rossum , Python’s creator. binary file ¶ A file object able to read and write bytes-like objects . Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode ( 'rb' , 'wb' or 'rb+' ), sys.stdin.buffer , sys.stdout.buffer , and instances of io.BytesIO and gzip.GzipFile . See also text file for a file object able to read and write str objects. borrowed reference ¶ In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an object, where the code using the object does not own the reference. It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed. For example, a garbage collection can remove the last strong reference to the object and so destroy it. Calling Py_INCREF() on the borrowed reference is recommended to convert it to a strong reference in-place, except when the object cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference. The Py_NewRef() function can be used to create a new strong reference . bytes-like object ¶ An object that supports the Buffer Protocol and can export a C- contiguous buffer. This includes all bytes , bytearray , and array.array objects, as well as many common memoryview objects. Bytes-like objects can be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket. Some operations need the binary data to be mutable. The documentation often refers to these as “read-write bytes-like objects”. Example mutable buffer objects include bytearray and a memoryview of a bytearray . Other operations require the binary data to be stored in immutable objects (“read-only bytes-like objects”); examples of these include bytes and a memoryview of a bytes object. bytecode ¶ Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation of a Python program in the CPython interpreter. The bytecode is also cached in .pyc files so that executing the same file is faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be avoided). This “intermediate language” is said to run on a virtual machine that executes the machine code corresponding to each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python releases. A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for the dis module . callable ¶ A callable is an object that can be called, possibly with a set of arguments (see argument ), with the following syntax: callable ( argument1 , argument2 , argumentN ) A function , and by extension a method , is a callable. An instance of a class that implements the __call__() method is also a callable. callback ¶ A subroutine function which is passed as an argument to be executed at some point in the future. class ¶ A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the class. class variable ¶ A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class). closure variable ¶ A free variable referenced from a nested scope that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces. May be explicitly defined with the nonlocal keyword to allow write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being read. For example, in the inner function in the following code, both x and print are free variables , but only x is a closure variable : def outer (): x = 0 def inner (): nonlocal x x += 1 print ( x ) return inner Due to the codeobject.co_freevars attribute (which, despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more general free variable term is sometimes used even when the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables. complex number ¶ An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of -1 ), often written i in mathematics or j in engineering. Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a j suffix, e.g., 3+1j . To get access to complex equivalents of the math module, use cmath . Use of complex numbers is a fairly advanced mathematical feature. If you’re not aware of a need for them, it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them. concurrency ¶ The ability of a computer program to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Python provides libraries for writing programs that make use of different forms of concurrency. asyncio is a library for dealing with asynchronous tasks and coroutines. threading provides access to operating system threads and multiprocessing to operating system processes. Multi-core processors can execute threads and processes on different CPU cores at the same time (see parallelism ). concurrent modification ¶ When multiple threads modify shared data at the same time. Concurrent modification without proper synchronization can cause race conditions , and might also trigger a data race , data corruption, or both. context ¶ This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is used. Some common meanings: The temporary state or environment established by a context manager via a with statement. The collection of keyvalue bindings associated with a particular contextvars.Context object and accessed via ContextVar objects. Also see context variable . A contextvars.Context object. Also see current context . context management protocol ¶ The __enter__() and __exit__() methods called by the with statement. See PEP 343 . context manager ¶ An object which implements the context management protocol and controls the environment seen in a with statement. See PEP 343 . context variable ¶ A variable whose value depends on which context is the current context . Values are accessed via contextvars.ContextVar objects. Context variables are primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous tasks. contiguous ¶ A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either C-contiguous or Fortran contiguous . Zero-dimensional buffers are C and Fortran contiguous. In one-dimensional arrays, the items must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of increasing indexes starting from zero. In multidimensional C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when visiting items in order of memory address. However, in Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest. coroutine ¶ Coroutines are a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point. Coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points. They can be implemented with the async def statement. See also PEP 492 . coroutine function ¶ A function which returns a coroutine object. A coroutine function may be defined with the async def statement, and may contain await , async for , and async with keywords. These were introduced by PEP 492 . CPython ¶ The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as distributed on python.org . The term “CPython” is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others such as Jython or IronPython. current context ¶ The context ( contextvars.Context object) that is currently used by ContextVar objects to access (get or set) the values of context variables . Each thread has its own current context. Frameworks for executing asynchronous tasks (see asyncio ) associate each task with a context which becomes the current context whenever the task starts or resumes execution. cyclic isolate ¶ A subgroup of one or more objects that reference each other in a reference cycle, but are not referenced by objects outside the group. The goal of the cyclic garbage collector is to identify these groups and break the reference cycles so that the memory can be reclaimed. data race ¶ A situation where multiple threads access the same memory location concurrently, at least one of the accesses is a write, and the threads do not use any synchronization to control their access. Data races lead to non-deterministic behavior and can cause data corruption. Proper use of locks and other synchronization primitives prevents data races. Note that data races can only happen in native code, but that native code might be exposed in a Python API. See also race condition and thread-safe . deadlock ¶ A situation in which two or more tasks (threads, processes, or coroutines) wait indefinitely for each other to release resources or complete actions, preventing any from making progress. For example, if thread A holds lock 1 and waits for lock 2, while thread B holds lock 2 and waits for lock 1, both threads will wait indefinitely. In Python this often arises from acquiring multiple locks in conflicting orders or from circular join/await dependencies. Deadlocks can be avoided by always acquiring multiple locks in a consistent order. See also lock and reentrant . decorator ¶ A function returning another function, usually applied as a function transformation using the @wrapper syntax. Common examples for decorators are classmethod() and staticmethod() . The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two function definitions are semantically equivalent: def f ( arg ): ... f = staticmethod ( f ) @staticmethod def f ( arg ): ... The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there. See the documentation for function definitions and class definitions for more about decorators. descriptor ¶ Any object which defines the methods __get__() , __set__() , or __delete__() . When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using a.b to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named b in the class dictionary for a , but if b is a descriptor, the respective descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods, and reference to super classes. For more information about descriptors’ methods, see Implementing Descriptors or the Descriptor How To Guide . dictionary ¶ An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The keys can be any object with __hash__() and __eq__() methods. Called a hash in Perl. dictionary comprehension ¶ A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a dictionary with the results. results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)} generates a dictionary containing key n mapped to value n ** 2 . See Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries . dictionary view ¶ The objects returned from dict.keys() , dict.values() , and dict.items() are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the dictionary view to become a full list use list(dictview) . See Dictionary view objects . docstring ¶ A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class, function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is recognized by the compiler and put into the __doc__ attribute of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the object. duck-typing ¶ A programming style which does not look at an object’s type to determine if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply called or used (“If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it must be a duck.”) By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types, well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic substitution. Duck-typing avoids tests using type() or isinstance() . (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented with abstract base classes .) Instead, it typically employs hasattr() tests or EAFP programming. dunder ¶ An informal short-hand for “double underscore”, used when talking about a special method . For example, __init__ is often pronounced “dunder init”. EAFP ¶ Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches exceptions if the assumption proves false. This clean and fast style is characterized by the presence of many try and except statements. The technique contrasts with the LBYL style common to many other languages such as C. evaluate function ¶ A function that can be called to evaluate a lazily evaluated attribute of an object, such as the value of type aliases created with the type statement. expression ¶ A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words, an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals, names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs are expressions. There are also statement s which cannot be used as expressions, such as while . Assignments are also statements, not expressions. extension module ¶ A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the core and with user code. f-string ¶ f-strings ¶ String literals prefixed with f or F are commonly called “f-strings” which is short for formatted string literals . See also PEP 498 . file object ¶ An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as read() or write() ) to an underlying resource. Depending on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes, etc.). File objects are also called file-like objects or streams . There are actually three categories of file objects: raw binary files , buffered binary files and text files . Their interfaces are defined in the io module. The canonical way to create a file object is by using the open() function. file-like object ¶ A synonym for file object . filesystem encoding and error handler ¶ Encoding and error handler used by Python to decode bytes from the operating system and encode Unicode to the operating system. The filesystem encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise UnicodeError . The sys.getfilesystemencoding() and sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors() functions can be used to get the filesystem encoding and error handler. The filesystem encoding and error handler are configured at Python startup by the PyConfig_Read() function: see filesystem_encoding and filesystem_errors members of PyConfig . See also the locale encoding . finder ¶ An object that tries to find the loader for a module that is being imported. There are two types of finder: meta path finders for use with sys.meta_path , and path entry finders for use with sys.path_hooks . See Finders and loaders and importlib for much more detail. floor division ¶ Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor division operator is // . For example, the expression 11 // 4 evaluates to 2 in contrast to the 2.75 returned by float true division. Note that (-11) // 4 is -3 because that is -2.75 rounded downward . See PEP 238 . free threading ¶ A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode simultaneously within the same interpreter. This is in contrast to the global interpreter lock which allows only one thread to execute Python bytecode at a time. See PEP 703 . free variable ¶ Formally, as defined in the language execution model , a free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a local variable in that namespace. See closure variable for an example. Pragmatically, due to the name of the codeobject.co_freevars attribute, the term is also sometimes used as a synonym for closure variable . function ¶ A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also be passed zero or more arguments which may be used in the execution of the body. See also parameter , method , and the Function definitions section. function annotation ¶ An annotation of a function parameter or return value. Function annotations are usually used for type hints : for example, this function is expected to take two int arguments and is also expected to have an int return value: def sum_two_numbers ( a : int , b : int ) -> int : return a + b Function annotation syntax is explained in section Function definitions . See variable annotation and PEP 484 , which describe this functionality. Also see Annotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations. __future__ ¶ A future statement , from __future__ import <feature> , directs the compiler to compile the current module using syntax or semantics that will become standard in a future release of Python. The __future__ module documents the possible values of feature . By importing this module and evaluating its variables, you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it will (or did) become the default: >>> import __future__ >>> __future__ . division _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192) garbage collection ¶ The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore. Python performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles. The garbage collector can be controlled using the gc module. generator ¶ A function which returns a generator iterator . It looks like a normal function except that it contains yield expressions for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be retrieved one at a time with the next() function. Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a generator iterator in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. generator iterator ¶ An object created by a generator function. Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the generator iterator resumes, it picks up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation). generator expression ¶ An expression that returns an iterator . It looks like a normal expression followed by a for clause defining a loop variable, range, and an optional if clause. The combined expression generates values for an enclosing function: >>> sum ( i * i for i in range ( 10 )) # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81 285 generic function ¶ A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is determined by the dispatch algorithm. See also the single dispatch glossary entry, the functools.singledispatch() decorator, and PEP 443 . generic type ¶ A type that can be parameterized; typically a container class such as list or dict . Used for type hints and annotations . For more details, see generic alias types , PEP 483 , PEP 484 , PEP 585 , and the typing module. GIL ¶ See global interpreter lock . global interpreter lock ¶ The mechanism used by the CPython interpreter to assure that only one thread executes Python bytecode at a time. This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model (including critical built-in types such as dict ) implicitly safe against concurrent access. Locking the entire interpreter makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor machines. However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party, are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally intensive tasks such as compression or hashing. Also, the GIL is always released when doing I/O. As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the --disable-gil build configuration. After building Python with this option, code must be run with -X gil=0 or after setting the PYTHON_GIL=0 environment variable. This feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs efficiently. For more details, see PEP 703 . In prior versions of Python’s C API, a function might declare that it requires the GIL to be held in order to use it. This refers to having an attached thread state . global state ¶ Data that is accessible throughout a program, such as module-level variables, class variables, or C static variables in extension modules . In multi-threaded programs, global state shared between threads typically requires synchronization to avoid race conditions and data races . hash-based pyc ¶ A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See Cached bytecode invalidation . hashable ¶ An object is hashable if it has a hash value which never changes during its lifetime (it needs a __hash__() method), and can be compared to other objects (it needs an __eq__() method). Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same hash value. Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member, because these data structures use the hash value internally. Most of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if their elements are hashable. Objects which are instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default. They all compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived from their id() . IDLE ¶ An Integrated Development and Learning Environment for Python. IDLE — Python editor and shell is a basic editor and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of Python. immortal ¶ Immortal objects are a CPython implementation detail introduced in PEP 683 . If an object is immortal, its reference count is never modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the interpreter is running. For example, True and None are immortal in CPython. Immortal objects can be identified via sys._is_immortal() , or via PyUnstable_IsImmortal() in the C API. immutable ¶ An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary. Immutable objects are inherently thread-safe because their state cannot be modified after creation, eliminating concerns about improperly synchronized concurrent modification . import path ¶ A list of locations (or path entries ) that are searched by the path based finder for modules to import. During import, this list of locations usually comes from sys.path , but for subpackages it may also come from the parent package’s __path__ attribute. importing ¶ The process by which Python code in one module is made available to Python code in another module. importer ¶ An object that both finds and loads a module; both a finder and loader object. interactive ¶ Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately execute them and see their results. Just launch python with no arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect modules and packages (remember help(x) ). For more on interactive mode, see Interactive Mode . interpreted ¶ Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one, though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the bytecode compiler. This means that source files can be run directly without explicitly creating an executable which is then run. Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more slowly. See also interactive . interpreter shutdown ¶ When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules and various critical internal structures. It also makes several calls to the garbage collector . This can trigger the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks. Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore (common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery). The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the __main__ module or the script being run has finished executing. iterable ¶ An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as list , str , and tuple ) and some non-sequence types like dict , file objects , and objects of any classes you define with an __iter__() method or with a __getitem__() method that implements sequence semantics. Iterables can be used in a for loop and in many other places where a sequence is needed ( zip() , map() , …). When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the built-in function iter() , it returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call iter() or deal with iterator objects yourself. The for statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also iterator , sequence , and generator . iterator ¶ An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator’s __next__() method (or passing it to the built-in function next() ) return successive items in the stream. When no more data are available a StopIteration exception is raised instead. At this point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its __next__() method just raise StopIteration again. Iterators are required to have an __iter__() method that returns the iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as a list ) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the iter() function or use it in a for loop. Attempting this with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container. More information can be found in Iterator Types . CPython implementation detail: CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define __iter__() . And also please note that free-threaded CPython does not guarantee thread-safe behavior of iterator operations. key function ¶ A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value used for sorting or ordering. For example, locale.strxfrm() is used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort conventions. A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements are ordered or grouped. They include min() , max() , sorted() , list.sort() , heapq.merge() , heapq.nsmallest() , heapq.nlargest() , and itertools.groupby() . There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the str.casefold() method can serve as a key function for case insensitive sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from a lambda expression such as lambda r: (r[0], r[2]) . Also, operator.attrgetter() , operator.itemgetter() , and operator.methodcaller() are three key function constructors. See the Sorting HOW TO for examples of how to create and use key functions. keyword argument ¶ See argument . lambda ¶ An anonymous inline function consisting of a single expression which is evaluated when the function is called. The syntax to create a lambda function is lambda [parameters]: expression LBYL ¶ Look before you leap. This coding style explicitly tests for pre-conditions before making calls or lookups. This style contrasts with the EAFP approach and is characterized by the presence of many if statements. In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a race condition between “the looking” and “the leaping”. For example, the code, if key in mapping: return mapping[key] can fail if another thread removes key from mapping after the test, but before the lookup. This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach. See also thread-safe . lexical analyzer ¶ Formal name for the tokenizer ; see token . list ¶ A built-in Python sequence . Despite its name it is more akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to elements is O (1). list comprehension ¶ A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and return a list with the results. result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0] generates a list of strings containing even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The if clause is optional. If omitted, all elements in range(256) are processed. lock ¶ A synchronization primitive that allows only one thread at a time to access a shared resource. A thread must acquire a lock before accessing the protected resource and release it afterward. If a thread attempts to acquire a lock that is already held by another thread, it will block until the lock becomes available. Python’s threading module provides Lock (a basic lock) and RLock (a reentrant lock). Locks are used to prevent race conditions and ensure thread-safe access to shared data. Alternative design patterns to locks exist such as queues, producer/consumer patterns, and thread-local state. See also deadlock , and reentrant . loader ¶ An object that loads a module. It must define the exec_module() and create_module() methods to implement the Loader interface. A loader is typically returned by a finder . See also: Finders and loaders importlib.abc.Loader PEP 302 locale encoding ¶ On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale. It can be set with locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale) . On Windows, it is the ANSI code page (ex: "cp1252" ). On Android and VxWorks, Python uses "utf-8" as the locale encoding. locale.getencoding() can be used to get the locale encoding. See also the filesystem encoding and error handler . magic method ¶ An informal synonym for special method . mapping ¶ A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the methods specified in the collections.abc.Mapping or collections.abc.MutableMapping abstract base classes . Examples include dict , collections.defaultdict , collections.OrderedDict and collections.Counter . meta path finder ¶ A finder returned by a search of sys.meta_path . Meta path finders are related to, but different from path entry finders . See importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder for the methods that meta path finders implement. metaclass ¶ The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for taking those three arguments and creating the class. Most object oriented programming languages provide a default implementation. What makes Python special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses. Most users never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide powerful, elegant solutions. They have been used for logging attribute access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing singletons, and many other tasks. More information can be found in Metaclasses . method ¶ A function which is defined inside a class body. If called as an attribute of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as its first argument (which is usually called self ). See function and nested scope . method resolution order ¶ Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched for a member during lookup. See The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order for details of the algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release. module ¶ An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code. Modules have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects. Modules are loaded into Python by the process of importing . See also package . module spec ¶ A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a module. An instance of importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec . See also Module specs . MRO ¶ See method resolution order . mutable ¶ An object with state that is allowed to change during the course of the program. In multi-threaded programs, mutable objects that are shared between threads require careful synchronization to avoid race conditions . See also immutable , thread-safe , and concurrent modification . named tuple ¶ The term “named tuple” applies to any type or class that inherits from tuple and whose indexable elements are also accessible using named attributes. The type or class may have other features as well. Several built-in types are named tuples, including the values returned by time.localtime() and os.stat() . Another example is sys.float_info : >>> sys . float_info [ 1 ] # indexed access 1024 >>> sys . float_info . max_exp # named field access 1024 >>> isinstance ( sys . float_info , tuple ) # kind of tuple True Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples). Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class definition that inherits from tuple and that defines named fields. Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be created by inheriting typing.NamedTuple , or with the factory function collections.namedtuple() . The latter techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in hand-written or built-in named tuples. namespace ¶ The place where a variable is stored. Namespaces are implemented as dictionaries. There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well as nested namespaces in objects (in methods). Namespaces support modularity by preventing naming conflicts. For instance, the functions builtins.open and os.open() are distinguished by their namespaces. Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by making it clear which module implements a function. For instance, writing random.seed() or itertools.islice() makes it clear that those functions are implemented by the random and itertools modules, respectively. namespace package ¶ A package which serves only as a container for subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, and specifically are not like a regular package because they have no __init__.py file. Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages to have a common parent package. Otherwise, it is recommended to use a regular package . For more information, see PEP 420 and Namespace packages . See also module . native code ¶ Code that is compiled to machine instructions and runs directly on the processor, as opposed to code that is interpreted or runs in a virtual machine. In the context of Python, native code typically refers to C, C++, Rust or Fortran code in extension modules that can be called from Python. See also extension module . nested scope ¶ The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to variables in the outer function. Note that nested scopes by default work only for reference and not for assignment. Local variables both read and write in the innermost scope. Likewise, global variables read and write to the global namespace. The nonlocal allows writing to outer scopes. new-style class ¶ Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer, versatile features like __slots__ , descriptors, properties, __getattribute__() , class methods, and static methods. non-deterministic ¶ Behavior where the outcome of a program can vary between executions with the same inputs. In multi-threaded programs, non-deterministic behavior often results from race conditions where the relative timing or interleaving of threads affects the result. Proper synchronization using locks and other synchronization primitives helps ensure deterministic behavior. object ¶ Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior (methods). Also the ultimate base class of any new-style class . optimized scope ¶ A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read and write access to these names. The local namespaces for functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions are optimized in this fashion. Note: most interpreter optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to optimized scopes. optional module ¶ An extension module that is part of the standard library , but may be absent in some builds of CPython , usually due to missing third-party libraries or because the module is not available for a given platform. See Requirements for optional modules for a list of optional modules that require third-party libraries. package ¶ A Python module which can contain submodules or recursively, subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with a __path__ attribute. See also regular package and namespace package . parallelism ¶ Executing multiple operations at the same time (e.g. on multiple CPU cores). In Python builds with the global interpreter lock (GIL) , only one thread runs Python bytecode at a time, so taking advantage of multiple CPU cores typically involves multiple processes (e.g. multiprocessing ) or native extensions that release the GIL. In free-threaded Python, multiple Python threads can run Python code simultaneously on different cores. parameter ¶ A named entity in a function (or method) definition that specifies an argument (or in some cases, arguments) that the function can accept. There are five kinds of parameter: positional-or-keyword : specifies an argument that can be passed either positionally or as a keyword argument . This is the default kind of parameter, for example foo and bar in the following: def func ( foo , bar = None ): ... positional-only : specifies an argument that can be supplied only by position. Positional-only parameters can be defined by including a / character in the parameter list of the function definition after them, for example posonly1 and posonly2 in the following: def func ( posonly1 , posonly2 , / , positional_or_keyword ): ... keyword-only : specifies an argument that can be supplied only by keyword. Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a single var-positional parameter or bare * in the parameter list of the function definition before them, for example kw_only1 and kw_only2 in the following: def func ( arg , * , kw_only1 , kw_only2 ): ... var-positional : specifies that an arbitrary sequence of positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with * , for example args in the following: def func ( * args , ** kwargs ): ... var-keyword : specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with ** , for example kwargs in the example above. Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as default values for some optional arguments. See also the argument glossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters , the inspect.Parameter class, the Function definitions section, and PEP 362 . path entry ¶ A single location on the import path which the path based finder consults to find modules for importing. path entry finder ¶ A finder returned by a callable on sys.path_hooks (i.e. a path entry hook ) which knows how to locate modules given a path entry . See importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder for the methods that path entry finders implement. path entry hook ¶ A callable on the sys.path_hooks list which returns a path entry finder if it knows how to find modules on a specific path entry . path based finder ¶ One of the default meta path finders which searches an import path for modules. path-like object ¶ An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either a str or bytes object representing a path, or an object implementing the os.PathLike protocol. An object that supports the os.PathLike protocol can be converted to a str or bytes file system path by calling the os.fspath() function; os.fsdecode() and os.fsencode() can be used to guarantee a str or bytes result instead, respectively. Introduced by PEP 519 . PEP ¶ Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed features. PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions. See PEP 1 . portion ¶ A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file) that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in PEP 420 . positional argument ¶ See argument . provisional API ¶ A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from the standard library’s backwards compatibility guarantees. While major changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers. Such changes will not be made | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings | 2. Lexical analysis — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.1.10. End marker 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Soft Keywords 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names 2.4. Literals 2.5. String and Bytes literals 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings 2.5.2. String prefixes 2.5.3. Formal grammar 2.5.4. Escape sequences 2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line 2.5.4.2. Escaped characters 2.5.4.3. Octal character 2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character 2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character 2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters 2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences 2.5.5. Bytes literals 2.5.6. Raw string literals 2.5.7. f-strings 2.5.8. t-strings 2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings 2.6. Numeric literals 2.6.1. Integer literals 2.6.2. Floating-point literals 2.6.3. Imaginary literals 2.7. Operators and delimiters Previous topic 1. Introduction Next topic 3. Data model This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Language Reference » 2. Lexical analysis | Theme Auto Light Dark | 2. Lexical analysis ¶ A Python program is read by a parser . Input to the parser is a stream of tokens , generated by the lexical analyzer (also known as the tokenizer ). This chapter describes how the lexical analyzer produces these tokens. The lexical analyzer determines the program text’s encoding (UTF-8 by default), and decodes the text into source characters . If the text cannot be decoded, a SyntaxError is raised. Next, the lexical analyzer uses the source characters to generate a stream of tokens. The type of a generated token generally depends on the next source character to be processed. Similarly, other special behavior of the analyzer depends on the first source character that hasn’t yet been processed. The following table gives a quick summary of these source characters, with links to sections that contain more information. Character Next token (or other relevant documentation) space tab formfeed Whitespace CR, LF New line Indentation backslash ( \ ) Explicit line joining (Also significant in string escape sequences ) hash ( # ) Comment quote ( ' , " ) String literal ASCII letter ( a - z , A - Z ) non-ASCII character Name Prefixed string or bytes literal underscore ( _ ) Name (Can also be part of numeric literals ) number ( 0 - 9 ) Numeric literal dot ( . ) Numeric literal Operator question mark ( ? ) dollar ( $ ) backquote ( ` ) control character Error (outside string literals and comments) other printing character Operator or delimiter end of file End marker 2.1. Line structure ¶ A Python program is divided into a number of logical lines . 2.1.1. Logical lines ¶ The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE . Statements cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is allowed by the syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements). A logical line is constructed from one or more physical lines by following the explicit or implicit line joining rules. 2.1.2. Physical lines ¶ A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by one the following end-of-line sequences: the Unix form using ASCII LF (linefeed), the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return followed by linefeed), the ‘ Classic Mac OS ’ form using the ASCII CR (return) character. Regardless of platform, each of these sequences is replaced by a single ASCII LF (linefeed) character. (This is done even inside string literals .) Each line can use any of the sequences; they do not need to be consistent within a file. The end of input also serves as an implicit terminator for the final physical line. Formally: newline : <ASCII LF> | <ASCII CR> <ASCII LF> | <ASCII CR> 2.1.3. Comments ¶ A comment starts with a hash character ( # ) that is not part of a string literal, and ends at the end of the physical line. A comment signifies the end of the logical line unless the implicit line joining rules are invoked. Comments are ignored by the syntax. 2.1.4. Encoding declarations ¶ If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches the regular expression coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+) , this comment is processed as an encoding declaration; the first group of this expression names the encoding of the source code file. The encoding declaration must appear on a line of its own. If it is the second line, the first line must also be a comment-only line. The recommended forms of an encoding expression are # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*- which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name> which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar’s VIM. If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8. If the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8 byte-order mark ( b'\xef\xbb\xbf' ) is ignored rather than being a syntax error. If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by Python (see Standard Encodings ). The encoding is used for all lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and identifiers. All lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and identifiers, works on Unicode text decoded using the source encoding. Any Unicode code point, except the NUL control character, can appear in Python source. source_character : <any Unicode code point, except NUL> 2.1.5. Explicit line joining ¶ Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using backslash characters ( \ ), as follows: when a physical line ends in a backslash that is not part of a string literal or comment, it is joined with the following forming a single logical line, deleting the backslash and the following end-of-line character. For example: if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \ and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \ and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60 : # Looks like a valid date return 1 A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment. A backslash does not continue a comment. A backslash does not continue a token except for string literals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be split across physical lines using a backslash). A backslash is illegal elsewhere on a line outside a string literal. 2.1.6. Implicit line joining ¶ Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split over more than one physical line without using backslashes. For example: month_names = [ 'Januari' , 'Februari' , 'Maart' , # These are the 'April' , 'Mei' , 'Juni' , # Dutch names 'Juli' , 'Augustus' , 'September' , # for the months 'Oktober' , 'November' , 'December' ] # of the year Implicitly continued lines can carry comments. The indentation of the continuation lines is not important. Blank continuation lines are allowed. There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines. Implicitly continued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings (see below); in that case they cannot carry comments. 2.1.7. Blank lines ¶ A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated). During interactive input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ depending on the implementation of the read-eval-print loop. In the standard interactive interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (that is, one containing not even whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line statement. 2.1.8. Indentation ¶ Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line is used to compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is used to determine the grouping of statements. Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that the total number of characters up to and including the replacement is a multiple of eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by Unix). The total number of spaces preceding the first non-blank character then determines the line’s indentation. Indentation cannot be split over multiple physical lines using backslashes; the whitespace up to the first backslash determines the indentation. Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and spaces in a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab in spaces; a TabError is raised in that case. Cross-platform compatibility note: because of the nature of text editors on non-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces and tabs for the indentation in a single source file. It should also be noted that different platforms may explicitly limit the maximum indentation level. A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be ignored for the indentation calculations above. Formfeed characters occurring elsewhere in the leading whitespace have an undefined effect (for instance, they may reset the space count to zero). The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT and DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows. Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on the stack; this will never be popped off again. The numbers pushed on the stack will always be strictly increasing from bottom to top. At the beginning of each logical line, the line’s indentation level is compared to the top of the stack. If it is equal, nothing happens. If it is larger, it is pushed on the stack, and one INDENT token is generated. If it is smaller, it must be one of the numbers occurring on the stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are popped off, and for each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated. At the end of the file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the stack that is larger than zero. Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of Python code: def perm ( l ): # Compute the list of all permutations of l if len ( l ) <= 1 : return [ l ] r = [] for i in range ( len ( l )): s = l [: i ] + l [ i + 1 :] p = perm ( s ) for x in p : r . append ( l [ i : i + 1 ] + x ) return r The following example shows various indentation errors: def perm ( l ): # error: first line indented for i in range ( len ( l )): # error: not indented s = l [: i ] + l [ i + 1 :] p = perm ( l [: i ] + l [ i + 1 :]) # error: unexpected indent for x in p : r . append ( l [ i : i + 1 ] + x ) return r # error: inconsistent dedent (Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the last error is found by the lexical analyzer — the indentation of return r does not match a level popped off the stack.) 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens ¶ Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the whitespace characters space, tab and formfeed can be used interchangeably to separate tokens: whitespace : ' ' | tab | formfeed Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenation could otherwise be interpreted as a different token. For example, ab is one token, but a b is two tokens. However, +a and + a both produce two tokens, + and a , as +a is not a valid token. 2.1.10. End marker ¶ At the end of non-interactive input, the lexical analyzer generates an ENDMARKER token. 2.2. Other tokens ¶ Besides NEWLINE , INDENT and DEDENT , the following categories of tokens exist: identifiers and keywords ( NAME ), literals (such as NUMBER and STRING ), and other symbols ( operators and delimiters , OP ). Whitespace characters (other than logical line terminators, discussed earlier) are not tokens, but serve to delimit tokens. Where ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest possible string that forms a legal token, when read from left to right. 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) ¶ NAME tokens represent identifiers , keywords , and soft keywords . Names are composed of the following characters: uppercase and lowercase letters ( A-Z and a-z ), the underscore ( _ ), digits ( 0 through 9 ), which cannot appear as the first character, and non-ASCII characters. Valid names may only contain “letter-like” and “digit-like” characters; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details. Names must contain at least one character, but have no upper length limit. Case is significant. Formally, names are described by the following lexical definitions: NAME : name_start name_continue * name_start : "a" ... "z" | "A" ... "Z" | "_" | <non-ASCII character> name_continue : name_start | "0" ... "9" identifier : < NAME , except keywords> Note that not all names matched by this grammar are valid; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details. 2.3.1. Keywords ¶ The following names are used as reserved words, or keywords of the language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers. They must be spelled exactly as written here: False await else import pass None break except in raise True class finally is return and continue for lambda try as def from nonlocal while assert del global not with async elif if or yield 2.3.2. Soft Keywords ¶ Added in version 3.10. Some names are only reserved under specific contexts. These are known as soft keywords : match , case , and _ , when used in the match statement. type , when used in the type statement. These syntactically act as keywords in their specific contexts, but this distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing. As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as identifier names. Changed in version 3.12: type is now a soft keyword. 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers ¶ Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings. These classes are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing underscore characters: _* Not imported by from module import * . _ In a case pattern within a match statement, _ is a soft keyword that denotes a wildcard . Separately, the interactive interpreter makes the result of the last evaluation available in the variable _ . (It is stored in the builtins module, alongside built-in functions like print .) Elsewhere, _ is a regular identifier. It is often used to name “special” items, but it is not special to Python itself. Note The name _ is often used in conjunction with internationalization; refer to the documentation for the gettext module for more information on this convention. It is also commonly used for unused variables. __*__ System-defined names, informally known as “dunder” names. These names are defined by the interpreter and its implementation (including the standard library). Current system names are discussed in the Special method names section and elsewhere. More will likely be defined in future versions of Python. Any use of __*__ names, in any context, that does not follow explicitly documented use, is subject to breakage without warning. __* Class-private names. Names in this category, when used within the context of a class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form to help avoid name clashes between “private” attributes of base and derived classes. See section Identifiers (Names) . 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names ¶ Names that contain non-ASCII characters need additional normalization and validation beyond the rules and grammar explained above . For example, ř_1 , 蛇 , or साँप are valid names, but r〰2 , € , or 🐍 are not. This section explains the exact rules. All names are converted into the normalization form NFKC while parsing. This means that, for example, some typographic variants of characters are converted to their “basic” form. For example, fiⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ normalizes to finalization , so Python treats them as the same name: >>> fiⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ = 3 >>> finalization 3 Note Normalization is done at the lexical level only. Run-time functions that take names as strings generally do not normalize their arguments. For example, the variable defined above is accessible at run time in the globals() dictionary as globals()["finalization"] but not globals()["fiⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ"] . Similarly to how ASCII-only names must contain only letters, digits and the underscore, and cannot start with a digit, a valid name must start with a character in the “letter-like” set xid_start , and the remaining characters must be in the “letter- and digit-like” set xid_continue . These sets based on the XID_Start and XID_Continue sets as defined by the Unicode standard annex UAX-31 . Python’s xid_start additionally includes the underscore ( _ ). Note that Python does not necessarily conform to UAX-31 . A non-normative listing of characters in the XID_Start and XID_Continue sets as defined by Unicode is available in the DerivedCoreProperties.txt file in the Unicode Character Database. For reference, the construction rules for the xid_* sets are given below. The set id_start is defined as the union of: Unicode category <Lu> - uppercase letters (includes A to Z ) Unicode category <Ll> - lowercase letters (includes a to z ) Unicode category <Lt> - titlecase letters Unicode category <Lm> - modifier letters Unicode category <Lo> - other letters Unicode category <Nl> - letter numbers { "_" } - the underscore <Other_ID_Start> - an explicit set of characters in PropList.txt to support backwards compatibility The set xid_start then closes this set under NFKC normalization, by removing all characters whose normalization is not of the form id_start id_continue* . The set id_continue is defined as the union of: id_start (see above) Unicode category <Nd> - decimal numbers (includes 0 to 9 ) Unicode category <Pc> - connector punctuations Unicode category <Mn> - nonspacing marks Unicode category <Mc> - spacing combining marks <Other_ID_Continue> - another explicit set of characters in PropList.txt to support backwards compatibility Again, xid_continue closes this set under NFKC normalization. Unicode categories use the version of the Unicode Character Database as included in the unicodedata module. See also PEP 3131 – Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers PEP 672 – Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python 2.4. Literals ¶ Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types. In terms of lexical analysis, Python has string, bytes and numeric literals. Other “literals” are lexically denoted using keywords ( None , True , False ) and the special ellipsis token ( ... ). 2.5. String and Bytes literals ¶ String literals are text enclosed in single quotes ( ' ) or double quotes ( " ). For example: "spam" 'eggs' The quote used to start the literal also terminates it, so a string literal can only contain the other quote (except with escape sequences, see below). For example: 'Say "Hello", please.' "Don't do that!" Except for this limitation, the choice of quote character ( ' or " ) does not affect how the literal is parsed. Inside a string literal, the backslash ( \ ) character introduces an escape sequence , which has special meaning depending on the character after the backslash. For example, \" denotes the double quote character, and does not end the string: >>> print ( "Say \" Hello \" to everyone!" ) Say "Hello" to everyone! See escape sequences below for a full list of such sequences, and more details. 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings ¶ Strings can also be enclosed in matching groups of three single or double quotes. These are generally referred to as triple-quoted strings : """This is a triple-quoted string.""" In triple-quoted literals, unescaped quotes are allowed (and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the literal, if they are of the same kind ( ' or " ) used at the start: """This string has "quotes" inside.""" Unescaped newlines are also allowed and retained: '''This triple-quoted string continues on the next line.''' 2.5.2. String prefixes ¶ String literals can have an optional prefix that influences how the content of the literal is parsed, for example: b "data" f ' { result =} ' The allowed prefixes are: b : Bytes literal r : Raw string f : Formatted string literal (“f-string”) t : Template string literal (“t-string”) u : No effect (allowed for backwards compatibility) See the linked sections for details on each type. Prefixes are case-insensitive (for example, ‘ B ’ works the same as ‘ b ’). The ‘ r ’ prefix can be combined with ‘ f ’, ‘ t ’ or ‘ b ’, so ‘ fr ’, ‘ rf ’, ‘ tr ’, ‘ rt ’, ‘ br ’, and ‘ rb ’ are also valid prefixes. Added in version 3.3: The 'rb' prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonym of 'br' . Support for the unicode legacy literal ( u'value' ) was reintroduced to simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases. See PEP 414 for more information. 2.5.3. Formal grammar ¶ String literals, except “f-strings” and “t-strings” , are described by the following lexical definitions. These definitions use negative lookaheads ( ! ) to indicate that an ending quote ends the literal. STRING : [ stringprefix ] ( stringcontent ) stringprefix : <( "r" | "u" | "b" | "br" | "rb" ), case-insensitive> stringcontent : | "'''" ( ! "'''" longstringitem )* "'''" | '"""' ( ! '"""' longstringitem )* '"""' | "'" ( ! "'" stringitem )* "'" | '"' ( ! '"' stringitem )* '"' stringitem : stringchar | stringescapeseq stringchar : <any source_character , except backslash and newline> longstringitem : stringitem | newline stringescapeseq : "\" <any source_character > Note that as in all lexical definitions, whitespace is significant. In particular, the prefix (if any) must be immediately followed by the starting quote. 2.5.4. Escape sequences ¶ Unless an ‘ r ’ or ‘ R ’ prefix is present, escape sequences in string and bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are: Escape Sequence Meaning \ <newline> Ignored end of line \\ Backslash \' Single quote \" Double quote \a ASCII Bell (BEL) \b ASCII Backspace (BS) \f ASCII Formfeed (FF) \n ASCII Linefeed (LF) \r ASCII Carriage Return (CR) \t ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB) \v ASCII Vertical Tab (VT) \ ooo Octal character \x hh Hexadecimal character \N{ name } Named Unicode character \u xxxx Hexadecimal Unicode character \U xxxxxxxx Hexadecimal Unicode character 2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line ¶ A backslash can be added at the end of a line to ignore the newline: >>> 'This string will not include \ ... backslashes or newline characters.' 'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.' The same result can be achieved using triple-quoted strings , or parentheses and string literal concatenation . 2.5.4.2. Escaped characters ¶ To include a backslash in a non- raw Python string literal, it must be doubled. The \\ escape sequence denotes a single backslash character: >>> print ( 'C: \\ Program Files' ) C:\Program Files Similarly, the \' and \" sequences denote the single and double quote character, respectively: >>> print ( ' \' and \" ' ) ' and " 2.5.4.3. Octal character ¶ The sequence \ ooo denotes a character with the octal (base 8) value ooo : >>> ' \120 ' 'P' Up to three octal digits (0 through 7) are accepted. In a bytes literal, character means a byte with the given value. In a string literal, it means a Unicode character with the given value. Changed in version 3.11: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (255) produce a DeprecationWarning . Changed in version 3.12: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (255) produce a SyntaxWarning . In a future Python version they will raise a SyntaxError . 2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character ¶ The sequence \x hh denotes a character with the hex (base 16) value hh : >>> ' \x50 ' 'P' Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required. In a bytes literal, character means a byte with the given value. In a string literal, it means a Unicode character with the given value. 2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character ¶ The sequence \N{ name } denotes a Unicode character with the given name : >>> ' \N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P} ' 'P' >>> ' \N{SNAKE} ' '🐍' This sequence cannot appear in bytes literals . Changed in version 3.3: Support for name aliases has been added. 2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters ¶ These sequences \u xxxx and \U xxxxxxxx denote the Unicode character with the given hex (base 16) value. Exactly four digits are required for \u ; exactly eight digits are required for \U . The latter can encode any Unicode character. >>> ' \u1234 ' 'ሴ' >>> ' \U0001f40d ' '🐍' These sequences cannot appear in bytes literals . 2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences ¶ Unlike in Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the string unchanged, that is, the backslash is left in the result : >>> print ( '\q' ) \q >>> list ( '\q' ) ['\\', 'q'] Note that for bytes literals, the escape sequences only recognized in string literals ( \N... , \u... , \U... ) fall into the category of unrecognized escapes. Changed in version 3.6: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a DeprecationWarning . Changed in version 3.12: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a SyntaxWarning . In a future Python version they will raise a SyntaxError . 2.5.5. Bytes literals ¶ Bytes literals are always prefixed with ‘ b ’ or ‘ B ’; they produce an instance of the bytes type instead of the str type. They may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greater must be expressed with escape sequences (typically Hexadecimal character or Octal character ): >>> b ' \x89 PNG \r\n\x1a\n ' b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n' >>> list ( b ' \x89 PNG \r\n\x1a\n ' ) [137, 80, 78, 71, 13, 10, 26, 10] Similarly, a zero byte must be expressed using an escape sequence (typically \0 or \x00 ). 2.5.6. Raw string literals ¶ Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter ‘ r ’ or ‘ R ’; such constructs are called raw string literals and raw bytes literals respectively and treat backslashes as literal characters. As a result, in raw string literals, escape sequences are not treated specially: >>> r '\d {4} -\d {2} -\d {2} ' '\\d{4}-\\d{2}-\\d{2}' Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but the backslash remains in the result; for example, r"\"" is a valid string literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote; r"\" is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an odd number of backslashes). Specifically, a raw literal cannot end in a single backslash (since the backslash would escape the following quote character). Note also that a single backslash followed by a newline is interpreted as those two characters as part of the literal, not as a line continuation. 2.5.7. f-strings ¶ Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.7: The await and async for can be used in expressions within f-strings. Changed in version 3.8: Added the debug specifier ( = ) Changed in version 3.12: Many restrictions on expressions within f-strings have been removed. Notably, nested strings, comments, and backslashes are now permitted. A formatted string literal or f-string is a string literal that is prefixed with ‘ f ’ or ‘ F ’. Unlike other string literals, f-strings do not have a constant value. They may contain replacement fields delimited by curly braces {} . Replacement fields contain expressions which are evaluated at run time. For example: >>> who = 'nobody' >>> nationality = 'Spanish' >>> f ' { who . title () } expects the { nationality } Inquisition!' 'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!' Any doubled curly braces ( {{ or }} ) outside replacement fields are replaced with the corresponding single curly brace: >>> print ( f ' {{ ... }} ' ) {...} Other characters outside replacement fields are treated like in ordinary string literals. This means that escape sequences are decoded (except when a literal is also marked as a raw string), and newlines are possible in triple-quoted f-strings: >>> name = 'Galahad' >>> favorite_color = 'blue' >>> print ( f ' { name } : \t { favorite_color } ' ) Galahad: blue >>> print ( rf "C:\Users\ { name } " ) C:\Users\Galahad >>> print ( f '''Three shall be the number of the counting ... and the number of the counting shall be three.''' ) Three shall be the number of the counting and the number of the counting shall be three. Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python expressions. Each expression is evaluated in the context where the formatted string literal appears, in order from left to right. An empty expression is not allowed, and both lambda and assignment expressions := must be surrounded by explicit parentheses: >>> f ' { ( half := 1 / 2 ) } , { half * 42 } ' '0.5, 21.0' Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is permitted: >>> a = dict ( x = 2 ) >>> f "abc { a [ "x" ] } def" 'abc 2 def' Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the same way as in any other context: >>> a = [ "a" , "b" , "c" ] >>> print ( f "List a contains: \n { " \n " . join ( a ) } " ) List a contains: a b c It is possible to nest f-strings: >>> name = 'world' >>> f 'Repeated: { f ' hello { name } ' * 3 } ' 'Repeated: hello world hello world hello world' Portable Python programs should not use more than 5 levels of nesting. CPython implementation detail: CPython does not limit nesting of f-strings. Replacement expressions can contain newlines in both single-quoted and triple-quoted f-strings and they can contain comments. Everything that comes after a # inside a replacement field is a comment (even closing braces and quotes). This means that replacement fields with comments must be closed in a different line: >>> a = 2 >>> f"abc{a # This comment }" continues until the end of the line ... + 3}" 'abc5' After the expression, replacement fields may optionally contain: a debug specifier – an equal sign ( = ), optionally surrounded by whitespace on one or both sides; a conversion specifier – !s , !r or !a ; and/or a format specifier prefixed with a colon ( : ). See the Standard Library section on f-strings for details on how these fields are evaluated. As that section explains, format specifiers are passed as the second argument to the format() function to format a replacement field value. For example, they can be used to specify a field width and padding characters using the Format Specification Mini-Language : >>> number = 14.3 >>> f ' { number : 20.7f } ' ' 14.3000000' Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields: >>> field_size = 20 >>> precision = 7 >>> f ' { number :{ field_size } . { precision } f } ' ' 14.3000000' These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and format specifiers : >>> number = 3 >>> f ' { number :{ field_size }} ' ' 3' >>> f ' { number :{ field_size : 05 }} ' '00000000000000000003' However, these nested fields may not include more deeply nested replacement fields. Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings , even if they do not include expressions: >>> def foo (): ... f "Not a docstring" ... >>> print ( foo . __doc__ ) None See also PEP 498 – Literal String Interpolation PEP 701 – Syntactic formalization of f-strings str.format() , which uses a related format string mechanism. 2.5.8. t-strings ¶ Added in version 3.14. A template string literal or t-string is a string literal that is prefixed with ‘ t ’ or ‘ T ’. These strings follow the same syntax rules as formatted string literals . For differences in evaluation rules, see the Standard Library section on t-strings 2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings ¶ F-strings are handled partly by the lexical analyzer , which produces the tokens FSTRING_START , FSTRING_MIDDLE and FSTRING_END , and partly by the parser, which handles expressions in the replacement field. The exact way the work is split is a CPython implementation detail. Correspondingly, the f-string grammar is a mix of lexical and syntactic definitions . Whitespace is significant in these situations: There may be no whitespace in FSTRING_START (between the prefix and quote). Whitespace in FSTRING_MIDDLE is part of the literal string contents. In fstring_replacement_field , if f_debug_specifier is present, all whitespace after the opening brace until the f_debug_specifier , as well as whitespace immediately following f_debug_specifier , is retained as part of the expression. CPython implementation detail: The expression is not handled in the tokenization phase; it is retrieved from the source code using locations of the { token and the token after = . The FSTRING_MIDDLE definition uses negative lookaheads ( ! ) to indicate special characters (backslash, newline, { , } ) and sequences ( f_quote ). fstring : FSTRING_START fstring_middle * FSTRING_END FSTRING_START : fstringprefix ( "'" | '"' | "'''" | '"""' ) FSTRING_END : f_quote fstringprefix : <( "f" | "fr" | "rf" ), case-insensitive> f_debug_specifier : '=' f_quote : <the quote character(s) used in FSTRING_START> fstring_middle : | fstring_replacement_field | FSTRING_MIDDLE FSTRING_MIDDLE : | (! "\" ! newline ! '{' ! '}' ! f_quote ) source_character | stringescapeseq | "{{" | "}}" | <newline, in triple-quoted f-strings only> fstring_replacement_field : | '{' f_expression [ f_debug_specifier ] [ fstring_conversion ] [ fstring_full_format_spec ] '}' fstring_conversion : | "!" ( "s" | "r" | "a" ) fstring_full_format_spec : | ':' fstring_format_spec * fstring_format_spec : | FSTRING_MIDDLE | fstring_replacement_field f_expression : | ',' .( conditional_expression | "*" or_expr )+ [ "," ] | yield_expression Note In the above grammar snippet, the f_quote and FSTRING_MIDDLE rules are context-sensitive – they depend on the contents of FSTRING_START of the nearest enclosing fstring . Constructing a more traditional formal grammar from this template is left as an exercise for the reader. The grammar for t-strings is identical to the one for f-strings, with t instead of f at the beginning of rule and token names and in the prefix. tstring : TSTRING_START tstring_middle* TSTRING_END <rest of the t-string grammar is omitted; see above> 2.6. Numeric literals ¶ NUMBER tokens represent numeric literals, of which there are three types: integers, floating-point numbers, and imaginary numbers. NUMBER : integer | floatnumber | imagnumber The numeric value of a numeric literal is the same as if it were passed as a string to the int , float or complex class constructor, respectively. Note that not all valid inputs for those constructors are also valid literals. Numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like -1 is actually an expression composed of the unary operator ‘ - ’ and the literal 1 . 2.6.1. Integer literals ¶ Integer literals denote whole numbers. For example: 7 3 2147483647 There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can be stored in available memory: 7922816251426433759354395033679228162514264337593543950336 Underscores can be used to group digits for enhanced readability, and are ignored for determining the numeric value of the literal. For example, the following literals are equivalent: 100_000_000_000 100000000000 1_00_00_00_00_000 Underscores can only occur between digits. For example, _123 , 321_ , and 123__321 are not valid literals. Integers can be specified in binary (base 2), octal (base 8), or hexadecimal (base 16) using the prefixes 0b , 0o and 0x , respectively. Hexadecimal digits 10 through 15 are represented by letters A - F , case-insensitive. For example: 0b100110111 0b_1110_0101 0o177 0o377 0xdeadbeef 0xDead_Beef An underscore can follow the base specifier. For example, 0x_1f is a valid literal, but 0_x1f and 0x__1f are not. Leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed. For example, 0123 is not a valid literal. This is for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python used before version 3.0. Formally, integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions: integer : decinteger | bininteger | octinteger | hexinteger | zerointeger decinteger : nonzerodigit ([ "_" ] digit )* bininteger : "0" ( "b" | "B" ) ([ "_" ] bindigit )+ octinteger : "0" ( "o" | "O" ) ([ "_" ] octdigit )+ hexinteger : "0" ( "x" | "X" ) ([ "_" ] hexdigit )+ zerointeger : "0" + ([ "_" ] "0" )* nonzerodigit : "1" ... "9" digit : "0" ... "9" bindigit : "0" | "1" octdigit : "0" ... "7" hexdigit : digit | "a" ... "f" | "A" ... "F" Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals. 2.6.2. Floating-point literals ¶ Floating-point (float) literals, such as 3.14 or 1.5 , denote approximations of real numbers . They consist of integer and fraction parts, each composed of decimal digits. The parts are separated by a decimal point, . : 2.71828 4.0 Unlike in integer literals, leading zeros are allowed. For example, 077.010 is legal, and denotes the same number as 77.01 . As in integer literals, single underscores may occur between digits to help readability: 96_485.332_123 3.14_15_93 Either of these parts, but not both, can be empty. For example: 10. # (equivalent to 10.0) .001 # (equivalent to 0.001) Optionally, the integer and fraction may be followed by an exponent : the letter e or E , followed by an optional sign, + or - , and a number in the same format as the integer and fraction parts. The e or E represents “times ten raised to the power of”: 1.0e3 # (represents 1.0×10³, or 1000.0) 1.166e-5 # (represents 1.166×10⁻⁵, or 0.00001166) 6.02214076e+23 # (represents 6.02214076×10²³, or 602214076000000000000000.) In floats with only integer and exponent parts, the decimal point may be omitted: 1e3 # (equivalent to 1.e3 and 1.0e3) 0e0 # (equivalent to 0.) Formally, floating-point literals are described by the following lexical definitions: floatnumber : | digitpart "." [ digitpart ] [ exponent ] | "." digitpart [ exponent ] | digitpart exponent digitpart : digit ([ "_" ] digit )* exponent : ( "e" | "E" ) [ "+" | "-" ] digitpart Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals. 2.6.3. Imaginary literals ¶ Python has complex number objects, but no complex literals. Instead, imaginary literals denote complex numbers with a zero real part. For example, in math, the complex number 3+4.2 i is written as the real number 3 added to the imaginary number 4.2 i . Python uses a similar syntax, except the imaginary unit is written as j rather than i : 3 + 4.2 j This is an expression composed of the integer literal 3 , the operator ‘ + ’, and the imaginary literal 4.2j . Since these are three separate tokens, whitespace is allowed between them: 3 + 4.2 j No whitespace is allowed within each token. In particular, the j suffix, may not be separated from the number before it. The number before the j has the same syntax as a floating-point literal. Thus, the following are valid imaginary literals: 4.2 j 3.14 j 10. j .001 j 1e100j 3.14e-10 j 3.14_15_93 j Unlike in a floating-point literal the decimal point can be omitted if the imaginary number only has an integer part. The number is still evaluated as a floating-point number, not an integer: 10 j 0 j 1000000000000000000000000 j # equivalent to 1e+24j The j suffix is case-insensitive. That means you can use J instead: 3.14 J # equivalent to 3.14j Formally, imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definition: imagnumber : ( floatnumber | digitpart ) ( "j" | "J" ) 2.7. Operators and delimiters ¶ The following grammar defines operator and delimiter tokens, that is, the generic OP token type. A list of these tokens and their names is also available in the token module documentation. OP : | assignment_operator | bitwise_operator | comparison_operator | enclosing_delimiter | other_delimiter | arithmetic_operator | "..." | other_op assignment_operator : "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "**=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "&=" | "|=" | "^=" | "<<=" | ">>=" | "@=" | ":=" bitwise_operator : "&" | "|" | "^" | "~" | "<<" | ">>" comparison_operator : "<=" | ">=" | "<" | ">" | "==" | "!=" enclosing_delimiter : "(" | ")" | "[" | "]" | "{" | "}" other_delimiter : "," | ":" | "!" | ";" | "=" | "->" arithmetic_operator : "+" | "-" | "**" | "*" | "//" | "/" | "%" other_op : "." | "@" Note Generally, operators are used to combine expressions , while delimiters serve other purposes. However, there is no clear, formal distinction between the two categories. Some tokens can serve as either operators or delimiters, depending on usage. For example, * is both the multiplication operator and a delimiter used for sequence unpacking, and @ is both the matrix multiplication and a delimiter that introduces decorators. For some tokens, the distinction is unclear. For example, some people consider . , ( , and ) to be delimiters, while others see the getattr() operator and the function call operator(s). Some of Python’s operators, like and , or , and not in , use keyword tokens rather than “symbols” (operator tokens). A sequence of three consecutive periods ( ... ) has a special meaning as an Ellipsis literal. Table of Contents 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.1.10. End marker 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Soft Keywords 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names 2.4. Literals 2.5. String and Bytes literals 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings 2.5.2. String prefixes 2.5.3. Formal grammar 2.5.4. Escape sequences 2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line 2.5.4.2. Escaped characters 2.5.4.3. Octal character 2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character 2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character 2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters 2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences 2.5.5. Bytes literals 2.5.6. Raw string literals 2.5.7. f-strings 2.5.8. t-strings 2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings 2.6. Numeric literals 2.6.1. Integer literals 2.6.2. Floating-point literals 2.6.3. Imaginary literals 2.7. Operators and delimiters Previous topic 1. Introduction Next topic 3. Data model This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Language Reference » 2. Lexical analysis | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. 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https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html | 4. More Control Flow Tools — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements 4.5. else Clauses on Loops 4.6. pass Statements 4.7. match Statements 4.8. Defining Functions 4.9. More on Defining Functions 4.9.1. Default Argument Values 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments 4.9.3. Special parameters 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments 4.9.3.4. Function Examples 4.9.3.5. Recap 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions 4.9.7. Documentation Strings 4.9.8. Function Annotations 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style Previous topic 3. An Informal Introduction to Python Next topic 5. Data Structures This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 4. More Control Flow Tools | Theme Auto Light Dark | 4. More Control Flow Tools ¶ As well as the while statement just introduced, Python uses a few more that we will encounter in this chapter. 4.1. if Statements ¶ Perhaps the most well-known statement type is the if statement. For example: >>> x = int ( input ( "Please enter an integer: " )) Please enter an integer: 42 >>> if x < 0 : ... x = 0 ... print ( 'Negative changed to zero' ) ... elif x == 0 : ... print ( 'Zero' ) ... elif x == 1 : ... print ( 'Single' ) ... else : ... print ( 'More' ) ... More There can be zero or more elif parts, and the else part is optional. The keyword ‘ elif ’ is short for ‘else if’, and is useful to avoid excessive indentation. An if … elif … elif … sequence is a substitute for the switch or case statements found in other languages. If you’re comparing the same value to several constants, or checking for specific types or attributes, you may also find the match statement useful. For more details see match Statements . 4.2. for Statements ¶ The for statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used to in C or Pascal. Rather than always iterating over an arithmetic progression of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the user the ability to define both the iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python’s for statement iterates over the items of any sequence (a list or a string), in the order that they appear in the sequence. For example (no pun intended): >>> # Measure some strings: >>> words = [ 'cat' , 'window' , 'defenestrate' ] >>> for w in words : ... print ( w , len ( w )) ... cat 3 window 6 defenestrate 12 Code that modifies a collection while iterating over that same collection can be tricky to get right. Instead, it is usually more straight-forward to loop over a copy of the collection or to create a new collection: # Create a sample collection users = { 'Hans' : 'active' , 'Éléonore' : 'inactive' , '景太郎' : 'active' } # Strategy: Iterate over a copy for user , status in users . copy () . items (): if status == 'inactive' : del users [ user ] # Strategy: Create a new collection active_users = {} for user , status in users . items (): if status == 'active' : active_users [ user ] = status 4.3. The range() Function ¶ If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-in function range() comes in handy. It generates arithmetic progressions: >>> for i in range ( 5 ): ... print ( i ) ... 0 1 2 3 4 The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; range(10) generates 10 values, the legal indices for items of a sequence of length 10. It is possible to let the range start at another number, or to specify a different increment (even negative; sometimes this is called the ‘step’): >>> list ( range ( 5 , 10 )) [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] >>> list ( range ( 0 , 10 , 3 )) [0, 3, 6, 9] >>> list ( range ( - 10 , - 100 , - 30 )) [-10, -40, -70] To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine range() and len() as follows: >>> a = [ 'Mary' , 'had' , 'a' , 'little' , 'lamb' ] >>> for i in range ( len ( a )): ... print ( i , a [ i ]) ... 0 Mary 1 had 2 a 3 little 4 lamb In most such cases, however, it is convenient to use the enumerate() function, see Looping Techniques . A strange thing happens if you just print a range: >>> range ( 10 ) range(0, 10) In many ways the object returned by range() behaves as if it is a list, but in fact it isn’t. It is an object which returns the successive items of the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it doesn’t really make the list, thus saving space. We say such an object is iterable , that is, suitable as a target for functions and constructs that expect something from which they can obtain successive items until the supply is exhausted. We have seen that the for statement is such a construct, while an example of a function that takes an iterable is sum() : >>> sum ( range ( 4 )) # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 6 Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as arguments. In chapter Data Structures , we will discuss in more detail about list() . 4.4. break and continue Statements ¶ The break statement breaks out of the innermost enclosing for or while loop: >>> for n in range ( 2 , 10 ): ... for x in range ( 2 , n ): ... if n % x == 0 : ... print ( f " { n } equals { x } * { n // x } " ) ... break ... 4 equals 2 * 2 6 equals 2 * 3 8 equals 2 * 4 9 equals 3 * 3 The continue statement continues with the next iteration of the loop: >>> for num in range ( 2 , 10 ): ... if num % 2 == 0 : ... print ( f "Found an even number { num } " ) ... continue ... print ( f "Found an odd number { num } " ) ... Found an even number 2 Found an odd number 3 Found an even number 4 Found an odd number 5 Found an even number 6 Found an odd number 7 Found an even number 8 Found an odd number 9 4.5. else Clauses on Loops ¶ In a for or while loop the break statement may be paired with an else clause. If the loop finishes without executing the break , the else clause executes. In a for loop, the else clause is executed after the loop finishes its final iteration, that is, if no break occurred. In a while loop, it’s executed after the loop’s condition becomes false. In either kind of loop, the else clause is not executed if the loop was terminated by a break . Of course, other ways of ending the loop early, such as a return or a raised exception, will also skip execution of the else clause. This is exemplified in the following for loop, which searches for prime numbers: >>> for n in range ( 2 , 10 ): ... for x in range ( 2 , n ): ... if n % x == 0 : ... print ( n , 'equals' , x , '*' , n // x ) ... break ... else : ... # loop fell through without finding a factor ... print ( n , 'is a prime number' ) ... 2 is a prime number 3 is a prime number 4 equals 2 * 2 5 is a prime number 6 equals 2 * 3 7 is a prime number 8 equals 2 * 4 9 equals 3 * 3 (Yes, this is the correct code. Look closely: the else clause belongs to the for loop, not the if statement.) One way to think of the else clause is to imagine it paired with the if inside the loop. As the loop executes, it will run a sequence like if/if/if/else. The if is inside the loop, encountered a number of times. If the condition is ever true, a break will happen. If the condition is never true, the else clause outside the loop will execute. When used with a loop, the else clause has more in common with the else clause of a try statement than it does with that of if statements: a try statement’s else clause runs when no exception occurs, and a loop’s else clause runs when no break occurs. For more on the try statement and exceptions, see Handling Exceptions . 4.6. pass Statements ¶ The pass statement does nothing. It can be used when a statement is required syntactically but the program requires no action. For example: >>> while True : ... pass # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C) ... This is commonly used for creating minimal classes: >>> class MyEmptyClass : ... pass ... Another place pass can be used is as a place-holder for a function or conditional body when you are working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking at a more abstract level. The pass is silently ignored: >>> def initlog ( * args ): ... pass # Remember to implement this! ... For this last case, many people use the ellipsis literal ... instead of pass . This use has no special meaning to Python, and is not part of the language definition (you could use any constant expression here), but ... is used conventionally as a placeholder body as well. See The Ellipsis Object . 4.7. match Statements ¶ A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to successive patterns given as one or more case blocks. This is superficially similar to a switch statement in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages), but it’s more similar to pattern matching in languages like Rust or Haskell. Only the first pattern that matches gets executed and it can also extract components (sequence elements or object attributes) from the value into variables. If no case matches, none of the branches is executed. The simplest form compares a subject value against one or more literals: def http_error ( status ): match status : case 400 : return "Bad request" case 404 : return "Not found" case 418 : return "I'm a teapot" case _ : return "Something's wrong with the internet" Note the last block: the “variable name” _ acts as a wildcard and never fails to match. You can combine several literals in a single pattern using | (“or”): case 401 | 403 | 404 : return "Not allowed" Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and can be used to bind variables: # point is an (x, y) tuple match point : case ( 0 , 0 ): print ( "Origin" ) case ( 0 , y ): print ( f "Y= { y } " ) case ( x , 0 ): print ( f "X= { x } " ) case ( x , y ): print ( f "X= { x } , Y= { y } " ) case _ : raise ValueError ( "Not a point" ) Study that one carefully! The first pattern has two literals, and can be thought of as an extension of the literal pattern shown above. But the next two patterns combine a literal and a variable, and the variable binds a value from the subject ( point ). The fourth pattern captures two values, which makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment (x, y) = point . If you are using classes to structure your data you can use the class name followed by an argument list resembling a constructor, but with the ability to capture attributes into variables: class Point : def __init__ ( self , x , y ): self . x = x self . y = y def where_is ( point ): match point : case Point ( x = 0 , y = 0 ): print ( "Origin" ) case Point ( x = 0 , y = y ): print ( f "Y= { y } " ) case Point ( x = x , y = 0 ): print ( f "X= { x } " ) case Point (): print ( "Somewhere else" ) case _ : print ( "Not a point" ) You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide an ordering for their attributes (e.g. dataclasses). You can also define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the __match_args__ special attribute in your classes. If it’s set to (“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the y attribute to the var variable): Point ( 1 , var ) Point ( 1 , y = var ) Point ( x = 1 , y = var ) Point ( y = var , x = 1 ) A recommended way to read patterns is to look at them as an extended form of what you would put on the left of an assignment, to understand which variables would be set to what. Only the standalone names (like var above) are assigned to by a match statement. Dotted names (like foo.bar ), attribute names (the x= and y= above) or class names (recognized by the “(…)” next to them like Point above) are never assigned to. Patterns can be arbitrarily nested. For example, if we have a short list of Points, with __match_args__ added, we could match it like this: class Point : __match_args__ = ( 'x' , 'y' ) def __init__ ( self , x , y ): self . x = x self . y = y match points : case []: print ( "No points" ) case [ Point ( 0 , 0 )]: print ( "The origin" ) case [ Point ( x , y )]: print ( f "Single point { x } , { y } " ) case [ Point ( 0 , y1 ), Point ( 0 , y2 )]: print ( f "Two on the Y axis at { y1 } , { y2 } " ) case _ : print ( "Something else" ) We can add an if clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”. If the guard is false, match goes on to try the next case block. Note that value capture happens before the guard is evaluated: match point : case Point ( x , y ) if x == y : print ( f "Y=X at { x } " ) case Point ( x , y ): print ( f "Not on the diagonal" ) Several other key features of this statement: Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences. An important exception is that they don’t match iterators or strings. Sequence patterns support extended unpacking: [x, y, *rest] and (x, y, *rest) work similar to unpacking assignments. The name after * may also be _ , so (x, y, *_) matches a sequence of at least two items without binding the remaining items. Mapping patterns: {"bandwidth": b, "latency": l} captures the "bandwidth" and "latency" values from a dictionary. Unlike sequence patterns, extra keys are ignored. An unpacking like **rest is also supported. (But **_ would be redundant, so it is not allowed.) Subpatterns may be captured using the as keyword: case ( Point ( x1 , y1 ), Point ( x2 , y2 ) as p2 ): ... will capture the second element of the input as p2 (as long as the input is a sequence of two points) Most literals are compared by equality, however the singletons True , False and None are compared by identity. Patterns may use named constants. These must be dotted names to prevent them from being interpreted as capture variable: from enum import Enum class Color ( Enum ): RED = 'red' GREEN = 'green' BLUE = 'blue' color = Color ( input ( "Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': " )) match color : case Color . RED : print ( "I see red!" ) case Color . GREEN : print ( "Grass is green" ) case Color . BLUE : print ( "I'm feeling the blues :(" ) For a more detailed explanation and additional examples, you can look into PEP 636 which is written in a tutorial format. 4.8. Defining Functions ¶ We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary boundary: >>> def fib ( n ): # write Fibonacci series less than n ... """Print a Fibonacci series less than n.""" ... a , b = 0 , 1 ... while a < n : ... print ( a , end = ' ' ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... print () ... >>> # Now call the function we just defined: >>> fib ( 2000 ) 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 The keyword def introduces a function definition . It must be followed by the function name and the parenthesized list of formal parameters. The statements that form the body of the function start at the next line, and must be indented. The first statement of the function body can optionally be a string literal; this string literal is the function’s documentation string, or docstring . (More about docstrings can be found in the section Documentation Strings .) There are tools which use docstrings to automatically produce online or printed documentation, or to let the user interactively browse through code; it’s good practice to include docstrings in code that you write, so make a habit of it. The execution of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local variables of the function. More precisely, all variable assignments in a function store the value in the local symbol table; whereas variable references first look in the local symbol table, then in the local symbol tables of enclosing functions, then in the global symbol table, and finally in the table of built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of enclosing functions cannot be directly assigned a value within a function (unless, for global variables, named in a global statement, or, for variables of enclosing functions, named in a nonlocal statement), although they may be referenced. The actual parameters (arguments) to a function call are introduced in the local symbol table of the called function when it is called; thus, arguments are passed using call by value (where the value is always an object reference , not the value of the object). [ 1 ] When a function calls another function, or calls itself recursively, a new local symbol table is created for that call. A function definition associates the function name with the function object in the current symbol table. The interpreter recognizes the object pointed to by that name as a user-defined function. Other names can also point to that same function object and can also be used to access the function: >>> fib <function fib at 10042ed0> >>> f = fib >>> f ( 100 ) 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 Coming from other languages, you might object that fib is not a function but a procedure since it doesn’t return a value. In fact, even functions without a return statement do return a value, albeit a rather boring one. This value is called None (it’s a built-in name). Writing the value None is normally suppressed by the interpreter if it would be the only value written. You can see it if you really want to using print() : >>> fib ( 0 ) >>> print ( fib ( 0 )) None It is simple to write a function that returns a list of the numbers of the Fibonacci series, instead of printing it: >>> def fib2 ( n ): # return Fibonacci series up to n ... """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n.""" ... result = [] ... a , b = 0 , 1 ... while a < n : ... result . append ( a ) # see below ... a , b = b , a + b ... return result ... >>> f100 = fib2 ( 100 ) # call it >>> f100 # write the result [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89] This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features: The return statement returns with a value from a function. return without an expression argument returns None . Falling off the end of a function also returns None . The statement result.append(a) calls a method of the list object result . A method is a function that ‘belongs’ to an object and is named obj.methodname , where obj is some object (this may be an expression), and methodname is the name of a method that is defined by the object’s type. Different types define different methods. Methods of different types may have the same name without causing ambiguity. (It is possible to define your own object types and methods, using classes , see Classes ) The method append() shown in the example is defined for list objects; it adds a new element at the end of the list. In this example it is equivalent to result = result + [a] , but more efficient. 4.9. More on Defining Functions ¶ It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments. There are three forms, which can be combined. 4.9.1. Default Argument Values ¶ The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments. This creates a function that can be called with fewer arguments than it is defined to allow. For example: def ask_ok ( prompt , retries = 4 , reminder = 'Please try again!' ): while True : reply = input ( prompt ) if reply in { 'y' , 'ye' , 'yes' }: return True if reply in { 'n' , 'no' , 'nop' , 'nope' }: return False retries = retries - 1 if retries < 0 : raise ValueError ( 'invalid user response' ) print ( reminder ) This function can be called in several ways: giving only the mandatory argument: ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?') giving one of the optional arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2) or even giving all arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!') This example also introduces the in keyword. This tests whether or not a sequence contains a certain value. The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the defining scope, so that i = 5 def f ( arg = i ): print ( arg ) i = 6 f () will print 5 . Important warning: The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a difference when the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or instances of most classes. For example, the following function accumulates the arguments passed to it on subsequent calls: def f ( a , L = []): L . append ( a ) return L print ( f ( 1 )) print ( f ( 2 )) print ( f ( 3 )) This will print [ 1 ] [ 1 , 2 ] [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] If you don’t want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can write the function like this instead: def f ( a , L = None ): if L is None : L = [] L . append ( a ) return L 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments ¶ Functions can also be called using keyword arguments of the form kwarg=value . For instance, the following function: def parrot ( voltage , state = 'a stiff' , action = 'voom' , type = 'Norwegian Blue' ): print ( "-- This parrot wouldn't" , action , end = ' ' ) print ( "if you put" , voltage , "volts through it." ) print ( "-- Lovely plumage, the" , type ) print ( "-- It's" , state , "!" ) accepts one required argument ( voltage ) and three optional arguments ( state , action , and type ). This function can be called in any of the following ways: parrot ( 1000 ) # 1 positional argument parrot ( voltage = 1000 ) # 1 keyword argument parrot ( voltage = 1000000 , action = 'VOOOOOM' ) # 2 keyword arguments parrot ( action = 'VOOOOOM' , voltage = 1000000 ) # 2 keyword arguments parrot ( 'a million' , 'bereft of life' , 'jump' ) # 3 positional arguments parrot ( 'a thousand' , state = 'pushing up the daisies' ) # 1 positional, 1 keyword but all the following calls would be invalid: parrot () # required argument missing parrot ( voltage = 5.0 , 'dead' ) # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument parrot ( 110 , voltage = 220 ) # duplicate value for the same argument parrot ( actor = 'John Cleese' ) # unknown keyword argument In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments. All the keyword arguments passed must match one of the arguments accepted by the function (e.g. actor is not a valid argument for the parrot function), and their order is not important. This also includes non-optional arguments (e.g. parrot(voltage=1000) is valid too). No argument may receive a value more than once. Here’s an example that fails due to this restriction: >>> def function ( a ): ... pass ... >>> function ( 0 , a = 0 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : function() got multiple values for argument 'a' When a final formal parameter of the form **name is present, it receives a dictionary (see Mapping Types — dict ) containing all keyword arguments except for those corresponding to a formal parameter. This may be combined with a formal parameter of the form *name (described in the next subsection) which receives a tuple containing the positional arguments beyond the formal parameter list. ( *name must occur before **name .) For example, if we define a function like this: def cheeseshop ( kind , * arguments , ** keywords ): print ( "-- Do you have any" , kind , "?" ) print ( "-- I'm sorry, we're all out of" , kind ) for arg in arguments : print ( arg ) print ( "-" * 40 ) for kw in keywords : print ( kw , ":" , keywords [ kw ]) It could be called like this: cheeseshop ( "Limburger" , "It's very runny, sir." , "It's really very, VERY runny, sir." , shopkeeper = "Michael Palin" , client = "John Cleese" , sketch = "Cheese Shop Sketch" ) and of course it would print: -- Do you have any Limburger ? -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger It's very runny, sir. It's really very, VERY runny, sir. ---------------------------------------- shopkeeper : Michael Palin client : John Cleese sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed to match the order in which they were provided in the function call. 4.9.3. Special parameters ¶ By default, arguments may be passed to a Python function either by position or explicitly by keyword. For readability and performance, it makes sense to restrict the way arguments can be passed so that a developer need only look at the function definition to determine if items are passed by position, by position or keyword, or by keyword. A function definition may look like: def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2): ----------- ---------- ---------- | | | | Positional or keyword | | - Keyword only -- Positional only where / and * are optional. If used, these symbols indicate the kind of parameter by how the arguments may be passed to the function: positional-only, positional-or-keyword, and keyword-only. Keyword parameters are also referred to as named parameters. 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments ¶ If / and * are not present in the function definition, arguments may be passed to a function by position or by keyword. 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters ¶ Looking at this in a bit more detail, it is possible to mark certain parameters as positional-only . If positional-only , the parameters’ order matters, and the parameters cannot be passed by keyword. Positional-only parameters are placed before a / (forward-slash). The / is used to logically separate the positional-only parameters from the rest of the parameters. If there is no / in the function definition, there are no positional-only parameters. Parameters following the / may be positional-or-keyword or keyword-only . 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments ¶ To mark parameters as keyword-only , indicating the parameters must be passed by keyword argument, place an * in the arguments list just before the first keyword-only parameter. 4.9.3.4. Function Examples ¶ Consider the following example function definitions paying close attention to the markers / and * : >>> def standard_arg ( arg ): ... print ( arg ) ... >>> def pos_only_arg ( arg , / ): ... print ( arg ) ... >>> def kwd_only_arg ( * , arg ): ... print ( arg ) ... >>> def combined_example ( pos_only , / , standard , * , kwd_only ): ... print ( pos_only , standard , kwd_only ) The first function definition, standard_arg , the most familiar form, places no restrictions on the calling convention and arguments may be passed by position or keyword: >>> standard_arg ( 2 ) 2 >>> standard_arg ( arg = 2 ) 2 The second function pos_only_arg is restricted to only use positional parameters as there is a / in the function definition: >>> pos_only_arg ( 1 ) 1 >>> pos_only_arg ( arg = 1 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg' The third function kwd_only_arg only allows keyword arguments as indicated by a * in the function definition: >>> kwd_only_arg ( 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given >>> kwd_only_arg ( arg = 3 ) 3 And the last uses all three calling conventions in the same function definition: >>> combined_example ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given >>> combined_example ( 1 , 2 , kwd_only = 3 ) 1 2 3 >>> combined_example ( 1 , standard = 2 , kwd_only = 3 ) 1 2 3 >>> combined_example ( pos_only = 1 , standard = 2 , kwd_only = 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only' Finally, consider this function definition which has a potential collision between the positional argument name and **kwds which has name as a key: def foo ( name , ** kwds ): return 'name' in kwds There is no possible call that will make it return True as the keyword 'name' will always bind to the first parameter. For example: >>> foo ( 1 , ** { 'name' : 2 }) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : foo() got multiple values for argument 'name' >>> But using / (positional only arguments), it is possible since it allows name as a positional argument and 'name' as a key in the keyword arguments: >>> def foo ( name , / , ** kwds ): ... return 'name' in kwds ... >>> foo ( 1 , ** { 'name' : 2 }) True In other words, the names of positional-only parameters can be used in **kwds without ambiguity. 4.9.3.5. Recap ¶ The use case will determine which parameters to use in the function definition: def f ( pos1 , pos2 , / , pos_or_kwd , * , kwd1 , kwd2 ): As guidance: Use positional-only if you want the name of the parameters to not be available to the user. This is useful when parameter names have no real meaning, if you want to enforce the order of the arguments when the function is called or if you need to take some positional parameters and arbitrary keywords. Use keyword-only when names have meaning and the function definition is more understandable by being explicit with names or you want to prevent users relying on the position of the argument being passed. For an API, use positional-only to prevent breaking API changes if the parameter’s name is modified in the future. 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists ¶ Finally, the least frequently used option is to specify that a function can be called with an arbitrary number of arguments. These arguments will be wrapped up in a tuple (see Tuples and Sequences ). Before the variable number of arguments, zero or more normal arguments may occur. def write_multiple_items ( file , separator , * args ): file . write ( separator . join ( args )) Normally, these variadic arguments will be last in the list of formal parameters, because they scoop up all remaining input arguments that are passed to the function. Any formal parameters which occur after the *args parameter are ‘keyword-only’ arguments, meaning that they can only be used as keywords rather than positional arguments. >>> def concat ( * args , sep = "/" ): ... return sep . join ( args ) ... >>> concat ( "earth" , "mars" , "venus" ) 'earth/mars/venus' >>> concat ( "earth" , "mars" , "venus" , sep = "." ) 'earth.mars.venus' 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists ¶ The reverse situation occurs when the arguments are already in a list or tuple but need to be unpacked for a function call requiring separate positional arguments. For instance, the built-in range() function expects separate start and stop arguments. If they are not available separately, write the function call with the * -operator to unpack the arguments out of a list or tuple: >>> list ( range ( 3 , 6 )) # normal call with separate arguments [3, 4, 5] >>> args = [ 3 , 6 ] >>> list ( range ( * args )) # call with arguments unpacked from a list [3, 4, 5] In the same fashion, dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the ** -operator: >>> def parrot ( voltage , state = 'a stiff' , action = 'voom' ): ... print ( "-- This parrot wouldn't" , action , end = ' ' ) ... print ( "if you put" , voltage , "volts through it." , end = ' ' ) ... print ( "E's" , state , "!" ) ... >>> d = { "voltage" : "four million" , "state" : "bleedin' demised" , "action" : "VOOM" } >>> parrot ( ** d ) -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised ! 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions ¶ Small anonymous functions can be created with the lambda keyword. This function returns the sum of its two arguments: lambda a, b: a+b . Lambda functions can be used wherever function objects are required. They are syntactically restricted to a single expression. Semantically, they are just syntactic sugar for a normal function definition. Like nested function definitions, lambda functions can reference variables from the containing scope: >>> def make_incrementor ( n ): ... return lambda x : x + n ... >>> f = make_incrementor ( 42 ) >>> f ( 0 ) 42 >>> f ( 1 ) 43 The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function. Another use is to pass a small function as an argument. For instance, list.sort() takes a sorting key function key which can be a lambda function: >>> pairs = [( 1 , 'one' ), ( 2 , 'two' ), ( 3 , 'three' ), ( 4 , 'four' )] >>> pairs . sort ( key = lambda pair : pair [ 1 ]) >>> pairs [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')] 4.9.7. Documentation Strings ¶ Here are some conventions about the content and formatting of documentation strings. The first line should always be a short, concise summary of the object’s purpose. For brevity, it should not explicitly state the object’s name or type, since these are available by other means (except if the name happens to be a verb describing a function’s operation). This line should begin with a capital letter and end with a period. If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description. The following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object’s calling conventions, its side effects, etc. The Python parser strips indentation from multi-line string literals when they serve as module, class, or function docstrings. Here is an example of a multi-line docstring: >>> def my_function (): ... """Do nothing, but document it. ... ... No, really, it doesn't do anything: ... ... >>> my_function() ... >>> ... """ ... pass ... >>> print ( my_function . __doc__ ) Do nothing, but document it. No, really, it doesn't do anything: >>> my_function() >>> 4.9.8. Function Annotations ¶ Function annotations are completely optional metadata information about the types used by user-defined functions (see PEP 3107 and PEP 484 for more information). Annotations are stored in the __annotations__ attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of the function. Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name, followed by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation. Return annotations are defined by a literal -> , followed by an expression, between the parameter list and the colon denoting the end of the def statement. The following example has a required argument, an optional argument, and the return value annotated: >>> def f ( ham : str , eggs : str = 'eggs' ) -> str : ... print ( "Annotations:" , f . __annotations__ ) ... print ( "Arguments:" , ham , eggs ) ... return ham + ' and ' + eggs ... >>> f ( 'spam' ) Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>} Arguments: spam eggs 'spam and eggs' 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style ¶ Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a good time to talk about coding style . Most languages can be written (or more concise, formatted ) in different styles; some are more readable than others. Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting a nice coding style helps tremendously for that. For Python, PEP 8 has emerged as the style guide that most projects adhere to; it promotes a very readable and eye-pleasing coding style. Every Python developer should read it at some point; here are the most important points extracted for you: Use 4-space indentation, and no tabs. 4 spaces are a good compromise between small indentation (allows greater nesting depth) and large indentation (easier to read). Tabs introduce confusion, and are best left out. Wrap lines so that they don’t exceed 79 characters. This helps users with small displays and makes it possible to have several code files side-by-side on larger displays. Use blank lines to separate functions and classes, and larger blocks of code inside functions. When possible, put comments on a line of their own. Use docstrings. Use spaces around operators and after commas, but not directly inside bracketing constructs: a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4) . Name your classes and functions consistently; the convention is to use UpperCamelCase for classes and lowercase_with_underscores for functions and methods. Always use self as the name for the first method argument (see A First Look at Classes for more on classes and methods). Don’t use fancy encodings if your code is meant to be used in international environments. Python’s default, UTF-8, or even plain ASCII work best in any case. Likewise, don’t use non-ASCII characters in identifiers if there is only the slightest chance people speaking a different language will read or maintain the code. Footnotes [ 1 ] Actually, call by object reference would be a better description, since if a mutable object is passed, the caller will see any changes the callee makes to it (items inserted into a list). Table of Contents 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements 4.5. else Clauses on Loops 4.6. pass Statements 4.7. match Statements 4.8. Defining Functions 4.9. More on Defining Functions 4.9.1. Default Argument Values 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments 4.9.3. Special parameters 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments 4.9.3.4. Function Examples 4.9.3.5. Recap 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions 4.9.7. Documentation Strings 4.9.8. Function Annotations 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style Previous topic 3. An Informal Introduction to Python Next topic 5. Data Structures This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 4. More Control Flow Tools | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. 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https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-profile-modify | Modify Profile - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Profile Modify Profile Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Profile Modify Profile OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Update an existing profile in the SuprSend CLI configuration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Syntax You can modify a profile by providing the flags directly in the command or by passing individual field values in interactive mode. Copy Ask AI suprsend profile modify [flags] Flags Flag Description Default -h, --help Show help for the command – --name string Name of the profile to modify – --service-token string New service token for the profile – --base-url string New Hub API endpoint https://hub.suprsend.com/ --mgmnt-url string New Management API endpoint https://management-api.suprsend.com/ Example Copy Ask AI # Update service token for a profile suprsend profile modify --name my-profile --service-token new-token # token is mandatory, other fields are optional (just pass the flags you want to modify) suprsend profile modify \ --name production-profile \ --token new-prod-token \ --base-url https://hub.suprsend.com/ \ --mgmnt-url https://management-api.suprsend.com/ Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Remove Profile Delete unused profile from Local configuration file. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Syntax Flags Example | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/integrate-node-sdk#content-area | Integrate Node SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Install & Initialize SuprSend NodeJS SDK using your workspace credentials for sending notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @suprsend/node-sdk@latest Initialization javascript Copy Ask AI const { Suprsend } = require ( "@suprsend/node-sdk" ); const supr_client = new Suprsend ( "WORKSPACE KEY" , "WORKSPACE SECRET" ); Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will find them on SuprSend Dashboard Developers -> API Keys page. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Users Create, update, & manage user profiles and communication channels using NodeJS SDK methods. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://legal.x.com/ja/purchaser-terms.html | X購入者利用規約 X購入者利用規約 X購入者利用規約をダウンロードする 有料サービス規約 Xプレミアムの追加条件 サブスクリプションの追加条件 X購入者利用規約をダウンロードする X購入者利用規約 goglobalwithtwitterbanner 有料サービス規約 Xプレミアムの追加条件 クリエイターサブスクリプション追加規約 プレミアムビジネスおよびプレミアム組織の追加利用規約 有料サービス規約 Xプレミアムの追加条件 クリエイターサブスクリプション追加規約 プレミアムビジネスおよびプレミアム組織の追加利用規約 X購入者利用規約 発効日: 2025年8月1日 EU、EFTA諸国または英国に居住しているユーザーの場合 （米国に居住しているユーザーの場合も含みます）は、 こちら のX購入者利用規約が適用されます。 EU、EFTA諸国または英国に居住しているユーザーの場合は、 こちら のX購入者利用規約が適用されます。 X購入者利用規約 EU、EFTA諸国または英国以外の国に居住しているユーザーの場合（米国に居住しているユーザーの場合も含みます） Xでは、該当する機能に応じて、1回限りまたは定期的な料金を支払うことで、特定の機能にアクセスできます（以下、総称して「 有料サービス 」といいます）。たとえば、Xプレミアム（以下に定義）と サブスクリプション はそれぞれ「有料サービス」とみなされます。 お客様が有料サービスに登録および/または有料サービスを利用する場合、有料サービスの利用およびそれに伴う取引は、（i）本利用規約に記載されている条件（お客様が購入する各有料サービスに適用される、以下に記載のそれぞれの条件を含み、以下、総称して「 サービスに関する X購入者利用規約 」といいます。）、ならびに（ii）適用される X利用規約 、 Xプライバシーポリシー 、 Xルールとポリシー 、およびこれらに組み込まれているすべてのポリシー（以下、総称して「 X利用者契約 」といいます。）に従うものとします。このX購入者利用規約および前述のX利用者契約は、本書では総称して「 規約 」と呼ばれます。「 X 」は、お客様に有料サービスを提供するX事業体を指します。 以下のX購入者利用規約をよくお読みいただき、適用される条件および除外事項を理解するようにしてください。お客様が米国に居住している場合、本規約には、お客様に適用される、紛争解決に関する重要な情報が含まれています。これには、集団訴訟を提起する権利の放棄、および当該事由の発生後2年以上経過してからXに対して請求を行う権利の制限が含まれており、これらは、Xとの間に何らかの紛争が発生した場合に、お客様の権利および義務に影響を与えます。これらの規定の詳細については、 第6条 （一般条件）をご覧ください。 同意 。 お客様は、Xの有料サービスを利用するか、または有料サービスにアクセスするか、Xが提供する有料サービスの利用料金を支払うか、ボタンをクリックして1回限りの購入または定期的なサブスクリプション料金の支払いを行うことにより、本規約に拘束されることに同意するものとします。本規約をご理解いただけない場合、または本規約のいずれかの部分にご同意いただけない場合、有料サービスを利用することも、有料サービスにアクセスすることもできません。有料サービスを購入し、利用するには、お客様は、（i）18歳以上もしくはお客様が居住する法域の法律が定める成人年齢以上であるか、または（ii）有料サービスを購入して利用することについて、保護者が明示的に同意している必要があります。保護者の方がお子様に有料サービスの購入または利用を許可した場合、本規約が保護者に適用されること、保護者が本規約を遵守すること、また、有料サービスにおけるお子様の活動について保護者が責任を負うとともに、お子様にも本規約を遵守させることに同意するものとします。 いかなる場合においても、X利用規約の「本サービスを利用できる人」条項に記載されているとおり、Xサービスを利用するには、お客様は13歳以上でなければなりません。お客様が、特定の会社、組織、政府、その他の法人を代表して本X購入者利用規約に同意し、有料サービスを利用する場合、お客様は代理としてその権限を有することを保証し、そうした法人を本X購入者利用規約に拘束させる権限を有するものとします。その場合、本X購入者利用規約の「お客様」および「あなた」とはその法人を指すものとします。 X契約主体 。 お客様は、以下に記載のとおり、お客様の居住地に対応する事業体と本X購入者利用規約を締結します。有料サービスは、当該エンティティによって提供されます。他のいかなる事業体も、本購入者利用規約に基づくお客様に対するいかなる義務にも拘束されません。 お客様の居住地 北米大陸（ハワイを含む）または南米大陸 契約エンティティ X Corp.、オフィス所在地：865 FM 1209, Building 2, Bastrop, TX 78602, USA お客様の居住地 上記の2つの地域に含まれていないすべての国（アジア地域、中東、アフリカ、またはEU加盟国、EFTA加盟国および英国を除くヨーロッパを含みます） 契約エンティティ X Global LLC（登録事務所所在地：701 S. Carson St., Suite 200, Carson City, NV 89701, USA） 規約、有料サービスおよび料金の変更について 1. 規約の変更。 Xは、本X購入者利用規約を業務上、財務上または法務上の理由などにより、随時改定することができます。変更には遡及効果はありません。有料サービスおよびそれに対応する取引の使用には、X購入者利用規約の最新バージョン（ legal.x.com/purchaser-terms で確認可能）が適用されるものとします。お客様が本規約に同意後に、当社が本規約を変更または改定する場合（たとえば、お客様がサブスクリプションを購入後に、本規約が改訂される場合）、当社は、本規約の重大な改定を事前にお客様に通知します。かかる通知は、サービス通知またはお客様のアカウントに関連付けられている電子メールアドレスへの電子メールを含むが、これらに限定されない電子的方法で提供されるものとします。本規約の改定が発効した後に本サービスへのアクセスまたは有料サービスの利用を継続した場合、X購入者利用規約の改定版に拘束されることに同意したとみなされます。X購入者利用規約の本版または今後の改定版の順守に同意しない場合、有料サービスの使用またはアクセス（または継続して使用またはアクセス）はしないものとします。 X購入者の利用規約は英語で起草されていますが、複数の言語の翻訳版が提供されています。Xは、元の英語版に可能な限り忠実な翻訳を行うよう努めていますが、X購入者の利用規約の英語版と翻訳版との間で相違や矛盾がある場合、英語版が優先されるものとします。お客様は、X購入者の利用規約の解釈および構成において、英語を基準言語とすることに同意するものとします。 2. 有料サービスの変更。 当社の有料サービスは、継続的に改良されています。従って本有料サービスは、業務上、財務上または法務上の理由などにより、当社の独断で随時変更することができます。当社は、お客様または一般的にはユーザー対する有料サービスまたは有料サービス内機能を、事前通知の有無にかかわらず、（永久的または一時的に）中止することができます。Xは有料サービスの変更、停止、廃止について、お客様またはいかなる第三者に対しても責任を負いません。特定の有料サービスに対する特定の利用規約（以下を含む）には、お客様がサブスクリプションをキャンセルする方法、または該当する場合、返金する方法が規定されています。 3. 価格の変更。 サブスクリプション料金を含む有料サービスの料金は、、業務上、財務上または法務上の理由などにより、随時変更される場合があります。Xは、本有料サービスの料金に重大な変更がある場合は、合理的な範囲で事前に通知します。サブスクリプションサービスの場合、料金変更は、料金変更日の次のサブスクリプション期間開始時に適用されます。料金変更に同意しない場合、料金変更が適用される前に、該当する有料サービスのサブスクリプションをキャンセルすることで変更を拒否する権利を有します。 支払い条件 。 Xは、有料サービス、ご利用の端末および/またはオペレーティングシステム、お住まいの地域またはその他要因に応じて、異なるさまざまな支払い方法を用意しています。利用可能な範囲で（Xが随時さまざまな購入方法を提供するため）、これら支払い方法には、GoogleまたはApple提供の「アプリ内支払い」機能または、Xの第三者決済業者 Stripe（ www.stripe.com - 以下、「 Stripe 」といいます。）を利用したウェブ支払いが含まれます。支払い時、お客様は明示的に、（i）有料サービスに表示された料金に加えて、適用される税金、クレジットカード手数料、銀行手数料、外国為替手終了および為替変動に関わる追加料金の支払い; および（ii）お客様が指定するお支払い方法を利用することに関連して、Google、AppleまたはStripe（Xの第三者決済業者）が課す関連利用規約、プライバシーポリシー、またはその他法的契約または制限（追加の年齢制限を含む）を順守すること（たとえば、Appleのアプリ内購入機能を使用した支払いを選択した場合、Appleが課した関連規約、要件および/または制限に順守すること）に同意するものとします。支払いに関連して提供されるデータを含むがこれに限定されない有料サービスの利用に関連してお客様が提供するいかなる個人情報は、Xプライバシーポリシーに沿って処理されるものとします。Xは、支払い処理、詐欺やその他禁止行為の防止、検出および調査、支払い拒否または返金を含む紛争解決の促進、およびクレジットカード、デビットカード、またはACHの受け付けに関するその他目的のために、お客様の支払い情報を支払いサービスプロバイダーに共有することができます。銀行、クレジットカード、デビットカードおよび/またはその他支払い情報を常に最新、完全かつ正確に保つことはお客様の責任です。有料サービスに対して支払いを行う場合、当社は、支払日、サブスクリプションの有効期限ぎ、自動更新日、購入を行ったプラットフォーム、その他情報を受け取ることができます。Xは、決済業者、Apple App Store、Google Play Store、お客様の取引銀行、クレジットカード会社および/または支払いネットワークによるエラー、遅延に対して一切の責任や義務を負いません。サブスクリプション更新の対応方法、その他重要規約を含む特定の有料サービスに対して該当する以下の支払い規約については、該当する有料サービス利用規約を参照してください。 X利用者契約の適用、契約の終了、返金の否定、複数のXアカウント、および制限事項 1. X利用者契約がお客様に適用されます 。お客様は、常にX利用者契約に従い、それを遵守する必要があります。X利用者契約は、お客様によるXサービス（有料サービスおよび機能を含みます）の利用に対して常に適用されます。お客様がX利用者契約に従わず、これを遵守しなかった場合、またはお客様がX利用者契約に従わず、これを遵守しなかったとXが判断した場合、お客様の有料サービスがキャンセルされる場合があります。当該キャンセルは、X利用者契約に従いXがお客様に対して行うすべての強制措置に加えて行われるものであり、また、当該強制措置によって制限されることもありません。その場合、お客様は、有料サービスの特典を利用できなくなる場合があり、また、有料サービスに対してお客様が支払った（または前払いした）一切の金額について、返金を受けることができません。 2. 有料サービスへのアクセスがXにより停止される原因となりうる事項。 Xは、いつでも、以下のいずれかの理由により（ただしこれらに限定されません）、または理由の有無を問わず、（いかなる責任も負うことなく）お客様による有料サービスへのアクセスの停止もしくは終了、お客様に対する有料サービスのすべてもしくは一部の提供の中止、または当社が適切であると判断したその他の措置を取ることがあります。 a. Xが独自の裁量により、お客様が本規約に違反したか、またはお客様による有料サービスの利用が適用法に違反すると判断した場合。 b. Xが管轄裁判所、規制当局、または法執行機関から要請または指示を受けた場合; c. 予期せぬ技術的またはセキュリティの問題がXに発生した場合 d. Xが、その単独の裁量により、お客様がXユーザー契約に違反していると判断した場合。 e. Xが、その単独の裁量により、お客様が有料サービスを悪用したか、または主に有料サービスに対して、もしくは有料サービスに関連して、その他の妨害行為や禁止行為に関与していると判断した場合。 f. ユーザーがXにリスクまたは法的責任の可能性をもたらした場合。 g. 不法行為によりお客様のアカウントの削除が必要となった場合 h. 長期にわたる不活動によりお客様のアカウントの削除が必要となった場合 i. 当社による有料サービスの全部または一部をお客様に提供することは、もはや商業的に実行可能ではありません(Xの単独の裁量により)。 3. すべての取引は最終的なものです。 有料サービスに対するすべてのお支払いは最終的なものであり、適用法令により要求される場合を除き、返金または交換は行われません。当社は、有料サービスの性質、品質もしくは価値について、または有料サービスの利用可能性もしくは供給について、一切の保証を行いません。未使用の、または一部使用した有料サービス（登録期間の一部使用など）に対して、返金またはクレジットは提供されません。 4.有料サービスをXアカウント間で譲渡することはできません。 有料サービスの各購入は、単一のXアカウントに適用されます。したがって、購入は、当該有料サービスの購入時に使用したアカウントにのみ適用され、お客様がアクセスできる、またはお客様の管理下にあるその他のアカウントには適用されません。お客様が複数のアカウントを所有または管理している場合で、それぞれのアカウントから有料サービスにアクセスすることを希望するときは、有料サービスを各アカウントで個別に購入する必要があります。 5. 制限と義務。 a. お客様は、お客様の居住国で有料サービスの利用が法的に認められており、その有料サービスがXによりサポートされている国に居住している場合にのみ、当該有料サービスを購入および利用できます。Xは、独自の判断により、特定の国において有料サービスへのアクセスまたはその購入を制限することができます。Xは、サポート対象国のリストを随時変更する権利を留保します。 b. 当社は、独自の裁量により有料サービスの取引を拒否したり、有料サービスの販売または使用をキャンセルまたは中止したりする権利を留保します。 c. お客様は、他者がお客様のXアカウントを使用して、その人が注文していない有料サービスにアクセスすることを許可することはできません。 d. お客様は、ご自身が経済制裁（米国財務省外国資産管理局またはその他の該当する制裁当局が執行する制裁措置を含みますが、これらに限定されません）に基づき米国人が取引を行うことが禁止されている者（以下、「 取引禁止対象者 」といいます。）である場合、有料サービスを購入または利用することはできません。これにはキューバ、イラン、クリミアのウクライナ地域、北朝鮮、シリアに在住する人物か、またはこれらの国および地域の通常居住者が含まれますが、これらに限定されません。お客様はご自身が取引禁止人物でないことを表明し保証するものとします。 e. お客様は、有料サービスを合法的な目的のためにのみ、かつ、本規約に沿ってのみ利用することを表明します。 税金と手数料 。 お客様は、有料サービスの購入に関連して適用される税金、関税および手数料（Xまたは第三者決済処理業者に支払う必要があるものを含みます）について責任を負い、これらを支払うことに同意します。これらの租税等には、VAT、GST、売上税、源泉徴収税およびその他の適用される税金が含まれますが、これらに限定されません。お客様の居住地によっては、Xは、お客様が有料サービスを購入した際に発生する取引税に関する情報を収集し、それを報告する責任を負う場合があります。お客様は、Xが税金の徴収および報告の義務を果たすために、お客様のアカウント情報および個人情報を管轄税務当局に提供することをXに許可します。 一般条件 1. 連絡先情報。 有料サービスまたは本規約についてご質問がある場合は、 X有料サービスヘルプセンター で詳細をご確認ください。すでに有料サービスを購入されている場合は、お客様のXアカウントのナビゲーションメニューのお支払いまたは登録の設定にあるサポートリンクからも問い合わせることができます。その他のご質問がある場合は、 こちら から、「有料機能に関するヘルプ」フォームを使ってお問い合わせください。 2. 免責事項。 適用法令の下で許容される最大限の範囲において、お客様による有料サービスへのアクセスおよびその利用は、お客様自身の責任で行うものとします。お客様は、有料サービスが「現状のまま」かつ「提供可能な限度」で提供されることを理解し、同意するものとします。Xは、明示または黙示を問わず、市場性、特定目的に対する適合性または権利非侵害についていかなる保証および条件付けも行わないものとします。Xは、（i）有料サービスの完全性、正確性、利用可能性、適時性、安全性または信頼性、および（ii）有料サービスがお客様の要求を満たすかどうか、または有料サービスが中断されることなく、安全に、もしくはエラーなく利用できるかどうかについて、いかなる表明保証もせず、一切責任を負わないものとします。お客様は、有料サービスを含むXサービスのご利用およびお客様が提供するコンテンツについて責任を負います。 3. 責任の制限。Xエンティティは、適用法令の下で許容される最大限の範囲において、（i）有料サービスへのアクセスもしくはその利用または当該アクセスもしくは利用ができないこと、（ii）第三者の行為もしくは有料サービスを介して第三者がポストするコンテンツ（他の利用者または第三者による名誉毀損、侮辱または違法行為を含みますが、これらに限定されません。）、（iii）有料サービスにより得られるコンテンツ、または（iv）お客様の通信もしくはコンテンツに対する不正アクセス、不正利用もしくは改変に起因する、いかなる間接損害、付随損害、特別損害、結果損害もしくは懲罰的損害、逸失利益もしくは逸失収益（直接的に発生したか間接的に発生したかを問いません）、データ、利用状況、営業権の損失その他の無形損害についても責任を負いません。疑義を避けるために、有料サービスの定義は、Xが提供する機能に限定されており、お客様がこれらの機能を使用する際にアクセスおよび/または操作するコンテンツは含まれません。いかなる場合においても、Xエンティティの責任は、総額で、100.00米ドルまたはお客様が過去6か月間に請求の原因となった有料サービスに対してXに支払った金額のいずれか大きい金額を超えることはないものとします。本項で定める責任の制限は、責任の原因が保証に起因するか、契約によるか、法定であるか、不法行為（過失を含む）によるか、その他の原因によるかを問わず、またXエンティティが損害発生の可能性について知らされていたか否かを問わず、本規約に定める救済手段がその本来の目的を果たせないことが判明した場合にも適用されるものとします。「Xエンティティ」とは、X、その親会社、関連会社、関係会社、役員、取締役、従業員、代理人、代表者、パートナーおよびライセンサーをいいます。 お客様の法域の適用法令によっては、特定の責任制限が認められない場合があります。上記は、お客様の法域の適用法令で要求される範囲において、Xの過失、重過失および/または故意の行為に起因する詐欺、詐欺的な不実表示、死亡または人身傷害に対するXエンティティの責任を制限するものではありません。適用法令の下で許容される最大限の範囲において、非除外対象の保証に対するXエンティティの責任の最大総額は、100.00米ドルに限定されます。 4. Appleに関する通知。 有料サービスを購入した場合、またはiOSデバイスで有料サービスを使用またはアクセスしている場合、お客様はさらに本セクションの条件を承認し、同意するものとします。お客様は、本規約がお客様と当社との間のみのものであり、Appleとの間のものではないこと、また、有料サービスおよびそのコンテンツについてAppleが責任を負わないことに同意するものとします。Appleは、有料サービスに関する保守およびサポートのサービスを提供する義務を一切負いません。有料サービスが該当する保証に適合しない場合、お客様はAppleに通知することができ、Appleは当該有料サービスの該当する購入代金をお客様に返金します。ただし、Appleは、適用法令の下で許容される最大限の範囲において、有料サービスに関してその他一切の保証義務を負いません。Appleは、有料サービスまたはお客様による有料サービスの所有および/または使用に関連して、お客様または第三者が行ういかなる請求についても、それに対応する責任を負いません。そのような請求には、（i）製造物賠償責任に関する請求、（ii）有料サービスにおける適用される法律または規制要件への不適合に関する請求、（iii）消費者保護法または類似の法律に基づく請求が含まれますが、これらに限定されません。Appleは、有料サービスおよび/またはお客様によるモバイルアプリケーションの所持および使用が第三者の知的財産権を侵害しているという第三者からの請求について、その調査、防御、和解および免責について責任を負いません。お客様は、有料サービスを利用する場合、適用される第三者の条件を遵守することに同意するものとします。AppleおよびAppleの子会社は、本規約の第三者受益者であり、お客様が本規約に同意した場合、Appleは、本規約の第三者受益者として、本規約をお客様に対して強制する権利を有します（また、その権利を受諾したものとみなされます）。お客様は本規約により、（i）お客様が、米国政府による禁輸措置の対象国または米国政府により「テロ支援国家」として指定されている国に所在していないこと、また、（ii）お客様が米国政府の取引禁止対象者または取引制限対象者のリストに記載されていないことを表明し、保証します。 5. 矛盾。 本規約（X購入者の利用規約）の規定とX利用者契約の規定との間に矛盾がある場合、有料サービスの利用に関してのみ、本規約（X購入者の利用規約）の規定が優先されます。 6. 紛争解決および集団訴訟の放棄 a. 最初の紛争解決 . あなたとXの間のほとんどの紛争は、非公式に解決することができます。有料サポート にこちらからご連絡いただくこともできます 。なおご連絡をいただく際は、懸念の性質と根拠についての簡単な説明、お客様の連絡先、ご希望の救済措置をお知らせください。当事者は、このサポートプロセスを通じて、本規約および／または本プログラムへの参加に関連して生じた紛争、請求または論争（以下、「 紛争 」といいます。）を解決するために最大限の努力を払うものとします。お客様と当社は、この非公式なプロセスへの誠実な参加が必要であり、いずれかの当事者が緊急差止命令による救済の要求に関する場合を除き、紛争に関する訴訟を開始する前に、上記のように完了する必要があることに同意します(以下 免除紛争 )。上記の初期紛争解決条項に基づいて非公式の紛争解決が開始されてから30日以内に、当社がお客様との間で紛争（免除対象紛争を除く）に関する合意解決に達することができない場合、お客様または当社が訴訟を起こすことができます。 b. 準拠法および裁判地の選択 。 本条は、お客様の法的権利（裁判所に訴訟を提起する権利を含みます）に大きな影響を及ぼす可能性があるため、よく注意してお読みください。 お客様と当社の間で別途合意があった場合でも、本規約およびお客様と当社の間で生じるあらゆる紛争には、法の選択規定を除くテキサス州の法律が適用されます。本規約に関連するすべての紛争（本規約に起因または関連するあらゆる紛争、請求、論争を含む）は、米国テキサス州タラント郡に所在する連邦地方裁判所または州裁判所にのみ提起されるものとし、お客様はこれらの法廷における対人管轄権に同意し、不便宜法廷地に関する異議申し立てを放棄するものとします。上記を損なうことなく、お客様は、Xが独自の裁量により、当社がお客様に対して有する請求、訴訟原因、または紛争を、請求に対する管轄権および裁判地を有するお客様が居住する国の管轄裁判所に提起できることに同意するものとします。 お客様が、米国の連邦政府、州政府または地方自治体の機関であり、その公的な地位に基づき、上記の準拠法の指定や合意管轄裁判所または法廷地に関する規定に法的に同意できない場合、それらの規定はご自身に適用されないものとします。かかる米国連邦政府機関の場合、本契約およびこれに関連するすべての行為は、アメリカ合衆国の法律に（法令の矛盾を参照することなしに）準拠し、連邦法がない場合および連邦法で許可される範囲において、テキサス州の法律（法の選択を除く）に準拠するものとします。 c. お客様によるXに対する請求の時効期間は2年です 。 お客様は、Xに対するいかなる請求も、紛争の原因となる出来事または事実の発生日から2年以内に提起しなければなりません。ただし、適用法令により、当該請求に関して、通常の消滅時効を合意により短縮することはできないと定められている場合を除きます。この期間内に請求を行わない場合、お客様は、かかる出来事または事実に基づくあらゆる種類または性質の請求または訴因を提起する権利を永久に放棄することになり、かかる請求または訴因は永久に禁止されます。また、Xはかかる請求に関して一切の責任を負いません。 d. 集団訴訟の放棄 : また、法律で許容される範囲において、お客様は集団訴訟、集団行動、または代表訴訟に原告またはクラスメンバーとして参加する権利を放棄するものとします。 X購入者利用規約 EU、EFTA諸国または英国に居住しているユーザーの場合 Xでは、該当する機能に応じて、1回限りまたは定期的な料金を支払うことで、特定の機能にアクセスできます（以下、総称して「 有料サービス 」といいます）。たとえば、Xプレミアム（以下に定義）と サブスクリプション はそれぞれ「有料サービス」とみなされます。 お客様が有料サービスに登録および/または有料サービスを利用する場合、有料サービスの利用およびそれに伴う取引は、（i）本利用規約に記載されている条件（お客様が購入する各有料サービスに適用される、以下に記載のそれぞれの条件を含み、以下、総称して「 サービスに関する X購入者利用規約 」といいます。）、ならびに（ii）適用される X利用規約 、 Xプライバシーポリシー 、 Xルールとポリシー 、およびこれらに組み込まれているすべてのポリシー（以下、総称して「 X利用者契約 」といいます。）に従うものとします。このX購入者利用規約および前述のX利用者契約は、本書では総称して「 規約 」と呼ばれます。「 X 」は、お客様に有料サービスを提供するX事業体を指します。 以下のX購入者利用規約をよくお読みいただき、適用される条件および除外事項を理解するようにしてください。お客様が欧州連合、EFTA加盟国、または英国にお住まいの場合、本規約には、集団訴訟として請求を提起する権利の放棄、および関連する事象が発生してから1年以上経過した後にXに対して請求を提起する権利の制限など、紛争の解決に関してお客様に適用される重要な情報が含まれています。これは、Xとの紛争が発生した場合にお客様の権利と義務に影響を与えます。これらの規定の詳細については、 第6条 （一般条件）をご覧ください。 承諾 。 お客様は、Xの有料サービスを利用するか、または有料サービスにアクセスするか、Xが提供する有料サービスの利用料金を支払うか、ボタンをクリックして1回限りの購入または定期的なサブスクリプション料金の支払いを行うことにより、本規約に拘束されることに同意するものとします。本規約をご理解いただけない場合、または本規約のいずれかの部分にご同意いただけない場合、有料サービスを利用することも、有料サービスにアクセスすることもできません。有料サービスを購入し、利用するには、お客様は、（i）18歳以上もしくはお客様が居住する法域の法律が定める成人年齢以上であるか、または（ii）有料サービスを購入して利用することについて、保護者が明示的に同意している必要があります。保護者の方がお子様に有料サービスの購入または利用を許可した場合、本規約が保護者に適用されること、保護者が本規約を遵守すること、また、有料サービスにおけるお子様の活動について保護者が責任を負うとともに、お子様にも本規約を遵守させることに同意するものとします。 いかなる場合においても、X利用規約の「本サービスを利用できる人」条項に記載されているとおり、Xサービスを利用するには、お客様は13歳以上でなければなりません。お客様が、特定の会社、組織、政府、その他の法人を代表して本X購入者利用規約に同意し、有料サービスを利用する場合、お客様は代理としてその権限を有することを保証し、そうした法人を本X購入者利用規約に拘束させる権限を有するものとします。その場合、本X購入者利用規約の「お客様」および「あなた」とはその法人を指すものとします。 X契約事業体 . お客様は、以下に記載のとおり、お客様の居住地に対応する事業体と本X購入者利用規約を締結します。有料サービスは、当該エンティティによって提供されます。他のいかなる事業体も、本購入者利用規約に基づくお客様に対するいかなる義務にも拘束されません。 お客様の居住地 欧州連合、EFTA加盟国、または英国 契約エンティティ X Internet Unlimited Companyは、One Cumberland Place, Fenian Street, Dublin 2, D02 AX07 Irelandに登録事務所を構えています。 規約、有料サービスおよび料金の変更について 1. 規約の変更。 Xは、X購入者利用規約を有効かつ合理的な根拠により、随時改定する場合があります。有効かつ合理的な根拠には、（i）技術的、セキュリティ上、または運用上の進展に伴うサービスの変更、（ii）技術的な不具合の解消、（iii）ポリシー、財務、その他の方向性の変更に起因する事業の変更、（iv）法律の改正、公的機関からの要請、または裁判所の判断による法的状況の変化、（v）新機能の実装によるユーザー体験の最適化などがあります。変更には遡及効果はありません。有料サービスおよびそれに対応する取引の使用には、X購入者利用規約の最新バージョン（ legal.x.com/purchaser-terms で確認可能）が適用されるものとします。お客様が本規約に同意された後に本規約を変更または修正する場合（たとえば、お客様のサブスクリプション購入後に規約が変更される場合など）、当社は、重要な修正の発効前に、変更内容に応じて、遅くとも30日前までに通知を行い、ユーザーに対して合理的な対応期限を設定するとともに、当該期限後も引き続きサービスを利用された場合の結果についても通知するものとします。かかる通知は、サービス通知またはお客様のアカウントに関連付けられている電子メールアドレスへの電子メールを含むが、これらに限定されない電子的方法で提供されるものとします。前述の期限が過ぎた後も有料サービスの利用を継続する場合、お客様は、改定後のX購入者利用規約に拘束されることに同意するものとします。お客様はX購入者利用規約の変更に同意されない場合、有料サービスの使用もしくはアクセス（または使用もしくはアクセスの継続）を停止する必要があります。 X購入者の利用規約は英語で起草されていますが、複数の言語の翻訳版が提供されています。Xは、元の英語版に可能な限り忠実な翻訳を行うよう努めていますが、X購入者の利用規約の英語版と翻訳版との間で相違や矛盾がある場合、英語版が優先されるものとします。お客様は、X購入者の利用規約の解釈および構成において、英語を基準言語とすることに同意するものとします。 2. 有料サービスの変更。 Xの有料サービスや、Xのプロダクトおよびサービスは常に進化し続けています。Xは、合理的かつ有効な根拠に基づいて有料サービスを変更することができるものとします。そうした有効かつ合理的な根拠には、（i）技術的、セキュリティ上、または運用上の進展、（ii）技術的な不具合の解消、（iii）法律の改正、公的機関からの要請、または裁判所の判断などによる法的状況の変化への対応、（iv）法律の改正、公的機関からの要請、または裁判所の判断による法的状況の変化、（v）ポリシー、財務状況、またはその他の経営方針の変更に伴う事業の変更などがあります。有料サービスに変更がある場合は、遅くとも変更の発効日の30日前までに通知いたします。通知は、サービス内のお知らせや、アカウントに紐づけられたメールアドレスへのメールの送信などの方法で行い、変更の内容および発効日を明示するとともに、必要に応じてサブスクリプションを解約する権利があることもご案内いたします。安全上の問題等により変更が生じた場合、期限が短縮されることがあります。以下の事項は、本条における「有料サービスの変更」には該当しないものとします。（i）有料サービスの根本的な性質およびXが提供するサービスの本質的な特性に影響を与える変更、および（ii）サービスの恒久的な提供終了。Xは、有料サービスの変更、停止、または中止について、お客様に対して責任を負いません。法的に義務付けられている場合には、上記の責任制限は以下には適用されません。（i）Xまたはその法定代理人もしくは代理人による、軽度の過失による義務違反により発生した予見可能な損害の補償。ただし、その義務の履行が契約の適正な遂行に不可欠であり、かつユーザーがその履行を信頼できる場合（本質的契約義務）に限ります。（ii）Xまたはその法定代理人もしくは代理人による以下の責任：（a）生命、身体または健康への損害、ならびに故意または重過失によって生じた損害、および（b）保証または品質保証された特性の不履行、または故意に隠された欠陥に起因する損害。特定の有料サービスの特定の利用規約(以下に記載)には、サブスクリプションをキャンセルする方法、または該当する場合は返金を求める方法が明記されています。 3. 価格の変更 定期的なサブスクリプション料金を含む有料サービスの価格は、運用、保守、技術提供、ビジネス上の考慮事項、および第三者が請求する料金または法定料金に関連するコストの変更により、当社の合理的な裁量により随時変更される場合があります。コストが増加した場合、Xは有料サービスの価格を調整する権利を留保します。Xは、価格変更が効力を生じる最大30日前に、サービス通知やアカウントにリンクされているメールアドレスへの電子メールなどにより、お客様の権利とそれらを行使しなかった場合の結果を記載した書面で通知します。価格が変更された場合、通知を受け取ってから30日以内にキャンセルが行われることを条件に、次の請求サイクルの開始の24時間前まで、該当する有料サービスのサブスクリプションまたはユーザー契約を終了することができます。それ以外の場合、価格変更は通知で指定された時間に有効になります。サブスクリプションサービスの場合、料金変更は、料金変更の発効日以降のサブスクリプション期間開始時に適用されます。 支払い条件 。 Xは、有料サービス、ご利用の端末および/またはオペレーティングシステム、お住まいの地域またはその他要因に応じて、異なるさまざまな支払い方法を用意しています。利用可能な範囲で（Xが随時さまざまな購入方法を提供するため）、これら支払い方法には、GoogleまたはApple提供の「アプリ内支払い」機能または、Xの第三者決済業者 Stripe（ www.stripe.com - 以下、「 Stripe 」といいます。）を利用したウェブ支払いが含まれます。支払い時、お客様は明示的に、（i）有料サービスに表示された料金に加えて、適用される税金、クレジットカード手数料、銀行手数料、外国為替手終了および為替変動に関わる追加料金の支払い; および（ii）お客様が指定するお支払い方法を利用することに関連して、Google、AppleまたはStripe（Xの第三者決済業者）が課す関連利用規約、プライバシーポリシー、またはその他法的契約または制限（追加の年齢制限を含む）を順守すること（たとえば、Appleのアプリ内購入機能を使用した支払いを選択した場合、Appleが課した関連規約、要件および/または制限に順守すること）に同意するものとします。支払いに関連して提供されるデータを含むがこれに限定されない有料サービスの利用に関連してお客様が提供するいかなる個人情報は、Xプライバシーポリシーに沿って処理されるものとします。Xは、支払い処理、詐欺やその他禁止行為の防止、検出および調査、支払い拒否または返金を含む紛争解決の促進、およびクレジットカード、デビットカード、またはACHの受け付けに関するその他目的のために、お客様の支払い情報を支払いサービスプロバイダーに共有することができます。銀行、クレジットカード、デビットカードおよび/またはその他支払い情報を常に最新、完全かつ正確に保つことはお客様の責任です。有料サービスに対して支払いを行う場合、当社は、支払日、サブスクリプションの有効期限ぎ、自動更新日、購入を行ったプラットフォーム、その他情報を受け取ることができます。Xは、決済業者、Apple App Store、Google Play Store、お客様の取引銀行、クレジットカード会社および/または支払いネットワークによるエラー、遅延に対して一切の責任や義務を負いません。サブスクリプション更新の対応方法、その他重要規約を含む特定の有料サービスに対して該当する以下の支払い規約については、該当する有料サービス利用規約を参照してください。 X利用者契約の適用、契約の終了、返金の否定、複数のXアカウント、および制限事項 1. X利用者契約がお客様に適用されます 。お客様は、常にX利用者契約に従い、それを遵守する必要があります。X利用者契約は、お客様によるXサービス（有料サービスおよび機能を含みます）の利用に対して常に適用されます。お客様がX利用者契約に従わず、これを遵守しなかった場合、またはお客様がX利用者契約に従わず、これを遵守しなかったとXが判断した場合、お客様の有料サービスがキャンセルされる場合があります。当該キャンセルは、X利用者契約に従いXがお客様に対して行うすべての強制措置に加えて行われるものであり、また、当該強制措置によって制限されることもありません。その場合、お客様は、有料サービスの特典を利用できなくなる場合があり、また、有料サービスに対してお客様が支払った（または前払いした）一切の金額について、返金を受けることができません。 2. 有料サービスへのアクセスがXにより停止される原因となりうる事項。 Xは、いつでも、以下のいずれかの合理的根拠により（ただしこれらに限定されません）、または理由の有無を問わず、（いかなる責任も負うことなく）お客様による有料サービスへのアクセスの停止もしくは終了、お客様に対する有料サービスのすべてもしくは一部の提供の中止、または当社が適切であると判断したその他の措置を取ることがあります。 a. Xが独自の裁量により、お客様が本規約に違反したか、またはお客様による有料サービスの利用が適用法に違反すると判断した場合。 b. Xが管轄裁判所、規制当局、または法執行機関から要請または指示を受けた場合; c. 予期せぬ技術的またはセキュリティの問題がXに発生した場合 d. Xは、その単独の合理的な裁量により、お客様がXユーザー契約に違反したと考えています。 e. Xが、その単独の裁量により、お客様が有料サービスの悪用もしくは操作を行っているか、または有料サービスに関連して� | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://www.dataprotection.ie/en/organisations | For Organisations | Data Protection Commissioner FAQs Contact us Children Gaeilge English Search Gaeilge Site Search Search Header Menu Your Data For Organisations Resources Who We Are News and Media Data Protection Officers FAQs Contact us Children For Organisations Data Protection: The Basics Know your obligations Codes of Conduct GDPR Certification Resources for Organisations Rules for direct electronic marketing International Transfers Sports Conference 2025 Sports Infographics ARC SME Awareness ARC Conference ARC Workshops ARC Infographics Breadcrumb Home For Organisations The following pages will provide information about organisational obligations under data protection legislation and the General Data Protection Regulation, including transparency with service users and how to respond to an individual who is exercising their data protection rights. Data Protection Basics This section contains information about the basics of data protection, the principles of data protection, and a glossary of frequently used terms. Know Your Obligations This section contains information about the obligations placed on organisations under data protection law. Codes of Conduct This section contains information about Codes of Conduct under Articles 41 and 42 GDPR. GDPR Certification This section contains information about Certification under Articles 42 and 43 GDPR. Resources for Organisations This section includes a number of resources available for organisations, including a self-assessment checklist, a guide to the DPC's complaint handling process, and information on the Law Enforcement Directive. Rules for Electronic and Direct Marketing This section contains information about the responsibilities of organisations using personal data for direct marketing purposes, including information on the National Directory Database and on electronic receipts. International Transfers This section contains information about the topic of international transfers under data protection law, including cross-border processing under the One Stop Shop mechanism, and transfers to international organisations or third countries. Infographics This section contains downloadable printable infographics, each giving an overview of a different aspect of Data Protection. Your Data Data Protection: The Basics Your rights under the GDPR Exercising your rights Organisations Data Protection: The Basics Know your obligations Codes of Conduct GDPR Certification Resources for Organisations Rules for direct electronic marketing International Transfers Sports Conference 2025 Sports Infographics ARC SME Awareness ARC Conference ARC Workshops ARC Infographics Contact us Data Protection Commission 6 Pembroke Row Dublin 2 D02 X963 Ireland Accessibility Statement Data Protection Statement Cookie Policy Website Development by FUSIO | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://legal.x.com/purchaser-terms#purchaserterms-outside-eu-section6 | X Purchaser Terms of Service X Purchaser Terms of Service Download X Purchaser Terms of Service Terms for Paid Services X Premium Additional Terms Subscriptions Additional Terms Download X Purchaser Terms of Service X Purchaser Terms of Service goglobalwithtwitterbanner Terms for Paid Services X Premium Additional Terms Creator Subscriptions Additional Terms Premium Business and Premium Organizations Additional Terms Terms for Paid Services X Premium Additional Terms Creator Subscriptions Additional Terms Premium Business and Premium Organizations Additional Terms X Purchaser Terms of Service Effective: August 1, 2025 If you live outside the European Union, EFTA States, or the United Kingdom, including if you live in the United States, the following X Purchaser Terms of Service apply to you. If you live in the European Union, EFTA States, or the United Kingdom, these X Purchaser Terms of Service apply to you. X Purchaser Terms of Service If you live outside the European Union, EFTA States, or the United Kingdom, including if you live in the United States X allows you to access certain features in exchange for payment of a one-time or recurring fee, as applicable to the relevant features (each a “ Paid Service ” and collectively the " Paid Services "). For example, X Premium (as defined below) and Subscriptions would each be considered a “Paid Service.” To the extent that you sign up for and/or use a Paid Service, your use of the Paid Services and any corresponding transactions are subject to: (i) the terms and conditions set forth herein, including the applicable terms and conditions for each Paid Service you purchase, each as listed below (collectively, the “ X Purchaser Terms of Service ”), and (ii) the applicable X Terms of Service , X Privacy Policy , X Rules and Policies , and all policies incorporated therein (collectively, the “ X User Agreement ”). This X Purchaser Terms of Service and the aforementioned X User Agreement shall be collectively referred to in this document as the “ Terms ”. “ X ” refers to the X entity that provides the Paid Services to you. Please read these X Purchaser Terms of Service carefully to make sure you understand the applicable terms, conditions and exceptions. IF YOU LIVE IN THE UNITED STATES, THESE TERMS CONTAIN IMPORTANT INFORMATION THAT APPLY TO YOU ABOUT RESOLUTION OF DISPUTES, INCLUDING A WAIVER OF YOUR RIGHT TO BRING CLAIMS AS CLASS ACTIONS, AND A LIMITATION ON YOUR RIGHT TO BRING CLAIMS AGAINST X MORE THAN 2 YEARS AFTER THE RELEVANT EVENTS OCCURRED, WHICH IMPACT YOUR RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS IF ANY DISPUTE WITH X ARISES. SEE SECTION 6 UNDER GENERAL TERMS FOR DETAILS ON THESE PROVISIONS. Acceptance . By using or accessing a Paid Service(s) from X, submitting payment thereunder and/or clicking on a button to make a one-time purchase or recurring subscription payments for the Paid Service provided by X, you agree to be bound by the Terms. If you do not understand the Terms, or do not accept any part of them, then you may not use or access any Paid Services. To purchase and use a Paid Service you must: (i) be at least 18 years old or the age of majority as determined by the laws of the jurisdiction in which you live or (ii) have the express consent of your parent or guardian to purchase and use that Paid Service. If you are a parent or legal guardian and you allow your child (or a child that you are a guardian of) to purchase or use a Paid Service, you agree that the Terms apply to you, that you will abide by the Terms, and that you are responsible for the child’s activity on the Paid Services and for ensuring that the child also abides by the Terms. In any case, as stated in the Who May Use the Services section of the X Terms of Service, you must be at least 13 years old to use the X Service. If you are accepting these X Purchaser Terms of Service and using the Paid Services on behalf of a company, organization, government, or other legal entity, you represent and warrant that you are authorized to do so and have the authority to bind such entity to these X Purchaser Terms of Service, in which case the words “you” and “your” as used in these X Purchaser Terms of Service shall refer to such entity. X Contracting Entity . You enter into these X Purchaser Terms of Service with the entity that corresponds to where you live, as listed below. This entity will provide the Paid Services to you. No other entity is bound to any obligations to you under these Purchaser Terms of Service. Your Location The continents of North America (including Hawaii) or South America Contracting Entity X Corp., with an office located at 865 FM 1209, Building 2, Bastrop, TX 78602, USA Your Location Any country not covered by the above two locations, including the Asia-Pacific region, Middle East, Africa or Europe (excluding EU countries, EFTA States and the United Kingdom) Contracting Entity X Global LLC, with its registered office at 701 S. Carson St., Suite 200, Carson City, NV 89701, USA Changes to Terms, Paid Services and Pricing 1. Changes to Terms. X may revise these X Purchaser Terms of Service from time to time, including for any business, financial, or legal reasons. The changes will not be retroactive, and the most current version of the X Purchaser Terms of Service, available at legal.x.com/purchaser-terms , will govern your use of Paid Services and any corresponding transactions. If we modify or revise these Terms after you have agreed to them (for example, if these terms are modified after you have purchased a subscription), we will notify you in advance of material revisions to these terms. Such notification may be provided electronically, including (and without limitation to) via a service notification or an email to the email address associated with your account. By continuing to access or use the Paid Services after those revisions become effective, you agree to be bound by the revised X Purchaser Terms of Service. If you do not agree to abide by these or any future X Purchaser Terms of Service, do not use or access (or continue to use or access) the Paid Services. The X Purchaser Terms of Service are written in English but are made available in multiple languages through translations. X strives to make the translations as accurate as possible to the original English version. However, in case of any discrepancies or inconsistencies, the English language version of the X Purchaser Terms of Service shall take precedence. You acknowledge that English shall be the language of reference for interpreting and constructing the terms of the X Purchaser Terms of Service. 2. Changes to Paid Services. Our Paid Services evolve constantly. As such, the Paid Services may change from time to time, at our discretion, including for any business, financial, or legal reasons. We may stop (permanently or temporarily) providing the Paid Services or any features within the Paid Services to you or to users generally with or without notice. X is not liable to you or to any third party for any modification, suspension or discontinuance of the Paid Services. The specific terms and conditions (included below) for the specific Paid Service specify how you can cancel a subscription or, when applicable, seek a refund. 3. Changes to Pricing. Prices for Paid Services, including recurring subscription fees, are subject to change from time to time, including for any business, financial, or legal reasons. X will provide reasonable advance notice of any material change to the price of Paid Services. For subscription services, price changes will take effect at the start of the next subscription period following the date of the price change. If you do not agree with a price change, you have the right to reject the change by cancelling your subscription to the applicable Paid Service prior to the price change going into effect. Payment Terms . X offers various payment options that may vary by Paid Service, your device and/or operating system, your geographic location, or other factors. To the extent available (as X may make various purchase methods available from time to time), these payment options may include the ability to use “In app payment” functionality offered by Google or Apple, or to make a web payment using X's third party payment processor, Stripe ( www.stripe.com - hereafter “ Stripe ”). When you make a payment, you explicitly agree: (i) to pay the price listed for the Paid Service, along with any additional amounts relating to applicable taxes, credit card fees, bank fees, foreign transaction fees, foreign exchange fees, and currency fluctuations; and (ii) to abide by any relevant terms of service, privacy policies, or other legal agreements or restrictions (including additional age restrictions) imposed by Google, Apple, or Stripe (as X's third party payment processor) in connection with your use of a given payment method (for example only, if you choose to make your payment via Apple’s in-app purchasing functionality, you agree to abide by any relevant terms, requirements, and/or restrictions imposed by Apple). Any private personal data that you provide in connection with your use of the Paid Services including, without limitation, any data provided in connection with payment, will be processed in accordance with the X Privacy Policy. X may share your payment information with payment services providers to process payments; prevent, detect, and investigate fraud or other prohibited activities; facilitate dispute resolution such as chargebacks or refunds; and for other purposes associated with the acceptance of credit cards, debit cards, or ACH. It is your responsibility to make sure your banking, credit card, debit card, and/or other payment information is up to date, complete and accurate at all times. If you make a payment for a Paid Service, we may receive information about your transaction such as when it was made, when a subscription is set to expire or auto- renew, what platform you made the purchase on, and other information. X will not be responsible or liable for any errors made or delays by a payment processor, Apple’s App Store or the Google Play Store, your bank, your credit card company, and/or any payment network. Please refer to each specific Paid Service Terms and Conditions below for payment terms applicable to that specific Paid Service, including how subscription renewals are handled and other important terms. Application of X User Agreement, Termination, No Refunds, Multiple X Accounts, and Restrictions 1. The X User Agreement Applies to You . YOU MUST ALWAYS FOLLOW AND COMPLY WITH THE X USER AGREEMENT. The X User Agreement always applies to your use of the X Service, including the Paid Services and features. Your failure to follow and comply with the X User Agreement, or X's belief that you have failed to follow and comply with the X User Agreement, may result in the cancellation of your Paid Services. Any such cancellation will be in addition to, and without limitation of, any enforcement action that X may take against you pursuant to the X User Agreement. In such instances you may lose the benefits of your Paid Services and you will not be eligible for a refund for any amounts you have paid (or pre-paid) for Paid Services. 2. Why X Might Terminate Your Access to Paid Services. X may suspend or terminate your access to Paid Service(s), cease providing you with all or part of the Paid Services, or take any other action it deems appropriate, including, for example, suspend your account, (without any liability) at any time for any or no reason, including, but not limited to any of the following reasons: a. X believes, in its sole discretion, that you have violated the Terms or your use of the Paid Service(s) would violate any applicable laws; b. X is requested or directed to do so by any competent court of law, regulatory authority, or law enforcement agency; c. X has unexpected technical or security issues; d. X believes, in its sole discretion, you have violated the X User Agreement; e. X believes, in its sole discretion, you are engaging in manipulation or other disruptive or prohibited conduct generally or in connection with the Paid Services; f. You create risk or possible legal exposure for X; g. Your account should be removed due to unlawful conduct; h. Your account should be removed due to prolonged inactivity; or i. Our provision of the Paid Services (in whole or in part) to you is no longer commercially viable (in X's sole discretion). 3. All Transactions Are Final. All payments for Paid Services are final and not refundable or exchangeable, except as required by applicable law. We make no guarantee as to the nature, quality, or value of a Paid Service or the availability or supply thereof. Refunds or credits are not provided for any unused or partially used Paid Service (for example, a partially used subscription period). 4. Paid Services Are Non-Transferable between X Accounts. Each purchase of a Paid Service applies to a single X account, meaning that your purchase will apply solely to the account you were using when you purchased the Paid Service and will not apply to other accounts that you may have access to, or control over. If you have or control multiple accounts and you want access to Paid Services on each account, you must purchase the Paid Service on each account individually. 5. Restrictions and Obligations. a. You may only purchase and use a Paid Service if you are legally allowed to use the Paid Service in your country and you live in a country supported by X for the applicable Paid Service. X may, in its discretion, restrict the ability to access or purchase a Paid Service in certain countries. X reserves the right to modify the list of supported countries from time to time. b. We reserve the right to refuse Paid Services transactions or to cancel or discontinue the sale or use of a Paid Service in our sole discretion. c. You may not allow others to use your X account to access any Paid Service that such person did not order. d. You may not purchase or use a Paid Service if you are a person with whom U.S. persons are not permitted to have dealings pursuant to economic sanctions, including, without limitation, sanctions administered by the United States Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control or any other applicable sanctions authority (" Prohibited Person "). This includes, without limitation, persons located in, or ordinarily resident in, the following countries and regions: Cuba, Iran, the Ukraine regions of Crimea, North Korea and Syria. You represent and warrant that you are not a Prohibited Person. e. YOU REPRESENT THAT YOU WILL USE THE PAID SERVICES ONLY FOR LAWFUL PURPOSES AND ONLY IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE TERMS. Taxes and fees . You are responsible for and agree to pay any applicable taxes, duties, tariffs, and fees related to the purchase of Paid Services, including those required to be paid to either X or a third-party payment processor. These taxes may include, but are not limited to, VAT, GST, sales tax, withholding tax, and any other applicable taxes. Depending on your location, X may be responsible for collecting and reporting information related to transaction taxes arising from your purchase of Paid Services. You grant X permission to provide your account and personal information to relevant tax authorities to fulfill our tax collection and reporting obligations. General Terms 1. Contact Information. If you have any questions about the Paid Services or these Terms, you can check out the X Paid Services Help Center for more details. If you’ve already purchased a Paid Service, you can also contact us via the support link available in the navigation menu of your X account under the payment or subscription settings. If you have additional questions, then you can contact us here by using the “Help with paid features” form. 2. DISCLAIMERS. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, YOUR ACCESS TO AND USE OF THE PAID SERVICES IS AT YOUR OWN RISK. YOU UNDERSTAND AND AGREE THAT THE PAID SERVICES ARE PROVIDED TO YOU ON AN “AS IS” AND “AS AVAILABLE” BASIS. X DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES AND CONDITIONS, WHETHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR NON-INFRINGEMENT. X MAKES NO WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION AND DISCLAIMS ALL RESPONSIBILITY AND LIABILITY FOR: (I) THE COMPLETENESS, ACCURACY, AVAILABILITY, TIMELINESS, SECURITY OR RELIABILITY OF THE PAID SERVICES; AND (II) WHETHER THE PAID SERVICES WILL MEET YOUR REQUIREMENTS OR BE AVAILABLE ON AN UNINTERRUPTED, SECURE, OR ERROR-FREE BASIS. YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR YOUR USE OF THE X SERVICE, INCLUDING THE PAID SERVICES, AND ANY CONTENT YOU PROVIDE. 3. LIMITATION OF LIABILITY. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, THE X ENTITIES SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR PUNITIVE DAMAGES, OR ANY LOSS OF PROFITS OR REVENUES, WHETHER INCURRED DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, OR ANY LOSS OF DATA, USE, GOODWILL, OR OTHER INTANGIBLE LOSSES, RESULTING FROM (i) YOUR ACCESS TO OR USE OF OR INABILITY TO ACCESS OR USE THE PAID SERVICES; (ii) ANY CONDUCT OR CONTENT OF ANY THIRD PARTY POSTED THROUGH THE PAID SERVICES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY DEFAMATORY, OFFENSIVE OR ILLEGAL CONDUCT OF OTHER USERS OR THIRD PARTIES; (iii) ANY CONTENT OBTAINED FROM THE PAID SERVICES; OR (iv) UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS, USE OR ALTERATION OF YOUR TRANSMISSIONS OR CONTENT. FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF DOUBT, THE DEFINITION OF PAID SERVICES IS LIMITED TO THE FEATURES OFFERED BY X AND DOES NOT INCLUDE ANY CONTENT YOU ACCESS AND/OR INTERACT WITH IN USING THOSE FEATURES. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AGGREGATE LIABILITY OF THE X ENTITIES EXCEED THE GREATER OF ONE HUNDRED U.S. DOLLARS (U.S. $100.00) OR THE AMOUNT YOU PAID X, IF ANY, IN THE PAST SIX MONTHS FOR THE PAID SERVICES GIVING RISE TO THE CLAIM. THE LIMITATIONS OF THIS SUBSECTION SHALL APPLY TO ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER BASED ON WARRANTY, CONTRACT, STATUTE, TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE, AND WHETHER OR NOT THE X ENTITIES HAVE BEEN INFORMED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF ANY SUCH DAMAGE, AND EVEN IF A REMEDY SET FORTH HEREIN IS FOUND TO HAVE FAILED OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. THE “X ENTITIES” REFERS TO X, ITS PARENTS, AFFILIATES, RELATED COMPANIES, OFFICERS, DIRECTORS, EMPLOYEES, AGENTS, REPRESENTATIVES, PARTNERS, AND LICENSORS. APPLICABLE LAW IN YOUR JURISDICTION MAY NOT ALLOW FOR CERTAIN LIMITATIONS OF LIABILITY. TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW IN YOUR JURISDICTION, THE ABOVE DOES NOT LIMIT THE X ENTITIES’ LIABILITY FOR FRAUD, FRAUDULENT MISREPRESENTATION, DEATH OR PERSONAL INJURY CAUSED BY OUR NEGLIGENCE, GROSS NEGLIGENCE, AND/OR INTENTIONAL CONDUCT. TO THE FULLEST EXTENT ALLOWED UNDER APPLICABLE LAW, THE X ENTITIES’ MAXIMUM AGGREGATE LIABILITY FOR ANY NON-EXCLUDABLE WARRANTIES IS LIMITED TO ONE HUNDRED US DOLLARS (US$100.00). 4. Notice Regarding Apple. To the extent that you purchased the Paid Services or are using or accessing the Paid Services on an iOS device, you further acknowledge and agree to the terms of this Section. You acknowledge that the Terms are between you and us only, not with Apple, and Apple is not responsible for the Paid Services and the content thereof. Apple has no obligation whatsoever to furnish any maintenance and support service with respect to the Paid Services. In the event of any failure of the Paid Services to conform to any applicable warranty, then you may notify Apple and Apple will refund any applicable purchase price for the Paid Services to you; and, to the maximum extent permitted by applicable law, Apple has no other warranty obligation whatsoever with respect to the Paid Services. Apple is not responsible for addressing any claims by you or any third-party relating to the Paid Services or your possession and/or use of the Paid Services, including, but not limited to: (i) product liability claims; (ii) any claim that the Paid Services fail to conform to any applicable legal or regulatory requirement; and (iii) claims arising under consumer protection or similar legislation. Apple is not responsible for the investigation, defense, settlement and discharge of any third-party claim that the Paid Services and/or your possession and use of the mobile application infringe that third-party’s intellectual property rights. You agree to comply with any applicable third-party terms when using the Paid Services. Apple, and Apple’s subsidiaries, are third-party beneficiaries of the Terms, and upon your acceptance of the Terms, Apple will have the right (and will be deemed to have accepted the right) to enforce the Terms against you as a third-party beneficiary of the Terms. You hereby represent and warrant that (i) you are not located in a country that is subject to a U.S. Government embargo, or that has been designated by the U.S. Government as a "terrorist supporting" country; and (ii) you are not listed on any U.S. Government list of prohibited or restricted parties. 5. Conflict. In the event of a conflict between the provisions of this X Purchaser Terms of Service and those of the X User Agreement, the provisions of this X Purchaser Terms of Service take precedence solely with respect to your use of a Paid Service. 6. DISPUTE RESOLUTION AND CLASS ACTION WAIVER a. Initial Dispute Resolution . Most disputes between you and X can be resolved informally. You may contact us by writing to Paid Support here . When you contact us, please provide a brief description of the nature and bases for your concerns, your contact information, and the specific relief you seek. The parties shall use their best efforts through this support process to settle disputes, claims, or controversies arising out of or relating to these Terms and/or your participation in the Program (individually a “ Dispute ,” or more than one, “ Disputes ”). You and we agree that good faith participation in this informal process is required and must be completed as set forth above before either party can initiate litigation regarding any Dispute, except with respect to requests for emergency injunctive relief (“ Exempted Dispute ”). If we cannot reach an agreed upon resolution with you regarding a Dispute (other than an Exempted Dispute) within a period of thirty (30) days from the time informal dispute resolution commences under the Initial Dispute Resolution provision above, then either you or we may initiate litigation. b. Choice of Law and Forum Selection . PLEASE READ THIS SECTION CAREFULLY – IT MAY SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT YOUR LEGAL RIGHTS, INCLUDING YOUR RIGHT TO FILE A LAWSUIT IN COURT. The laws of the State of Texas, excluding its choice of law provisions, will govern these Terms and any dispute that arises between you and us, notwithstanding any other agreement between you and us to the contrary. All disputes related to these Terms, including any disputes, claims, or controversies arising out of or relating to these Terms, will be brought exclusively in the federal or state courts located in Tarrant County, Texas, United States, and you consent to personal jurisdiction in those forums and waive any objection as to inconvenient forum. Without prejudice to the foregoing, you agree that, in its sole discretion, X may bring any claim, cause of action, or dispute we have against you in any competent court in the country in which you reside that has jurisdiction and venue over the claim. If you are a federal, state, or local government entity in the United States in your official capacity and legally unable to accept the controlling law, jurisdiction or venue clauses above, then those clauses do not apply to you. For such U.S. federal government entities, this Agreement and any action related thereto will be governed by the laws of the United States of America (without reference to conflict of laws) and, in the absence of federal law and to the extent permitted under federal law, the laws of the State of Texas (excluding choice of law). c. YOU HAVE TWO YEARS TO BRING A CLAIM AGAINST X . You must bring any claim against X arising out of or related to these Terms within two (2) years after the date of the occurrence of the event or facts giving rise to the dispute, unless applicable law provides that the normal statute of limitations for that claim may not be shortened by agreement. If you do not bring a claim within this period, you forever waive the right to pursue any claim or cause of action, of any kind or character, based on such events or facts, and such claims or causes of action are permanently banned, and X will have no liability with respect to such claim. d. Class Action Waiver . To the extent permitted by law, you also waive the right to participate as a plaintiff or class member in any purported class action, collective action or representative action proceeding. X Purchaser Terms of Service If you live in the European Union, EFTA States, or the United Kingdom X allows you to access certain features in exchange for payment of a one-time or recurring fee, as applicable to the relevant features (each a “ Paid Service ” and collectively the " Paid Services "). For example, X Premium (as defined below) and Subscriptions would each be considered a “Paid Service.” To the extent that you sign up for and/or use a Paid Service, your use of the Paid Services and any corresponding transactions are subject to: (i) the terms and conditions set forth herein, including the applicable terms and conditions for each Paid Service you purchase, each as listed below (collectively, the “ X Purchaser Terms of Service ”), and (ii) the applicable X Terms of Service , X Privacy Policy , X Rules and Policies , and all policies incorporated therein (collectively, the “ X User Agreement ”). This X Purchaser Terms of Service and the aforementioned X User Agreement shall be collectively referred to in this document as the “ Terms ”. “ X ” refers to the X entity that provides the Paid Services to you. Please read these X Purchaser Terms of Service carefully to make sure you understand the applicable terms, conditions and exceptions. IF YOU LIVE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION, EFTA STATES, OR THE UNITED KINGDOM, THESE TERMS CONTAIN IMPORTANT INFORMATION THAT APPLY TO YOU ABOUT RESOLUTION OF DISPUTES, INCLUDING A WAIVER OF YOUR RIGHT TO BRING CLAIMS AS CLASS ACTIONS, AND A LIMITATION ON YOUR RIGHT TO BRING CLAIMS AGAINST X MORE THAN 1 YEAR AFTER THE RELEVANT EVENTS OCCURRED, WHICH IMPACT YOUR RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS IF ANY DISPUTE WITH X ARISES. SEE SECTION 6 UNDER GENERAL TERMS FOR DETAILS ON THESE PROVISIONS. Acceptance . By using or accessing a Paid Service(s) from X, submitting payment thereunder and/or clicking on a button to make a one-time purchase or recurring subscription payments for the Paid Service provided by X, you agree to be bound by the Terms. If you do not understand the Terms, or do not accept any part of them, then you may not use or access any Paid Services. To purchase and use a Paid Service you must: (i) be at least 18 years old or the age of majority as determined by the laws of the jurisdiction in which you live or (ii) have the express consent of your parent or guardian to purchase and use that Paid Service. If you are a parent or legal guardian and you allow your child (or a child that you are a guardian of) to purchase or use a Paid Service, you agree that the Terms apply to you, that you will abide by the Terms, and that you are responsible for the child’s activity on the Paid Services and for ensuring that the child also abides by the Terms. In any case, as stated in the Who May Use the Services section of the X Terms of Service, you must be at least 13 years old to use the X Service. If you are accepting these X Purchaser Terms of Service and using the Paid Services on behalf of a company, organization, government, or other legal entity, you represent and warrant that you are authorized to do so and have the authority to bind such entity to these X Purchaser Terms of Service, in which case the words “you” and “your” as used in these X Purchaser Terms of Service shall refer to such entity. X Contracting Entity . You enter into these X Purchaser Terms of Service with the entity that corresponds to where you live, as listed below. This entity will provide the Paid Services to you. No other entity is bound to any obligations to you under these Purchaser Terms of Service. Your Location The European Union, EFTA States, or the United Kingdom Contracting Entity X Internet Unlimited Company, with its registered office at One Cumberland Place, Fenian Street, Dublin 2, D02 AX07 Ireland Changes to Terms, Paid Services and Pricing 1. Changes to Terms. X may revise these X Purchaser Terms of Service for a valid and reasonable basis from time to time. A valid and reasonable basis may include, (i) a change in our services, for example due to technical, security-related or operational developments, (ii) the elimination of technical errors, (iii) a change in our business, for example due to policy, financial or other directional changes, (iv) a change in the legal situation, for example due to a change in the law, a request from an official agency, or a decision by a court, and (v) the optimization of the user experience through the implementation of new features. The changes will not be retroactive, and the most current version of the X Purchaser Terms of Service, available at legal.x.com/purchaser-terms , will govern your use of Paid Services and any corresponding transactions. If we modify or revise these Terms after you have agreed to them (for example, if these terms are modified after you have purchased a subscription), we undertake to notify you up to 30 days (depending on the specific changes) in advance of the entry into force of material revisions to these terms while setting a reasonable deadline for the user with respect to the changes and notifying you of the consequences of continued use after the deadline has expired. Such notification may be provided electronically, including (and without limitation to) via a service notification or an email to the email address associated with your account. In case you continue to use the Paid Services after the aforementioned deadline expires, you agree to be bound by the revised X Purchaser Terms of Service. If you do not agree to the changes to the X Purchaser Terms of Service, you will have to stop using or accessing (or continue to use or access) the Paid Services. The X Purchaser Terms of Service are written in English but are made available in multiple languages through translations. X strives to make the translations as accurate as possible to the original English version. However, in case of any discrepancies or inconsistencies, the English language version of the X Purchaser Terms of Service shall take precedence. You acknowledge that English shall be the language of reference for interpreting and constructing the terms of the X Purchaser Terms of Service. 2. Changes to Paid Services. Our Paid Services and our products and services evolve constantly. X may change the Paid Services for a reasonable and valid basis. Such a valid and reasonable basis may include (i) technical, security-related or operational developments, (ii) the elimination of technical errors, (iii) compliance with a changed legal situation, for example due to a change in the law, a request from an official agency, or a decision by a court, (iv) the optimization of the user experience through the implementation of new features, and (v) a change in our business, for example due to policy, financial circumstances or other directional changes. We will notify you of any changes to the Paid Services up to 30 days before they take effect, for example by means of a service notification or an email sent to the email address linked to your account, specifying the characteristics and effective date of the changes and informing you of your eventual right to terminate the subscription. The deadline may be shortened in the event of safety-related changes. The following shall not be considered as changes to the Paid Services within the meaning of this provision: (i) changes that affect the fundamental nature of the Paid Services and the essential characteristics of the service to be provided by X, and (ii) the permanent discontinuation of services. X is not liable to you for any modification, suspension or discontinuance of the Paid Services. Where legally required, the aforementioned limitation of liability does not apply (i) to the compensation for foreseeable damage in cases of slightly negligent breach of duties, insofar as their fulfillment is essential for the proper execution of the contract and users can rely on their fulfillment (essential contractual obligations), by X or its legal representatives or vicarious agents, and (ii) the liability of X for (a) a damage resulting from harm to life, body or health as well as for damages caused by intent or gross negligence on the part of X, its legal representatives, or vicarious agents, and (b) a damage due to non-compliance with a guarantee or warranted characteristic or as a result of a fraudulently concealed defect. The specific terms and conditions (included below) for the specific Paid Service specify how you can cancel a subscription or, when applicable, seek a refund. 3. Changes to Pricing. Prices for Paid Services, including recurring subscription fees, are subject to change from time to time due to change in the costs relating to operation, maintenance, technical provision, business considerations, and fees charged by third parties or statutory fees, at our reasonable discretion. In the event of an increase in costs, X reserves the right to adjust the prices for chargeable services. X will notify you of any price changes in writing up to 30 days before they take effect, for example by means of a service notification or an email to the email address linked to your account, stating your rights and the consequences of not exercising them. In the event of a price change, you may terminate the subscription to the applicable Paid Service or the user agreement up to 24 hours before the start of your next billing cycle, provided the cancellation is made within 30 days of receiving the notification. Otherwise, the price change will take effect at the time specified in the notification. For subscription services, price changes will take effect at the start of the next subscription period following the date of the effectiveness of the price change. Payment Terms . X offers various payment options that may vary by Paid Service, your device and/or operating system, your geographic location, or other factors. To the extent available (as X may make various purchase methods available from time to time), these payment options may include the ability to use “In app payment” functionality offered by Google or Apple, or to make a web payment using X's third party payment processor, Stripe ( www.stripe.com - hereafter “ Stripe ”). When you make a payment, you explicitly agree: (i) to pay the price listed for the Paid Service, along with any additional amounts relating to applicable taxes, credit card fees, bank fees, foreign transaction fees, foreign exchange fees, and currency fluctuations; and (ii) to abide by any relevant terms of service, privacy policies, or other legal agreements or restrictions (including additional age restrictions) imposed by Google, Apple, or Stripe (as X's third party payment processor) in connection with your use of a given payment method (for example only, if you choose to make your payment via Apple’s in-app purchasing functionality, you agree to abide by any relevant terms, requirements, and/or restrictions imposed by Apple). Any private personal data that you provide in connection with your use of the Paid Services including, without limitation, any data provided in connection with payment, will be processed in accordance with the X Privacy Policy. X may share your payment information with payment services providers to process payments; prevent, detect, and investigate fraud or other prohibited activities; facilitate dispute resolution such as chargebacks or refunds; and for other purposes associated with the acceptance of credit cards, debit cards, or ACH. It is your responsibility to make sure your banking, credit card, debit card, and/or other payment information is up to date, complete and accurate at all times. If you make a payment for a Paid Service, we may receive information about your transaction such as when it was made, when a subscription is set to expire or auto- renew, what platform you made the purchase on, and other information. X will not be responsible or liable for any errors made or delays by a payment processor, Apple’s App Store or the Google Play Store, your bank, your credit card company, and/or any payment network. Please refer to each specific Paid Service Terms and Conditions below for payment terms applicable to that specific Paid Service, including how subscription renewals are handled and other important terms. Application of X User Agreement, Termination, No Refunds, Multiple X Accounts, and Restrictions 1. The X User Agreement Applies to You . YOU MUST ALWAYS FOLLOW AND COMPLY WITH THE X USER AGREEMENT. The X User Agreement always applies to your use of the X Service, including the Paid Services and features. Your failure to follow and comply with the X User Agreement, or X's belief that you have failed to follow and comply with the X User Agreement, may result in the cancellation of your Paid Services. Any such cancellation will be in addition to, and without limitation of, any enforcement action that X may take against you pursuant to the X User Agreement. In such instances you may lose the benefits of your Paid Services and you will not be eligible for a refund for any amounts you have paid (or pre-paid) for Paid Services. 2. Why X Might Terminate Your Access to Paid Services. X may suspend or terminate your access to Paid Service(s), cease providing you with all or part of the Paid Services, or take any other action it deems appropriate, including, for example, suspend your account, (without any liability) at any time for any or no reason, including, but not limited to any of the following reasonable grounds: a. X believes, in its sole discretion, that you have violated the Terms or your use of the Paid Service(s) would violate any applicable laws; b. X is requested or directed to do so by any competent court of law, regulatory authority, or law enforcement agency; c. X has unexpected technical or security issues; d. X believes, in its sole reasonable discretion, you have violated the X User Agreement; e. X believes for valid reasons such as if you are engaging in manipulation, gaming, or other disruptive or prohibited conduct in connection with the Paid Services; f. You create risk or possible legal exposure for X; g. Your account should be removed due to unlawful conduct; h. Your account should be removed due to prolonged inactivity; or i. Our provision of the Paid Services (in whole or in part) to you is no longer commercially viable (in X's sole discretion). 3. All Transactions Are Final. All payments for Paid Services are final and not refundable or exchangeable, except as required by applicable law. We make no guarantee as to the nature, quality, or value of a Paid Service or the availability or supply thereof. Refunds or credits are not provided for any unused or partially used Paid Service (for example, a partially used subscription period). 4. Paid Services Are Non-Transferable between X Accounts. Each purchase of a Paid Service applies to a single X account, meaning that your purchase will apply solely to the account you were using when you purchased the Paid Service and will not apply to other accounts that you may have access to, or control over. If you have or control multiple accounts and you want access to Paid Services on each account, you must purchase the Paid Service on each account individually. 5. Restrictions and Obligations. a. You may only purchase and use a Paid Service if you are legally allowed to use the Paid Service in your country and you live in a country supported by X for the applicable Paid Service. X may, in its discretion, restrict the ability to access or purchase a Paid Service in certain countries. X reserves the right to modify the list of supported countries from time to time. b. We reserve the right to refuse Paid Services transactions or to cancel or discontinue the sale or use of a Paid Service in our sole discretion. c. You may not allow others to use your X account to access any Paid Service that such person did not order. d. You may not purchase or use a Paid Service if you are a person with whom U.S. persons are not permitted to have dealings pursuant to economic sanctions, including, without limitation, sanctions administered by the United States Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control or any other applicable sanctions authority (" Prohibited Person "). This includes, without limitation, persons located in, or ordinarily resident in, the following countries and regions: Cuba, Iran, the Ukraine regions of Crimea, North Korea and Syria. You represent and warrant that you are not a Prohibited Person. e. YOU REPRESENT THAT YOU WILL USE THE PAID SERVICES ONLY FOR LAWFUL PURPOSES AND ONLY IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE TERMS. Taxes and fees . You are responsible for and agree to pay any applicable taxes, duties, tariffs, and fees related to the purchase of Paid Services, including those required to be paid to either X or a third-party payment processor. These taxes may include, but are not limited to, VAT, GST, sales tax, withholding tax, and any other applicable taxes. Depending on your location, X may be responsible for collecting and reporting information related to transaction taxes arising from your purchase of Paid Services. You grant X permission to provide your account and personal information to relevant tax authorities to fulfill our tax collection and reporting obligations. General Terms 1. Contact Information. If you have any questions about the Paid Services or these Terms, you can check out the X Paid Services Help Center for more details. If you’ve already purchased a Paid Service, you can also contact us via the support link available in the navigation menu of your X account under the payment or subscription settings. If you have additional questions, then you can contact us here by using the “Help with paid features” form. 2. DISCLAIMERS. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, YOUR ACCESS TO AND USE OF THE PAID SERVICES IS AT YOUR OWN RISK. YOU UNDERSTAND AND AGREE THAT THE PAID SERVICES ARE PROVIDED TO YOU ON AN “AS IS” AND “AS AVAILABLE” BASIS. X DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES AND CONDITIONS, WHETHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR NON-INFRINGEMENT. X MAKES NO WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION AND DISCLAIMS ALL RESPONSIBILITY AND LIABILITY FOR: (I) THE COMPLETENESS, ACCURACY, AVAILABILITY, TIMELINESS, SECURITY OR RELIABILITY OF THE PAID SERVICES; AND (II) WHETHER THE PAID SERVICES WILL MEET YOUR REQUIREMENTS OR BE AVAILABLE ON AN UNINTERRUPTED, SECURE, OR ERROR-FREE BASIS. YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR YOUR USE OF THE X SERVICE, INCLUDING THE PAID SERVICES, AND ANY CONTENT YOU PROVIDE. 3. LIMITATION OF LIABILITY. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, THE X ENTITIES SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR PUNITIVE DAMAGES, OR ANY LOSS OF PROFITS OR REVENUES, WHETHER INCURRED DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, OR ANY LOSS OF DATA, USE, GOODWILL, OR OTHER INTANGIBLE LOSSES, RESULTING FROM (i) YOUR ACCESS TO OR USE OF OR INABILITY TO ACCESS OR USE THE PAID SERVICES; (ii) ANY CONDUCT OR CONTENT OF ANY THIRD PARTY POSTED THROUGH THE PAID SERVICES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY DEFAMATORY, OFFENSIVE OR ILLEGAL CONDUCT OF OTHER USERS OR THIRD PARTIES; (iii) ANY CONTENT OBTAINED FROM THE PAID SERVICES; OR (iv) UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS, USE OR ALTERATION OF YOUR TRANSMISSIONS OR CONTENT. FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF DOUBT, THE DEFINITION OF PAID SERVICES IS LIMITED TO THE FEATURES OFFERED BY X AND DOES NOT INCLUDE ANY CONTENT YOU ACCESS AND/OR INTERACT WITH IN USING THOSE FEATURES. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AGGREGATE LIABILITY OF THE X ENTITIES EXCEED THE GREATER OF ONE HUNDRED EUROS (€100.00) OR THE AMOUNT YOU PAID X, IF ANY, IN THE PAST SIX MONTHS FOR THE PAID SERVICES GIVING RISE TO THE CLAIM. THE LIMITATIONS OF THIS SUBSECTION SHALL APPLY TO ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER BASED ON WARRANTY, CONTRACT, STATUTE, TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE, AND WHETHER OR NOT THE X ENTITIES HAVE BEEN INFORMED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF ANY SUCH DAMAGE, AND EVEN IF A REMEDY SET FORTH HEREIN IS FOUND TO HAVE FAILED OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. THE “X ENTITIES” REFERS TO X, ITS PARENTS, AFFILIATES, RELATED COMPANIES, OFFICERS, DIRECTORS, EMPLOYEES, AGENTS, REPRESENTATIVES, PARTNERS, AND LICENSORS. APPLICABLE LAW IN YOUR JURISDICTION MAY NOT ALLOW FOR CERTAIN LIMITATIONS OF LIABILITY. TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW IN YOUR JURISDICTION, THE ABOVE DOES NOT LIMIT THE X ENTITIES’ LIABILITY FOR FRAUD, FRAUDULENT MISREPRESENTATION, DEATH OR PERSONAL INJURY CAUSED BY OUR NEGLIGENCE, GROSS NEGLIGENCE, AND/OR INTENTIONAL CONDUCT. TO THE FULLEST EXTENT ALLOWED UNDER APPLICABLE LAW, THE X ENTITIES’ MAXIMUM AGGREGATE LIABILITY FOR ANY NON-EXCLUDABLE WARRANTIES IS LIMITED TO ONE HUNDRED EUROS (€100.00). 4. Notice Regarding Apple. To the extent that you purchased the Paid Services or are using or accessing the Paid Services on an iOS device, you further acknowledge and agree to the terms of this Section. You acknowledge that the Terms are between you and us only, not with Apple, and Apple is not responsible for the Paid Services and the content thereof. Apple has no obligation whatsoever to furnish any maintenance and support service with respect to the Paid Services. In the event of any failure of the Paid Services to conform to any applicable warranty, then you may notify Apple and Apple will refund any applicable purchase price for the Paid Services to you; and, to the maximum extent permitted by applicable law, Apple has no other warranty obligation whatsoever with respect to the Paid Services. Apple is not responsible for addressing any claims by you or any third-party relating to the Paid Services or your possession and/or use of the Paid Services, including, but not limited to: (i) product liability claims; (ii) any claim that the Paid Services fail to conform to any applicable legal or regulatory requirement; and (iii) claims arising under consumer protection or similar legislation. Apple is not responsible for the investigation, defense, settlement and discharge of any third-party claim that the Paid Services and/or your possession and use of the mobile application infringe that third-party’s intellectual property rights. You agree to comply with any applicable third-party terms when using the Paid Services. Apple, and Apple’s subsidiaries, are third-party beneficiaries of the Terms, and upon your acceptance of the Terms, Apple will have the right (and will be deemed to have accepted the right) to enforce the Terms against you as a third-party beneficiary of the Terms. You hereby represent and warrant that (i) you are not located in a country that is subject to a U.S. Government embargo, or that has been designated by the U.S. Government as a "terrorist supporting" country; and (ii) you are not listed on any U.S. Government list of prohibited or restricted parties. 5. Conflict. In the event of a conflict between the provisions of this X Purchaser Terms of Service and those of the X User Agreement, the provisions of this X Purchaser Terms of Service take precedence solely with respect to your use of a Paid Service. 6. DISPUTE RESOLUTION AND CLASS ACTION WAIVER a. Initial Dispute Resolution . Most disputes between you and X can be resolved informally. You may contact us by writing to Paid Support here . When you contact us, please provide a brief description of the nature and bases for your concerns, your contact information, and the specific relief you seek. The parties shall use their best efforts through this support process to settle disputes, claims, or controversies arising out of or relating to these Terms and/or your participation in the Program (individually a “ Dispute ,” or more than one, “ Disputes ”). You and we agree that good faith participation in this informal process is required and must be completed as set forth above before either party can initiate litigation regarding any Dispute, except with respect to requests for emergency injunctive relief (“ Exempted Dispute ”). If we cannot reach an agreed upon resolution with you regarding a Dispute (other than an Exempted Dispute) within a period of thirty (30) days from the time informal dispute resolution commences under the Initial Dispute Resolution provision above, then either you or we may initiate litigation. b. Choice of Law and Forum Selection . PLEASE READ THIS SECTION CAREFULLY – IT MAY SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT YOUR LEGAL RIGHTS, INCLUDING YOUR RIGHT TO FILE A LAWSUIT IN COURT. To the extent permitted by law, all disputes related to these Terms, including any disputes, claims, or controversies arising out of or relating to these Terms will be brought exclusively before a competent court in Ireland without regard to conflict of law provisions a | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/uwp/updates-and-versions/choose-a-uwp-version | Choose a UWP version - UWP applications | Microsoft Learn Skip to main content Skip to Ask Learn chat experience This browser is no longer supported. Upgrade to Microsoft Edge to take advantage of the latest features, security updates, and technical support. Download Microsoft Edge More info about Internet Explorer and Microsoft Edge Table of contents Exit editor mode Ask Learn Ask Learn Focus mode Language csharp cppwinrt cpp vb Table of contents Read in English Add Add to plan Edit Share via Facebook x.com LinkedIn Email Print Note Access to this page requires authorization. You can try signing in or changing directories . Access to this page requires authorization. You can try changing directories . Choose a UWP version Feedback Summarize this article for me In this article Each version of Windows 10 and Windows 11 have brought new and improved features to the UWP platform. When creating a UWP app in Microsoft Visual Studio, you can choose which version to target. Projects using .NET Standard 2.0 must have a Minimum Version of Build 16299 or later. Warning UWP projects created in current versions of Visual Studio cannot be opened in Visual Studio 2015. The following table describes the available versions of Windows 10 and Windows 11. Please note that this table only applies for building UWP apps, which are only supported on Windows 10 and Windows 11. You cannot develop UWP apps for older versions of Windows, and you must have installed the appropriate build of the SDK in order to target that version. Version Description Build 19041 (version 2004) This is the latest version of Windows 10, released in May 2020. Highlighted features of this release include: * WSL2: Windows Subsystem for Linux has been updated with a new architectural model, and now runs an actual Linux kernel on Windows. Learn more at about WSL2 . * MSIX: New features within Windows provide further support for the modern MSIX app packaging format, including the ability to create packages with included services, creation of hosted apps, and the ability to include features that require package identity in unpackaged apps. Learn more in the MSIX docs . For more information on these and the many other features added in this release of Windows, visit the Dev Center or the more in-depth page on What's new in Windows 10 for developers Build 18362 (version 1903) This version of Windows 10 was released in April 2019. Some highlighted features from this release include: * XAML Islands: Windows 10 now enables you to use UWP controls in non-UWP desktop applications. If you're developing for WPF, Windows Forms, or C++ Win32, check out how you can add the latest Windows 10 UI features to your existing app . * Windows Subsystem for Linux: You can now access Linux files directly from within Windows, and use several new command line options. See the latest at about WSL . For information on these and many other features added in this release of Windows, visit What's new in build 18362 Build 17763 (version 1809) This version of Windows 10 was released in October 2018. Please note that you must be using Visual Studio 2017 or Visual Studio 2019 in order to target this version of Windows. Some highlighted features from this release include: * Windows Machine Learning: Windows Machine Learning has now officially launched, providing features like faster evaluation and support for cutting-edge machine learning models. To learn more about the platform, see Windows Machine Learning . * Fluent Design: New features such as menu bar, command bar flyout, and XAML property animations have been added to Windows 10. See the latest at the Fluent design overview . For information on these and many other features added in this release of Windows, visit What's new in build 17763 Build 17134 (version 1803) This is version of Windows 10 was released in April 2018. Please note that you must be using Visual Studio 2017 or Visual Studio 2019 in order to target this version of Windows. Some highlighted features from this release include: * Fluent Design: New features such as tree view, pull-to-refresh, and navigation view have been added to Windows 10. See the latest at the Fluent design overview . * Console UWP apps: You can now write C++ /WinRT or /CX UWP console apps that run in a console window such as a DOS or PowerShell console window. For information on these and many other features added in this release of windows, visit What's new in build 17134 Build 16299 (Fall Creators Update, version 1709) This version of Windows 10 was released in October 2017. Please note that you must be using Visual Studio 2017 or Visual Studio 2019 in order to target this version of Windows. Some highlighted features from this release include: * .NET Standard 2.0: Enjoy a massive increase in the number of .NET APIs and incorporate your favorite NuGet packages and third party libraries into .NET Standard. See more details and explore the documentation here . Please note that you must set your minimum version to Build 16299 to access these new APIs. * Fluent Design: Use light, depth, perspective, and movement to enhance your app and help users focus on important UI elements. * Conditional XAML: Easily set properties and instantiate objects based on the presence of an API at runtime, enabling your apps to run seamlessly across devices and versions. For information on these and many other features added in this release of windows, visit What's new in Windows 10 for developers Build 15063 (Creators Update, version 1703) This version of Windows 10 was released in March 2017. Please note that you must be using Visual Studio 2017 or Visual Studio 2019 in order to target this version of Windows . Some highlighted features from this release include: * Ink Analysis: Windows Ink can now categorize ink strokes into either writing or drawing strokes, and recognized text, shapes, and basid layout structures. * Windows.Ui.Composition APIs: Easily combine and apply animations across your app. * Live Editing: Edit XAML while your app is running, and see the changes applied in real-time. For information on these and many other features added in this release of windows, visit What's new in build 15063 Build 14393 (Anniversary Update, version 1607) This version of Windows 10 was released in July 2016. Some highlighted features from this release include: * Windows Ink: New InkCanvas and InkToolbar controls. * Cortana APIs: Use new Cortana Actions to integrate Cortana support with specific functions of your app. * Windows Hello: Microsoft Edge now supports Windows Hello, giving web developers access to biometric authentication. For information on these and many other features added in this release of windows, visit What's new in build 14393 Build 10586 (November Update, version 1511) This version of Windows 10 was released in November 2015. Highlighted features include the introduction of ORTC (object real-time communications) APIs for video communication in Microsoft Edge and Providers APIs to enable apps to use Windows Hello face authentication. More information on features introduced in this build. Build 10240 (Windows 10, version 1507) This is the initial release version of Windows 10, from July 2015. More information on features introduced in this build. We highly recommend that new developers and developers writing code for a general audience always use the latest build of Windows (19041). Developers writing Enterprise apps should strongly consider supporting an older Minimum Version . What's different in each UWP version? New and changed APIs for UWP are available in every successive version of Windows 10 and Windows 11. For specific information about what features were added in which version, see What's new for developers in Windows 10/11 . For reference topics that enumerate all device families and their versions, and all API contracts and their versions, see Device families and API contracts . .NET API availability in UWP versions UWP supports a limited subset of .NET APIs, which are available regardless of the Target Version or Minimum Version of your project. This page provides more information on the types available . If you wish to create reusable cross-platform libraries, .NET Standard is supported on UWP. The .NET Standard documentation provides information on which .NET Standard is supported in which UWP versions. If you are developing a Desktop app, see instead .NET Framework versions and dependencies for detailed information on .NET framework availability. Choose which version to use for your app In the New Universal Windows Project dialog in Visual Studio, you can choose a version for Target Version and for Minimum Version . Additionally, you can change the Target Version and Minimum Version of your UWP app in the application section of the app's Properties . Target Version . The version of Windows 10 or Windows 11 that your app is intended to run on. This sets the TargetPlatformVersion setting in your project file. It also determines the value of the TargetDeviceFamily@MaxVersionTested attribute in your app package manifest. The value you choose specifies the version of the UWP platform that your project is targeting—and therefore the set of APIs available to your app—so we recommend that you choose the most recent version possible. For more info about your app package manifest, and some guidelines around configuring TargetDeviceFamily manually, see TargetDeviceFamily . Minimum Version . The earliest version of Windows 10 or Windows 11 needed to support the basic functions of your app. This sets the TargetPlatformMinVersion setting in your project file. It also determines the value of the TargetDeviceFamily@MinVersion attribute in your app package manifest. The value you choose specifies the minimum version of the UWP platform that your project can work with. Be aware that you're declaring that your app works on any version of Windows in the range from Minimum Version to Target Version . If those two are the same version then you don't need to do anything special. If they're different, then here are some things to be aware of. In your code, you can freely (that is, without conditional checks) call any API that exists in the version specified by Minimum Version . Ensure that you test your code on a device running the Minimum Version , to be sure that it works without requiring APIs only present in the Target Version . The value of Target Version is used to identify all the references (contract winmds) used to compile your project. But those references will enable you to compile your code with calls to APIs that won't necessarily exist on devices that you've declared that you support (via Minimum Version ). Therefore, any API that was introduced after Minimum Version will need to be called via adaptive code. For more information about adaptive code, see Version adaptive code . Feedback Was this page helpful? Yes No No Need help with this topic? Want to try using Ask Learn to clarify or guide you through this topic? Ask Learn Ask Learn Suggest a fix? Additional resources Last updated on 2025-02-20 In this article Was this page helpful? Yes No No Need help with this topic? Want to try using Ask Learn to clarify or guide you through this topic? 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https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-category-translation-push | Push Category Translations - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Preference Category Push Category Translations Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Preference Category Push Category Translations OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Push category translations from local JSON files to SuprSend OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Translation files are pushed and go live immediately. Unlike categories, translations do not require a commit step. You can push a specific locale using the --locale flag, or push all translation files in the directory if the flag is omitted. Note: Cannot push en.json (English translations). English translations are automatically created from category names and descriptions. Syntax Copy Ask AI suprsend category translation push [flags] Flags Flag Description Default -h, --help Show help for the command – -l, --locale string Specific locale to push (optional, pushes all if omitted) – -d, --dir string Directory path where translation files are located suprsend/category/ -w, --workspace string Workspace to push translations to staging Example Copy Ask AI # Push all translation files from default directory suprsend category translation push # Push translations from custom directory suprsend category translation push --dir categories/translations # Push specific locale to production workspace suprsend category translation push --locale es --workspace production Related documentation Category Translations How to manage Category translations Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Commands and Flags Reference for managing translations in the SuprSend CLI. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Syntax Flags Example Related documentation | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/integrate-python-sdk#installation | Integrate Python SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Node.js SDK Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Python SDK Integrate Python SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Install & Initialize SuprSend Python SDK using your workspace credentials for sending notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install 'libmagic' system package. You can skip this step if you already have this package installed in your system. bash Copy Ask AI # if you are using linux / debian based systems sudo apt install libmagic # If you are using macOS brew install libmagic 2 Install 'suprsend-py-sdk' using pip bash Copy Ask AI $ pip install suprsend-py-sdk # to upgrade to latest SDK version $ pip install suprsend-py-sdk --upgrade Python version 3.7 or later is required If your python3 version is lower than 3.7, upgrade it. Schema Validation Support : If you’re using schema validation for workflow payloads, you need Python SDK v0.15.0 or later. The API response format was modified to support schema validation, and older SDK versions may not properly handle validation errors. Initialization For initializing SDK, you need workspace_key and workspace_secret. You will get both the tokens from your Suprsend dashboard (Developers -> API Keys). python Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Suprsend # Initialize SDK supr_client = Suprsend( "WORKSPACE KEY" , "WORKSPACE SECRET" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Users Create, update, & manage user profiles and communication channels using Python SDK methods. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://home.cern/science/computing/data-centre | The CERN Data Centre | CERN Skip to main content CERN Accelerating science Sign in Directory Toggle navigation About CERN At CERN, we probe the fundamental structure of particles that make up everything around us. We do so using the world's largest and most complex scientific instruments. Know more Who we are Our Mission Our Governance Our Member States Our History Our People What we do Fundamental research Contribute to society Environmentally responsible research Bring nations together Inspire and educate Fast facts and FAQs Key Achievements Key achievements submenu The Higgs Boson The W boson The Z boson The Large Hadron Collider The Birth of the web Antimatter News Featured news, updates, stories, opinions, announcements Private donors pledge 860 million euros for C... At CERN Press release 18 December, 2025 The European Strategy for Particle Physics re... At CERN Press release 12 December, 2025 ALICE solves mystery of light-nuclei survival Physics News 10 December, 2025 CERN reaffirms its commitment to environmenta... At CERN News 13 November, 2025 Latest news News Accelerators At CERN Computing Engineering Experiments Knowledge sharing Physics Events CERN Community News and announcements Official communications Events Scientists News Press Room Press Room submenu Media News Resources Contact Science Science The research programme at CERN covers topics from kaons to cosmic rays, and from the Standard Model to supersymmetry Know more Physics Antimatter Dark matter The early universe The Higgs boson The Standard Model + More Accelerators CERN's accelerators The Antiproton Decelerator The Large Hadron Collider High-Luminosity LHC + More Engineering Accelerating: radiofrequency cavities Steering and focusing: magnets and superconductivity Circulating: ultra-high vacuum Cooling: cryogenic systems Powering: energy at CERN + More Computing The CERN Data Centre The Worldwide LHC Computing Grid CERN openlab Open source for open science The birth of the web + More Experiments ALICE ATLAS CMS LHCb + More Resources Featured resources CERN Courier Sep/Oct 2025 Courier Physics 1 September, 2025 High-Luminosity LHC images Image Accelerators 20 June, 2018 LHC Facts and Figures Brochure Knowledge sharing 10 May, 2022 See all resources By Topic Accelerators At CERN Computing Engineering Experiments Knowledge sharing Physics By format 360 image Annual report Brochure Bulletin Courier Image Video + More By audience CERN community Educators General public Industry Media Scientists Students + More search E.G. BIRTH OF WEB, LHC PAGE 1, BULLETIN... E.G. BIRTH OF WEB, LHC... Search Search | en en fr (Image: CERN) science computing data centre The CERN Data Centre CERN Data Centre At the heart of CERN’s infrastructure The CERN Data Centre is the heart of CERN’s entire scientific, administrative, and computing infrastructure. All services, including email, scientific data management and videoconferencing use equipment based here. The 450 000 processor cores and 10 000 servers run 24/7. Over 90% of the resources for computing in the Data Centre are provided through a private cloud based on OpenStack, an open-source project to deliver a massively scalable cloud operating system. Dashboard of key numbers from the CERN Data Centre (live) Take an immersive trip through the CERN Data Centre Acrobatic drone footage by world champion Chad Nowak provides a glimpse of the CERN Data Centre (Video: Chad Nowak/CERN) Follow Us More Social Media Accounts Find us Contact us Getting here CERN Esplanade des Particules 1 P.O. Box 1211 Geneva 23 Switzerland CERN & You Doing business with CERN Knowledge transfer CERN's neighbours CERN & Society Foundation Partnerships Alumni General Information Careers Visits and public events Privacy policy Cookie Management Copyright © 2026 CERN | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/net-standard#comparison-to-portable-class-libraries | .NET Standard - .NET | Microsoft Learn Skip to main content Skip to Ask Learn chat experience This browser is no longer supported. Upgrade to Microsoft Edge to take advantage of the latest features, security updates, and technical support. Download Microsoft Edge More info about Internet Explorer and Microsoft Edge Table of contents Exit editor mode Ask Learn Ask Learn Focus mode Table of contents Read in English Add Add to plan Edit Share via Facebook x.com LinkedIn Email Print Note Access to this page requires authorization. You can try signing in or changing directories . Access to this page requires authorization. You can try changing directories . .NET Standard Feedback Summarize this article for me In this article .NET Standard is a formal specification of .NET APIs that are available on multiple .NET implementations. The motivation behind .NET Standard was to establish greater uniformity in the .NET ecosystem. .NET 5 and later versions adopt a different approach to establishing uniformity that eliminates the need for .NET Standard in most scenarios. However, if you want to share code between .NET Framework and any other .NET implementation, such as .NET Core, your library should target .NET Standard 2.0. No new versions of .NET Standard will be released , but .NET 5 and all later versions will continue to support .NET Standard 2.1 and earlier. For information about choosing between .NET 5+ and .NET Standard, see .NET 5+ and .NET Standard later in this article. .NET Standard versions .NET Standard is versioned. Each new version adds more APIs. When a library is built against a certain version of .NET Standard, it can run on any .NET implementation that implements that version of .NET Standard (or higher). Targeting a higher version of .NET Standard allows a library to use more APIs but means it can only be used on more recent versions of .NET. Targeting a lower version reduces the available APIs but means the library can run in more places. Select .NET Standard version 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.1 .NET Standard 1.0 has 7,949 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.5, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 8.0, 8.1, 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.0 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.1 has 10,239 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.5, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 8.0, 8.1, 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.1 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.2 has 10,285 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 8.1, 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.2 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.3 has 13,122 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.3 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.4 has 13,140 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.4 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.5 has 13,355 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 4.6.1 2 , 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 The versions listed here represent the rules that NuGet uses to determine whether a given .NET Standard library is applicable. While NuGet considers .NET Framework 4.6.1 as supporting .NET Standard 1.5 through 2.0, there are several issues with consuming .NET Standard libraries that were built for those versions from .NET Framework 4.6.1 projects. For .NET Framework projects that need to use such libraries, we recommend that you upgrade the project to target .NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. For more information, see .NET Standard 1.5 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.6 has 13,501 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 4.6.1 2 , 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 The versions listed here represent the rules that NuGet uses to determine whether a given .NET Standard library is applicable. While NuGet considers .NET Framework 4.6.1 as supporting .NET Standard 1.5 through 2.0, there are several issues with consuming .NET Standard libraries that were built for those versions from .NET Framework 4.6.1 projects. For .NET Framework projects that need to use such libraries, we recommend that you upgrade the project to target .NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. For more information, see .NET Standard 1.6 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 2.0 has 32,638 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 4.6.1 2 , 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 The versions listed here represent the rules that NuGet uses to determine whether a given .NET Standard library is applicable. While NuGet considers .NET Framework 4.6.1 as supporting .NET Standard 1.5 through 2.0, there are several issues with consuming .NET Standard libraries that were built for those versions from .NET Framework 4.6.1 projects. For .NET Framework projects that need to use such libraries, we recommend that you upgrade the project to target .NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. For more information, see .NET Standard 2.0 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 2.1 has 37,118 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 N/A 2 Mono 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 5.16 Xamarin.Android 10.0 Universal Windows Platform N/A 3 Unity 2021.2 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 .NET Framework doesn't support .NET Standard 2.1. For more information, see the announcement of .NET Standard 2.1 . 3 UWP doesn't support .NET Standard 2.1. For more information, see .NET Standard 2.1 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . Which .NET Standard version to target If you're targeting .NET Standard, we recommend you target .NET Standard 2.0, unless you need to support an earlier version. Most general-purpose libraries should not need APIs outside of .NET Standard 2.0, and .NET Framework doesn't support .NET Standard 2.1. .NET Standard 2.0 is supported by all modern platforms and is the recommended way to support multiple platforms with one target. If you need to support .NET Standard 1.x, we recommend that you also target .NET Standard 2.0. .NET Standard 1.x is distributed as a granular set of NuGet packages, which creates a large package dependency graph and results in a lot of packages being downloaded when the project is built. For more information, see Cross-platform targeting and .NET 5+ and .NET Standard later in this article. Note Starting in .NET 9, a build warning is emitted if your project targets .NET Standard 1.x. For more information, see Warning emitted for .NET Standard 1.x targets . .NET Standard versioning rules There are two primary versioning rules: Additive: .NET Standard versions are logically concentric circles: higher versions incorporate all APIs from previous versions. There are no breaking changes between versions. Immutable: Once shipped, .NET Standard versions are frozen. There will be no new .NET Standard versions after 2.1. For more information, see .NET 5+ and .NET Standard later in this article. Specification The .NET Standard specification is a standardized set of APIs. The specification is maintained by .NET implementers, specifically Microsoft (includes .NET Framework, .NET Core, and Mono) and Unity. Official artifacts The official specification is a set of .cs files that define the APIs that are part of the standard. The ref directory in the (now archived) dotnet/standard repository defines the .NET Standard APIs. The NETStandard.Library metapackage ( source ) describes the set of libraries that define (in part) one or more .NET Standard versions. A given component, like System.Runtime , describes: Part of .NET Standard (just its scope). Multiple versions of .NET Standard, for that scope. Derivative artifacts are provided to enable more convenient reading and to enable certain developer scenarios (for example, using a compiler). API list in markdown . Reference assemblies, distributed as NuGet packages and referenced by the NETStandard.Library metapackage. Package representation The primary distribution vehicle for the .NET Standard reference assemblies is NuGet packages. Implementations are delivered in a variety of ways, appropriate for each .NET implementation. NuGet packages target one or more frameworks . .NET Standard packages target the ".NET Standard" framework. You can target the .NET Standard framework using the netstandard compact target framework moniker (TFM) , for example, netstandard1.4 . Libraries that are intended to run on multiple implementations of .NET should target the .NET Standard framework. For the broadest set of APIs, target netstandard2.0 , because the number of available APIs more than doubled between .NET Standard 1.6 and 2.0. The NETStandard.Library metapackage references the complete set of NuGet packages that define .NET Standard. The most common way to target netstandard is by referencing this metapackage. It describes and provides access to the ~40 .NET libraries and associated APIs that define .NET Standard. You can reference additional packages that target netstandard to get access to additional APIs. Versioning The specification is not singular, but a linearly versioned set of APIs. The first version of the standard establishes a baseline set of APIs. Subsequent versions add APIs and inherit APIs defined by previous versions. There is no established provision for removing APIs from the Standard. .NET Standard is not specific to any one .NET implementation, nor does it match the versioning scheme of any of those implementations. As noted earlier, there will be no new .NET Standard versions after 2.1. Target .NET Standard You can build .NET Standard Libraries using a combination of the netstandard framework and the NETStandard.Library metapackage. .NET Framework compatibility mode Starting with .NET Standard 2.0, the .NET Framework compatibility mode was introduced. This compatibility mode allows .NET Standard projects to reference .NET Framework libraries as if they were compiled for .NET Standard. Referencing .NET Framework libraries doesn't work for all projects, such as libraries that use Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) APIs. For more information, see .NET Framework compatibility mode . .NET Standard libraries and Visual Studio To build .NET Standard libraries in Visual Studio, make sure you have Visual Studio 2019 or later or Visual Studio 2017 version 15.3 or later installed on Windows. If you only need to consume .NET Standard 2.0 libraries in your projects, you can also do that in Visual Studio 2015. However, you need NuGet client 3.6 or higher installed. You can download the NuGet client for Visual Studio 2015 from the NuGet downloads page. .NET 5+ and .NET Standard .NET 5, .NET 6, .NET 7, .NET 8, .NET 9, and .NET 10 are single products with a uniform set of capabilities and APIs that can be used for Windows desktop apps and cross-platform console apps, cloud services, and websites. The .NET 10 TFMs , for example, reflect this broad range of scenarios: net10.0 This TFM is for code that runs everywhere. With a few exceptions, it includes only technologies that work cross-platform. net10.0-windows This is an example of an OS-specific TFM that adds OS-specific functionality to everything that net10.0 refers to. When to target netx.0 vs. netstandard For existing code that targets .NET Standard 2.0 or later, there's no need to change the TFM to net8.0 or a later TFM. .NET 8, .NET 9, and .NET 10 implement .NET Standard 2.1 and earlier. The only reason to retarget from .NET Standard to .NET 8+ would be to gain access to more runtime features, language features, or APIs. For example, to use C# 9, you need to target .NET 5 or a later version. You can multitarget .NET and .NET Standard to get access to newer features and still have your library available to other .NET implementations. Note If your project targets .NET Standard 1.x, we recommend you retarget it to .NET Standard 2.0 or .NET 8+. For more information, see Warning emitted for .NET Standard 1.x targets . Here are some guidelines for new code for .NET 5+: App components If you're using libraries to break down an application into several components, we recommend you target net10.0 . For simplicity, it's best to keep all projects that make up your application on the same version of .NET. Then you can assume the same BCL features everywhere. Reusable libraries If you're building reusable libraries that you plan to ship on NuGet, consider the trade-off between reach and available feature set. .NET Standard 2.0 is the latest version that's supported by .NET Framework, so it gives good reach with a fairly large feature set. We don't recommend targeting .NET Standard 1.x, as you'd limit the available feature set for a minimal increase in reach. If you don't need to support .NET Framework, you could target .NET Standard 2.1 or .NET 10. We recommend you skip .NET Standard 2.1 and go straight to .NET 10. Most widely used libraries multi-target for both .NET Standard 2.0 and .NET 5+. Supporting .NET Standard 2.0 gives you the most reach, while supporting .NET 5+ ensures you can leverage the latest platform features for customers that are already on .NET 5+. .NET Standard problems Here are some problems with .NET Standard that help explain why .NET 5 and later versions are the better way to share code across platforms and workloads: Slowness to add new APIs .NET Standard was created as an API set that all .NET implementations would have to support, so there was a review process for proposals to add new APIs. The goal was to standardize only APIs that could be implemented in all current and future .NET platforms. The result was that if a feature missed a particular release, you might have to wait for a couple of years before it got added to a version of the Standard. Then you'd wait even longer for the new version of .NET Standard to be widely supported. Solution in .NET 5+: When a feature is implemented, it's already available for every .NET 5+ app and library because the code base is shared. And since there's no difference between the API specification and its implementation, you're able to take advantage of new features much quicker than with .NET Standard. Complex versioning The separation of the API specification from its implementations results in complex mapping between API specification versions and implementation versions. This complexity is evident in the table shown earlier in this article and the instructions for how to interpret it. Solution in .NET 5+: There's no separation between a .NET 5+ API specification and its implementation. The result is a simplified TFM scheme. There's one TFM prefix for all workloads: net10.0 is used for libraries, console apps, and web apps. The only variation is a suffix that specifies platform-specific APIs for a particular platform, such as net10.0-windows . Thanks to this TFM naming convention, you can easily tell whether a given app can use a given library. No version number equivalents table, like the one for .NET Standard, is needed. Platform-unsupported exceptions at runtime .NET Standard exposes platform-specific APIs. Your code might compile without errors and appear to be portable to any platform even if it isn't portable. When it runs on a platform that doesn't have an implementation for a given API, you get runtime errors. Solution in .NET 5+: The .NET 5+ SDKs include code analyzers that are enabled by default. The platform compatibility analyzer detects unintentional use of APIs that aren't supported on the platforms you intend to run on. For more information, see Platform compatibility analyzer . .NET Standard not deprecated .NET Standard is still needed for libraries that can be used by multiple .NET implementations. We recommend you target .NET Standard in the following scenarios: Use netstandard2.0 to share code between .NET Framework and all other implementations of .NET. Use netstandard2.1 to share code between Mono and .NET Core 3.x. See also .NET Standard versions (source) .NET Standard versions (interactive UI) Build a .NET Standard library Cross-platform targeting Collaborate with us on GitHub The source for this content can be found on GitHub, where you can also create and review issues and pull requests. For more information, see our contributor guide . .NET Open a documentation issue Provide product feedback Feedback Was this page helpful? Yes No No Need help with this topic? Want to try using Ask Learn to clarify or guide you through this topic? Ask Learn Ask Learn Suggest a fix? Additional resources Last updated on 2025-11-06 In this article Was this page helpful? Yes No No Need help with this topic? Want to try using Ask Learn to clarify or guide you through this topic? 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https://docs.aws.amazon.com/apigateway/latest/developerguide/http-api-vs-rest.html | Choose between REST APIs and HTTP APIs - Amazon API Gateway Choose between REST APIs and HTTP APIs - Amazon API Gateway Documentation Amazon API Gateway Developer Guide Endpoint type Security Authorization API management Development Monitoring Integrations Choose between REST APIs and HTTP APIs REST APIs and HTTP APIs are both RESTful API products. REST APIs support more features than HTTP APIs, while HTTP APIs are designed with minimal features so that they can be offered at a lower price. Choose REST APIs if you need features such as API keys, per-client throttling, request validation, AWS WAF integration, or private API endpoints. Choose HTTP APIs if you don't need the features included with REST APIs. The following sections summarize core features that are available in REST APIs and HTTP APIs. When necessary, additional links are provided to navigate between the REST API and HTTP API sections of the API Gateway Developer Guide. Endpoint type The endpoint type refers to the endpoint that API Gateway creates for your API. For more information, see API endpoint types for REST APIs in API Gateway . Endpoint types REST API HTTP API Edge-optimized Yes No Regional Yes Yes Private Yes No Security API Gateway provides a number of ways to protect your API from certain threats, like malicious actors or spikes in traffic. To learn more, see Protect your REST APIs in API Gateway and Protect your HTTP APIs in API Gateway . Security features REST API HTTP API Mutual TLS authentication Yes Yes Certificates for backend authentication Yes No AWS WAF Yes No Authorization API Gateway supports multiple mechanisms for controlling and managing access to your API. For more information, see Control and manage access to REST APIs in API Gateway and Control and manage access to HTTP APIs in API Gateway . Authorization options REST API HTTP API IAM Yes Yes Resource policies Yes No Amazon Cognito Yes Yes 1 Custom authorization with an AWS Lambda function Yes Yes JSON Web Token (JWT) 2 No Yes 1 You can use Amazon Cognito with a JWT authorizer . 2 You can use a Lambda authorizer to validate JWTs for REST APIs. API management Choose REST APIs if you need API management capabilities such as API keys and per-client rate limiting. For more information, see Distribute your REST APIs to clients in API Gateway , Custom domain name for public REST APIs in API Gateway , and Custom domain names for HTTP APIs in API Gateway . Features REST API HTTP API Custom domains Yes Yes API keys Yes No Per-client rate limiting Yes No Per-client usage throttling Yes No Developer portal Yes No Development As you're developing your API Gateway API, you decide on a number of characteristics of your API. These characteristics depend on the use case of your API. For more information see Develop REST APIs in API Gateway and Develop HTTP APIs in API Gateway . Features REST API HTTP API CORS configuration Yes Yes Test invocations Yes No Caching Yes No User-controlled deployments Yes Yes Automatic deployments No Yes Custom gateway responses Yes No Canary release deployments Yes No Request validation Yes No Request parameter transformation Yes Yes Request body transformation Yes No Monitoring API Gateway supports several options to log API requests and monitor your APIs. For more information, see Monitor REST APIs in API Gateway and Monitor HTTP APIs in API Gateway . Feature REST API HTTP API Amazon CloudWatch metrics Yes Yes Access logs to CloudWatch Logs Yes Yes Access logs to Amazon Data Firehose Yes No Execution logs Yes No AWS X-Ray tracing Yes No Integrations Integrations connect your API Gateway API to backend resources. For more information, see Integrations for REST APIs in API Gateway and Create integrations for HTTP APIs in API Gateway . Feature REST API HTTP API Public HTTP endpoints Yes Yes AWS services Yes Yes AWS Lambda functions Yes Yes Private integrations with Network Load Balancers Yes Yes Private integrations with Application Load Balancers Yes Yes Private integrations with AWS Cloud Map No Yes Mock integrations Yes No Response streaming Yes No Javascript is disabled or is unavailable in your browser. To use the Amazon Web Services Documentation, Javascript must be enabled. Please refer to your browser's Help pages for instructions. Document Conventions API Gateway concepts Get started with the REST API console Did this page help you? - Yes Thanks for letting us know we're doing a good job! If you've got a moment, please tell us what we did right so we can do more of it. Did this page help you? - No Thanks for letting us know this page needs work. We're sorry we let you down. If you've got a moment, please tell us how we can make the documentation better. | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://future.forem.com/t/education/page/2 | Education Page 2 - Future Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Future Close # education Follow Hide Discussions on academic programs, online courses, and learning paths in security. Create Post Older #education posts 1 2 3 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu How predictive text reshapes academic credit, one suggestion at a time Agustin V. Startari Agustin V. Startari Agustin V. 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Future YouTube Future YouTube Future YouTube Follow Aug 19 '25 Kurzgesagt - In a Nutshell: The Drug That Works TOO Well? # education # science # productivity Comments Add Comment 1 min read Mechanised Learning — When the Plough Gives Way to Precision Gears, What Harvest Will the Mind Yield? Favour Daso Favour Daso Favour Daso Follow Sep 18 '25 Mechanised Learning — When the Plough Gives Way to Precision Gears, What Harvest Will the Mind Yield? # ai # productivity # education # science 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Kurzgesagt - In a Nutshell: Alcohol is AMAZING Future YouTube Future YouTube Future YouTube Follow Aug 12 '25 Kurzgesagt - In a Nutshell: Alcohol is AMAZING # education # science Comments Add Comment 1 min read Business Intelligence Fundamentals Part 1: Roles and Tools chinemerem okpara chinemerem okpara chinemerem okpara Follow Sep 17 '25 Business Intelligence Fundamentals Part 1: Roles and Tools # ai # education # employment Comments Add Comment 2 min read OpenAI's GPT-5 Is Here AI News AI News AI News Follow Aug 12 '25 OpenAI's GPT-5 Is Here # ai # productivity # education # science Comments Add Comment 1 min read Bright children from low-income homes lose cognitive edge in early secondary school Science News Science News Science News Follow Aug 12 '25 Bright children from low-income homes lose cognitive edge in early secondary school # education # science # healthtech # biotech Comments Add Comment 1 min read Kurzgesagt - In a Nutshell: When This Device Lights Up, They’re Coming... 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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#sockets | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#first-steps-towards-programming | 3. An Informal Introduction to Python — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming Previous topic 2. Using the Python Interpreter Next topic 4. More Control Flow Tools This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 3. An Informal Introduction to Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | 3. An Informal Introduction to Python ¶ In the following examples, input and output are distinguished by the presence or absence of prompts ( >>> and … ): to repeat the example, you must type everything after the prompt, when the prompt appears; lines that do not begin with a prompt are output from the interpreter. Note that a secondary prompt on a line by itself in an example means you must type a blank line; this is used to end a multi-line command. You can use the “Copy” button (it appears in the upper-right corner when hovering over or tapping a code example), which strips prompts and omits output, to copy and paste the input lines into your interpreter. Many of the examples in this manual, even those entered at the interactive prompt, include comments. Comments in Python start with the hash character, # , and extend to the end of the physical line. A comment may appear at the start of a line or following whitespace or code, but not within a string literal. A hash character within a string literal is just a hash character. Since comments are to clarify code and are not interpreted by Python, they may be omitted when typing in examples. Some examples: # this is the first comment spam = 1 # and this is the second comment # ... and now a third! text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes." 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator ¶ Let’s try some simple Python commands. Start the interpreter and wait for the primary prompt, >>> . (It shouldn’t take long.) 3.1.1. Numbers ¶ The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression into it and it will write the value. Expression syntax is straightforward: the operators + , - , * and / can be used to perform arithmetic; parentheses ( () ) can be used for grouping. For example: >>> 2 + 2 4 >>> 50 - 5 * 6 20 >>> ( 50 - 5 * 6 ) / 4 5.0 >>> 8 / 5 # division always returns a floating-point number 1.6 The integer numbers (e.g. 2 , 4 , 20 ) have type int , the ones with a fractional part (e.g. 5.0 , 1.6 ) have type float . We will see more about numeric types later in the tutorial. Division ( / ) always returns a float. To do floor division and get an integer result you can use the // operator; to calculate the remainder you can use % : >>> 17 / 3 # classic division returns a float 5.666666666666667 >>> >>> 17 // 3 # floor division discards the fractional part 5 >>> 17 % 3 # the % operator returns the remainder of the division 2 >>> 5 * 3 + 2 # floored quotient * divisor + remainder 17 With Python, it is possible to use the ** operator to calculate powers [ 1 ] : >>> 5 ** 2 # 5 squared 25 >>> 2 ** 7 # 2 to the power of 7 128 The equal sign ( = ) is used to assign a value to a variable. Afterwards, no result is displayed before the next interactive prompt: >>> width = 20 >>> height = 5 * 9 >>> width * height 900 If a variable is not “defined” (assigned a value), trying to use it will give you an error: >>> n # try to access an undefined variable Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> NameError : name 'n' is not defined There is full support for floating point; operators with mixed type operands convert the integer operand to floating point: >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1 14.0 In interactive mode, the last printed expression is assigned to the variable _ . This means that when you are using Python as a desk calculator, it is somewhat easier to continue calculations, for example: >>> tax = 12.5 / 100 >>> price = 100.50 >>> price * tax 12.5625 >>> price + _ 113.0625 >>> round ( _ , 2 ) 113.06 This variable should be treated as read-only by the user. Don’t explicitly assign a value to it — you would create an independent local variable with the same name masking the built-in variable with its magic behavior. In addition to int and float , Python supports other types of numbers, such as Decimal and Fraction . Python also has built-in support for complex numbers , and uses the j or J suffix to indicate the imaginary part (e.g. 3+5j ). 3.1.2. Text ¶ Python can manipulate text (represented by type str , so-called “strings”) as well as numbers. This includes characters “ ! ”, words “ rabbit ”, names “ Paris ”, sentences “ Got your back. ”, etc. “ Yay! :) ”. They can be enclosed in single quotes ( '...' ) or double quotes ( "..." ) with the same result [ 2 ] . >>> 'spam eggs' # single quotes 'spam eggs' >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!" # double quotes 'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!' >>> '1975' # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings '1975' To quote a quote, we need to “escape” it, by preceding it with \ . Alternatively, we can use the other type of quotation marks: >>> 'doesn \' t' # use \' to escape the single quote... "doesn't" >>> "doesn't" # ...or use double quotes instead "doesn't" >>> '"Yes," they said.' '"Yes," they said.' >>> " \" Yes, \" they said." '"Yes," they said.' >>> '"Isn \' t," they said.' '"Isn\'t," they said.' In the Python shell, the string definition and output string can look different. The print() function produces a more readable output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped and special characters: >>> s = 'First line. \n Second line.' # \n means newline >>> s # without print(), special characters are included in the string 'First line.\nSecond line.' >>> print ( s ) # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line First line. Second line. If you don’t want characters prefaced by \ to be interpreted as special characters, you can use raw strings by adding an r before the first quote: >>> print ( 'C:\some \n ame' ) # here \n means newline! C:\some ame >>> print ( r 'C:\some\name' ) # note the r before the quote C:\some\name There is one subtle aspect to raw strings: a raw string may not end in an odd number of \ characters; see the FAQ entry for more information and workarounds. String literals can span multiple lines. One way is using triple-quotes: """...""" or '''...''' . End-of-line characters are automatically included in the string, but it’s possible to prevent this by adding a \ at the end of the line. In the following example, the initial newline is not included: >>> print ( """ \ ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] ... -h Display this usage message ... -H hostname Hostname to connect to ... """ ) Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] -h Display this usage message -H hostname Hostname to connect to >>> Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the + operator, and repeated with * : >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium' >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium' 'unununium' Two or more string literals (i.e. the ones enclosed between quotes) next to each other are automatically concatenated. >>> 'Py' 'thon' 'Python' This feature is particularly useful when you want to break long strings: >>> text = ( 'Put several strings within parentheses ' ... 'to have them joined together.' ) >>> text 'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.' This only works with two literals though, not with variables or expressions: >>> prefix = 'Py' >>> prefix 'thon' # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal File "<stdin>" , line 1 prefix 'thon' ^^^^^^ SyntaxError : invalid syntax >>> ( 'un' * 3 ) 'ium' File "<stdin>" , line 1 ( 'un' * 3 ) 'ium' ^^^^^ SyntaxError : invalid syntax If you want to concatenate variables or a variable and a literal, use + : >>> prefix + 'thon' 'Python' Strings can be indexed (subscripted), with the first character having index 0. There is no separate character type; a character is simply a string of size one: >>> word = 'Python' >>> word [ 0 ] # character in position 0 'P' >>> word [ 5 ] # character in position 5 'n' Indices may also be negative numbers, to start counting from the right: >>> word [ - 1 ] # last character 'n' >>> word [ - 2 ] # second-last character 'o' >>> word [ - 6 ] 'P' Note that since -0 is the same as 0, negative indices start from -1. In addition to indexing, slicing is also supported. While indexing is used to obtain individual characters, slicing allows you to obtain a substring: >>> word [ 0 : 2 ] # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded) 'Py' >>> word [ 2 : 5 ] # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded) 'tho' Slice indices have useful defaults; an omitted first index defaults to zero, an omitted second index defaults to the size of the string being sliced. >>> word [: 2 ] # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded) 'Py' >>> word [ 4 :] # characters from position 4 (included) to the end 'on' >>> word [ - 2 :] # characters from the second-last (included) to the end 'on' Note how the start is always included, and the end always excluded. This makes sure that s[:i] + s[i:] is always equal to s : >>> word [: 2 ] + word [ 2 :] 'Python' >>> word [: 4 ] + word [ 4 :] 'Python' One way to remember how slices work is to think of the indices as pointing between characters, with the left edge of the first character numbered 0. Then the right edge of the last character of a string of n characters has index n , for example: +---+---+---+---+---+---+ | P | y | t | h | o | n | +---+---+---+---+---+---+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 The first row of numbers gives the position of the indices 0…6 in the string; the second row gives the corresponding negative indices. The slice from i to j consists of all characters between the edges labeled i and j , respectively. For non-negative indices, the length of a slice is the difference of the indices, if both are within bounds. For example, the length of word[1:3] is 2. Attempting to use an index that is too large will result in an error: >>> word [ 42 ] # the word only has 6 characters Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> IndexError : string index out of range However, out of range slice indexes are handled gracefully when used for slicing: >>> word [ 4 : 42 ] 'on' >>> word [ 42 :] '' Python strings cannot be changed — they are immutable . Therefore, assigning to an indexed position in the string results in an error: >>> word [ 0 ] = 'J' Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : 'str' object does not support item assignment >>> word [ 2 :] = 'py' Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : 'str' object does not support item assignment If you need a different string, you should create a new one: >>> 'J' + word [ 1 :] 'Jython' >>> word [: 2 ] + 'py' 'Pypy' The built-in function len() returns the length of a string: >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious' >>> len ( s ) 34 See also Text Sequence Type — str Strings are examples of sequence types , and support the common operations supported by such types. String Methods Strings support a large number of methods for basic transformations and searching. f-strings String literals that have embedded expressions. Format String Syntax Information about string formatting with str.format() . printf-style String Formatting The old formatting operations invoked when strings are the left operand of the % operator are described in more detail here. 3.1.3. Lists ¶ Python knows a number of compound data types, used to group together other values. The most versatile is the list , which can be written as a list of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Lists might contain items of different types, but usually the items all have the same type. >>> squares = [ 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 ] >>> squares [1, 4, 9, 16, 25] Like strings (and all other built-in sequence types), lists can be indexed and sliced: >>> squares [ 0 ] # indexing returns the item 1 >>> squares [ - 1 ] 25 >>> squares [ - 3 :] # slicing returns a new list [9, 16, 25] Lists also support operations like concatenation: >>> squares + [ 36 , 49 , 64 , 81 , 100 ] [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100] Unlike strings, which are immutable , lists are a mutable type, i.e. it is possible to change their content: >>> cubes = [ 1 , 8 , 27 , 65 , 125 ] # something's wrong here >>> 4 ** 3 # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65! 64 >>> cubes [ 3 ] = 64 # replace the wrong value >>> cubes [1, 8, 27, 64, 125] You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using the list.append() method (we will see more about methods later): >>> cubes . append ( 216 ) # add the cube of 6 >>> cubes . append ( 7 ** 3 ) # and the cube of 7 >>> cubes [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343] Simple assignment in Python never copies data. When you assign a list to a variable, the variable refers to the existing list . Any changes you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other variables that refer to it.: >>> rgb = [ "Red" , "Green" , "Blue" ] >>> rgba = rgb >>> id ( rgb ) == id ( rgba ) # they reference the same object True >>> rgba . append ( "Alph" ) >>> rgb ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"] All slice operations return a new list containing the requested elements. This means that the following slice returns a shallow copy of the list: >>> correct_rgba = rgba [:] >>> correct_rgba [ - 1 ] = "Alpha" >>> correct_rgba ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"] >>> rgba ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"] Assignment to slices is also possible, and this can even change the size of the list or clear it entirely: >>> letters = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' , 'd' , 'e' , 'f' , 'g' ] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'] >>> # replace some values >>> letters [ 2 : 5 ] = [ 'C' , 'D' , 'E' ] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g'] >>> # now remove them >>> letters [ 2 : 5 ] = [] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g'] >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list >>> letters [:] = [] >>> letters [] The built-in function len() also applies to lists: >>> letters = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' , 'd' ] >>> len ( letters ) 4 It is possible to nest lists (create lists containing other lists), for example: >>> a = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' ] >>> n = [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] >>> x = [ a , n ] >>> x [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]] >>> x [ 0 ] ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> x [ 0 ][ 1 ] 'b' 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming ¶ Of course, we can use Python for more complicated tasks than adding two and two together. For instance, we can write an initial sub-sequence of the Fibonacci series as follows: >>> # Fibonacci series: >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next >>> a , b = 0 , 1 >>> while a < 10 : ... print ( a ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 This example introduces several new features. The first line contains a multiple assignment : the variables a and b simultaneously get the new values 0 and 1. On the last line this is used again, demonstrating that the expressions on the right-hand side are all evaluated first before any of the assignments take place. The right-hand side expressions are evaluated from the left to the right. The while loop executes as long as the condition (here: a < 10 ) remains true. In Python, like in C, any non-zero integer value is true; zero is false. The condition may also be a string or list value, in fact any sequence; anything with a non-zero length is true, empty sequences are false. The test used in the example is a simple comparison. The standard comparison operators are written the same as in C: < (less than), > (greater than), == (equal to), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or equal to) and != (not equal to). The body of the loop is indented : indentation is Python’s way of grouping statements. At the interactive prompt, you have to type a tab or space(s) for each indented line. In practice you will prepare more complicated input for Python with a text editor; all decent text editors have an auto-indent facility. When a compound statement is entered interactively, it must be followed by a blank line to indicate completion (since the parser cannot guess when you have typed the last line). Note that each line within a basic block must be indented by the same amount. The print() function writes the value of the argument(s) it is given. It differs from just writing the expression you want to write (as we did earlier in the calculator examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments, floating-point quantities, and strings. Strings are printed without quotes, and a space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely, like this: >>> i = 256 * 256 >>> print ( 'The value of i is' , i ) The value of i is 65536 The keyword argument end can be used to avoid the newline after the output, or end the output with a different string: >>> a , b = 0 , 1 >>> while a < 1000 : ... print ( a , end = ',' ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987, Footnotes [ 1 ] Since ** has higher precedence than - , -3**2 will be interpreted as -(3**2) and thus result in -9 . To avoid this and get 9 , you can use (-3)**2 . [ 2 ] Unlike other languages, special characters such as \n have the same meaning with both single ( '...' ) and double ( "..." ) quotes. The only difference between the two is that within single quotes you don’t need to escape " (but you have to escape \' ) and vice versa. Table of Contents 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming Previous topic 2. Using the Python Interpreter Next topic 4. More Control Flow Tools This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 3. An Informal Introduction to Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. 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https://parenting.forem.com/jess/international-travel-with-toddlers-car-seat-or-vest-considerations-p51 | International Travel with Toddlers: Car Seat (or vest!) Considerations - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Jess Lee Posted on Oct 14, 2025 International Travel with Toddlers: Car Seat (or vest!) Considerations # travel # gear After flying from the U.S. to Taiwan (twice) with my toddlers, I've become the go-to person for travel gear recs amongst my friends. Instead of sending the same lengthy text message over and over again, I figured I'd jot everything down in a series of posts for easy sharing. Obviously, every kid and journey is different but this series will give you a few things to can consider. No referral links or anything like that. Let's start with the biggest headache: car seats. Unless you're planning to car share everywhere (and even then), you need a solution. And no, you don't want to lug around your cushy at-home car seat, unless it's one of the ones I'm suggesting below: Option 1: Low Budget Traditional Car Seat - Cosco Scenara Next The Cosco Scenera Next is the lightest weight traditional car seat on the market. It's a bulky shape (like all car seats), but it's cheap and it works for both rear and front facing, so it'll last you a while. The link above might be for their older model. Option 2: The Packable Premium - Wayb Pico If you have the budget and want something that actually packs down, the Wayb Pico is the most packable car seat on the market. It's expensive, but if you're a frequent traveler, it might be worth the investment. Check it out at Wayb . I've seen kids strapped into these on short-haul flights and they seem great. I can't imagine keeping my kids in one of these flights for a 6+ hour flight, though. I've never had the pleasure of owning one but you should know about it as part of your research. Important note: this is only for kids who can front-face. Option 3: The Game Changer - RideSafer Travel Vest Here's what I actually recommend for kids old enough to understand instructions: the car seat vest. This thing passes all the same testing standards that regular car seats do, as long as your child stays in the right position and doesn't mess with the straps . For a kid who can follow directions and understands safety, this is ridiculously convenient and cheap. No lugging a giant plastic contraption through airports. Just a vest. Find it here . Rideshare or Car Rental? Since we did not rent a car in Taiwan and traveled via rideshare, we went with the travel vest for the older kid and cosco for the yougner kid. We only did this because I'd be with my kid in the backseat the entire time to monitor their straps. This is really important! We've done some domestic travel where we did rent a car and have had to buy a last minute car seat (the cosco one) because the 4yo would either fall asleep or slouch in the vest, putting them in an unsafe position. So now I own...two cosco seats and a travel vest. Car Seat Travel Bag If you go with a traditional car seat, you'll also want a car seat travel bag. Some airlines (depending on the airport) will provide a clear plastic bag for you but definitely don't bank on that. Here's the car seat travel bag we use, it's cheap and effective. Note: you can bring your car seat (not the vest) directly onto the plane to strap your kids into. I personally don't do this for long-haul flights because my kids would lose their minds, but it is the safest option for them while in-flight. A Word of Warning About International Cars Here's something nobody tells you: car safety standards vary wildly by country. In Taiwan, 99% of cars didn't have the ratcheting mechanism in the seat belt like they do in the U.S. Brand new Teslas didn't have them. So, if you're paranoid, you might want a car seat that supports lower anchors (both cosco and wayb do). Anyway, be sure to do your research on your destination country before you land so you know what to expect! Next Up My next post will be about gear you'll want while you're 30,000 feet in the air! Top comments (2) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Peter Kim Frank Peter Kim Frank Peter Kim Frank Follow Doing a bit of everything at DEV / Forem Email peter@dev.to Education Wesleyan University Pronouns He/Him Work Co-Founder Joined Jan 3, 2017 • Oct 15 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide +1 for the Cosco. We normally just use the straps to hook the car seat directly to our stroller which works like a charm. Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Matt Figler Matt Figler Matt Figler Follow Joined Jun 22, 2017 • Oct 22 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is an awesome breakdown, takes a little bit of stress out of family travel. Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Jess Lee Follow Building DEV and Forem with everyone here. Interested in the future. Location USA / TAIWAN Pronouns she/they Work Co-Founder & COO at Forem Joined Jul 29, 2016 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/react-native-android-integration#logging | Android Integration - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Android iOS React Native Android Integration iOS Integration Manage Users Sync Events iOS Push Setup Android Push (FCM) Flutter React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation React Native Android Integration Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog React Native Android Integration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT This document will cover integration steps for Android side of your ReactNative application. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install Package npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @ suprsend / react - native - sdk @ latest 2 Add the below dependency Add the this dependency in project level build.gradle , inside allprojects > repositories . build.gradle Copy Ask AI allprojects { repositories { ... mavenCentral () // add this } } 3 Add Android SDK dependency inside in app level build.gradle. build.gradle Copy Ask AI dependencies { ... implementation 'com.suprsend:rn:0.1.10' // add this } Note: If you get any error regarding minSdkVersion please update it to 19 or more. Initialization 1 Initialise the Suprsend Android SDK Initialise the Suprsend android SDK in MainApplication.java inside onCreate method and just above super.onCreate() line. javascript Copy Ask AI import app . suprsend . SSApi ; // import sdk ... SSApi . Companion . init ( this , WORKSPACE KEY , WORKSPACE SECRET ); // inside onCreate method just above super.onCreate() line Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will get them the tokens from Settings -> API Keys inside Suprsend dashboard . 2 Import SuprSend SDK in your client side Javascript code. javascript Copy Ask AI import suprsend from "@suprsend/react-native-sdk" ; Logging By default the logs of SuprSend SDK are disabled. You can enable the logs just in debug mode while in development by the below condition. javascript Copy Ask AI suprsend . enableLogging (); // available from v2.0.2 // deprecated from v2.0.2 suprsend . setLogLevel ( level ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "VERBOSE" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "DEBUG" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "INFO" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "ERROR" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "OFF" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Integration This document will cover integration steps for iOS side of your ReactNative application. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization Logging | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-category-overview | Commands and Flags - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Preference Category Commands and Flags Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Preference Category Commands and Flags OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Reference for managing preference categories via SuprSend CLI. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Categories are used to manage notification preferences in SuprSend. You can use CLI command to manage categories - list, push, pull, and commit. Syntax Copy Ask AI suprsend category [command] Commands Command Description category list List categories in a workspace category pull Pull categories from SuprSend to local directory or server category push Push categories from local directory or server to SuprSend workspace category commit Commit categories to make them live category translation list List available translations category translation pull Pull translations from SuprSend to local JSON files category translation push Push translations from local JSON files to SuprSend workspace Inherited Global Flags This command also supports Global Flags , such as: -s, --service-token – Service token for authentication (default: $SUPRSEND_SERVICE_TOKEN ) -v, --verbosity – Log level (debug, info, warn, error, fatal, panic) (default info ) --config – Config file path (default: $HOME/.suprsend.yaml ) -n, --no-color – Disable color output (default: $NO_COLOR ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous List Categories List all preference categories in your workspace. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Syntax Commands Inherited Global Flags | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-intro#content-area | CLI Overview - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Introduction to SuprSend CLI for managing notification infrastructure from the command line. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Beta Feature - The SuprSend CLI is under active development. Commands and flags may change, and new functionality will be added over time. If you encounter issues or need additional commands, please open an issue on GitHub or contribute directly — the project is open source. The SuprSend CLI is a powerful command-line interface that enables developers to setup CI/CD pipeline for notification changes and manage, automate, and sync SuprSend assets across multiple workspaces. With a few commands, you can handle workflows, schemas, events, and even integrate directly with AI agents. Benefits of using SuprSend CLI Developers often prefer CLI as it offers speed, automation, and flexibility . Instead of writing boilerplate code or clicking through multiple screens on UI, you can run a single command or script to perform repeatable actions—ideal for modern DevOps and automation. By using the CLI, you can: Automate with CI/CD Deployment – Release notification changes through feature or bugfix branches, just like any other piece of code: version it, test it, and deploy it. Work with assets locally – Create, edit, and commit workflows, schemas, and translation files locally. Version Control Changes – Pull all assets locally and track them in Git for maintaining release history. Enforce Approval gates for production releases - Setup strict checks that all changes on production go through approval process so that nothing goes live without check. What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Manage Assets – List, pull, push, and commit notification workflows, schemas, preference categories, and events. Sync Across Workspaces – Transfer assets between workspaces for multi-environment setups. AI Agent Integration – Start an MCP server from the CLI and connect SuprSend with AI agents or developer copilots. Available Commands Profile Manage objects : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Object Management APIs . Command Description profile list List profiles in a workspace profile add Add a new profile profile modify Modify an existing profile profile remove Remove a profile profile use Switch to a specific profile Workflow Manage workflows : create, update, enable, disable, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Workflow Management APIs . Command Description workflow list List workflows in a workspace workflow push Push local workflows to SuprSend workflow pull Pull workflows from SuprSend to local files workflow enable Enable a workflow workflow disable Disable a workflow Schema Manage schemas : create, update, commit, reset, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Schema Management APIs . Command Description schema list List schemas in a workspace schema push Push local schemas to SuprSend schema pull Pull schemas from SuprSend to local files schema commit Commit a schema to make it live generate-types Generate type definitions from JSON schemas Event Manage events : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Event Management APIs . Command Description event list List events in a workspace event push Push local events to SuprSend event pull Pull events from SuprSend to local files Category Manage categories : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Category Management APIs . Command Description category list List categories in a workspace category pull Pull categories from SuprSend to local files category push Push local categories to SuprSend category commit Commit categories to make them live Sync Manage sync : sync assets between workspaces. Command Description sync Sync assets between workspaces Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Quickstart Get up and running with SuprSend CLI in minutes. Complete setup, authentication, and start using right away. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of using SuprSend CLI What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Available Commands Profile Workflow Schema Event Category Sync | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-intro#what-you-can-do-with-suprsend-cli | CLI Overview - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Introduction to SuprSend CLI for managing notification infrastructure from the command line. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Beta Feature - The SuprSend CLI is under active development. Commands and flags may change, and new functionality will be added over time. If you encounter issues or need additional commands, please open an issue on GitHub or contribute directly — the project is open source. The SuprSend CLI is a powerful command-line interface that enables developers to setup CI/CD pipeline for notification changes and manage, automate, and sync SuprSend assets across multiple workspaces. With a few commands, you can handle workflows, schemas, events, and even integrate directly with AI agents. Benefits of using SuprSend CLI Developers often prefer CLI as it offers speed, automation, and flexibility . Instead of writing boilerplate code or clicking through multiple screens on UI, you can run a single command or script to perform repeatable actions—ideal for modern DevOps and automation. By using the CLI, you can: Automate with CI/CD Deployment – Release notification changes through feature or bugfix branches, just like any other piece of code: version it, test it, and deploy it. Work with assets locally – Create, edit, and commit workflows, schemas, and translation files locally. Version Control Changes – Pull all assets locally and track them in Git for maintaining release history. Enforce Approval gates for production releases - Setup strict checks that all changes on production go through approval process so that nothing goes live without check. What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Manage Assets – List, pull, push, and commit notification workflows, schemas, preference categories, and events. Sync Across Workspaces – Transfer assets between workspaces for multi-environment setups. AI Agent Integration – Start an MCP server from the CLI and connect SuprSend with AI agents or developer copilots. Available Commands Profile Manage objects : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Object Management APIs . Command Description profile list List profiles in a workspace profile add Add a new profile profile modify Modify an existing profile profile remove Remove a profile profile use Switch to a specific profile Workflow Manage workflows : create, update, enable, disable, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Workflow Management APIs . Command Description workflow list List workflows in a workspace workflow push Push local workflows to SuprSend workflow pull Pull workflows from SuprSend to local files workflow enable Enable a workflow workflow disable Disable a workflow Schema Manage schemas : create, update, commit, reset, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Schema Management APIs . Command Description schema list List schemas in a workspace schema push Push local schemas to SuprSend schema pull Pull schemas from SuprSend to local files schema commit Commit a schema to make it live generate-types Generate type definitions from JSON schemas Event Manage events : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Event Management APIs . Command Description event list List events in a workspace event push Push local events to SuprSend event pull Pull events from SuprSend to local files Category Manage categories : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Category Management APIs . Command Description category list List categories in a workspace category pull Pull categories from SuprSend to local files category push Push local categories to SuprSend category commit Commit categories to make them live Sync Manage sync : sync assets between workspaces. Command Description sync Sync assets between workspaces Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Quickstart Get up and running with SuprSend CLI in minutes. Complete setup, authentication, and start using right away. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of using SuprSend CLI What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Available Commands Profile Workflow Schema Event Category Sync | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/integrate-python-sdk#initialization | Integrate Python SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Node.js SDK Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Python SDK Integrate Python SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Install & Initialize SuprSend Python SDK using your workspace credentials for sending notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install 'libmagic' system package. You can skip this step if you already have this package installed in your system. bash Copy Ask AI # if you are using linux / debian based systems sudo apt install libmagic # If you are using macOS brew install libmagic 2 Install 'suprsend-py-sdk' using pip bash Copy Ask AI $ pip install suprsend-py-sdk # to upgrade to latest SDK version $ pip install suprsend-py-sdk --upgrade Python version 3.7 or later is required If your python3 version is lower than 3.7, upgrade it. Schema Validation Support : If you’re using schema validation for workflow payloads, you need Python SDK v0.15.0 or later. The API response format was modified to support schema validation, and older SDK versions may not properly handle validation errors. Initialization For initializing SDK, you need workspace_key and workspace_secret. You will get both the tokens from your Suprsend dashboard (Developers -> API Keys). python Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Suprsend # Initialize SDK supr_client = Suprsend( "WORKSPACE KEY" , "WORKSPACE SECRET" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Users Create, update, & manage user profiles and communication channels using Python SDK methods. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://share.transistor.fm/s/8f8b74c8#copya | APIs You Won't Hate | Maybe GraphQL isn't so terrible? A conversation with Marc-Andre Giroux APIs You Won't Hate 40 ? 30 : 10)" @keyup.document.left="seekBySeconds(-10)" @keyup.document.m="toggleMute" @keyup.document.s="toggleSpeed" @play="play(false, true)" @loadedmetadata="handleLoadedMetadata" @pause="pause(true)" preload="none" @timejump.window="seekToSeconds($event.detail.timestamp); shareTimeFormatted = formatTime($event.detail.timestamp)" > Trailer Bonus 10 40 ? 30 : 10)" class="seek-seconds-button" > 40 ? 30 : 10"> Subscribe Share More Info Download More episodes Subscribe newValue ? setTimeout(() => copied = false, 2500) : null)" @click="copied = copyFeedUrl()" class="form-input-group" > Copied to clipboard Apple Podcasts Spotify Pocket Casts Overcast Castro YouTube Goodpods Goodpods Metacast Amazon Music Pandora CastBox Anghami Anghami Fountain JioSaavn Gaana iHeartRadio TuneIn TuneIn Player FM SoundCloud SoundCloud Deezer Podcast Addict Share newValue ? setTimeout(() => copied = false, 2500) : null)" @click="copied = copyShareUrl()" class="form-input-group" > Share Copied to clipboard newValue ? setTimeout(() => copied = false, 2500) : null)" @click="copied = copyEmbedHtml()" class="form-input-group" > Embed Copied to clipboard Start at Trailer Bonus Full Transcript View the website updateDescriptionLinks($el))" class="episode-description" > Chapters June 12, 2020 by APIs You Won't Hate View the website Listen On Apple Podcasts Listen On Spotify Listen On YouTube RSS Feed Subscribe RSS Feed RSS Feed URL Copied! Follow Episode Details Phil and Matt talk with Marc-Andre Giroux, a developer working at Github who helps maintain their REST and GraphQL APIs. Show Notes A quick note before we get started: We recorded this episode back in April of 2020 when everyone was quarantining and making bread to post on instagram. Fast forward to now, in June, American cities, and cities around the world are joining in, protesting the systemic racism that has long been an issue in our societies. While our energy and focus turned to current events, editing this episode took a seat on the backburner. That said, we have it ready… but it couldn’t be released at a worse time. Three white dudes talking about APIs while our friends in other communities are fighting injustices that have long kept them down seems to be a bit tone deaf, and we know that, recognize that and commit ourselves to being involved. There are a lot of conversations we want to have around this topic both in the API world, and outside of it. We don’t want this episode to take away from the discussions going on around such important and heavy topics, but we hope this can serve as a way for you to take a break while you travel to and from a protest. If you are going to protest please be safe, drink as much water as you can to stay hydrated in the heat and know that things are changing for the better. To all the Black API developers out there: we see you, we're fighting with you, and we want you to know that we're listening. From all of us at APIs You Won't Hate: Black lives matter. Recorded back in April, Matt and Phil are joined by Marc-Andre Giroux to talk about the APIs he works on at Github and his fascination of GraphQL. Marc-Andre recently released a book titled " Production Ready GraphQL " where he talks about schema design, tooling, architecture and more. We take a dive into knowing when GraphQL is the right tool for the job, versus when to use REST and talk a little about the whole quarantine thing that was happening. Sponsors: Stoplight makes it possible for us to bring you this podcast while we nerd out about APIs. Check them out for their tooling around documentation with Studio, an app that makes API documentation an absolute joy to work with. Twitter: https://twitter.com/__xuorig__ Book: Production Ready GraphQL APIs You Wont Hate Jobs Board: https://apisyouwonthate.com/jobs APIs You Wont Hate Slack: https://apisyouwonthate.com/community Creators and Guests Host Mike Bifulco Cofounder and host of APIs You Won't Hate. Blogs at https://mikebifulco.com Into 🚴♀️, espresso ☕, looking after 🌍. ex @Stripe @Google @Microsoft What is APIs You Won't Hate? A no-nonsense (well, some-nonsense) podcast about API design & development, new features in the world of HTTP, service-orientated architecture, microservices, and probably bikes. All audio, artwork, episode descriptions and notes are property of APIs You Won't Hate, for APIs You Won't Hate, and published with permission by Transistor, Inc. Broadcast by | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/om_shree_0709 | Om Shree - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Follow User actions Om Shree Technical Evangelist | AI Researcher | Simplifying Complex AI & Agent Workflows for Developers Location India Joined Joined on Feb 27, 2025 Email address omshree0709@gmail.com Personal website https://shreesozo.com github website twitter website Education Jaypee University Of Information Technology Pronouns He/Him Work Founder of Shreesozo 16 Week Community Wellness Streak You're a dedicated community champion! Keep up the great work by posting at least 2 comments per week for 16 straight weeks. The prized 24-week badge is within reach! Got it Close 2 DEV Challenge Volunteer Judge Awarded for judging a DEV Challenge and nominating winners. Got it Close 100 Thumbs Up Milestone Awarded for giving 100 thumbs ups (👍) to a variety of posts across DEV. 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Got it Close More info about @om_shree_0709 Skills/Languages Full-Stack Dev Currently learning Full-Stack Dev Available for MCP Blog Author, Open-Source Contributor, Full-Stack Dev Post 2 posts published Comment 330 comments written Tag 1 tag followed Parenting in 2025: Finding Our Center in a World That Never Stops Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Oct 27 '25 Parenting in 2025: Finding Our Center in a World That Never Stops # learning # education # development 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Want to connect with Om Shree? Create an account to connect with Om Shree. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in Navigating Modern Parenthood: Insights from This Week's Conversations Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Oct 19 '25 Navigating Modern Parenthood: Insights from This Week's Conversations # discuss # learning # development # mentalhealth 23 reactions Comments 5 comments 5 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-profile-overview | Commands and Flags - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Profile Commands and Flags Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Profile Commands and Flags OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Reference for managing profiles in the SuprSend CLI. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Profiles allow you to switch between multiple accounts or servers (if you are using a self-hosted solution) easily without repeatedly entering credentials. Commands Command Description profile list List all configured profiles profile add Add a new profile configuration profile modify Modify an existing profile profile remove Remove a profile configuration profile use Switch to a specific profile Inherited Global Flags This command also supports Global Flags , such as: --config – Config file (default: $HOME/.suprsend.yaml ) -n , --no-color – Disable color output -v , --verbosity – Log level (debug, info, warn, error, fatal, panic) (default “info”) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Add Profile Create a new profile configuration in your SuprSend CLI for managing multiple accounts and workspaces. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Commands Inherited Global Flags | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://explore.openaire.eu/search/result?pid=10.5281/zenodo.18209805 | OpenAIRE | Error page toggle menu close close menu Search Research products Publications Research data Research software Other research products Projects Data sources Organizations Deposit Link Start linking Learn more Data sources Repositories Journals Registries Browse all Funders Search Deposit Link Data sources Funders Sign in Bad karma: we can't find that page! Not valid or missing research product id. Search another research product? another research product in OpenAIRE? You asked for /search/result?pid=10.5281%2Fzenodo.18209805, but despite our computers looking very hard, we could not find it. What happened ? the link you clicked to arrive here has a typo in it or somehow we removed that page, or gave it another name or, quite unlikely for sure, maybe you typed it yourself and there was a little mistake ? close OK Cancel | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/react-native-android-integration#logging | Android Integration - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Android iOS React Native Android Integration iOS Integration Manage Users Sync Events iOS Push Setup Android Push (FCM) Flutter React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation React Native Android Integration Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog React Native Android Integration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT This document will cover integration steps for Android side of your ReactNative application. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install Package npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @ suprsend / react - native - sdk @ latest 2 Add the below dependency Add the this dependency in project level build.gradle , inside allprojects > repositories . build.gradle Copy Ask AI allprojects { repositories { ... mavenCentral () // add this } } 3 Add Android SDK dependency inside in app level build.gradle. build.gradle Copy Ask AI dependencies { ... implementation 'com.suprsend:rn:0.1.10' // add this } Note: If you get any error regarding minSdkVersion please update it to 19 or more. Initialization 1 Initialise the Suprsend Android SDK Initialise the Suprsend android SDK in MainApplication.java inside onCreate method and just above super.onCreate() line. javascript Copy Ask AI import app . suprsend . SSApi ; // import sdk ... SSApi . Companion . init ( this , WORKSPACE KEY , WORKSPACE SECRET ); // inside onCreate method just above super.onCreate() line Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will get them the tokens from Settings -> API Keys inside Suprsend dashboard . 2 Import SuprSend SDK in your client side Javascript code. javascript Copy Ask AI import suprsend from "@suprsend/react-native-sdk" ; Logging By default the logs of SuprSend SDK are disabled. You can enable the logs just in debug mode while in development by the below condition. javascript Copy Ask AI suprsend . enableLogging (); // available from v2.0.2 // deprecated from v2.0.2 suprsend . setLogLevel ( level ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "VERBOSE" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "DEBUG" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "INFO" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "ERROR" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "OFF" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Integration This document will cover integration steps for iOS side of your ReactNative application. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization Logging | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://home.cern | Home | CERN Skip to main content CERN Accelerating science Sign in Directory Toggle navigation About CERN At CERN, we probe the fundamental structure of particles that make up everything around us. We do so using the world's largest and most complex scientific instruments. Know more Who we are Our Mission Our Governance Our Member States Our History Our People What we do Fundamental research Contribute to society Environmentally responsible research Bring nations together Inspire and educate Fast facts and FAQs Key Achievements Key achievements submenu The Higgs Boson The W boson The Z boson The Large Hadron Collider The Birth of the web Antimatter News Featured news, updates, stories, opinions, announcements Private donors pledge 860 million euros for C... At CERN Press release 18 December, 2025 The European Strategy for Particle Physics re... 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/integrate-node-sdk#initialization | Integrate Node SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Install & Initialize SuprSend NodeJS SDK using your workspace credentials for sending notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @suprsend/node-sdk@latest Initialization javascript Copy Ask AI const { Suprsend } = require ( "@suprsend/node-sdk" ); const supr_client = new Suprsend ( "WORKSPACE KEY" , "WORKSPACE SECRET" ); Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will find them on SuprSend Dashboard Developers -> API Keys page. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Users Create, update, & manage user profiles and communication channels using NodeJS SDK methods. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://devblogs.microsoft.com/dotnet/net-framework-february-2020-security-and-quality-rollup/#getting-the-update | .NET Framework February 2020 Security and Quality Rollup - .NET Blog Skip to main content Microsoft Dev Blogs Dev Blogs Dev Blogs Home Developer Microsoft for Developers Visual Studio Visual Studio Code Develop from the cloud All things Azure Xcode DevOps Windows Developer ISE Developer Azure SDK Command Line Aspire Technology DirectX Semantic Kernel Languages C++ C# F# TypeScript PowerShell Team Python Java Java Blog in Chinese Go .NET All .NET posts .NET Aspire .NET MAUI AI ASP.NET Core Blazor Entity Framework NuGet Servicing .NET Blog in Chinese Platform Development #ifdef Windows Microsoft Foundry Azure Government Azure VM Runtime Team Bing Dev Center Microsoft Edge Dev Microsoft Azure Microsoft 365 Developer Microsoft Entra Identity Developer Old New Thing Power Platform Data Development Azure Cosmos DB Azure Data Studio Azure SQL OData Revolutions R Unified Data Model (IDEAs) Microsoft Entra PowerShell More Search Search No results Cancel Dev Blogs .NET Blog .NET Framework February 2020 Security and Quality Rollup .NET 10 is here! .NET 10 is now available: the most productive, modern, secure, intelligent, and performant release of .NET yet. Learn More Download Now February 11th, 2020 0 reactions .NET Framework February 2020 Security and Quality Rollup Tara Overfield Senior Software Engineer Show more Today, we are releasing the February 2020 Security and Quality Rollup Updates for .NET Framework. Security The February Security and Quality Rollup Update does not contain any new security fixes. See January 2020 Security and Quality Rollup for the latest security updates. Quality and Reliability This release contains the following quality and reliability improvements. Some improvements included in the Security and Quality Rollup and were previously released in the Security and Quality Rollup that was dated January 23, 2020. Acquistion & Deployment Addresses an issue where the installation of .NET 4.8 on Windows machines prior to 1809 build prevents .NET-specific settings to be migrated during Windows upgrade to build 1809. Note: to prevent this issue, this update must be applied before the upgrade to a newer version of Windows. CLR 1 A change in .NET Framework 4.8 regressed certain EnterpriseServices scenarios where an single-thread apartment object may be treated as an multi-thread apartment and lead to a blocking failure. This change now correctly identifies single-thread apartment objects as such and avoids this failure. There is a race condition in the portable PDB metadata provider cache that leaked providers and caused crashes in the diagnostic StackTrace API. To fix the race, detect the cause where the provider wasn’t being disposed and dispose it. Addresses an issue when in Server GC, if you are truly out of memory when doing SOH allocations (ie, there has been a full blocking GC and still no space to accommodate your SOH allocation), you will see full blocking GCs getting triggered over and over again with the trigger reason OutOfSpaceSOH. This fix is to throw OOM when we have detected this situation instead of triggering GCs in a loop. Addresses an issue caused by changing process affinity from 1 to N cores. Net Libraries Strengthens UdpClient against incorrect usage in network configurations with an exceptionally large MTU. SQL Addresses an issue with SqlClient Bid traces where information wasn’t being printed due to incorrectly formatted strings. WCF 2 There’s a race condition when listening paths are being closed down because of an IIS worker process crash and the same endpoints being reconfigured as listening but pending activation. When a conflict is found, this change allows for retrying with the assumption the conflict was transient due to this race condition. The retry count and wait duration are configurable via app settings. Added opt-in retry mechanism when configuring listening endpoints on the WCF Activation service to address potential race condition when rapidly restarting an IIS application multiple times while under high CPU load which resulted in an endpoint being inaccessible. Customers can opt in to the fix by adding the following AppSetting to SMSvcHost.exe.config under the %windir%\Microsoft.NET\Framework\v4.0.30319 and %windir%\Microsoft.NET\Framework64\v4.0.30319 folders as appropriate. This will retry registering an endpoint 10 times with a 1 second delay between each attempt before placing the endpoint in a failure state. <appsettings> <add key=”wcf:SMSvcHost:listenerRegistrationRetryCount” value=”10″> <add key=”wcf:SMSvcHost:listenerRegistrationRetryDelayms” value=”1000″> </add></appsettings> Windows Forms Addresses an issue in System.Windows.Forms.TextBox controls with ImeMode property set to NoControl. These controls now retain IME setting consistent with the OS setting regardles of the order of navigation on the page. Fix applies to CHS with pinyin keyboard. Addresses an issue with System.Windows.Forms.ComboBox control with ImeMode set to ImeMode.NoControl on CHS with Pinyin keyboard to retain input mode of the parent container control instead of switching to disabled IME when navigating using mouse clicks and when focus moves from a control with disabled IME to this ComboBox control. An accessibility change in .NET Framework 4.8 regressed editing IP address UI in the DataGridView in Create Cluster Wizard in Failover Cluster Services: users can’t enter the IP value after control UIA tree restructuring related to editing control movement to another editing cell. Such custom DataGridView cells (IP address cell) and their inner controls are currently not processed in default UIA tree restructuring to prevent this issue. WPF 3 Addresses an issue where under some circumstances, Popup’s in high-DPI WPF applications are not shown, are shown at the top-left corner of the screen, or are shown/rendered incompletely. Addresses an issue when creating an XPS document in WPF, font subsetting may result in a FileFormatException of the process of subsetting would grow the font. Addresses incorrect width of the text-insertion caret in TextBox et al., when the system DPI exceeds 96. In particular, the caret rendered nothing on a monitor with lower DPI than the primary, in some DPI-aware situations. Addresses a hang arising during layout of Grids with columns belonging to a SharedSizeGroup. Addresses a hang and eventual StackOverflowException arising when opening a RibbonSplitButton, if the app programmatically disables the button and replaces its menu items before the user releases the mouse button. Addresses certain hangs that can arise while scrolling a TreeView. 1 Common Language Runtime (CLR) 2 Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) 3 Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) Getting the Update The Security and Quality Rollup is available via Windows Update, Windows Server Update Services, and Microsoft Update Catalog. Microsoft Update Catalog You can get the update via the Microsoft Update Catalog. For Windows 10, NET Framework 4.8 updates are available via Windows Update, Windows Server Update Services, Microsoft Update Catalog. Updates for other versions of .NET Framework are part of the Windows 10 Monthly Cumulative Update. Note : Customers that rely on Windows Update and Windows Server Update Services will automatically receive the .NET Framework version-specific updates. Advanced system administrators can also take use of the below direct Microsoft Update Catalog download links to .NET Framework-specific updates. Before applying these updates, please ensure that you carefully review the .NET Framework version applicability, to ensure that you only install updates on systems where they apply. The following table is for Windows 10 and Windows Server 2016+ versions. Product Version Cumulative Update Windows 10 1909 and Windows Server, version 1909 .NET Framework 3.5, 4.8 Catalog 4534132 Windows 10 1903 and Windows Server, version 1903 .NET Framework 3.5, 4.8 Catalog 4534132 Windows 10 1809 (October 2018 Update) and Windows Server 2019 4538122 .NET Framework 3.5, 4.7.2 Catalog 4534119 .NET Framework 3.5, 4.8 Catalog 4534131 Windows 10 1803 (April 2018 Update) .NET Framework 3.5, 4.7.2 Catalog 4537762 .NET Framework 4.8 Catalog 4534130 Windows 10 1709 (Fall Creators Update) .NET Framework 3.5, 4.7.1, 4.7.2 Catalog 4537789 .NET Framework 4.8 Catalog 4534129 Windows 10 1703 (Creators Update) .NET Framework 3.5, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2 Catalog 4537765 .NET Framework 4.8 Catalog 4537557 Windows 10 1607 (Anniversary Update) and Windows Server 2016 .NET Framework 3.5, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2 Catalog 4537764 .NET Framework 4.8 Catalog 4534126 Windows 10 1507 .NET Framework 3.5, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2 Catalog 4537776 The following table is for earlier Windows and Windows Server versions. Product Version Security and Quality Rollup Windows 8.1, Windows RT 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 4538124 .NET Framework 3.5 Catalog 4532946 .NET Framework 4.5.2 Catalog 4534120 .NET Framework 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2 Catalog 4534117 .NET Framework 4.8 Catalog 4534134 Windows Server 2012 4538123 .NET Framework 3.5 Catalog 4532943 .NET Framework 4.5.2 Catalog 4534121 .NET Framework 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2 Catalog 4534116 .NET Framework 4.8 Catalog 4534133 Note: Windows 7 support ended on January 14, 2020 Previous Monthly Rollups The last few .NET Framework Monthly updates are listed below for your convenience: January 2020 Preview of Quality Rollup January 2020 Security and Quality Rollup December 2019 Security and Quality Rollup November 2019 Preview of Quality Rollup 0 3 0 Share on Facebook Share on X Share on Linkedin Copy Link --> Category .NET .NET Framework WPF Share Author Tara Overfield Senior Software Engineer Tara is a Software Engineer on the .NET team. She works on releasing .NET Framework updates. 3 comments Discussion is closed. Login to edit/delete existing comments. Code of Conduct Sort by : Newest Newest Popular Oldest Krejčí Pavel --> Krejčí Pavel --> February 19, 2020 0 --> Collapse this comment --> Copy link --> --> --> --> Hi, Are from now on for Windows 7SP1 ESU .NET 4.8 updates part of Security-only update or Monthly Rollup one? Or there is another way? Reg., Paul Terence Teng --> Terence Teng --> March 15, 2020 0 --> Collapse this comment --> Copy link --> --> --> --> Same question. @Tara SuperCocoLoco . --> SuperCocoLoco . --> February 14, 2020 0 --> Collapse this comment --> Copy link --> --> --> --> No .NET framework updates for Windows 7 and Windows 10 is an ugly (very ugly) mobile OS unuseable on a desktop computer. I prefer an unsupported Windows 7 than a bad supported Windows 10 (Mobile Only, Cloud Only, Touch Only and local On-Premises Desktop never again). Read next February 12, 2020 Deprecating TLS 1.0 and 1.1 on NuGet.org – Stage 1 The NuGet Team February 18, 2020 .NET Core February 2020 Updates – 2.1.16, 3.0.3, and 3.1.2 Rahul Bhandari (MSFT) Stay informed Get notified when new posts are published. Email * Country/Region * Select... 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https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-event-pull | Pull Events - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Event Pull Events Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Event Pull Events OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Fetch events from SuprSend workspace to local directory OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Pull events from a SuprSend workspace into your local directory. This action does not delete existing events; instead, it overwrites events with the same name or creates new ones. By default, pulled events are stored in the suprsend/event/ directory, but you can change the destination using the -d flag. We recommend specifying a directory when working with multiple production or staging workspaces. Syntax Copy Ask AI suprsend event pull [flags] Flags Flag Description Default -h, --help Show help for the command – -d, --dir string Directory to pull events to suprsend/event -w, --workspace string Workspace to pull events from staging Example Copy Ask AI # Pull all events to default directory suprsend event pull # Pull events into custom directory path suprsend event pull --dir dev-environment/events # Pull events from production workspace suprsend event pull --workspace production Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Push Events Push events from local directory to SuprSend Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Syntax Flags Example | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/net-standard#net-implementation-support | .NET Standard - .NET | Microsoft Learn Skip to main content Skip to Ask Learn chat experience This browser is no longer supported. Upgrade to Microsoft Edge to take advantage of the latest features, security updates, and technical support. Download Microsoft Edge More info about Internet Explorer and Microsoft Edge Table of contents Exit editor mode Ask Learn Ask Learn Focus mode Table of contents Read in English Add Add to plan Edit Share via Facebook x.com LinkedIn Email Print Note Access to this page requires authorization. You can try signing in or changing directories . Access to this page requires authorization. You can try changing directories . .NET Standard Feedback Summarize this article for me In this article .NET Standard is a formal specification of .NET APIs that are available on multiple .NET implementations. The motivation behind .NET Standard was to establish greater uniformity in the .NET ecosystem. .NET 5 and later versions adopt a different approach to establishing uniformity that eliminates the need for .NET Standard in most scenarios. However, if you want to share code between .NET Framework and any other .NET implementation, such as .NET Core, your library should target .NET Standard 2.0. No new versions of .NET Standard will be released , but .NET 5 and all later versions will continue to support .NET Standard 2.1 and earlier. For information about choosing between .NET 5+ and .NET Standard, see .NET 5+ and .NET Standard later in this article. .NET Standard versions .NET Standard is versioned. Each new version adds more APIs. When a library is built against a certain version of .NET Standard, it can run on any .NET implementation that implements that version of .NET Standard (or higher). Targeting a higher version of .NET Standard allows a library to use more APIs but means it can only be used on more recent versions of .NET. Targeting a lower version reduces the available APIs but means the library can run in more places. Select .NET Standard version 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.1 .NET Standard 1.0 has 7,949 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.5, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 8.0, 8.1, 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.0 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.1 has 10,239 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.5, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 8.0, 8.1, 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.1 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.2 has 10,285 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 8.1, 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.2 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.3 has 13,122 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.6, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.3 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.4 has 13,140 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0, 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 For more information, see .NET Standard 1.4 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.5 has 13,355 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 4.6.1 2 , 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 The versions listed here represent the rules that NuGet uses to determine whether a given .NET Standard library is applicable. While NuGet considers .NET Framework 4.6.1 as supporting .NET Standard 1.5 through 2.0, there are several issues with consuming .NET Standard libraries that were built for those versions from .NET Framework 4.6.1 projects. For .NET Framework projects that need to use such libraries, we recommend that you upgrade the project to target .NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. For more information, see .NET Standard 1.5 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 1.6 has 13,501 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 4.6.1 2 , 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 4.6, 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.0, 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.0, 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 7.0, 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 The versions listed here represent the rules that NuGet uses to determine whether a given .NET Standard library is applicable. While NuGet considers .NET Framework 4.6.1 as supporting .NET Standard 1.5 through 2.0, there are several issues with consuming .NET Standard libraries that were built for those versions from .NET Framework 4.6.1 projects. For .NET Framework projects that need to use such libraries, we recommend that you upgrade the project to target .NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. For more information, see .NET Standard 1.6 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 2.0 has 32,638 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 4.6.1 2 , 4.6.2, 4.7, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.8, 4.8.1 Mono 5.4, 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 10.14, 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 3.8, 5.16 Xamarin.Android 8.0, 10.0 Universal Windows Platform 10.0.16299, TBD Unity 2018.1 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 The versions listed here represent the rules that NuGet uses to determine whether a given .NET Standard library is applicable. While NuGet considers .NET Framework 4.6.1 as supporting .NET Standard 1.5 through 2.0, there are several issues with consuming .NET Standard libraries that were built for those versions from .NET Framework 4.6.1 projects. For .NET Framework projects that need to use such libraries, we recommend that you upgrade the project to target .NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. For more information, see .NET Standard 2.0 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . .NET Standard 2.1 has 37,118 of the 37,118 available APIs. .NET implementation Version support .NET and .NET Core 3.0, 3.1, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0 .NET Framework 1 N/A 2 Mono 6.4 Xamarin.iOS 12.16 Xamarin.Mac 5.16 Xamarin.Android 10.0 Universal Windows Platform N/A 3 Unity 2021.2 1 The versions listed for .NET Framework apply to .NET Core 2.0 SDK and later versions of the tooling. Older versions used a different mapping for .NET Standard 1.5 and higher. You can download tooling for .NET Core tools for Visual Studio 2015 if you cannot upgrade to Visual Studio 2017 or a later version. 2 .NET Framework doesn't support .NET Standard 2.1. For more information, see the announcement of .NET Standard 2.1 . 3 UWP doesn't support .NET Standard 2.1. For more information, see .NET Standard 2.1 . For an interactive table, see .NET Standard versions . Which .NET Standard version to target If you're targeting .NET Standard, we recommend you target .NET Standard 2.0, unless you need to support an earlier version. Most general-purpose libraries should not need APIs outside of .NET Standard 2.0, and .NET Framework doesn't support .NET Standard 2.1. .NET Standard 2.0 is supported by all modern platforms and is the recommended way to support multiple platforms with one target. If you need to support .NET Standard 1.x, we recommend that you also target .NET Standard 2.0. .NET Standard 1.x is distributed as a granular set of NuGet packages, which creates a large package dependency graph and results in a lot of packages being downloaded when the project is built. For more information, see Cross-platform targeting and .NET 5+ and .NET Standard later in this article. Note Starting in .NET 9, a build warning is emitted if your project targets .NET Standard 1.x. For more information, see Warning emitted for .NET Standard 1.x targets . .NET Standard versioning rules There are two primary versioning rules: Additive: .NET Standard versions are logically concentric circles: higher versions incorporate all APIs from previous versions. There are no breaking changes between versions. Immutable: Once shipped, .NET Standard versions are frozen. There will be no new .NET Standard versions after 2.1. For more information, see .NET 5+ and .NET Standard later in this article. Specification The .NET Standard specification is a standardized set of APIs. The specification is maintained by .NET implementers, specifically Microsoft (includes .NET Framework, .NET Core, and Mono) and Unity. Official artifacts The official specification is a set of .cs files that define the APIs that are part of the standard. The ref directory in the (now archived) dotnet/standard repository defines the .NET Standard APIs. The NETStandard.Library metapackage ( source ) describes the set of libraries that define (in part) one or more .NET Standard versions. A given component, like System.Runtime , describes: Part of .NET Standard (just its scope). Multiple versions of .NET Standard, for that scope. Derivative artifacts are provided to enable more convenient reading and to enable certain developer scenarios (for example, using a compiler). API list in markdown . Reference assemblies, distributed as NuGet packages and referenced by the NETStandard.Library metapackage. Package representation The primary distribution vehicle for the .NET Standard reference assemblies is NuGet packages. Implementations are delivered in a variety of ways, appropriate for each .NET implementation. NuGet packages target one or more frameworks . .NET Standard packages target the ".NET Standard" framework. You can target the .NET Standard framework using the netstandard compact target framework moniker (TFM) , for example, netstandard1.4 . Libraries that are intended to run on multiple implementations of .NET should target the .NET Standard framework. For the broadest set of APIs, target netstandard2.0 , because the number of available APIs more than doubled between .NET Standard 1.6 and 2.0. The NETStandard.Library metapackage references the complete set of NuGet packages that define .NET Standard. The most common way to target netstandard is by referencing this metapackage. It describes and provides access to the ~40 .NET libraries and associated APIs that define .NET Standard. You can reference additional packages that target netstandard to get access to additional APIs. Versioning The specification is not singular, but a linearly versioned set of APIs. The first version of the standard establishes a baseline set of APIs. Subsequent versions add APIs and inherit APIs defined by previous versions. There is no established provision for removing APIs from the Standard. .NET Standard is not specific to any one .NET implementation, nor does it match the versioning scheme of any of those implementations. As noted earlier, there will be no new .NET Standard versions after 2.1. Target .NET Standard You can build .NET Standard Libraries using a combination of the netstandard framework and the NETStandard.Library metapackage. .NET Framework compatibility mode Starting with .NET Standard 2.0, the .NET Framework compatibility mode was introduced. This compatibility mode allows .NET Standard projects to reference .NET Framework libraries as if they were compiled for .NET Standard. Referencing .NET Framework libraries doesn't work for all projects, such as libraries that use Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) APIs. For more information, see .NET Framework compatibility mode . .NET Standard libraries and Visual Studio To build .NET Standard libraries in Visual Studio, make sure you have Visual Studio 2019 or later or Visual Studio 2017 version 15.3 or later installed on Windows. If you only need to consume .NET Standard 2.0 libraries in your projects, you can also do that in Visual Studio 2015. However, you need NuGet client 3.6 or higher installed. You can download the NuGet client for Visual Studio 2015 from the NuGet downloads page. .NET 5+ and .NET Standard .NET 5, .NET 6, .NET 7, .NET 8, .NET 9, and .NET 10 are single products with a uniform set of capabilities and APIs that can be used for Windows desktop apps and cross-platform console apps, cloud services, and websites. The .NET 10 TFMs , for example, reflect this broad range of scenarios: net10.0 This TFM is for code that runs everywhere. With a few exceptions, it includes only technologies that work cross-platform. net10.0-windows This is an example of an OS-specific TFM that adds OS-specific functionality to everything that net10.0 refers to. When to target netx.0 vs. netstandard For existing code that targets .NET Standard 2.0 or later, there's no need to change the TFM to net8.0 or a later TFM. .NET 8, .NET 9, and .NET 10 implement .NET Standard 2.1 and earlier. The only reason to retarget from .NET Standard to .NET 8+ would be to gain access to more runtime features, language features, or APIs. For example, to use C# 9, you need to target .NET 5 or a later version. You can multitarget .NET and .NET Standard to get access to newer features and still have your library available to other .NET implementations. Note If your project targets .NET Standard 1.x, we recommend you retarget it to .NET Standard 2.0 or .NET 8+. For more information, see Warning emitted for .NET Standard 1.x targets . Here are some guidelines for new code for .NET 5+: App components If you're using libraries to break down an application into several components, we recommend you target net10.0 . For simplicity, it's best to keep all projects that make up your application on the same version of .NET. Then you can assume the same BCL features everywhere. Reusable libraries If you're building reusable libraries that you plan to ship on NuGet, consider the trade-off between reach and available feature set. .NET Standard 2.0 is the latest version that's supported by .NET Framework, so it gives good reach with a fairly large feature set. We don't recommend targeting .NET Standard 1.x, as you'd limit the available feature set for a minimal increase in reach. If you don't need to support .NET Framework, you could target .NET Standard 2.1 or .NET 10. We recommend you skip .NET Standard 2.1 and go straight to .NET 10. Most widely used libraries multi-target for both .NET Standard 2.0 and .NET 5+. Supporting .NET Standard 2.0 gives you the most reach, while supporting .NET 5+ ensures you can leverage the latest platform features for customers that are already on .NET 5+. .NET Standard problems Here are some problems with .NET Standard that help explain why .NET 5 and later versions are the better way to share code across platforms and workloads: Slowness to add new APIs .NET Standard was created as an API set that all .NET implementations would have to support, so there was a review process for proposals to add new APIs. The goal was to standardize only APIs that could be implemented in all current and future .NET platforms. The result was that if a feature missed a particular release, you might have to wait for a couple of years before it got added to a version of the Standard. Then you'd wait even longer for the new version of .NET Standard to be widely supported. Solution in .NET 5+: When a feature is implemented, it's already available for every .NET 5+ app and library because the code base is shared. And since there's no difference between the API specification and its implementation, you're able to take advantage of new features much quicker than with .NET Standard. Complex versioning The separation of the API specification from its implementations results in complex mapping between API specification versions and implementation versions. This complexity is evident in the table shown earlier in this article and the instructions for how to interpret it. Solution in .NET 5+: There's no separation between a .NET 5+ API specification and its implementation. The result is a simplified TFM scheme. There's one TFM prefix for all workloads: net10.0 is used for libraries, console apps, and web apps. The only variation is a suffix that specifies platform-specific APIs for a particular platform, such as net10.0-windows . Thanks to this TFM naming convention, you can easily tell whether a given app can use a given library. No version number equivalents table, like the one for .NET Standard, is needed. Platform-unsupported exceptions at runtime .NET Standard exposes platform-specific APIs. Your code might compile without errors and appear to be portable to any platform even if it isn't portable. When it runs on a platform that doesn't have an implementation for a given API, you get runtime errors. Solution in .NET 5+: The .NET 5+ SDKs include code analyzers that are enabled by default. The platform compatibility analyzer detects unintentional use of APIs that aren't supported on the platforms you intend to run on. For more information, see Platform compatibility analyzer . .NET Standard not deprecated .NET Standard is still needed for libraries that can be used by multiple .NET implementations. We recommend you target .NET Standard in the following scenarios: Use netstandard2.0 to share code between .NET Framework and all other implementations of .NET. Use netstandard2.1 to share code between Mono and .NET Core 3.x. See also .NET Standard versions (source) .NET Standard versions (interactive UI) Build a .NET Standard library Cross-platform targeting Collaborate with us on GitHub The source for this content can be found on GitHub, where you can also create and review issues and pull requests. For more information, see our contributor guide . .NET Open a documentation issue Provide product feedback Feedback Was this page helpful? Yes No No Need help with this topic? Want to try using Ask Learn to clarify or guide you through this topic? Ask Learn Ask Learn Suggest a fix? Additional resources Last updated on 2025-11-06 In this article Was this page helpful? Yes No No Need help with this topic? Want to try using Ask Learn to clarify or guide you through this topic? 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https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-intro#profile | CLI Overview - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Introduction to SuprSend CLI for managing notification infrastructure from the command line. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Beta Feature - The SuprSend CLI is under active development. Commands and flags may change, and new functionality will be added over time. If you encounter issues or need additional commands, please open an issue on GitHub or contribute directly — the project is open source. The SuprSend CLI is a powerful command-line interface that enables developers to setup CI/CD pipeline for notification changes and manage, automate, and sync SuprSend assets across multiple workspaces. With a few commands, you can handle workflows, schemas, events, and even integrate directly with AI agents. Benefits of using SuprSend CLI Developers often prefer CLI as it offers speed, automation, and flexibility . Instead of writing boilerplate code or clicking through multiple screens on UI, you can run a single command or script to perform repeatable actions—ideal for modern DevOps and automation. By using the CLI, you can: Automate with CI/CD Deployment – Release notification changes through feature or bugfix branches, just like any other piece of code: version it, test it, and deploy it. Work with assets locally – Create, edit, and commit workflows, schemas, and translation files locally. Version Control Changes – Pull all assets locally and track them in Git for maintaining release history. Enforce Approval gates for production releases - Setup strict checks that all changes on production go through approval process so that nothing goes live without check. What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Manage Assets – List, pull, push, and commit notification workflows, schemas, preference categories, and events. Sync Across Workspaces – Transfer assets between workspaces for multi-environment setups. AI Agent Integration – Start an MCP server from the CLI and connect SuprSend with AI agents or developer copilots. Available Commands Profile Manage objects : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Object Management APIs . Command Description profile list List profiles in a workspace profile add Add a new profile profile modify Modify an existing profile profile remove Remove a profile profile use Switch to a specific profile Workflow Manage workflows : create, update, enable, disable, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Workflow Management APIs . Command Description workflow list List workflows in a workspace workflow push Push local workflows to SuprSend workflow pull Pull workflows from SuprSend to local files workflow enable Enable a workflow workflow disable Disable a workflow Schema Manage schemas : create, update, commit, reset, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Schema Management APIs . Command Description schema list List schemas in a workspace schema push Push local schemas to SuprSend schema pull Pull schemas from SuprSend to local files schema commit Commit a schema to make it live generate-types Generate type definitions from JSON schemas Event Manage events : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Event Management APIs . Command Description event list List events in a workspace event push Push local events to SuprSend event pull Pull events from SuprSend to local files Category Manage categories : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Category Management APIs . Command Description category list List categories in a workspace category pull Pull categories from SuprSend to local files category push Push local categories to SuprSend category commit Commit categories to make them live Sync Manage sync : sync assets between workspaces. Command Description sync Sync assets between workspaces Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Quickstart Get up and running with SuprSend CLI in minutes. Complete setup, authentication, and start using right away. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of using SuprSend CLI What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Available Commands Profile Workflow Schema Event Category Sync | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://golf.forem.com/new/etiquette | New Post - Golf Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Golf Forem Close Join the Golf Forem Golf Forem is a community of 3,676,891 amazing golfers Continue with Apple Continue with Google Continue with Facebook Continue with Forem Continue with GitHub Continue with Twitter (X) OR Email Password Remember me Forgot password? By signing in, you are agreeing to our privacy policy , terms of use and code of conduct . New to Golf Forem? Create account . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Golf Forem — A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Golf Forem © 2016 - 2026. Where hackers, sticks, weekend warriors, pros, architects and wannabes come together Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://golf.forem.com/tags | Tags - Golf Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Golf Forem Close Tags Following tags Hidden tags Search # recommendations 5,736 posts Crowdsourced film and TV recommendations Follow Hide # golf 5,667 posts General discussion about the sport of golf Follow Hide # offtopic 991 posts Off-topic discussions Follow Hide # lessons 1,286 posts Discussing experiences with golf instructors and coaching Follow Hide # memes 163 posts Humorous movie/TV memes Follow Hide # polls 19 posts Community polls and questions Follow Hide # meetups 47 posts Organizing local golf meetups with other members Follow Hide # roundrecap 27 posts Sharing stories, scores, and highlights from recent rounds Follow Hide # coursestrategy 2 posts Discussing how to approach specific holes, shots, and courses Follow Hide # mentalgame 6 posts The psychological side of golf, including focus, confidence, and mindset Follow Hide # etiquette 5 posts Discussions on proper golf etiquette and pace of play Follow Hide # rulesofgolf 0 posts Questions, clarifications, and discussions about the official rules Follow Hide # handicaps 1 posts Understanding, establishing, and discussing handicap systems (WHS, etc.) Follow Hide # formats 9 posts Scramble, best ball, skins, and other ways to play the game Follow Hide # milestones 16 posts Celebrating achievements like breaking 100/90/80, first birdie, or eagle Follow Hide # holeinone 1 posts Sharing the thrill and stories of aces Follow Hide # walkvsride 0 posts The eternal debate: discussing the pros and cons of walking vs. using a cart Follow Hide # swingcritique 6 posts Post your swing for constructive feedback from the community (use with care!) 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/python-send-event-data | Send and Track Events - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Node.js SDK Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Python SDK Send and Track Events Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Python SDK Send and Track Events OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Learn how to send events to trigger workflows, with code snippets and examples. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Pre-Requisites Create User Profile Send Event You can send event to Suprsend platform by using the supr_client.track_event method. When you call supr_client.track_event , the SDK internally makes an HTTP call to SuprSend Platform to register this request, and you’ll immediately receive a response indicating the acceptance status. The actual processing/execution of event happens asynchronously. Request Sample Response Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Suprsend from suprsend import Event supr_client = suprsend.Suprsend( "workspace_key" , "workspace_secret" ) distinct_id = "distinct_id" # Mandatory, Unique id of user in your application event_name = "event_name" # Mandatory, name of the event you're tracking brand_id = "brand_id" # Mandatory, name of the event you're tracking # Properties: Optional, default=None, a dict representing event-attributes properties = { "key1" : "value1" , "key2" : "value2" } event = Event( distinct_id = distinct_id, event_name = event_name, properties = properties, idempotency_key = "__uniq_request_id__" , brand_id = "default" ) # Track event response = supr_client.track_event(event) print (response) Parameter Description Format Obligation distinct_id distinct_id of user performing the event int, bigint, string, UUID mandatory event_name string identifier for the event like product_purchased string mandatory properties a dictionary representing event attributes like first_name Event properties can be used to pass template variables in case of event based trigger Dictionary optional Event naming guidelines: Event Name or Property Name should not start with or , as we have reserved these symbols for our internal events and property names. Idempotent requests SuprSend supports idempotency to ensure that requests can be retried safely without duplicate processing. If Suprsend receives and processes a request with an idempotency_key, it will skip processing requests with same idempotency_key for next 24 hours. You can use this key to track webhooks related to workflow notifications. Idempotency key should be unique that you generate for each request. You may use any string up to 255 characters in length. Any space at start and end of the key will be trimmed. Here are some common approaches for assigning idempotency keys: Generate a random UUID for each request. Construct the idempotency key by combining relevant information about the request . This can include parameters, identifiers, or specific contextual details that are meaningful within your application. e.g., you could concatenate the user ID, action, and timestamp to form an idempotency key like user147-new-comment-1687437670 Request-specific Identifier : If your request already contains a unique identifier, such as an order ID or a job ID, you can use that identifier directly as the idempotency key. Add file attachment in event (for email) To add one or more Attachments to a Notification (viz. Email), you can just append the filepath of attachment to the event instance. Call event.add_attachment() for each file with an accessible URL. Ensure that file_path is a publicly accessible URL. Since event API size can’t be > 100 KB, local file paths can’t be passed in event attachment. Request Response Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Event distinct_id = "0fxxx8f74-xxxx-41c5-8752-xxxcb6911fb08" event_name = "invoice_generated" properties = { ... } event = Event( distinct_id = distinct_id, event_name = event_name, properties = properties) # this snippet can be used to add attachment to event file_path = "https://www.adobe.com/sample_file.pdf" event.add_attachment(file_path) response = supr_client.track_event(event) print (response) Please add public accessible URL only as attachment file otherwise it will throw an error 404 not found and workflow will not be triggered Bulk Event trigger You can use Bulk API to send multiple events. Use .append() on bulk_events instance to add however-many-records to call in bulk. Request With Email attachment Response Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Event bulk_ins = supr_client.bulk_events.new_instance() # Example e1 = Event( "distinct_id1" , "event_name1" , { "k1" : "v1" }) # Event 1 e2 = Event( "distinct_id2" , "event_name2" , { "k2" : "v2" }) # Event 2 # --- use .append on bulk instance to add one or more records bulk_ins.append(e1) bulk_ins.append(e2) # OR bulk_ins.append(e1, e2) # ------- response = bulk_ins.trigger() print (response) Bulk API is supported in SuprSend python-sdk version 0.2.0 and above. If you are using an older version, please upgrade to the latest SDK version. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Trigger Workflow from API Learn how to trigger workflows using direct workflow API, with code snippets and examples. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Pre-Requisites Send Event Idempotent requests Add file attachment in event (for email) Bulk Event trigger | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/junothreadborne/why-the-why-game-is-the-most-valuable-thing-i-do-with-my-kids-22ac | Why the "Why?" Game is the Most Valuable Thing I Do With My Kids - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Juno Threadborne Posted on Oct 20, 2025 Why the "Why?" Game is the Most Valuable Thing I Do With My Kids # newparents # development # communication # learning We've all played it at some point. Parent: Clean your room. Child: Why? Parent: Because your room needs to be clean. Child: Why? Parent: Because it's important to keep things tidy. Child: Why? ...and so on, into the infinite regress of childlike curiosity that both delights and (if we're honest) sometimes exhausts us. And yet—it's my favorite game in the world. Because "Why?" Is a Gift As far as I'm concerned, fostering curiosity is one of the most valuable things we can do for our children. That instinct to ask why isn't a phase to be outgrown—it's the foundation of intelligence, empathy, and even morality. A child who asks "why" is a child who is trying to understand not just what the world is, but how it works—and more importantly, why it works the way it does . That kind of questioning is where critical thinking begins. It's where science starts. It's the seed of philosophy, problem-solving, and deep understanding. The Game Only Works if You Play Back I think the instinct many of us have—and I include myself here—is to treat "Why?" like a delay tactic. A form of defiance, or at least an inconvenience. But in my experience with my own kids, it's rarely that. More often, it's an invitation. It's a child saying: Let me see inside your brain. Let me learn how to think like you. Show me how to reason. So I try to do that. Sometimes the answers are easy. "Because if you leave food on the floor, ants will come." Sometimes the answers go deeper. "Because learning to take care of your space helps you build discipline, and discipline is how you chase your dreams even when you're tired." And sometimes we reach what feels like a dead end. "I don't know. I think I was told that once and never really questioned it." That's the moment where I used to feel stuck—like I'd failed somehow, or like the conversation had to end because I'd run out of authority. But I've learned that's actually where the real magic becomes possible. That moment when a parent looks their child in the eye and says: "Let's figure it out." Because now, you're not just giving them information. You're modeling curiosity. You're saying, I don't know either, but I want to. You're inviting them to seek with you. And that's when a child learns that "I don't know" isn't the end of the road—it's a launchpad. Curiosity Is a Muscle If you want to raise a thinker, you have to protect their "why." You have to feed it, stretch it, let it be annoying sometimes. The world will try to stamp it out. Institutions, systems, even well-meaning adults will try to replace the question with a rule. But the kids who keep asking? Those are often the ones who end up changing things. I don't always have the energy. I get tired. Sometimes I do give the brush-off answer. And sometimes—especially when safety is involved—the answer really is just "because I need you to trust me on this one right now." That's okay too. This isn't about being perfect or endlessly available. It's about the pattern we create over time. But when I can, I try to say: "That's a good question. What do you think?" Because the moment I stop taking their curiosity seriously is the moment they might stop, too. Final Thought The "Why?" Game isn't just a game. It's rehearsal. For critical thought. For dialogue. For the internal monologue they'll someday have with themselves when they're trying to figure out what kind of person they want to be. For me and my kids, it's been one of the most valuable things we do together. And if I'm lucky, they’ll keep asking “why?” Even when I’m not there to answer. Top comments (2) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Noah Brinker Noah Brinker Noah Brinker Follow Marketing @ DEV Joined Apr 4, 2022 • Oct 22 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is great. Before kids I would get frustrated at having to answer so many questions, but trying to understand the world from their perspective has given me way more patience. Like comment: Like comment: 4 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Building DEV and Forem with everyone here. Interested in the future. Email jess@forem.com Location USA / TAIWAN Pronouns she/they Work Co-Founder & COO at Forem Joined Jul 29, 2016 • Oct 20 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is such a great post. I especially resonate with not having the answers and figuring it out together. Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Juno Threadborne Follow 🧵 Writer. 🧑💻 Coder. ✨ Often found bending reality for sport. https://thrd.me Location Hampton, VA Pronouns he/him Joined Oct 16, 2025 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Audio_API | Web Audio API - Web APIs | MDN Skip to main content Skip to search MDN HTML HTML: Markup language HTML reference Elements Global attributes Attributes See all… HTML guides Responsive images HTML cheatsheet Date & time formats See all… Markup languages SVG MathML XML CSS CSS: Styling language CSS reference Properties Selectors At-rules Values See all… CSS guides Box model Animations Flexbox Colors See all… Layout cookbook Column layouts Centering an element Card component See all… JavaScript JS JavaScript: Scripting language JS reference Standard built-in objects Expressions & operators Statements & declarations Functions See all… JS guides Control flow & error handing Loops and iteration Working with objects Using classes See all… Web APIs Web APIs: Programming interfaces Web API reference File system API Fetch API Geolocation API HTML DOM API Push API Service worker API See all… Web API guides Using the Web animation API Using the Fetch API Working with the History API Using the Web speech API Using web workers All All web technology Technologies Accessibility HTTP URI Web extensions WebAssembly WebDriver See all… Topics Media Performance Privacy Security Progressive web apps Learn Learn web development Frontend developer course Getting started modules Core modules MDN Curriculum Learn HTML Structuring content with HTML module Learn CSS CSS styling basics module CSS layout module Learn JavaScript Dynamic scripting with JavaScript module Tools Discover our tools Playground HTTP Observatory Border-image generator Border-radius generator Box-shadow generator Color format converter Color mixer Shape generator About Get to know MDN better About MDN Advertise with us Community MDN on GitHub Blog Toggle sidebar Web Web APIs Web Audio API Theme OS default Light Dark English (US) Remember language Learn more Deutsch English (US) Español Français 日本語 한국어 Português (do Brasil) Русский 中文 (简体) 正體中文 (繁體) Web Audio API Baseline Widely available * This feature is well established and works across many devices and browser versions. It’s been available across browsers since April 2021. * Some parts of this feature may have varying levels of support. Learn more See full compatibility Report feedback The Web Audio API provides a powerful and versatile system for controlling audio on the Web, allowing developers to choose audio sources, add effects to audio, create audio visualizations, apply spatial effects (such as panning) and much more. In this article Web audio concepts and usage Web Audio API target audience Web Audio API interfaces Guides and tutorials Examples Specifications Browser compatibility See also Web audio concepts and usage The Web Audio API involves handling audio operations inside an audio context , and has been designed to allow modular routing . Basic audio operations are performed with audio nodes , which are linked together to form an audio routing graph . Several sources — with different types of channel layout — are supported even within a single context. This modular design provides the flexibility to create complex audio functions with dynamic effects. Audio nodes are linked into chains and simple webs by their inputs and outputs. They typically start with one or more sources. Sources provide arrays of sound intensities (samples) at very small timeslices, often tens of thousands of them per second. These could be either computed mathematically (such as OscillatorNode ), or they can be recordings from sound/video files (like AudioBufferSourceNode and MediaElementAudioSourceNode ) and audio streams ( MediaStreamAudioSourceNode ). In fact, sound files are just recordings of sound intensities themselves, which come in from microphones or electric instruments, and get mixed down into a single, complicated wave. Outputs of these nodes could be linked to inputs of others, which mix or modify these streams of sound samples into different streams. A common modification is multiplying the samples by a value to make them louder or quieter (as is the case with GainNode ). Once the sound has been sufficiently processed for the intended effect, it can be linked to the input of a destination ( BaseAudioContext.destination ), which sends the sound to the speakers or headphones. This last connection is only necessary if the user is supposed to hear the audio. A simple, typical workflow for web audio would look something like this: Create audio context Inside the context, create sources — such as <audio> , oscillator, stream Create effects nodes, such as reverb, biquad filter, panner, compressor Choose final destination of audio, for example your system speakers Connect the sources up to the effects, and the effects to the destination. Timing is controlled with high precision and low latency, allowing developers to write code that responds accurately to events and is able to target specific samples, even at a high sample rate. So applications such as drum machines and sequencers are well within reach. The Web Audio API also allows us to control how audio is spatialized . Using a system based on a source-listener model , it allows control of the panning model and deals with distance-induced attenuation induced by a moving source (or moving listener). Note: You can read about the theory of the Web Audio API in a lot more detail in our article Basic concepts behind Web Audio API . Web Audio API target audience The Web Audio API can seem intimidating to those that aren't familiar with audio or music terms, and as it incorporates a great deal of functionality it can prove difficult to get started if you are a developer. It can be used to incorporate audio into your website or application, by providing atmosphere like futurelibrary.no , or auditory feedback on forms . However, it can also be used to create advanced interactive instruments. With that in mind, it is suitable for both developers and musicians alike. We have a simple introductory tutorial for those that are familiar with programming but need a good introduction to some of the terms and structure of the API. There's also a Basic Concepts Behind Web Audio API article, to help you understand the way digital audio works, specifically in the realm of the API. This also includes a good introduction to some of the concepts the API is built upon. Learning coding is like playing cards — you learn the rules, then you play, then you go back and learn the rules again, then you play again. So if some of the theory doesn't quite fit after the first tutorial and article, there's an advanced tutorial which extends the first one to help you practice what you've learnt, and apply some more advanced techniques to build up a step sequencer. We also have other tutorials and comprehensive reference material available that covers all features of the API. See the sidebar on this page for more. If you are more familiar with the musical side of things, are familiar with music theory concepts, want to start building instruments, then you can go ahead and start building things with the advanced tutorial and others as a guide (the above-linked tutorial covers scheduling notes, creating bespoke oscillators and envelopes, as well as an LFO among other things.) If you aren't familiar with the programming basics, you might want to consult some beginner's JavaScript tutorials first and then come back here — see our Beginner's JavaScript learning module for a great place to begin. Web Audio API interfaces The Web Audio API has a number of interfaces and associated events, which we have split up into nine categories of functionality. General audio graph definition General containers and definitions that shape audio graphs in Web Audio API usage. AudioContext The AudioContext interface represents an audio-processing graph built from audio modules linked together, each represented by an AudioNode . An audio context controls the creation of the nodes it contains and the execution of the audio processing, or decoding. You need to create an AudioContext before you do anything else, as everything happens inside a context. AudioNode The AudioNode interface represents an audio-processing module like an audio source (e.g., an HTML <audio> or <video> element), audio destination , intermediate processing module (e.g., a filter like BiquadFilterNode , or volume control like GainNode ). AudioParam The AudioParam interface represents an audio-related parameter, like one of an AudioNode . It can be set to a specific value or a change in value, and can be scheduled to happen at a specific time and following a specific pattern. AudioParamMap Provides a map-like interface to a group of AudioParam interfaces, which means it provides the methods forEach() , get() , has() , keys() , and values() , as well as a size property. BaseAudioContext The BaseAudioContext interface acts as a base definition for online and offline audio-processing graphs, as represented by AudioContext and OfflineAudioContext respectively. You wouldn't use BaseAudioContext directly — you'd use its features via one of these two inheriting interfaces. The ended event The ended event is fired when playback has stopped because the end of the media was reached. Defining audio sources Interfaces that define audio sources for use in the Web Audio API. AudioScheduledSourceNode The AudioScheduledSourceNode is a parent interface for several types of audio source node interfaces. It is an AudioNode . OscillatorNode The OscillatorNode interface represents a periodic waveform, such as a sine or triangle wave. It is an AudioNode audio-processing module that causes a given frequency of wave to be created. AudioBuffer The AudioBuffer interface represents a short audio asset residing in memory, created from an audio file using the BaseAudioContext.decodeAudioData method, or created with raw data using BaseAudioContext.createBuffer . Once decoded into this form, the audio can then be put into an AudioBufferSourceNode . AudioBufferSourceNode The AudioBufferSourceNode interface represents an audio source consisting of in-memory audio data, stored in an AudioBuffer . It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio source. MediaElementAudioSourceNode The MediaElementAudioSourceNode interface represents an audio source consisting of an HTML <audio> or <video> element. It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio source. MediaStreamAudioSourceNode The MediaStreamAudioSourceNode interface represents an audio source consisting of a MediaStream (such as a webcam, microphone, or a stream being sent from a remote computer). If multiple audio tracks are present on the stream, the track whose id comes first lexicographically (alphabetically) is used. It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio source. MediaStreamTrackAudioSourceNode A node of type MediaStreamTrackAudioSourceNode represents an audio source whose data comes from a MediaStreamTrack . When creating the node using the createMediaStreamTrackSource() method to create the node, you specify which track to use. This provides more control than MediaStreamAudioSourceNode . Defining audio effects filters Interfaces for defining effects that you want to apply to your audio sources. BiquadFilterNode The BiquadFilterNode interface represents a simple low-order filter. It is an AudioNode that can represent different kinds of filters, tone control devices, or graphic equalizers. A BiquadFilterNode always has exactly one input and one output. ConvolverNode The ConvolverNode interface is an AudioNode that performs a Linear Convolution on a given AudioBuffer , and is often used to achieve a reverb effect. DelayNode The DelayNode interface represents a delay-line ; an AudioNode audio-processing module that causes a delay between the arrival of an input data and its propagation to the output. DynamicsCompressorNode The DynamicsCompressorNode interface provides a compression effect, which lowers the volume of the loudest parts of the signal in order to help prevent clipping and distortion that can occur when multiple sounds are played and multiplexed together at once. GainNode The GainNode interface represents a change in volume. It is an AudioNode audio-processing module that causes a given gain to be applied to the input data before its propagation to the output. WaveShaperNode The WaveShaperNode interface represents a non-linear distorter. It is an AudioNode that use a curve to apply a waveshaping distortion to the signal. Beside obvious distortion effects, it is often used to add a warm feeling to the signal. PeriodicWave Describes a periodic waveform that can be used to shape the output of an OscillatorNode . IIRFilterNode Implements a general infinite impulse response (IIR) filter; this type of filter can be used to implement tone-control devices and graphic equalizers as well. Defining audio destinations Once you are done processing your audio, these interfaces define where to output it. AudioDestinationNode The AudioDestinationNode interface represents the end destination of an audio source in a given context — usually the speakers of your device. MediaStreamAudioDestinationNode The MediaStreamAudioDestinationNode interface represents an audio destination consisting of a WebRTC MediaStream with a single AudioMediaStreamTrack , which can be used in a similar way to a MediaStream obtained from getUserMedia() . It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio destination. Data analysis and visualization If you want to extract time, frequency, and other data from your audio, the AnalyserNode is what you need. AnalyserNode The AnalyserNode interface represents a node able to provide real-time frequency and time-domain analysis information, for the purposes of data analysis and visualization. Splitting and merging audio channels To split and merge audio channels, you'll use these interfaces. ChannelSplitterNode The ChannelSplitterNode interface separates the different channels of an audio source out into a set of mono outputs. ChannelMergerNode The ChannelMergerNode interface reunites different mono inputs into a single output. Each input will be used to fill a channel of the output. Audio spatialization These interfaces allow you to add audio spatialization panning effects to your audio sources. AudioListener The AudioListener interface represents the position and orientation of the unique person listening to the audio scene used in audio spatialization. PannerNode The PannerNode interface represents the position and behavior of an audio source signal in 3D space, allowing you to create complex panning effects. StereoPannerNode The StereoPannerNode interface represents a simple stereo panner node that can be used to pan an audio stream left or right. Audio processing in JavaScript Using audio worklets, you can define custom audio nodes written in JavaScript or WebAssembly . Audio worklets implement the Worklet interface, a lightweight version of the Worker interface. AudioWorklet The AudioWorklet interface is available through the AudioContext object's audioWorklet , and lets you add modules to the audio worklet to be executed off the main thread. AudioWorkletNode The AudioWorkletNode interface represents an AudioNode that is embedded into an audio graph and can pass messages to the corresponding AudioWorkletProcessor . AudioWorkletProcessor The AudioWorkletProcessor interface represents audio processing code running in an AudioWorkletGlobalScope that generates, processes, or analyzes audio directly, and can pass messages to the corresponding AudioWorkletNode . AudioWorkletGlobalScope The AudioWorkletGlobalScope interface is a WorkletGlobalScope -derived object representing a worker context in which an audio processing script is run; it is designed to enable the generation, processing, and analysis of audio data directly using JavaScript in a worklet thread rather than on the main thread. Obsolete: script processor nodes Before audio worklets were defined, the Web Audio API used the ScriptProcessorNode for JavaScript-based audio processing. Because the code runs in the main thread, they have bad performance. The ScriptProcessorNode is kept for historic reasons but is marked as deprecated. ScriptProcessorNode Deprecated The ScriptProcessorNode interface allows the generation, processing, or analyzing of audio using JavaScript. It is an AudioNode audio-processing module that is linked to two buffers, one containing the current input, one containing the output. An event, implementing the AudioProcessingEvent interface, is sent to the object each time the input buffer contains new data, and the event handler terminates when it has filled the output buffer with data. audioprocess (event) Deprecated The audioprocess event is fired when an input buffer of a Web Audio API ScriptProcessorNode is ready to be processed. AudioProcessingEvent Deprecated The AudioProcessingEvent represents events that occur when a ScriptProcessorNode input buffer is ready to be processed. Offline/background audio processing It is possible to process/render an audio graph very quickly in the background — rendering it to an AudioBuffer rather than to the device's speakers — with the following. OfflineAudioContext The OfflineAudioContext interface is an AudioContext interface representing an audio-processing graph built from linked together AudioNode s. In contrast with a standard AudioContext , an OfflineAudioContext doesn't really render the audio but rather generates it, as fast as it can , in a buffer. complete (event) The complete event is fired when the rendering of an OfflineAudioContext is terminated. OfflineAudioCompletionEvent The OfflineAudioCompletionEvent represents events that occur when the processing of an OfflineAudioContext is terminated. The complete event uses this interface. Guides and tutorials Advanced techniques: Creating and sequencing audio In this tutorial, we're going to cover sound creation and modification, as well as timing and scheduling. We will introduce sample loading, envelopes, filters, wavetables, and frequency modulation. If you're familiar with these terms and looking for an introduction to their application with the Web Audio API, you've come to the right place. Background audio processing using AudioWorklet This article explains how to create an audio worklet processor and use it in a Web Audio application. Basic concepts behind Web Audio API This article explains some of the audio theory behind how the features of the Web Audio API work to help you make informed decisions while designing how your app routes audio. If you are not already a sound engineer, it will give you enough background to understand why the Web Audio API works as it does. Controlling multiple parameters with ConstantSourceNode This article demonstrates how to use a ConstantSourceNode to link multiple parameters together so they share the same value, which can be changed by setting the value of the ConstantSourceNode.offset parameter. Example and tutorial: Simple synth keyboard This article presents the code and working demo of a video keyboard you can play using the mouse. The keyboard allows you to switch among the standard waveforms as well as one custom waveform, and you can control the main gain using a volume slider beneath the keyboard. This example makes use of the following Web API interfaces: AudioContext , OscillatorNode , PeriodicWave , and GainNode . Using IIR filters The IIRFilterNode interface of the Web Audio API is an AudioNode processor that implements a general infinite impulse response (IIR) filter; this type of filter can be used to implement tone control devices and graphic equalizers, and the filter response parameters can be specified, so that it can be tuned as needed. This article looks at how to implement one, and use it in a simple example. Using the Web Audio API Let's take a look at getting started with the Web Audio API . We'll briefly look at some concepts, then study a simple boombox example that allows us to load an audio track, play and pause it, and change its volume and stereo panning. Visualizations with Web Audio API One of the most interesting features of the Web Audio API is the ability to extract frequency, waveform, and other data from your audio source, which can then be used to create visualizations. This article explains how, and provides a couple of basic use cases. Web Audio API best practices There's no strict right or wrong way when writing creative code. As long as you consider security, performance, and accessibility, you can adapt to your own style. In this article, we'll share a number of best practices — guidelines, tips, and tricks for working with the Web Audio API. Web audio spatialization basics As if its extensive variety of sound processing (and other) options wasn't enough, the Web Audio API also includes facilities to allow you to emulate the difference in sound as a listener moves around a sound source, for example panning as you move around a sound source inside a 3D game. The official term for this is spatialization , and this article will cover the basics of how to implement such a system. Examples You can find a number of examples at our webaudio-examples repo on GitHub. Specifications Specification Web Audio API # AudioContext Browser compatibility Enable JavaScript to view this browser compatibility table. See also Tutorials/guides Basic concepts behind Web Audio API Using the Web Audio API Advanced techniques: creating sound, sequencing, timing, scheduling Autoplay guide for media and Web Audio APIs Using IIR filters Visualizations with Web Audio API Web audio spatialization basics Controlling multiple parameters with ConstantSourceNode Mixing Positional Audio and WebGL (2012) Developing Game Audio with the Web Audio API (2012) Libraries Tone.js : a framework for creating interactive music in the browser. howler.js : a JS audio library that defaults to Web Audio API and falls back to HTML Audio , as well as providing other useful features. Mooog : jQuery-style chaining of AudioNodes, mixer-style sends/returns, and more. XSound : Web Audio API Library for Synthesizer, Effects, Visualization, Recording, etc. OpenLang : HTML video language lab web application using the Web Audio API to record and combine video and audio from different sources into a single file ( source on GitHub ) Pts.js : Simplifies web audio visualization ( guide ) Related topics Web media technologies Guide to media types and formats on the web Help improve MDN Was this page helpful to you? Yes No Learn how to contribute This page was last modified on Oct 30, 2025 by MDN contributors . View this page on GitHub • Report a problem with this content Filter sidebar Web Audio API Guides Using the Web Audio API Basic concepts behind Web Audio API Web Audio API best practices Advanced techniques: Creating and sequencing audio Background audio processing using AudioWorklet Controlling multiple parameters with ConstantSourceNode Example and tutorial: Simple synth keyboard Using IIR filters Visualizations with Web Audio API Web audio spatialization basics Interfaces AnalyserNode AudioBuffer AudioBufferSourceNode AudioContext AudioDestinationNode AudioListener AudioNode AudioParam AudioProcessingEvent Deprecated AudioScheduledSourceNode AudioSinkInfo Experimental AudioWorklet AudioWorkletGlobalScope AudioWorkletNode AudioWorkletProcessor BaseAudioContext BiquadFilterNode ChannelMergerNode ChannelSplitterNode ConstantSourceNode ConvolverNode DelayNode DynamicsCompressorNode GainNode IIRFilterNode MediaElementAudioSourceNode MediaStreamAudioDestinationNode MediaStreamAudioSourceNode OfflineAudioCompletionEvent OfflineAudioContext OscillatorNode PannerNode PeriodicWave WaveShaperNode StereoPannerNode Your blueprint for a better internet. 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https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-floor-division | Glossary — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Previous topic Deprecations Next topic About this documentation This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » Glossary | Theme Auto Light Dark | Glossary ¶ >>> ¶ The default Python prompt of the interactive shell. Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter. ... ¶ Can refer to: The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after specifying a decorator. The three dots form of the Ellipsis object. abstract base class ¶ Abstract base classes complement duck-typing by providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like hasattr() would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with magic methods ). ABCs introduce virtual subclasses, which are classes that don’t inherit from a class but are still recognized by isinstance() and issubclass() ; see the abc module documentation. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for data structures (in the collections.abc module), numbers (in the numbers module), streams (in the io module), import finders and loaders (in the importlib.abc module). You can create your own ABCs with the abc module. annotate function ¶ A function that can be called to retrieve the annotations of an object. This function is accessible as the __annotate__ attribute of functions, classes, and modules. Annotate functions are a subset of evaluate functions . annotation ¶ A label associated with a variable, a class attribute or a function parameter or return value, used by convention as a type hint . Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions can be retrieved by calling annotationlib.get_annotations() on modules, classes, and functions, respectively. See variable annotation , function annotation , PEP 484 , PEP 526 , and PEP 649 , which describe this functionality. Also see Annotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations. argument ¶ A value passed to a function (or method ) when calling the function. There are two kinds of argument: keyword argument : an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g. name= ) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary preceded by ** . For example, 3 and 5 are both keyword arguments in the following calls to complex() : complex ( real = 3 , imag = 5 ) complex ( ** { 'real' : 3 , 'imag' : 5 }) positional argument : an argument that is not a keyword argument. Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list and/or be passed as elements of an iterable preceded by * . For example, 3 and 5 are both positional arguments in the following calls: complex ( 3 , 5 ) complex ( * ( 3 , 5 )) Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body. See the Calls section for the rules governing this assignment. Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the evaluated value is assigned to the local variable. See also the parameter glossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters , and PEP 362 . asynchronous context manager ¶ An object which controls the environment seen in an async with statement by defining __aenter__() and __aexit__() methods. Introduced by PEP 492 . asynchronous generator ¶ A function which returns an asynchronous generator iterator . It looks like a coroutine function defined with async def except that it contains yield expressions for producing a series of values usable in an async for loop. Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an asynchronous generator iterator in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. An asynchronous generator function may contain await expressions as well as async for , and async with statements. asynchronous generator iterator ¶ An object created by an asynchronous generator function. This is an asynchronous iterator which when called using the __anext__() method returns an awaitable object which will execute the body of the asynchronous generator function until the next yield expression. Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the asynchronous generator iterator effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by __anext__() , it picks up where it left off. See PEP 492 and PEP 525 . asynchronous iterable ¶ An object, that can be used in an async for statement. Must return an asynchronous iterator from its __aiter__() method. Introduced by PEP 492 . asynchronous iterator ¶ An object that implements the __aiter__() and __anext__() methods. __anext__() must return an awaitable object. async for resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous iterator’s __anext__() method until it raises a StopAsyncIteration exception. Introduced by PEP 492 . atomic operation ¶ An operation that appears to execute as a single, indivisible step: no other thread can observe it half-done, and its effects become visible all at once. Python does not guarantee that high-level statements are atomic (for example, x += 1 performs multiple bytecode operations and is not atomic). Atomicity is only guaranteed where explicitly documented. See also race condition and data race . attached thread state ¶ A thread state that is active for the current OS thread. When a thread state is attached, the OS thread has access to the full Python C API and can safely invoke the bytecode interpreter. Unless a function explicitly notes otherwise, attempting to call the C API without an attached thread state will result in a fatal error or undefined behavior. A thread state can be attached and detached explicitly by the user through the C API, or implicitly by the runtime, including during blocking C calls and by the bytecode interpreter in between calls. On most builds of Python, having an attached thread state implies that the caller holds the GIL for the current interpreter, so only one OS thread can have an attached thread state at a given moment. In free-threaded builds of Python, threads can concurrently hold an attached thread state, allowing for true parallelism of the bytecode interpreter. attribute ¶ A value associated with an object which is usually referenced by name using dotted expressions. For example, if an object o has an attribute a it would be referenced as o.a . It is possible to give an object an attribute whose name is not an identifier as defined by Names (identifiers and keywords) , for example using setattr() , if the object allows it. Such an attribute will not be accessible using a dotted expression, and would instead need to be retrieved with getattr() . awaitable ¶ An object that can be used in an await expression. Can be a coroutine or an object with an __await__() method. See also PEP 492 . BDFL ¶ Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. Guido van Rossum , Python’s creator. binary file ¶ A file object able to read and write bytes-like objects . Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode ( 'rb' , 'wb' or 'rb+' ), sys.stdin.buffer , sys.stdout.buffer , and instances of io.BytesIO and gzip.GzipFile . See also text file for a file object able to read and write str objects. borrowed reference ¶ In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an object, where the code using the object does not own the reference. It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed. For example, a garbage collection can remove the last strong reference to the object and so destroy it. Calling Py_INCREF() on the borrowed reference is recommended to convert it to a strong reference in-place, except when the object cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference. The Py_NewRef() function can be used to create a new strong reference . bytes-like object ¶ An object that supports the Buffer Protocol and can export a C- contiguous buffer. This includes all bytes , bytearray , and array.array objects, as well as many common memoryview objects. Bytes-like objects can be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket. Some operations need the binary data to be mutable. The documentation often refers to these as “read-write bytes-like objects”. Example mutable buffer objects include bytearray and a memoryview of a bytearray . Other operations require the binary data to be stored in immutable objects (“read-only bytes-like objects”); examples of these include bytes and a memoryview of a bytes object. bytecode ¶ Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation of a Python program in the CPython interpreter. The bytecode is also cached in .pyc files so that executing the same file is faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be avoided). This “intermediate language” is said to run on a virtual machine that executes the machine code corresponding to each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python releases. A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for the dis module . callable ¶ A callable is an object that can be called, possibly with a set of arguments (see argument ), with the following syntax: callable ( argument1 , argument2 , argumentN ) A function , and by extension a method , is a callable. An instance of a class that implements the __call__() method is also a callable. callback ¶ A subroutine function which is passed as an argument to be executed at some point in the future. class ¶ A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the class. class variable ¶ A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class). closure variable ¶ A free variable referenced from a nested scope that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces. May be explicitly defined with the nonlocal keyword to allow write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being read. For example, in the inner function in the following code, both x and print are free variables , but only x is a closure variable : def outer (): x = 0 def inner (): nonlocal x x += 1 print ( x ) return inner Due to the codeobject.co_freevars attribute (which, despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more general free variable term is sometimes used even when the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables. complex number ¶ An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of -1 ), often written i in mathematics or j in engineering. Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a j suffix, e.g., 3+1j . To get access to complex equivalents of the math module, use cmath . Use of complex numbers is a fairly advanced mathematical feature. If you’re not aware of a need for them, it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them. concurrency ¶ The ability of a computer program to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Python provides libraries for writing programs that make use of different forms of concurrency. asyncio is a library for dealing with asynchronous tasks and coroutines. threading provides access to operating system threads and multiprocessing to operating system processes. Multi-core processors can execute threads and processes on different CPU cores at the same time (see parallelism ). concurrent modification ¶ When multiple threads modify shared data at the same time. Concurrent modification without proper synchronization can cause race conditions , and might also trigger a data race , data corruption, or both. context ¶ This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is used. Some common meanings: The temporary state or environment established by a context manager via a with statement. The collection of keyvalue bindings associated with a particular contextvars.Context object and accessed via ContextVar objects. Also see context variable . A contextvars.Context object. Also see current context . context management protocol ¶ The __enter__() and __exit__() methods called by the with statement. See PEP 343 . context manager ¶ An object which implements the context management protocol and controls the environment seen in a with statement. See PEP 343 . context variable ¶ A variable whose value depends on which context is the current context . Values are accessed via contextvars.ContextVar objects. Context variables are primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous tasks. contiguous ¶ A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either C-contiguous or Fortran contiguous . Zero-dimensional buffers are C and Fortran contiguous. In one-dimensional arrays, the items must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of increasing indexes starting from zero. In multidimensional C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when visiting items in order of memory address. However, in Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest. coroutine ¶ Coroutines are a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point. Coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points. They can be implemented with the async def statement. See also PEP 492 . coroutine function ¶ A function which returns a coroutine object. A coroutine function may be defined with the async def statement, and may contain await , async for , and async with keywords. These were introduced by PEP 492 . CPython ¶ The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as distributed on python.org . The term “CPython” is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others such as Jython or IronPython. current context ¶ The context ( contextvars.Context object) that is currently used by ContextVar objects to access (get or set) the values of context variables . Each thread has its own current context. Frameworks for executing asynchronous tasks (see asyncio ) associate each task with a context which becomes the current context whenever the task starts or resumes execution. cyclic isolate ¶ A subgroup of one or more objects that reference each other in a reference cycle, but are not referenced by objects outside the group. The goal of the cyclic garbage collector is to identify these groups and break the reference cycles so that the memory can be reclaimed. data race ¶ A situation where multiple threads access the same memory location concurrently, at least one of the accesses is a write, and the threads do not use any synchronization to control their access. Data races lead to non-deterministic behavior and can cause data corruption. Proper use of locks and other synchronization primitives prevents data races. Note that data races can only happen in native code, but that native code might be exposed in a Python API. See also race condition and thread-safe . deadlock ¶ A situation in which two or more tasks (threads, processes, or coroutines) wait indefinitely for each other to release resources or complete actions, preventing any from making progress. For example, if thread A holds lock 1 and waits for lock 2, while thread B holds lock 2 and waits for lock 1, both threads will wait indefinitely. In Python this often arises from acquiring multiple locks in conflicting orders or from circular join/await dependencies. Deadlocks can be avoided by always acquiring multiple locks in a consistent order. See also lock and reentrant . decorator ¶ A function returning another function, usually applied as a function transformation using the @wrapper syntax. Common examples for decorators are classmethod() and staticmethod() . The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two function definitions are semantically equivalent: def f ( arg ): ... f = staticmethod ( f ) @staticmethod def f ( arg ): ... The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there. See the documentation for function definitions and class definitions for more about decorators. descriptor ¶ Any object which defines the methods __get__() , __set__() , or __delete__() . When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using a.b to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named b in the class dictionary for a , but if b is a descriptor, the respective descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods, and reference to super classes. For more information about descriptors’ methods, see Implementing Descriptors or the Descriptor How To Guide . dictionary ¶ An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The keys can be any object with __hash__() and __eq__() methods. Called a hash in Perl. dictionary comprehension ¶ A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a dictionary with the results. results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)} generates a dictionary containing key n mapped to value n ** 2 . See Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries . dictionary view ¶ The objects returned from dict.keys() , dict.values() , and dict.items() are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the dictionary view to become a full list use list(dictview) . See Dictionary view objects . docstring ¶ A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class, function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is recognized by the compiler and put into the __doc__ attribute of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the object. duck-typing ¶ A programming style which does not look at an object’s type to determine if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply called or used (“If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it must be a duck.”) By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types, well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic substitution. Duck-typing avoids tests using type() or isinstance() . (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented with abstract base classes .) Instead, it typically employs hasattr() tests or EAFP programming. dunder ¶ An informal short-hand for “double underscore”, used when talking about a special method . For example, __init__ is often pronounced “dunder init”. EAFP ¶ Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches exceptions if the assumption proves false. This clean and fast style is characterized by the presence of many try and except statements. The technique contrasts with the LBYL style common to many other languages such as C. evaluate function ¶ A function that can be called to evaluate a lazily evaluated attribute of an object, such as the value of type aliases created with the type statement. expression ¶ A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words, an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals, names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs are expressions. There are also statement s which cannot be used as expressions, such as while . Assignments are also statements, not expressions. extension module ¶ A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the core and with user code. f-string ¶ f-strings ¶ String literals prefixed with f or F are commonly called “f-strings” which is short for formatted string literals . See also PEP 498 . file object ¶ An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as read() or write() ) to an underlying resource. Depending on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes, etc.). File objects are also called file-like objects or streams . There are actually three categories of file objects: raw binary files , buffered binary files and text files . Their interfaces are defined in the io module. The canonical way to create a file object is by using the open() function. file-like object ¶ A synonym for file object . filesystem encoding and error handler ¶ Encoding and error handler used by Python to decode bytes from the operating system and encode Unicode to the operating system. The filesystem encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise UnicodeError . The sys.getfilesystemencoding() and sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors() functions can be used to get the filesystem encoding and error handler. The filesystem encoding and error handler are configured at Python startup by the PyConfig_Read() function: see filesystem_encoding and filesystem_errors members of PyConfig . See also the locale encoding . finder ¶ An object that tries to find the loader for a module that is being imported. There are two types of finder: meta path finders for use with sys.meta_path , and path entry finders for use with sys.path_hooks . See Finders and loaders and importlib for much more detail. floor division ¶ Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor division operator is // . For example, the expression 11 // 4 evaluates to 2 in contrast to the 2.75 returned by float true division. Note that (-11) // 4 is -3 because that is -2.75 rounded downward . See PEP 238 . free threading ¶ A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode simultaneously within the same interpreter. This is in contrast to the global interpreter lock which allows only one thread to execute Python bytecode at a time. See PEP 703 . free variable ¶ Formally, as defined in the language execution model , a free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a local variable in that namespace. See closure variable for an example. Pragmatically, due to the name of the codeobject.co_freevars attribute, the term is also sometimes used as a synonym for closure variable . function ¶ A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also be passed zero or more arguments which may be used in the execution of the body. See also parameter , method , and the Function definitions section. function annotation ¶ An annotation of a function parameter or return value. Function annotations are usually used for type hints : for example, this function is expected to take two int arguments and is also expected to have an int return value: def sum_two_numbers ( a : int , b : int ) -> int : return a + b Function annotation syntax is explained in section Function definitions . See variable annotation and PEP 484 , which describe this functionality. Also see Annotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations. __future__ ¶ A future statement , from __future__ import <feature> , directs the compiler to compile the current module using syntax or semantics that will become standard in a future release of Python. The __future__ module documents the possible values of feature . By importing this module and evaluating its variables, you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it will (or did) become the default: >>> import __future__ >>> __future__ . division _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192) garbage collection ¶ The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore. Python performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles. The garbage collector can be controlled using the gc module. generator ¶ A function which returns a generator iterator . It looks like a normal function except that it contains yield expressions for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be retrieved one at a time with the next() function. Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a generator iterator in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. generator iterator ¶ An object created by a generator function. Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the generator iterator resumes, it picks up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation). generator expression ¶ An expression that returns an iterator . It looks like a normal expression followed by a for clause defining a loop variable, range, and an optional if clause. The combined expression generates values for an enclosing function: >>> sum ( i * i for i in range ( 10 )) # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81 285 generic function ¶ A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is determined by the dispatch algorithm. See also the single dispatch glossary entry, the functools.singledispatch() decorator, and PEP 443 . generic type ¶ A type that can be parameterized; typically a container class such as list or dict . Used for type hints and annotations . For more details, see generic alias types , PEP 483 , PEP 484 , PEP 585 , and the typing module. GIL ¶ See global interpreter lock . global interpreter lock ¶ The mechanism used by the CPython interpreter to assure that only one thread executes Python bytecode at a time. This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model (including critical built-in types such as dict ) implicitly safe against concurrent access. Locking the entire interpreter makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor machines. However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party, are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally intensive tasks such as compression or hashing. Also, the GIL is always released when doing I/O. As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the --disable-gil build configuration. After building Python with this option, code must be run with -X gil=0 or after setting the PYTHON_GIL=0 environment variable. This feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs efficiently. For more details, see PEP 703 . In prior versions of Python’s C API, a function might declare that it requires the GIL to be held in order to use it. This refers to having an attached thread state . global state ¶ Data that is accessible throughout a program, such as module-level variables, class variables, or C static variables in extension modules . In multi-threaded programs, global state shared between threads typically requires synchronization to avoid race conditions and data races . hash-based pyc ¶ A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See Cached bytecode invalidation . hashable ¶ An object is hashable if it has a hash value which never changes during its lifetime (it needs a __hash__() method), and can be compared to other objects (it needs an __eq__() method). Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same hash value. Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member, because these data structures use the hash value internally. Most of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if their elements are hashable. Objects which are instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default. They all compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived from their id() . IDLE ¶ An Integrated Development and Learning Environment for Python. IDLE — Python editor and shell is a basic editor and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of Python. immortal ¶ Immortal objects are a CPython implementation detail introduced in PEP 683 . If an object is immortal, its reference count is never modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the interpreter is running. For example, True and None are immortal in CPython. Immortal objects can be identified via sys._is_immortal() , or via PyUnstable_IsImmortal() in the C API. immutable ¶ An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary. Immutable objects are inherently thread-safe because their state cannot be modified after creation, eliminating concerns about improperly synchronized concurrent modification . import path ¶ A list of locations (or path entries ) that are searched by the path based finder for modules to import. During import, this list of locations usually comes from sys.path , but for subpackages it may also come from the parent package’s __path__ attribute. importing ¶ The process by which Python code in one module is made available to Python code in another module. importer ¶ An object that both finds and loads a module; both a finder and loader object. interactive ¶ Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately execute them and see their results. Just launch python with no arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect modules and packages (remember help(x) ). For more on interactive mode, see Interactive Mode . interpreted ¶ Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one, though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the bytecode compiler. This means that source files can be run directly without explicitly creating an executable which is then run. Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more slowly. See also interactive . interpreter shutdown ¶ When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules and various critical internal structures. It also makes several calls to the garbage collector . This can trigger the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks. Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore (common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery). The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the __main__ module or the script being run has finished executing. iterable ¶ An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as list , str , and tuple ) and some non-sequence types like dict , file objects , and objects of any classes you define with an __iter__() method or with a __getitem__() method that implements sequence semantics. Iterables can be used in a for loop and in many other places where a sequence is needed ( zip() , map() , …). When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the built-in function iter() , it returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call iter() or deal with iterator objects yourself. The for statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also iterator , sequence , and generator . iterator ¶ An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator’s __next__() method (or passing it to the built-in function next() ) return successive items in the stream. When no more data are available a StopIteration exception is raised instead. At this point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its __next__() method just raise StopIteration again. Iterators are required to have an __iter__() method that returns the iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as a list ) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the iter() function or use it in a for loop. Attempting this with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container. More information can be found in Iterator Types . CPython implementation detail: CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define __iter__() . And also please note that free-threaded CPython does not guarantee thread-safe behavior of iterator operations. key function ¶ A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value used for sorting or ordering. For example, locale.strxfrm() is used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort conventions. A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements are ordered or grouped. They include min() , max() , sorted() , list.sort() , heapq.merge() , heapq.nsmallest() , heapq.nlargest() , and itertools.groupby() . There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the str.casefold() method can serve as a key function for case insensitive sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from a lambda expression such as lambda r: (r[0], r[2]) . Also, operator.attrgetter() , operator.itemgetter() , and operator.methodcaller() are three key function constructors. See the Sorting HOW TO for examples of how to create and use key functions. keyword argument ¶ See argument . lambda ¶ An anonymous inline function consisting of a single expression which is evaluated when the function is called. The syntax to create a lambda function is lambda [parameters]: expression LBYL ¶ Look before you leap. This coding style explicitly tests for pre-conditions before making calls or lookups. This style contrasts with the EAFP approach and is characterized by the presence of many if statements. In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a race condition between “the looking” and “the leaping”. For example, the code, if key in mapping: return mapping[key] can fail if another thread removes key from mapping after the test, but before the lookup. This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach. See also thread-safe . lexical analyzer ¶ Formal name for the tokenizer ; see token . list ¶ A built-in Python sequence . Despite its name it is more akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to elements is O (1). list comprehension ¶ A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and return a list with the results. result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0] generates a list of strings containing even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The if clause is optional. If omitted, all elements in range(256) are processed. lock ¶ A synchronization primitive that allows only one thread at a time to access a shared resource. A thread must acquire a lock before accessing the protected resource and release it afterward. If a thread attempts to acquire a lock that is already held by another thread, it will block until the lock becomes available. Python’s threading module provides Lock (a basic lock) and RLock (a reentrant lock). Locks are used to prevent race conditions and ensure thread-safe access to shared data. Alternative design patterns to locks exist such as queues, producer/consumer patterns, and thread-local state. See also deadlock , and reentrant . loader ¶ An object that loads a module. It must define the exec_module() and create_module() methods to implement the Loader interface. A loader is typically returned by a finder . See also: Finders and loaders importlib.abc.Loader PEP 302 locale encoding ¶ On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale. It can be set with locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale) . On Windows, it is the ANSI code page (ex: "cp1252" ). On Android and VxWorks, Python uses "utf-8" as the locale encoding. locale.getencoding() can be used to get the locale encoding. See also the filesystem encoding and error handler . magic method ¶ An informal synonym for special method . mapping ¶ A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the methods specified in the collections.abc.Mapping or collections.abc.MutableMapping abstract base classes . Examples include dict , collections.defaultdict , collections.OrderedDict and collections.Counter . meta path finder ¶ A finder returned by a search of sys.meta_path . Meta path finders are related to, but different from path entry finders . See importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder for the methods that meta path finders implement. metaclass ¶ The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for taking those three arguments and creating the class. Most object oriented programming languages provide a default implementation. What makes Python special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses. Most users never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide powerful, elegant solutions. They have been used for logging attribute access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing singletons, and many other tasks. More information can be found in Metaclasses . method ¶ A function which is defined inside a class body. If called as an attribute of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as its first argument (which is usually called self ). See function and nested scope . method resolution order ¶ Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched for a member during lookup. See The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order for details of the algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release. module ¶ An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code. Modules have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects. Modules are loaded into Python by the process of importing . See also package . module spec ¶ A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a module. An instance of importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec . See also Module specs . MRO ¶ See method resolution order . mutable ¶ An object with state that is allowed to change during the course of the program. In multi-threaded programs, mutable objects that are shared between threads require careful synchronization to avoid race conditions . See also immutable , thread-safe , and concurrent modification . named tuple ¶ The term “named tuple” applies to any type or class that inherits from tuple and whose indexable elements are also accessible using named attributes. The type or class may have other features as well. Several built-in types are named tuples, including the values returned by time.localtime() and os.stat() . Another example is sys.float_info : >>> sys . float_info [ 1 ] # indexed access 1024 >>> sys . float_info . max_exp # named field access 1024 >>> isinstance ( sys . float_info , tuple ) # kind of tuple True Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples). Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class definition that inherits from tuple and that defines named fields. Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be created by inheriting typing.NamedTuple , or with the factory function collections.namedtuple() . The latter techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in hand-written or built-in named tuples. namespace ¶ The place where a variable is stored. Namespaces are implemented as dictionaries. There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well as nested namespaces in objects (in methods). Namespaces support modularity by preventing naming conflicts. For instance, the functions builtins.open and os.open() are distinguished by their namespaces. Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by making it clear which module implements a function. For instance, writing random.seed() or itertools.islice() makes it clear that those functions are implemented by the random and itertools modules, respectively. namespace package ¶ A package which serves only as a container for subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, and specifically are not like a regular package because they have no __init__.py file. Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages to have a common parent package. Otherwise, it is recommended to use a regular package . For more information, see PEP 420 and Namespace packages . See also module . native code ¶ Code that is compiled to machine instructions and runs directly on the processor, as opposed to code that is interpreted or runs in a virtual machine. In the context of Python, native code typically refers to C, C++, Rust or Fortran code in extension modules that can be called from Python. See also extension module . nested scope ¶ The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to variables in the outer function. Note that nested scopes by default work only for reference and not for assignment. Local variables both read and write in the innermost scope. Likewise, global variables read and write to the global namespace. The nonlocal allows writing to outer scopes. new-style class ¶ Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer, versatile features like __slots__ , descriptors, properties, __getattribute__() , class methods, and static methods. non-deterministic ¶ Behavior where the outcome of a program can vary between executions with the same inputs. In multi-threaded programs, non-deterministic behavior often results from race conditions where the relative timing or interleaving of threads affects the result. Proper synchronization using locks and other synchronization primitives helps ensure deterministic behavior. object ¶ Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior (methods). Also the ultimate base class of any new-style class . optimized scope ¶ A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read and write access to these names. The local namespaces for functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions are optimized in this fashion. Note: most interpreter optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to optimized scopes. optional module ¶ An extension module that is part of the standard library , but may be absent in some builds of CPython , usually due to missing third-party libraries or because the module is not available for a given platform. See Requirements for optional modules for a list of optional modules that require third-party libraries. package ¶ A Python module which can contain submodules or recursively, subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with a __path__ attribute. See also regular package and namespace package . parallelism ¶ Executing multiple operations at the same time (e.g. on multiple CPU cores). In Python builds with the global interpreter lock (GIL) , only one thread runs Python bytecode at a time, so taking advantage of multiple CPU cores typically involves multiple processes (e.g. multiprocessing ) or native extensions that release the GIL. In free-threaded Python, multiple Python threads can run Python code simultaneously on different cores. parameter ¶ A named entity in a function (or method) definition that specifies an argument (or in some cases, arguments) that the function can accept. There are five kinds of parameter: positional-or-keyword : specifies an argument that can be passed either positionally or as a keyword argument . This is the default kind of parameter, for example foo and bar in the following: def func ( foo , bar = None ): ... positional-only : specifies an argument that can be supplied only by position. Positional-only parameters can be defined by including a / character in the parameter list of the function definition after them, for example posonly1 and posonly2 in the following: def func ( posonly1 , posonly2 , / , positional_or_keyword ): ... keyword-only : specifies an argument that can be supplied only by keyword. Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a single var-positional parameter or bare * in the parameter list of the function definition before them, for example kw_only1 and kw_only2 in the following: def func ( arg , * , kw_only1 , kw_only2 ): ... var-positional : specifies that an arbitrary sequence of positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with * , for example args in the following: def func ( * args , ** kwargs ): ... var-keyword : specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with ** , for example kwargs in the example above. Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as default values for some optional arguments. See also the argument glossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters , the inspect.Parameter class, the Function definitions section, and PEP 362 . path entry ¶ A single location on the import path which the path based finder consults to find modules for importing. path entry finder ¶ A finder returned by a callable on sys.path_hooks (i.e. a path entry hook ) which knows how to locate modules given a path entry . See importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder for the methods that path entry finders implement. path entry hook ¶ A callable on the sys.path_hooks list which returns a path entry finder if it knows how to find modules on a specific path entry . path based finder ¶ One of the default meta path finders which searches an import path for modules. path-like object ¶ An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either a str or bytes object representing a path, or an object implementing the os.PathLike protocol. An object that supports the os.PathLike protocol can be converted to a str or bytes file system path by calling the os.fspath() function; os.fsdecode() and os.fsencode() can be used to guarantee a str or bytes result instead, respectively. Introduced by PEP 519 . PEP ¶ Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed features. PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions. See PEP 1 . portion ¶ A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file) that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in PEP 420 . positional argument ¶ See argument . provisional API ¶ A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from the standard library’s backwards compatibility guarantees. While major changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers. Such changes will not be made | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://share.transistor.fm/s/8f8b74c8#copya | APIs You Won't Hate | Maybe GraphQL isn't so terrible? A conversation with Marc-Andre Giroux APIs You Won't Hate 40 ? 30 : 10)" @keyup.document.left="seekBySeconds(-10)" @keyup.document.m="toggleMute" @keyup.document.s="toggleSpeed" @play="play(false, true)" @loadedmetadata="handleLoadedMetadata" @pause="pause(true)" preload="none" @timejump.window="seekToSeconds($event.detail.timestamp); shareTimeFormatted = formatTime($event.detail.timestamp)" > Trailer Bonus 10 40 ? 30 : 10)" class="seek-seconds-button" > 40 ? 30 : 10"> Subscribe Share More Info Download More episodes Subscribe newValue ? setTimeout(() => copied = false, 2500) : null)" @click="copied = copyFeedUrl()" class="form-input-group" > Copied to clipboard Apple Podcasts Spotify Pocket Casts Overcast Castro YouTube Goodpods Goodpods Metacast Amazon Music Pandora CastBox Anghami Anghami Fountain JioSaavn Gaana iHeartRadio TuneIn TuneIn Player FM SoundCloud SoundCloud Deezer Podcast Addict Share newValue ? setTimeout(() => copied = false, 2500) : null)" @click="copied = copyShareUrl()" class="form-input-group" > Share Copied to clipboard newValue ? setTimeout(() => copied = false, 2500) : null)" @click="copied = copyEmbedHtml()" class="form-input-group" > Embed Copied to clipboard Start at Trailer Bonus Full Transcript View the website updateDescriptionLinks($el))" class="episode-description" > Chapters June 12, 2020 by APIs You Won't Hate View the website Listen On Apple Podcasts Listen On Spotify Listen On YouTube RSS Feed Subscribe RSS Feed RSS Feed URL Copied! Follow Episode Details Phil and Matt talk with Marc-Andre Giroux, a developer working at Github who helps maintain their REST and GraphQL APIs. Show Notes A quick note before we get started: We recorded this episode back in April of 2020 when everyone was quarantining and making bread to post on instagram. Fast forward to now, in June, American cities, and cities around the world are joining in, protesting the systemic racism that has long been an issue in our societies. While our energy and focus turned to current events, editing this episode took a seat on the backburner. That said, we have it ready… but it couldn’t be released at a worse time. Three white dudes talking about APIs while our friends in other communities are fighting injustices that have long kept them down seems to be a bit tone deaf, and we know that, recognize that and commit ourselves to being involved. There are a lot of conversations we want to have around this topic both in the API world, and outside of it. We don’t want this episode to take away from the discussions going on around such important and heavy topics, but we hope this can serve as a way for you to take a break while you travel to and from a protest. If you are going to protest please be safe, drink as much water as you can to stay hydrated in the heat and know that things are changing for the better. To all the Black API developers out there: we see you, we're fighting with you, and we want you to know that we're listening. From all of us at APIs You Won't Hate: Black lives matter. Recorded back in April, Matt and Phil are joined by Marc-Andre Giroux to talk about the APIs he works on at Github and his fascination of GraphQL. Marc-Andre recently released a book titled " Production Ready GraphQL " where he talks about schema design, tooling, architecture and more. We take a dive into knowing when GraphQL is the right tool for the job, versus when to use REST and talk a little about the whole quarantine thing that was happening. Sponsors: Stoplight makes it possible for us to bring you this podcast while we nerd out about APIs. Check them out for their tooling around documentation with Studio, an app that makes API documentation an absolute joy to work with. Twitter: https://twitter.com/__xuorig__ Book: Production Ready GraphQL APIs You Wont Hate Jobs Board: https://apisyouwonthate.com/jobs APIs You Wont Hate Slack: https://apisyouwonthate.com/community Creators and Guests Host Mike Bifulco Cofounder and host of APIs You Won't Hate. Blogs at https://mikebifulco.com Into 🚴♀️, espresso ☕, looking after 🌍. ex @Stripe @Google @Microsoft What is APIs You Won't Hate? A no-nonsense (well, some-nonsense) podcast about API design & development, new features in the world of HTTP, service-orientated architecture, microservices, and probably bikes. All audio, artwork, episode descriptions and notes are property of APIs You Won't Hate, for APIs You Won't Hate, and published with permission by Transistor, Inc. Broadcast by | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Audio_API | Web Audio API - Web APIs | MDN Skip to main content Skip to search MDN HTML HTML: Markup language HTML reference Elements Global attributes Attributes See all… HTML guides Responsive images HTML cheatsheet Date & time formats See all… Markup languages SVG MathML XML CSS CSS: Styling language CSS reference Properties Selectors At-rules Values See all… CSS guides Box model Animations Flexbox Colors See all… Layout cookbook Column layouts Centering an element Card component See all… JavaScript JS JavaScript: Scripting language JS reference Standard built-in objects Expressions & operators Statements & declarations Functions See all… JS guides Control flow & error handing Loops and iteration Working with objects Using classes See all… Web APIs Web APIs: Programming interfaces Web API reference File system API Fetch API Geolocation API HTML DOM API Push API Service worker API See all… Web API guides Using the Web animation API Using the Fetch API Working with the History API Using the Web speech API Using web workers All All web technology Technologies Accessibility HTTP URI Web extensions WebAssembly WebDriver See all… Topics Media Performance Privacy Security Progressive web apps Learn Learn web development Frontend developer course Getting started modules Core modules MDN Curriculum Learn HTML Structuring content with HTML module Learn CSS CSS styling basics module CSS layout module Learn JavaScript Dynamic scripting with JavaScript module Tools Discover our tools Playground HTTP Observatory Border-image generator Border-radius generator Box-shadow generator Color format converter Color mixer Shape generator About Get to know MDN better About MDN Advertise with us Community MDN on GitHub Blog Toggle sidebar Web Web APIs Web Audio API Theme OS default Light Dark English (US) Remember language Learn more Deutsch English (US) Español Français 日本語 한국어 Português (do Brasil) Русский 中文 (简体) 正體中文 (繁體) Web Audio API Baseline Widely available * This feature is well established and works across many devices and browser versions. It’s been available across browsers since April 2021. * Some parts of this feature may have varying levels of support. Learn more See full compatibility Report feedback The Web Audio API provides a powerful and versatile system for controlling audio on the Web, allowing developers to choose audio sources, add effects to audio, create audio visualizations, apply spatial effects (such as panning) and much more. In this article Web audio concepts and usage Web Audio API target audience Web Audio API interfaces Guides and tutorials Examples Specifications Browser compatibility See also Web audio concepts and usage The Web Audio API involves handling audio operations inside an audio context , and has been designed to allow modular routing . Basic audio operations are performed with audio nodes , which are linked together to form an audio routing graph . Several sources — with different types of channel layout — are supported even within a single context. This modular design provides the flexibility to create complex audio functions with dynamic effects. Audio nodes are linked into chains and simple webs by their inputs and outputs. They typically start with one or more sources. Sources provide arrays of sound intensities (samples) at very small timeslices, often tens of thousands of them per second. These could be either computed mathematically (such as OscillatorNode ), or they can be recordings from sound/video files (like AudioBufferSourceNode and MediaElementAudioSourceNode ) and audio streams ( MediaStreamAudioSourceNode ). In fact, sound files are just recordings of sound intensities themselves, which come in from microphones or electric instruments, and get mixed down into a single, complicated wave. Outputs of these nodes could be linked to inputs of others, which mix or modify these streams of sound samples into different streams. A common modification is multiplying the samples by a value to make them louder or quieter (as is the case with GainNode ). Once the sound has been sufficiently processed for the intended effect, it can be linked to the input of a destination ( BaseAudioContext.destination ), which sends the sound to the speakers or headphones. This last connection is only necessary if the user is supposed to hear the audio. A simple, typical workflow for web audio would look something like this: Create audio context Inside the context, create sources — such as <audio> , oscillator, stream Create effects nodes, such as reverb, biquad filter, panner, compressor Choose final destination of audio, for example your system speakers Connect the sources up to the effects, and the effects to the destination. Timing is controlled with high precision and low latency, allowing developers to write code that responds accurately to events and is able to target specific samples, even at a high sample rate. So applications such as drum machines and sequencers are well within reach. The Web Audio API also allows us to control how audio is spatialized . Using a system based on a source-listener model , it allows control of the panning model and deals with distance-induced attenuation induced by a moving source (or moving listener). Note: You can read about the theory of the Web Audio API in a lot more detail in our article Basic concepts behind Web Audio API . Web Audio API target audience The Web Audio API can seem intimidating to those that aren't familiar with audio or music terms, and as it incorporates a great deal of functionality it can prove difficult to get started if you are a developer. It can be used to incorporate audio into your website or application, by providing atmosphere like futurelibrary.no , or auditory feedback on forms . However, it can also be used to create advanced interactive instruments. With that in mind, it is suitable for both developers and musicians alike. We have a simple introductory tutorial for those that are familiar with programming but need a good introduction to some of the terms and structure of the API. There's also a Basic Concepts Behind Web Audio API article, to help you understand the way digital audio works, specifically in the realm of the API. This also includes a good introduction to some of the concepts the API is built upon. Learning coding is like playing cards — you learn the rules, then you play, then you go back and learn the rules again, then you play again. So if some of the theory doesn't quite fit after the first tutorial and article, there's an advanced tutorial which extends the first one to help you practice what you've learnt, and apply some more advanced techniques to build up a step sequencer. We also have other tutorials and comprehensive reference material available that covers all features of the API. See the sidebar on this page for more. If you are more familiar with the musical side of things, are familiar with music theory concepts, want to start building instruments, then you can go ahead and start building things with the advanced tutorial and others as a guide (the above-linked tutorial covers scheduling notes, creating bespoke oscillators and envelopes, as well as an LFO among other things.) If you aren't familiar with the programming basics, you might want to consult some beginner's JavaScript tutorials first and then come back here — see our Beginner's JavaScript learning module for a great place to begin. Web Audio API interfaces The Web Audio API has a number of interfaces and associated events, which we have split up into nine categories of functionality. General audio graph definition General containers and definitions that shape audio graphs in Web Audio API usage. AudioContext The AudioContext interface represents an audio-processing graph built from audio modules linked together, each represented by an AudioNode . An audio context controls the creation of the nodes it contains and the execution of the audio processing, or decoding. You need to create an AudioContext before you do anything else, as everything happens inside a context. AudioNode The AudioNode interface represents an audio-processing module like an audio source (e.g., an HTML <audio> or <video> element), audio destination , intermediate processing module (e.g., a filter like BiquadFilterNode , or volume control like GainNode ). AudioParam The AudioParam interface represents an audio-related parameter, like one of an AudioNode . It can be set to a specific value or a change in value, and can be scheduled to happen at a specific time and following a specific pattern. AudioParamMap Provides a map-like interface to a group of AudioParam interfaces, which means it provides the methods forEach() , get() , has() , keys() , and values() , as well as a size property. BaseAudioContext The BaseAudioContext interface acts as a base definition for online and offline audio-processing graphs, as represented by AudioContext and OfflineAudioContext respectively. You wouldn't use BaseAudioContext directly — you'd use its features via one of these two inheriting interfaces. The ended event The ended event is fired when playback has stopped because the end of the media was reached. Defining audio sources Interfaces that define audio sources for use in the Web Audio API. AudioScheduledSourceNode The AudioScheduledSourceNode is a parent interface for several types of audio source node interfaces. It is an AudioNode . OscillatorNode The OscillatorNode interface represents a periodic waveform, such as a sine or triangle wave. It is an AudioNode audio-processing module that causes a given frequency of wave to be created. AudioBuffer The AudioBuffer interface represents a short audio asset residing in memory, created from an audio file using the BaseAudioContext.decodeAudioData method, or created with raw data using BaseAudioContext.createBuffer . Once decoded into this form, the audio can then be put into an AudioBufferSourceNode . AudioBufferSourceNode The AudioBufferSourceNode interface represents an audio source consisting of in-memory audio data, stored in an AudioBuffer . It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio source. MediaElementAudioSourceNode The MediaElementAudioSourceNode interface represents an audio source consisting of an HTML <audio> or <video> element. It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio source. MediaStreamAudioSourceNode The MediaStreamAudioSourceNode interface represents an audio source consisting of a MediaStream (such as a webcam, microphone, or a stream being sent from a remote computer). If multiple audio tracks are present on the stream, the track whose id comes first lexicographically (alphabetically) is used. It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio source. MediaStreamTrackAudioSourceNode A node of type MediaStreamTrackAudioSourceNode represents an audio source whose data comes from a MediaStreamTrack . When creating the node using the createMediaStreamTrackSource() method to create the node, you specify which track to use. This provides more control than MediaStreamAudioSourceNode . Defining audio effects filters Interfaces for defining effects that you want to apply to your audio sources. BiquadFilterNode The BiquadFilterNode interface represents a simple low-order filter. It is an AudioNode that can represent different kinds of filters, tone control devices, or graphic equalizers. A BiquadFilterNode always has exactly one input and one output. ConvolverNode The ConvolverNode interface is an AudioNode that performs a Linear Convolution on a given AudioBuffer , and is often used to achieve a reverb effect. DelayNode The DelayNode interface represents a delay-line ; an AudioNode audio-processing module that causes a delay between the arrival of an input data and its propagation to the output. DynamicsCompressorNode The DynamicsCompressorNode interface provides a compression effect, which lowers the volume of the loudest parts of the signal in order to help prevent clipping and distortion that can occur when multiple sounds are played and multiplexed together at once. GainNode The GainNode interface represents a change in volume. It is an AudioNode audio-processing module that causes a given gain to be applied to the input data before its propagation to the output. WaveShaperNode The WaveShaperNode interface represents a non-linear distorter. It is an AudioNode that use a curve to apply a waveshaping distortion to the signal. Beside obvious distortion effects, it is often used to add a warm feeling to the signal. PeriodicWave Describes a periodic waveform that can be used to shape the output of an OscillatorNode . IIRFilterNode Implements a general infinite impulse response (IIR) filter; this type of filter can be used to implement tone-control devices and graphic equalizers as well. Defining audio destinations Once you are done processing your audio, these interfaces define where to output it. AudioDestinationNode The AudioDestinationNode interface represents the end destination of an audio source in a given context — usually the speakers of your device. MediaStreamAudioDestinationNode The MediaStreamAudioDestinationNode interface represents an audio destination consisting of a WebRTC MediaStream with a single AudioMediaStreamTrack , which can be used in a similar way to a MediaStream obtained from getUserMedia() . It is an AudioNode that acts as an audio destination. Data analysis and visualization If you want to extract time, frequency, and other data from your audio, the AnalyserNode is what you need. AnalyserNode The AnalyserNode interface represents a node able to provide real-time frequency and time-domain analysis information, for the purposes of data analysis and visualization. Splitting and merging audio channels To split and merge audio channels, you'll use these interfaces. ChannelSplitterNode The ChannelSplitterNode interface separates the different channels of an audio source out into a set of mono outputs. ChannelMergerNode The ChannelMergerNode interface reunites different mono inputs into a single output. Each input will be used to fill a channel of the output. Audio spatialization These interfaces allow you to add audio spatialization panning effects to your audio sources. AudioListener The AudioListener interface represents the position and orientation of the unique person listening to the audio scene used in audio spatialization. PannerNode The PannerNode interface represents the position and behavior of an audio source signal in 3D space, allowing you to create complex panning effects. StereoPannerNode The StereoPannerNode interface represents a simple stereo panner node that can be used to pan an audio stream left or right. Audio processing in JavaScript Using audio worklets, you can define custom audio nodes written in JavaScript or WebAssembly . Audio worklets implement the Worklet interface, a lightweight version of the Worker interface. AudioWorklet The AudioWorklet interface is available through the AudioContext object's audioWorklet , and lets you add modules to the audio worklet to be executed off the main thread. AudioWorkletNode The AudioWorkletNode interface represents an AudioNode that is embedded into an audio graph and can pass messages to the corresponding AudioWorkletProcessor . AudioWorkletProcessor The AudioWorkletProcessor interface represents audio processing code running in an AudioWorkletGlobalScope that generates, processes, or analyzes audio directly, and can pass messages to the corresponding AudioWorkletNode . AudioWorkletGlobalScope The AudioWorkletGlobalScope interface is a WorkletGlobalScope -derived object representing a worker context in which an audio processing script is run; it is designed to enable the generation, processing, and analysis of audio data directly using JavaScript in a worklet thread rather than on the main thread. Obsolete: script processor nodes Before audio worklets were defined, the Web Audio API used the ScriptProcessorNode for JavaScript-based audio processing. Because the code runs in the main thread, they have bad performance. The ScriptProcessorNode is kept for historic reasons but is marked as deprecated. ScriptProcessorNode Deprecated The ScriptProcessorNode interface allows the generation, processing, or analyzing of audio using JavaScript. It is an AudioNode audio-processing module that is linked to two buffers, one containing the current input, one containing the output. An event, implementing the AudioProcessingEvent interface, is sent to the object each time the input buffer contains new data, and the event handler terminates when it has filled the output buffer with data. audioprocess (event) Deprecated The audioprocess event is fired when an input buffer of a Web Audio API ScriptProcessorNode is ready to be processed. AudioProcessingEvent Deprecated The AudioProcessingEvent represents events that occur when a ScriptProcessorNode input buffer is ready to be processed. Offline/background audio processing It is possible to process/render an audio graph very quickly in the background — rendering it to an AudioBuffer rather than to the device's speakers — with the following. OfflineAudioContext The OfflineAudioContext interface is an AudioContext interface representing an audio-processing graph built from linked together AudioNode s. In contrast with a standard AudioContext , an OfflineAudioContext doesn't really render the audio but rather generates it, as fast as it can , in a buffer. complete (event) The complete event is fired when the rendering of an OfflineAudioContext is terminated. OfflineAudioCompletionEvent The OfflineAudioCompletionEvent represents events that occur when the processing of an OfflineAudioContext is terminated. The complete event uses this interface. Guides and tutorials Advanced techniques: Creating and sequencing audio In this tutorial, we're going to cover sound creation and modification, as well as timing and scheduling. We will introduce sample loading, envelopes, filters, wavetables, and frequency modulation. If you're familiar with these terms and looking for an introduction to their application with the Web Audio API, you've come to the right place. Background audio processing using AudioWorklet This article explains how to create an audio worklet processor and use it in a Web Audio application. Basic concepts behind Web Audio API This article explains some of the audio theory behind how the features of the Web Audio API work to help you make informed decisions while designing how your app routes audio. If you are not already a sound engineer, it will give you enough background to understand why the Web Audio API works as it does. Controlling multiple parameters with ConstantSourceNode This article demonstrates how to use a ConstantSourceNode to link multiple parameters together so they share the same value, which can be changed by setting the value of the ConstantSourceNode.offset parameter. Example and tutorial: Simple synth keyboard This article presents the code and working demo of a video keyboard you can play using the mouse. The keyboard allows you to switch among the standard waveforms as well as one custom waveform, and you can control the main gain using a volume slider beneath the keyboard. This example makes use of the following Web API interfaces: AudioContext , OscillatorNode , PeriodicWave , and GainNode . Using IIR filters The IIRFilterNode interface of the Web Audio API is an AudioNode processor that implements a general infinite impulse response (IIR) filter; this type of filter can be used to implement tone control devices and graphic equalizers, and the filter response parameters can be specified, so that it can be tuned as needed. This article looks at how to implement one, and use it in a simple example. Using the Web Audio API Let's take a look at getting started with the Web Audio API . We'll briefly look at some concepts, then study a simple boombox example that allows us to load an audio track, play and pause it, and change its volume and stereo panning. Visualizations with Web Audio API One of the most interesting features of the Web Audio API is the ability to extract frequency, waveform, and other data from your audio source, which can then be used to create visualizations. This article explains how, and provides a couple of basic use cases. Web Audio API best practices There's no strict right or wrong way when writing creative code. As long as you consider security, performance, and accessibility, you can adapt to your own style. In this article, we'll share a number of best practices — guidelines, tips, and tricks for working with the Web Audio API. Web audio spatialization basics As if its extensive variety of sound processing (and other) options wasn't enough, the Web Audio API also includes facilities to allow you to emulate the difference in sound as a listener moves around a sound source, for example panning as you move around a sound source inside a 3D game. The official term for this is spatialization , and this article will cover the basics of how to implement such a system. Examples You can find a number of examples at our webaudio-examples repo on GitHub. Specifications Specification Web Audio API # AudioContext Browser compatibility Enable JavaScript to view this browser compatibility table. See also Tutorials/guides Basic concepts behind Web Audio API Using the Web Audio API Advanced techniques: creating sound, sequencing, timing, scheduling Autoplay guide for media and Web Audio APIs Using IIR filters Visualizations with Web Audio API Web audio spatialization basics Controlling multiple parameters with ConstantSourceNode Mixing Positional Audio and WebGL (2012) Developing Game Audio with the Web Audio API (2012) Libraries Tone.js : a framework for creating interactive music in the browser. howler.js : a JS audio library that defaults to Web Audio API and falls back to HTML Audio , as well as providing other useful features. Mooog : jQuery-style chaining of AudioNodes, mixer-style sends/returns, and more. XSound : Web Audio API Library for Synthesizer, Effects, Visualization, Recording, etc. OpenLang : HTML video language lab web application using the Web Audio API to record and combine video and audio from different sources into a single file ( source on GitHub ) Pts.js : Simplifies web audio visualization ( guide ) Related topics Web media technologies Guide to media types and formats on the web Help improve MDN Was this page helpful to you? Yes No Learn how to contribute This page was last modified on Oct 30, 2025 by MDN contributors . View this page on GitHub • Report a problem with this content Filter sidebar Web Audio API Guides Using the Web Audio API Basic concepts behind Web Audio API Web Audio API best practices Advanced techniques: Creating and sequencing audio Background audio processing using AudioWorklet Controlling multiple parameters with ConstantSourceNode Example and tutorial: Simple synth keyboard Using IIR filters Visualizations with Web Audio API Web audio spatialization basics Interfaces AnalyserNode AudioBuffer AudioBufferSourceNode AudioContext AudioDestinationNode AudioListener AudioNode AudioParam AudioProcessingEvent Deprecated AudioScheduledSourceNode AudioSinkInfo Experimental AudioWorklet AudioWorkletGlobalScope AudioWorkletNode AudioWorkletProcessor BaseAudioContext BiquadFilterNode ChannelMergerNode ChannelSplitterNode ConstantSourceNode ConvolverNode DelayNode DynamicsCompressorNode GainNode IIRFilterNode MediaElementAudioSourceNode MediaStreamAudioDestinationNode MediaStreamAudioSourceNode OfflineAudioCompletionEvent OfflineAudioContext OscillatorNode PannerNode PeriodicWave WaveShaperNode StereoPannerNode Your blueprint for a better internet. 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https://www.applevis.com/podcasts | AppleVis Podcast Skip to main content AppleVis Menu Search Main navigation Home Account Log in Post Posting Guidelines Submit Podcast Submit Blog Post Apps Latest App Entries iOS and iPadOS Apps Mac Apps Apple Watch Apps Apple TV Apps Apps Developed Specifically for Blind, DeafBlind, and Low Vision Users Browse App Directories Forums Create Forum Topic Latest Apple Posts Latest Non-Apple Posts Browse Forums Blog AppleVis Blog Submit a Blog Post Podcasts AppleVis Podcast Submit a Podcast Bugs Bug Tracker Active iOS & iPadOS Bugs Active macOS Bugs Community Bug Program More Getting Started with Your First iPhone or iPad Getting Started with Your First Mac Guides & Tutorials AppleVis Golden Apples Hardware & Accessory Reviews Resources for Developers About About AppleVis Frequently Asked Questions Contact AppleVis Newsletter Be My Eyes Search Translate this page Podcasts Displaying 1 - 25 of 798 Filter by tag - Any - Accessories Apple TV Apple Watch Braille Gaming Interview iOS iOS and iPadOS Apps iPadOS iTunes Mac Apps macOS Miscellaneous New Users News Programming Quick Tips Review Roundtable Discussion Walk-through Apple Crunch December 2025: Trophies, Turbulence, and a Fold Too Far Thursday, January 8, 2026 In the December 2025 edition of Apple Crunch, hosts Thomas Domville (AnonyMouse) and John Gassman wrap up the year with a wide-ranging discussion covering AppleVis community awards, Apple’s own App Store recognitions, major Apple hardware and business news, and an accessibility-focused app pick to close out the month. The episode begins with a deep dive into the AppleVis Golden Apples Awards for 2025. Thomas explains the nomination criteria and selection process before announcing… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1700.mp3 (91.23 MB) Dungeon Scoundrel: A Solitaire-Style Dungeon Crawler You Can Play Anywhere for iOS Friday, January 2, 2026 This podcast episode features a detailed, hands-on review of the iOS game Dungeon Scoundrel, presented by Thomas Domville, also known as AnonyMouse. The episode focuses on exploring the game’s mechanics, accessibility, and overall design, offering listeners a thorough understanding of how the game plays from start to finish. Thomas introduces Dungeon Scoundrel as a tactical, turn-based dungeon crawler card game with solitaire-style elements, designed for short but strategic play sessions… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1699.mp3 (80.91 MB) AppleVis Extra#112: Stephen Lovely on Rethinking Visual Accessibility with Vision AI Assistant Friday, December 19, 2025 In this episode of the AppleVis Extra podcast, hosts Dave Nason and Thomas Domville speak with StephenLovely, the creator of Vision AI Assistant, a rapidly emerging web-based accessibility tool designed primarily for blind and visually impaired users. Stephen explains the motivation behind the project, rooted in his own lived experience as a person who has been blind since birth, and how that perspective shaped every design decision. The discussion covers the app’s core philosophy of giving… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1698_0.mp3 (86.96 MB) Apple Crunch November 2025: Siri Gets a New Brain, iOS Takes a Breather, and the Air Takes a Dive Friday, December 5, 2025 In this November edition of Apple Crunch, Thomas, John, and Desiree dig into a surprisingly busy month for Apple. We start with the iPhone Air’s underwhelming debut and why Apple may be rethinking its strategy after weak sales and confusing pricing. Next, we explore Apple’s ongoing talks to bring a Gemini-powered core to Siri—what that means for privacy, how it blends with Apple Intelligence, and how it may finally close the gap with today’s leading AI assistants. We also look ahead… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1698.mp3 (78.17 MB) How to Customize the Control Center and Menu Bar on macOS Tuesday, December 2, 2025 In this episode, Tyler demonstrates how to customize the Control Center and menu bar on macOS. With macOS Tahoe, the Mac's Control Center and menu bar have become more customizable, with the ability to add, remove, and reorder a greater variety of items. To add an item to the Control Center or menu bar, click the “Edit controls” button at the bottom of the Control Center dialog, focus on the item you want to add either in the list of suggestions or the “More controls” grid,… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1697.mp3 (15.54 MB) iPhone Air: Unboxing and First Impressions Tuesday, October 28, 2025 In this episode, David Nason unboxes an iPhone Air and gives his first impressions of the device. Apple’s thinnest phone to date, the iPhone Air was released alongside the iPhone 17, 17 Pro and 17 Pro Max in September 2025. Our thanks to Apple for providing this device for review. This and future reviews of the device are entirely independent with no editorial input from Apple. Key Points: Despite the coverage I’ve seen and heard, I was still somewhat… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1696_0.mp3 (9.45 MB) How to Opt Out of Offers and Promotions in the Wallet App on iOS Monday, October 27, 2025 In this episode, Tyler demonstrates how to opt out of notifications for offers and promotions in the Wallet app on iOS. The Wallet app, responsible for managing payments, orders, passes, and more, often sends important notifications related to users' financial activity. However, notifications from the Wallet app can also be used to deliver ads, like Apple's advertising of discounted "F1: The Movie"… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1695.mp3 (2.91 MB) Bridging Access to Braille: An In-Depth Look at Braille Access on iOS 26 Sunday, October 12, 2025 In this episode, Scott Davert gives us an in-depth demonstration of Braille Access. New in iOS 26, Braille Access aims to offer an experience similar to dedicated braille note takers. Transcript Disclaimer: This transcript was generated by AI Note Taker – VoicePen, an AI-powered transcription app. It is not edited or formatted, and it may not accurately capture the speakers' names, voices, or… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1694.mp3 (44.15 MB) Apple Crunch September 2025: The Thin, the Bold, and the Crunchy Thursday, October 2, 2025 September 2025 Edition Hosted by Thomas Domville, Dave Nason, and John Gassman Welcome to the September 2025 edition of Apple Crunch , where we break down the biggest Apple stories and explore what they mean for the blind and low-vision community. This month, we dive into a wide range of updates—from AppleVis itself getting a major facelift, to a critical VoiceOver bug fix in iOS 26.0.1, to Apple’s highly anticipated September hardware event with its mix of… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1693_0.mp3 (74.5 MB) Gamers Corner: May to August 2025 Edition Monday, September 29, 2025 Welcome to Gamers Corner Welcome to the very first edition of Gamers Corner , a brand-new show from AppleVis hosted by Thomas Domville (AnonyMouse) , with co-hosts Aaron Spelker and Jesse Anderson . This inaugural episode marks the beginning of a seasonal series that will run three or four times a year, depending on the pace of major game releases. Gamers Corner was created to provide blind and low vision gamers… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1692.mp3 (86.82 MB) Quick Tip: Assigning a braille display command to tell the time on iOS Monday, September 22, 2025 In this short AppleVis episode, host Scott Davert walks through how to bind a custom braille display command that instantly announces and brailles the current date and time on an iPhone. The motivation is simple: while the lock screen shows the time, that isn’t always convenient; a dedicated braille command lets you check the time anywhere without leaving what you’re doing. The conversation centers on VoiceOver’s braille command customization inside iOS. Scott explains that, as of… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1691.mp3 (5.92 MB) Quiet the Noise: Managing VoiceOver Sensory Overload on iOS Wednesday, September 17, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville (also known as AnonyMouse) walks listeners through the new and customizable VoiceOver sounds and haptic feedback options introduced in iOS . Thomas highlights how these features can be especially helpful for users who experience sensory overload or prefer a more tailored accessibility experience. Listeners will learn how to access, adjust, and personalize VoiceOver sound effects and haptics, including how to change volumes, intensities… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1690.mp3 (6.07 MB) Classic vs. Unified: Choosing Your Phone View on iOS Tuesday, September 16, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville walks through the redesigned Phone app in iOS 26. The episode explains the difference between the new Unified view and the legacy Classic view, shows how to switch between them, and highlights where previously familiar items—like Voicemail —now live. Throughout, Thomas shares VoiceOver-friendly steps and tips to make navigation faster and less confusing. Key Points iOS 26 introduces a… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1689.mp3 (4.46 MB) Compact vs Classic: Choosing Your Safari Tab Style Tuesday, September 16, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville walks through Safari’s new Tabs layout options in iOS 26 , explains the default Compact view, and shows how to switch between Compact , Bottom , and Top tab layouts. The demo is VoiceOver-centric, with practical navigation tips (rotor use, headings, and screen-edge gestures) to make changing this setting quick and repeatable. Summary What changed… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1688.mp3 (4.73 MB) A Demonstration of Screen Sharing with VoiceOver on macOS Monday, September 15, 2025 In this episode, Levi Gobin demonstrates screen sharing with VoiceOver on macOS. Levi first shows us the Screen Sharing settings in VoiceOver Utility, then demonstrates controlling another Mac using the Screen Sharing app. Starting with macOS Tahoe 26, VoiceOver can be used to control another Mac remotely using the built-in Screen Sharing facility, either through FaceTime or Messages for controlling Macs over the Internet, or Finder or the Screen Sharing app (located in the Utilities… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1687.mp3 (10.21 MB) Smarter Battery Saving with iOS Adaptive Power Monday, September 15, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville walks through Apple’s new Adaptive Power mode in iOS, explaining what it does, which devices support it, what trade-offs to expect, and how to turn it on. You’ll learn how the system uses on-device intelligence to detect unusually power-hungry apps or tasks and gently throttle performance to extend battery life—plus how this differs from the traditional Low Power Mode. What is Adaptive Power? An AI-assisted… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1686.mp3 (4.82 MB) Starting Fresh: How to Reset VoiceOver Settings on iOS Sunday, September 14, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville demonstrates a new iOS feature that lets you reset VoiceOver settings back to factory defaults —useful when settings have become confusing or inconsistent. He walks through where the option lives, how to activate it, and the consequences (you’ll lose all customizations). Key Points & Takeaways Purpose: Quickly restore VoiceOver to a clean, default state when troubleshooting is too time-consuming.… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1685.mp3 (3.73 MB) Taming the Magic Tap: Stop Accidental Media Playback on iOS Sunday, September 14, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville explains how to stop the two-finger Magic Tap gesture from unexpectedly starting or pausing media playback. If you hang up a call or use Magic Tap in other contexts and your audiobook or music begins playing when you didn’t intend it to, this setting lets you turn that behavior off (and back on later if needed). What You’ll Learn What the Magic Tap gesture does by default. Why media sometimes starts playing… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1684.mp3 (3.53 MB) Goodbye 9 Minutes — Hello Custom Snooze! in Alarm on iOS Saturday, September 13, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville explains that, prior to iOS 26, the default alarm snooze was fixed at 9 minutes with no way to change it. In iOS 26, you can set a custom snooze duration directly in the Clock app when creating or editing an alarm. The episode walks through the exact steps with VoiceOver cues so screen-reader users can follow along comfortably. Key Points & Takeaways Snooze is now… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1683.mp3 (5.39 MB) How Copied Speech Transforms Productivity on iOS Saturday, September 13, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville demos the new Copied Speech rotor option in iOS 26 for VoiceOver. Think of it as a lightweight clipboard history: it remembers what you copied with VoiceOver and lets you paste from the last ten copied items directly via the rotor, making multi-item copy/paste (like app titles and release notes) fast and accessible. What’s covered / why it matters What Copied Speech is: a new rotor… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1682.mp3 (6.51 MB) What’s New in iOS 26 Accessibility Friday, September 12, 2025 In this episode, Thomas Domville (AnonyMouse) dives deep into the exciting new accessibility features in iOS 26 . From improved VoiceOver experiences to powerful tools for customization and ease of use, this update offers meaningful improvements for blind, low-vision, and accessibility-focused users. Whether you’re a long-time VoiceOver user or just curious about Apple’s accessibility innovations, this episode guides you through the highlights with… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1681.mp3 (23.87 MB) AppleVis Extra 111: Recapping Apple's 'Awe Dropping' September 2025 Event Friday, September 12, 2025 In this edition of the AppleVis Extra, Michael Hansen, Tyler Stephen, Geo Bahena, and Levi Gobin get together to discuss Apple's 'Awe Dropping' September 2025 event. Transcript Disclaimer: This transcript was generated by AI Note Taker – VoicePen, an AI-powered transcription app. It is not edited or… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1680.mp3 (49.31 MB) A Demonstration and Walkthrough of Multi-User Support on macOS Monday, August 18, 2025 In this episode, Tyler walks through how multi-user accounts work on macOS—why you might use them, how to add a new user, ways to switch quickly (including Touch ID), and how to safely delete an account while preserving data for troubleshooting. He also covers guest access, account types (Administrator, Standard, and Sharing Only), and a few accessibility tips with VoiceOver. Key Points Why multi-user: Separate files, settings, and Apple Account sync per person; great… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1679.mp3 (27.37 MB) Tonewood Amp: Accessible Effects from Your Guitar’s Soundbox Saturday, August 16, 2025 Victor demos the Tonewood Amp , a small magnetic unit that attaches to the back of an acoustic-electric guitar and uses the guitar’s own soundbox to project effects like reverb, delay, chorus/phaser, and tremolo —no external amp or headphones required. He also explores the Tonewood Amp Remote app, which is now fully accessible with VoiceOver thanks to his direct collaboration with the developers. The app lets you chain… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1678.mp3 (14.33 MB) AppleVis Extra #110: Envision & the Ally Solos Smart Glasses Friday, August 15, 2025 In this episode of AppleVis Extra , hosts Dave Nason and Thomas Domville welcome back Karthik Kannan from Envision for his second appearance this year. The discussion centers around Envision’s newest wearable: the Ally Solos Smart Glasses , developed in partnership with Solos. The conversation covers design, functionality, pricing, and how these glasses differ from Envision’s previous offerings and other… Podcast File AppleVisPodcast1677_0.mp3 (59.85 MB) Pagination Page 1 Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Page 5 Page 6 Page 7 Page 8 Page 9 … Next page Last page Browse by Category Accessories (38) AirTag (8) Apple TV (40) Apple Watch (87) Braille (18) Gaming (117) HomePod (14) Interview (40) iOS (376) iOS and iPadOS Apps (364) iPadOS (77) iTunes (7) Mac Apps (62) macOS (116) Miscellaneous (67) New Users (239) News (123) Programming (6) Quick Tips (277) Review (87) Roundtable Discussion (109) Walk-through (398) Submitting Podcasts Learn more about recording and submitting a podcast to AppleVis. 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https://parenting.forem.com/t/communication#main-content | Communication - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close # communication Follow Hide Tips for talking effectively with your children at every age. Create Post Older #communication posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Why the "Why?" Game is the Most Valuable Thing I Do With My Kids Juno Threadborne Juno Threadborne Juno Threadborne Follow Oct 20 '25 Why the "Why?" Game is the Most Valuable Thing I Do With My Kids # newparents # development # communication # learning 19 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/react-native-android-integration#content-area | Android Integration - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Android iOS React Native Android Integration iOS Integration Manage Users Sync Events iOS Push Setup Android Push (FCM) Flutter React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation React Native Android Integration Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog React Native Android Integration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT This document will cover integration steps for Android side of your ReactNative application. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install Package npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @ suprsend / react - native - sdk @ latest 2 Add the below dependency Add the this dependency in project level build.gradle , inside allprojects > repositories . build.gradle Copy Ask AI allprojects { repositories { ... mavenCentral () // add this } } 3 Add Android SDK dependency inside in app level build.gradle. build.gradle Copy Ask AI dependencies { ... implementation 'com.suprsend:rn:0.1.10' // add this } Note: If you get any error regarding minSdkVersion please update it to 19 or more. Initialization 1 Initialise the Suprsend Android SDK Initialise the Suprsend android SDK in MainApplication.java inside onCreate method and just above super.onCreate() line. javascript Copy Ask AI import app . suprsend . SSApi ; // import sdk ... SSApi . Companion . init ( this , WORKSPACE KEY , WORKSPACE SECRET ); // inside onCreate method just above super.onCreate() line Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will get them the tokens from Settings -> API Keys inside Suprsend dashboard . 2 Import SuprSend SDK in your client side Javascript code. javascript Copy Ask AI import suprsend from "@suprsend/react-native-sdk" ; Logging By default the logs of SuprSend SDK are disabled. You can enable the logs just in debug mode while in development by the below condition. javascript Copy Ask AI suprsend . enableLogging (); // available from v2.0.2 // deprecated from v2.0.2 suprsend . setLogLevel ( level ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "VERBOSE" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "DEBUG" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "INFO" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "ERROR" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "OFF" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Integration This document will cover integration steps for iOS side of your ReactNative application. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization Logging | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://www.applevis.com/ | AppleVis Skip to main content AppleVis Menu Search Main navigation Home Account Log in Post Posting Guidelines Submit Podcast Submit Blog Post Apps Latest App Entries iOS and iPadOS Apps Mac Apps Apple Watch Apps Apple TV Apps Apps Developed Specifically for Blind, DeafBlind, and Low Vision Users Browse App Directories Forums Create Forum Topic Latest Apple Posts Latest Non-Apple Posts Browse Forums Blog AppleVis Blog Submit a Blog Post Podcasts AppleVis Podcast Submit a Podcast Bugs Bug Tracker Active iOS & iPadOS Bugs Active macOS Bugs Community Bug Program More Getting Started with Your First iPhone or iPad Getting Started with Your First Mac Guides & Tutorials AppleVis Golden Apples Hardware & Accessory Reviews Resources for Developers About About AppleVis Frequently Asked Questions Contact AppleVis Newsletter Be My Eyes Search Translate this page Welcome to AppleVis AppleVis is the premier online resource for blind, DeafBlind, and low vision users of Apple technologies. A Be My Eyes company, our mission is to empower people who are blind, DeafBlind, or who have low vision to get the most from Apple products and services. With an active, engaged user base and a vast collective understanding of vision accessibility on Apple's platforms, members of the AppleVis community support each other in accessing the maximum potential of Apple hardware, software, and services. Getting Started With iPhone, iPad, Mac, or Apple Watch Getting started with a new Apple product can be overwhelming. We offer curated lists of selected content from our website to help you familiarize yourself with the accessibility features of your device and answer many of your initial questions. Whether you are new to Apple or an experienced user, these lists will provide valuable information to help you start using your device right away or build on your existing knowledge. Getting started with iPhone or iPad Getting started with Mac Getting started with Apple Watch These lists offer just a sample of the wide range of help and information available on AppleVis. They are intended to provide a starting point for learning about your new Apple product, but there is much more to discover. We encourage you to explore the rest of the website, take advantage of the community support and resources available, and continue to learn as you use your device. Also be sure to browse our iOS & iPadOS, Mac, Apple Watch, and Apple TV App Directories, in which you will find information submitted by our community on the accessibility of thousands of applications. If you are looking for iOS and iPadOS apps which have been developed specifically for blind, DeafBlind, or low vision users and which will help you in your daily life, you can find our list of these here. Latest Apple Posts And Updates Filter by type - Any - Apple TV App Directory Apple Watch App Directory Blog Post Forum Topic Guide Hardware or Accessory Review Mac App Directory Podcast iOS and iPadOS App Directory iOS or iPadOS Bug Report macOS Bug Report HearLight Canvas Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS) by onetrickpony 15 comments. Last update or comment 1 second ago [Proof of Concept]: Vosh - a third-party screen-reader for the Macintosh Forum Topic (App Development and Programming) by João Santos 90 comments. Last update or comment 52 minutes 50 seconds ago AI Guide Dog iOS and iPadOS App Directory by Enes Deniz Usability Rating: The app is fully accessible with VoiceOver and is easy to navigate and use. 13 comments. Last update or comment 1 hour 53 minutes ago New Update to ScribeMe Live Assist Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS) by Mark Morad 7 comments. Last update or comment 7 hours 31 minutes ago Amazon app - "current location" solution Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS) by steve t 4 comments. Last update or comment 10 hours 18 minutes ago Shadows of The Circuit iOS and iPadOS App Directory by Snorlax Usability Rating: The app is fully accessible with VoiceOver and is easy to navigate and use. 0 comments. Last update or comment 10 hours 47 minutes ago AppleVis Extra#112: Stephen Lovely on Rethinking Visual Accessibility with Vision AI Assistant Podcast by AppleVis 2 comments. Last update or comment 12 hours 8 minutes ago Ferrite 3 Pro Frustrations Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS) by KE8UPE 13 comments. Last update or comment 14 hours 21 minutes ago VisionAI: visual assistance iOS and iPadOS App Directory by Enes Deniz Usability Rating: The app is fully accessible with VoiceOver and is easy to navigate and use. 2 comments. Last update or comment 14 hours 49 minutes ago BookPlayer iOS and iPadOS App Directory by Jeff Usability Rating: The app is fully accessible with VoiceOver and is easy to navigate and use. 8 comments. Last update or comment 15 hours 11 minutes ago Accessible music notation reader Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS) by Johann 3 comments. Last update or comment 15 hours 48 minutes ago New Release: Shadows of The Circuit – An Audio-Driven Stealth Game Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS Gaming) by ILoveGoodGames 2 comments. Last update or comment 16 hours 40 minutes ago Multiplayer casual game with full accessibility invitation for feedback Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS Gaming) by ILoveGoodGames 35 comments. Last update or comment 20 hours 28 minutes ago New Release: Shadows of The Circuit – An Audio-Driven Stealth Game Forum Topic (macOS and Mac Apps) by ILoveGoodGames 0 comments. Last update or comment 1 day 1 hour ago Introducing Our Next Game - A Stealth Sci-Fi Roguelike Experience Forum Topic (iOS and iPadOS Gaming) by ILoveGoodGames 9 comments. Last update or comment 1 day 1 hour ago View more Apple posts Latest Non-Apple Posts Forum - Any - Assistive Technology Windows Android Smart Home Tech and Gadgets Meta Glasses, what do people think Forum Topic (Assistive Technology) by Moopie Curran 100 comments. Last update or comment 5 hours 58 minutes ago Stop Waiting for AI to Tell You What to See. Start Exploring It Yourself. Forum Topic (Assistive Technology) by Stephen 309 comments. Last update or comment 1 day 9 hours ago What do people think about the braille note evolve? Forum Topic (Assistive Technology) by Blind soft 57 comments. Last update or comment 1 day 14 hours ago Optimizing a new HP OmniBook 7 with Windows 11, but I am nervous! Forum Topic (Windows) by Diego Garibay 14 comments. Last update or comment 1 day 19 hours ago Theseus & the Minotaur Forum Topic (Android) by Trenton Matthews 0 comments. Last update or comment 3 days 5 hours ago Discord Accessibility Issues on Windows Forum Topic (Windows) by Cooltapes 10 comments. Last update or comment 3 days 9 hours ago Aira on the phone vs. glasses Forum Topic (Assistive Technology) by Alicia Krage 0 comments. Last update or comment 6 days 16 hours ago Looking for an accessible air fryer Forum Topic (Assistive Technology) by techluver 55 comments. Last update or comment 6 days 18 hours ago WeWALK Smart Cane 2: A Comprehensive Upgrade for Enhanced Mobility and Independence Forum Topic (Assistive Technology) by Emre TEO 43 comments. Last update or comment 6 days 23 hours ago Eloquence is back on Android Forum Topic (Android) by Justin Harris 23 comments. Last update or comment 1 week 3 days ago View more non-Apple posts Trending Posts Clicks Power-Keys (Forum Topic) was flagged as trending 5 days 17 hours ago Vox libri is available for iOS (Forum Topic) was flagged as trending 6 days 18 hours ago "I'm Not Remarkable. And Neither Are You": Why Apple's New Disability Film Does not Resonate with Me (Blog Post) was flagged as trending 1 month ago Stop Waiting for AI to Tell You What to See. Start Exploring It Yourself. (Forum Topic) was flagged as trending 1 month 4 weeks ago Apple Releases iOS 26.1 and iPadOS 26.1 with accessibility enhancements, new language support for Live Translation, and more (Blog Post) was flagged as trending 2 months 1 week ago more Latest Recommendations Boycott For Peace () was recommended 15 hours 41 minutes ago VisionAI: visual assistance () was recommended 1 day 18 hours ago AI Guide Dog () was recommended 1 day 19 hours ago Zapvision () was recommended 1 day 19 hours ago Dungeon Scoundrel () was recommended 2 days 23 hours ago more Top Recommendations 73. Seeing AI 49. Timecrest 42. BlindSquare 40. Voice Dream - Text to Voice 39. Dice World: Multiplayer Fun 38. Be My Eyes 33. Audio Game Hub 32. BARD Mobile 29. Swordy Quest: An RPG Adventure 29. FEER more Connect Follow us on Mastodon Site Information About AppleVis About Be My Eyes Download Be My Eyes From the App Store Latest News and Updates Newsletter FAQ Contact AppleVis Unless stated otherwise, all content is copyright AppleVis. All rights reserved. © 2026 | Accessibility | Terms | Privacy | A Be My Eyes Company | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://anchor.fm/anand12/episodes/Open-Source-Best-Practices-e1ahacq | Open Source Best Practices by #WithAnand #WithAnand By Mr. Ånand Podcast of useful written blogs & Some original record ✨ Converting blogs into podcasts🎙️ ❤️Use #WithAnand on social media to share our work. 💌Want to Convert Blogs into podcast? Send me a voice message or DM on Social. Listen on Spotify Available on Report content on Spotify Open Source Best Practices #WithAnand Nov 20, 2021 Share 00:00 05:18 15 Recommended Books For Computer Science Students We are in the modern world where the digitization of education is already going on. Now lots of blogs, articles are there on the internet to learn from. But Book has its own value, the author puts his all knowledge experience and time to write one whole book. The knowledge and details you get from a book are very precious. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ May 12, 2022 09:09 8 Lucrative Ways To Earn Money As A Writer No matter whether you're seeking extra pocket money or career advancement, writing for money is worth the effort. Here is a list of the eight best ways to make money by writing to help you maximize your skills. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Dec 30, 2021 03:48 25 Must-Visit Killer Websites For Developers 90% of developers don’t know about these websites. There are so many websites to make the work of developers easier. Everyone doesn't know all. In this podcast, we will see 25 Must-Visit Killer Websites For Developers. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Dec 07, 2021 07:02 Open Source Best Practices The open-source software industry is booming. Software developed by large corporations is built on open collaboration, thus enjoying the benefits of widespread adoption. In addition to bringing together many people from all over the world, free and open-source software brings people together by bringing their individual interests together. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Nov 20, 2021 05:18 10 Bad Coding Habits You Need to Put an End to Right Now Everyone isn’t perfect, and it’s the most honest of truths. It is the same with programmers as with any other field in life. There are a lot of good, great, and still-growing-up programmers, but they are often not the best. We all make mistakes and everyone is human. Apart from faults, bad habits can also cause a lot of trouble. These bad habits may seem innocent at first glance, but if not corrected, can cause a lot of problems. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Nov 12, 2021 04:56 Are You A Coder? Here Are 20 Top Tips From The Coding Community Learning to code is an amazing thing. How you can code something interesting and then view its fascinating outcomes. But Doing it in the right way is also very important. I am going to share 20 Top Tips From The Coding Community Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Nov 10, 2021 07:23 Introduction to Web Development Web development is basically the creation of website pages — either a single page or many pages. There are several aspects to it, including web design, web publishing, web programming, and database management. It is the creation of an application that works over the internet i.e. websites. The word Web Development is made up of two words, that is: Web: It refers to websites, web pages, or anything that works over the internet. Development: Building the application from scratch. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Nov 09, 2021 09:04 Top 10 Technology Trends of 2021 The 21st century has been a century of technological change. Several highly commercial and prevalent technologies during the early 2000s have entirely vanished, and new ones have taken their place. Many completely new technologies have also come up in 2021, especially in the arena of computer science and engineering. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Nov 07, 2021 10:56 7 Things You Should Know Before You Try Coding If you're considering learning to code, you might want a little guidance in order to eradicate any self-doubt you may have. In addition, you might simply want a few pointers to get you even more excited about coding. This is a list of 7 things you should know before starting to program. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Nov 06, 2021 03:15 Top 10 Git Commands Every Developer Should Know Git is an important part of daily programming (especially if you're working with a team) and is widely used in the software industry. Since there are many various commands you can use, mastering Git takes time. https://muthuannamalai.tech/top-10-git-commands-every-developer-should-know. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Oct 26, 2021 06:47 How To Contribute To Open-Source Projects As A Beginner It's important to understand that contributing to open source projects is not all about coding you can contribute in other ways such as improving the documentation, organizing the project, designing stuff reviewing code, and so on. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Oct 14, 2021 06:56 Everything you need to know about Hackathons Hackathon is a word creation of the words hack(-ing) and marathon. In this context, hacking stands for the development of software- or hardware solution and the marathon describes the format, which is a 1–3 days lasting event. Usually, it takes place in a spacious venue, which fits sometimes several hundred hackers. Read Blog📖 Twitter💌 Voice Message🎙️ Buy Me a Coffee❤️ Oct 06, 2021 07:24 Cryptocurrency: The Future Cryptocurrency, the most famous currency in recent times, can be referred to as the future of transactions. Read blog: https://leap2live.wordpress.com/2021/05/29/cryptocurrency/ Sep 26, 2021 05:33 New World Of Unemployment: The Useless Class Since we all know that earlier, in past years, a society was divided into three classes upper class, middle class, and the lower class. But in these modern years, due to the increase in automation and artificial intelligence a new class will be introduced soon, which will be named “ The USELESS CLASS” . Read blog: https://leap2live.wordpress.com/2021/05/23/new-world-of-unemployment-the-useless-class/ Sep 16, 2021 01:50 Hustle Culture Hustle culture is all about constantly working. Those who believe in hustle culture try to devote as many hours as possible to working or hustling. Hustling is important but taking care of yourself is even more important. Read blog: https://leap2live.wordpress.com/2021/05/22/hustle-culture/ Sep 07, 2021 03:07 The Keyboard Warrior: Irfan Hafiz Nobody can defeat you if you are enough capable to face your problems. Today I am going to talk about an undefeatable person, the most courageous person in the entire world, a person who can definitely give you some courage and can change the meaning of disability for you. Yes, I am talking about the undefeatable man Irfan, from a small country Sri Lanka. Read Blog: https://ravimehta95112.medium.com/the-keyboard-warrior-irfan-hafiz-dcf4cc19126d Sep 06, 2021 02:22 What is Open Source Open source is a term that originally referred to open source software (OSS). Open source software is code that is designed to be publicly accessible—anyone can see, modify, and distribute the code as they see fit. Aug 22, 2021 02:23 The Invite-Only chat App: Clubhouse Clubhouse was launched back in April 2020 as an iOS app. It is a new social media platform based on audio. Jul 17, 2021 03:18 New update of Battlegrounds Mobile India Upcoming Update of BATTLEGROUNDS MOBILE INDIA: Update 1.5 of PUBG Mobile (Global). Jul 13, 2021 03:50 Filter Apps for yourself as Student Developer Having useful apps in phones is very important now-a-days. And as a student you must use apps useful for you. In this new world of technology, there are various apps coming time to time to ease the life and work of peoples. As a student, you must have to use some apps that helps in your study, learning and creating contents. Jul 10, 2021 03:06 © 2026 Spotify AB Careers Legal Help App Store Google Play | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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A Robust Casino Platform The Corporate Structure Of Aspire Global International LTD Ownership and Licencing AG Communications Casinos List of Active and Inactive UK Licensed Aspire casinos and their current status The Aspire Global Management Team Operational Management Of Aspire Global Aspire Global CEO Chief Operating Officer (COO) Chief Financial Officer (CFO) Chief Business Development Officer Customer Relations Financial Information Aspire Global Company Results Acquisitions & Growth Stock Market Listing Where does Aspire Global Operate? Pay N’ Play Driving World-Wide Growth Future Prospects Summary FAQ’s What is the minimum deposit on Aspire Global Casinos? Are the online casinos powered by Aspire Global licenced in the UK? Who owns Aspire Global? Are the online casinos owned by Aspire Global all the same? Aspire Global: Overview Aspire Global are already a major player in the online casino industry. 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His background includes periods in business finance and acquisitions. He is also currently a board member of a Swedish technology company which specialises in electric-powered vehicles. Additional board members include company founder Barak Matalon, who has been in place since the company started operations in 2005. With an Israeli business background, he also has considerable gaming industry experience, having founded the worldwide operating lottery specialist NeoGames. Fellow Israeli Aharon Aran is also on the Board, having joined in 2018. His background is in the media industry, having been an executive with a variety of Israeli TV and newspaper operations. He is also currently CEO of The Israeli Audience Research Board. Operational Management Of Aspire Global Aspire Global CEO Tsachi Maimon plays a crucial role in maintaining the company’s consistent record of growth. He has already been in charge for around a decade, having been appointed in 2013. 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He too has a background in the Israeli telecommunications industry. It was also Motti who provided the strategic leadership behind the company’s launch on the Swedish stock exchange – a crucial factor in Aspire Global’s recent successful growth. Chief Business Development Officer Paul Myatt was appointed in November 2020. His considerable experience in the online gaming industry certainly strengthens the team. He arrived from a strategic management role at gaming software experts Quickspin. Paul also spent five years in a major role at one of the biggest names in gaming software, NetEnt and has been brought in to oversee the integration of the company’s recent strategic acquisitions, Pariplay and BtoBet. Customer Relations Joel Momigliano is responsible for overseeing the company’s directly owned gaming operations. He has been with Aspire Global since 2015, having also arrived with considerable experience from a top notch rival. Joel previously spent eight years working in a variety of influential management roles at market leading 888 Holdings. Financial Information Aspire Global Company Results Aspire Global consistently releases its financial results on a quarterly basis. However, a comprehensive financial report is created annually, and this typically sees the light of day in February, reflecting the financial happenings of the preceding calendar year. In relation to this practice, the most recent full year’s Annual Report available, at the time of writing, pertains to the 2020 financial year. Intriguingly, this shed light on a year brimming with success and growth. Revenues experienced a surge, leaping from €131 million in 2019 to an impressive figure close to €162 million in 2020. To put that into perspective, that’s an increment of nearly 25% compared to the year before. The financials of 2020 perpetuate a track record of consistent growth for the company, signifying that its revenues have magnified, more than doubling since 2017. Pre-tax profit, or EBITDA, settled around €27 million, and post-tax earnings were confirmed to be €15 million. Expressing his sentiments, CEO Tsachi Maimon exuded pride over these figures, articulating, “Aspire Global has firmly planted its flag as a dominant force for iGaming operators, boasting a broad geographic footprint spanning four continents. This foundation, coupled with a top-tier offering, undoubtedly positions Aspire Global favourably for continued growth.” However, the narrative doesn’t end there. This prolonged trajectory of growth shows no signs of slowing down. Preliminary results for the initial six months of 2021 highlight a continued uptick in revenues. The company reported total income nearing €104 million, marking an uplift of over 34% when juxtaposed with the same period in 2020. The profits before tax (EBITDA) showcased a robust increase, soaring by more than 50% in the first six months of 2020, concluding at over €18 million. This consistent performance has been driven by several factors, including smart strategic acquisitions and expanding the company’s operations into additional markets. Acquisitions & Growth 2019 saw the company acquire major gaming industry rival Pariplay for around €13 million. This enabled Aspire Global to integrate Pariplay’s software platform into its operation and add several new gaming software providers to its considerable portfolio. This acquisition also enabled the company to take advantage of Pariplay’s growing US interests, including the successful application for a gaming licence in the state of New Jersey. 2021 saw the company finally begin operations in New Jersey for the first time, with an interim gaming licence also granted in West Virginia. Additional applications have already been made for the states of Pennsylvania and Michigan, with more pending. A further important acquisition has also enabled the company to expand its interests into virgin territory. September 2020 saw Aspire Global agree on the takeover of major sportsbook operator BtoBet for an eventual total of €20 million. The deal meant that the company could now expand into further European territories, including Russia, Spain and Switzerland. Meanwhile, additional sportsbook licencing deals with rivals Betfair and William Hill enabled the company to strengthen its position in the Latin American market. These additional deals added to the company’s considerable organic growth, meaning that at the time of writing, Aspire Global now operates in twenty-six different regulated markets spanning Europe, North and South America and Africa. The additional revenue opportunities this offer has been a fundamental factor in this consistent record of successful growth. Stock Market Listing Aspire Global is a publicly listed company on Nasdaq’s First North Premier Growth Market in Stockholm, Sweden. Originally formed as a private company in Israel, it went public in 2017 after a successful Initial Public Offering of shares (IPO) which valued the company at around €120 million. The IPO was in some ways disappointing as it seemed to underperform market expectations. However, the company’s value rose rapidly, reaching over $170 million within a month of its listing as the company’s share price soared. After its original IPO price of 30 Swedish kronor (SEK), market demand saw a consistent level of around SEK 40 reached within weeks. The company has continued to perform well over the succeeding years, with its share value had doubled again to around SEK80 at the time of writing. Major shareholders include founder Barak Matalon, who holds over 25% of the company’s shares. Additional major shareholders include renowned football agent Pini Zahavi (16%) and Israeli media magnate Eli Azur (16%). Zahavi is often referred to as a ‘super-agent’, owing to his close connection to the Russian-Israeli billionaire and Chelsea FC owner Roman Abramovich. He also acts as an agent to many of the world’s best footballers, including superstar Neymar and Poland’s renowned goal scorer Robert Lewandowski. Azur has several TV and newspaper interests, including ownership of the Jerusalem Post. Together, these leading three shareholders hold the majority of Aspire Global shares. Where does Aspire Global Operate? At the time of writing this report, Aspire Global already operates in over 26 regulated markets. Assuming the current rate of growth and the company’s already published plans, it seems likely that this figure will rise beyond thirty. The majority of Aspire Global’s revenues are derived from Europe. It is responsible for dozens of online casinos holding licences which enable the company to operate throughout the continent. Licenced territories include the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Austria, Germany, Poland and Romania. The company’s rapid expansion has seen its market expand markedly in recent years. Greece, Russia, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland can now be added to the European list, and the company also has a strong presence throughout Scandinavia. This is especially the case in Finland, where the company has recently opened its first online Pay N Play casinos. Pay N’ Play Driving World-Wide Growth Pay N Play is a particularly pivotal advancement for Aspire Global. Firstly, it enables players to register and play merely by making a deposit. Consequently, this allows its customers to bypass the traditionally lengthy registration process. This is largely because customers can utilise their banking ID to meet any pertinent government and licensing stipulations to confirm their identity. Furthermore, Pay N Play is deemed more secure since all payment and withdrawal transactions are executed using data directly sourced from the customer’s bank. This eliminates the need for customers to set up a distinct login with the casino. Looking ahead, Aspire Global are optimistic that this innovative payment service will soon obtain licences to function beyond the currently sanctioned Scandinavian regions, paving the way for enhanced territorial and revenue expansion. This territorial expansion is already taking Aspire Global far beyond its European base. The company already has a presence in New Jersey and is securing licences to develop its business elsewhere in the United States. A suppliers’ licence has already been granted for West Virginia and licences have been applied for in several other states. The company is also already operating in other nations in Central and South America, including Colombia and Mexico. Even further afield, the company has already acquired a presence on the continent of Africa, having commenced operations in Nigeria. And although its satellite office in India is currently being used for software design purposes, clearly Asia and the Far East are potential areas for growth in the longer term future. Future Prospects Aspire Global CEO Tsachi Maimon is certainly upbeat about his company’s future prospects. It is easy to see why. As he describes, since the turn of the decade, the company has transformed itself from a business focused on purely casinos into an online gaming giant, with its platform, its gaming software development function creating its games, and with a full suite of management and customer support services to offer. Over the same short period, Aspire Global has also developed from a European-focused business into virtually a worldwide operation, with a business presence on four continents. In this way, the company’s growth is not only driven by territorial expansion, but also by developing additional sources of revenue. This is especially notable concerning its successful foray into the sports betting market. Its acquisition of sports specialist BtoBet in October 2020 was particularly crucial in this strategy as Maimon sees sports betting as a particularly promising area for continued growth in Europe, especially in the United Kingdom and Germany. Rapid growth is also expected in the United States. With more and more states liberalising their attitude to online gaming and offering additional licencing opportunities, Aspire Global is in the perfect position to take advantage. This applies to both online casinos and the burgeoning sports betting market. The company has made another statement of intent in expanding its interests on the other side of the Atlantic with the appointment of experienced executive Quincy Raven as Managing Director of Aspire Global US in July 2021. Summary The published results for the first six months of 2021 saw the sustained growth of Aspire Global continue. The Interim Report accompanying these results describes impressive new agreements with commercial partners and considerable additional geographic expansion. New business growth is either already in place, or in immediate prospect in a variety of national markets. These include the UK, Ireland and Germany in Europe; a variety of states across the US including New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan and West Virginia, and several countries in Central and Latin America, especially Colombia. This international territorial expansion is likely to continue as further partnership agreements are signed and as additional licences which have already been applied for are granted. Consistent growth is being maintained in the company’s online casino businesses both by expanding the range of services offered by continuing to sign up more casino operators to the popular software platform. Meanwhile, the recent acquisitions of Pariplay and BtoBet are helping reap rewards as the company continues to target additional markets in the US and further penetration into the competitive, but very profitable sports betting market. Company CEOs in general are renowned for their optimistic, rose-tinted views on their business’s immediate future. Some cynics argue that their considerable salaries and incentive bonuses depend on it. Yet in the case of Aspire Global’s Tsachi Maimon, it’s clearly not all sweet talk aimed at impressing his corporate investors. His company has produced impressive financial figures and possesses a consistent record of progress with which to back up his bluster. After six consecutive quarters of solid growth, there is no sign of this sustained progress coming to an end. For Aspire Global, the future is bright. FAQ’s What is the minimum deposit on Aspire Global Casinos? The minimum deposit is £10, however some bonuses require a £20 deposit. Are the online casinos powered by Aspire Global licenced in the UK? Yes, they are licenced under the company name AG Communications Limited, licence number: 39483 Who owns Aspire Global? The majority shareholder is CEO Tsachi Maimon. Are the online casinos owned by Aspire Global all the same? No, some casinos will have different products and games integrated. For example, not every casino has the Aspire Global sports betting solution. 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https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#id2 | 3. An Informal Introduction to Python — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming Previous topic 2. Using the Python Interpreter Next topic 4. More Control Flow Tools This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 3. An Informal Introduction to Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | 3. An Informal Introduction to Python ¶ In the following examples, input and output are distinguished by the presence or absence of prompts ( >>> and … ): to repeat the example, you must type everything after the prompt, when the prompt appears; lines that do not begin with a prompt are output from the interpreter. Note that a secondary prompt on a line by itself in an example means you must type a blank line; this is used to end a multi-line command. You can use the “Copy” button (it appears in the upper-right corner when hovering over or tapping a code example), which strips prompts and omits output, to copy and paste the input lines into your interpreter. Many of the examples in this manual, even those entered at the interactive prompt, include comments. Comments in Python start with the hash character, # , and extend to the end of the physical line. A comment may appear at the start of a line or following whitespace or code, but not within a string literal. A hash character within a string literal is just a hash character. Since comments are to clarify code and are not interpreted by Python, they may be omitted when typing in examples. Some examples: # this is the first comment spam = 1 # and this is the second comment # ... and now a third! text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes." 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator ¶ Let’s try some simple Python commands. Start the interpreter and wait for the primary prompt, >>> . (It shouldn’t take long.) 3.1.1. Numbers ¶ The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression into it and it will write the value. Expression syntax is straightforward: the operators + , - , * and / can be used to perform arithmetic; parentheses ( () ) can be used for grouping. For example: >>> 2 + 2 4 >>> 50 - 5 * 6 20 >>> ( 50 - 5 * 6 ) / 4 5.0 >>> 8 / 5 # division always returns a floating-point number 1.6 The integer numbers (e.g. 2 , 4 , 20 ) have type int , the ones with a fractional part (e.g. 5.0 , 1.6 ) have type float . We will see more about numeric types later in the tutorial. Division ( / ) always returns a float. To do floor division and get an integer result you can use the // operator; to calculate the remainder you can use % : >>> 17 / 3 # classic division returns a float 5.666666666666667 >>> >>> 17 // 3 # floor division discards the fractional part 5 >>> 17 % 3 # the % operator returns the remainder of the division 2 >>> 5 * 3 + 2 # floored quotient * divisor + remainder 17 With Python, it is possible to use the ** operator to calculate powers [ 1 ] : >>> 5 ** 2 # 5 squared 25 >>> 2 ** 7 # 2 to the power of 7 128 The equal sign ( = ) is used to assign a value to a variable. Afterwards, no result is displayed before the next interactive prompt: >>> width = 20 >>> height = 5 * 9 >>> width * height 900 If a variable is not “defined” (assigned a value), trying to use it will give you an error: >>> n # try to access an undefined variable Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> NameError : name 'n' is not defined There is full support for floating point; operators with mixed type operands convert the integer operand to floating point: >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1 14.0 In interactive mode, the last printed expression is assigned to the variable _ . This means that when you are using Python as a desk calculator, it is somewhat easier to continue calculations, for example: >>> tax = 12.5 / 100 >>> price = 100.50 >>> price * tax 12.5625 >>> price + _ 113.0625 >>> round ( _ , 2 ) 113.06 This variable should be treated as read-only by the user. Don’t explicitly assign a value to it — you would create an independent local variable with the same name masking the built-in variable with its magic behavior. In addition to int and float , Python supports other types of numbers, such as Decimal and Fraction . Python also has built-in support for complex numbers , and uses the j or J suffix to indicate the imaginary part (e.g. 3+5j ). 3.1.2. Text ¶ Python can manipulate text (represented by type str , so-called “strings”) as well as numbers. This includes characters “ ! ”, words “ rabbit ”, names “ Paris ”, sentences “ Got your back. ”, etc. “ Yay! :) ”. They can be enclosed in single quotes ( '...' ) or double quotes ( "..." ) with the same result [ 2 ] . >>> 'spam eggs' # single quotes 'spam eggs' >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!" # double quotes 'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!' >>> '1975' # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings '1975' To quote a quote, we need to “escape” it, by preceding it with \ . Alternatively, we can use the other type of quotation marks: >>> 'doesn \' t' # use \' to escape the single quote... "doesn't" >>> "doesn't" # ...or use double quotes instead "doesn't" >>> '"Yes," they said.' '"Yes," they said.' >>> " \" Yes, \" they said." '"Yes," they said.' >>> '"Isn \' t," they said.' '"Isn\'t," they said.' In the Python shell, the string definition and output string can look different. The print() function produces a more readable output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped and special characters: >>> s = 'First line. \n Second line.' # \n means newline >>> s # without print(), special characters are included in the string 'First line.\nSecond line.' >>> print ( s ) # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line First line. Second line. If you don’t want characters prefaced by \ to be interpreted as special characters, you can use raw strings by adding an r before the first quote: >>> print ( 'C:\some \n ame' ) # here \n means newline! C:\some ame >>> print ( r 'C:\some\name' ) # note the r before the quote C:\some\name There is one subtle aspect to raw strings: a raw string may not end in an odd number of \ characters; see the FAQ entry for more information and workarounds. String literals can span multiple lines. One way is using triple-quotes: """...""" or '''...''' . End-of-line characters are automatically included in the string, but it’s possible to prevent this by adding a \ at the end of the line. In the following example, the initial newline is not included: >>> print ( """ \ ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] ... -h Display this usage message ... -H hostname Hostname to connect to ... """ ) Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] -h Display this usage message -H hostname Hostname to connect to >>> Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the + operator, and repeated with * : >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium' >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium' 'unununium' Two or more string literals (i.e. the ones enclosed between quotes) next to each other are automatically concatenated. >>> 'Py' 'thon' 'Python' This feature is particularly useful when you want to break long strings: >>> text = ( 'Put several strings within parentheses ' ... 'to have them joined together.' ) >>> text 'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.' This only works with two literals though, not with variables or expressions: >>> prefix = 'Py' >>> prefix 'thon' # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal File "<stdin>" , line 1 prefix 'thon' ^^^^^^ SyntaxError : invalid syntax >>> ( 'un' * 3 ) 'ium' File "<stdin>" , line 1 ( 'un' * 3 ) 'ium' ^^^^^ SyntaxError : invalid syntax If you want to concatenate variables or a variable and a literal, use + : >>> prefix + 'thon' 'Python' Strings can be indexed (subscripted), with the first character having index 0. There is no separate character type; a character is simply a string of size one: >>> word = 'Python' >>> word [ 0 ] # character in position 0 'P' >>> word [ 5 ] # character in position 5 'n' Indices may also be negative numbers, to start counting from the right: >>> word [ - 1 ] # last character 'n' >>> word [ - 2 ] # second-last character 'o' >>> word [ - 6 ] 'P' Note that since -0 is the same as 0, negative indices start from -1. In addition to indexing, slicing is also supported. While indexing is used to obtain individual characters, slicing allows you to obtain a substring: >>> word [ 0 : 2 ] # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded) 'Py' >>> word [ 2 : 5 ] # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded) 'tho' Slice indices have useful defaults; an omitted first index defaults to zero, an omitted second index defaults to the size of the string being sliced. >>> word [: 2 ] # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded) 'Py' >>> word [ 4 :] # characters from position 4 (included) to the end 'on' >>> word [ - 2 :] # characters from the second-last (included) to the end 'on' Note how the start is always included, and the end always excluded. This makes sure that s[:i] + s[i:] is always equal to s : >>> word [: 2 ] + word [ 2 :] 'Python' >>> word [: 4 ] + word [ 4 :] 'Python' One way to remember how slices work is to think of the indices as pointing between characters, with the left edge of the first character numbered 0. Then the right edge of the last character of a string of n characters has index n , for example: +---+---+---+---+---+---+ | P | y | t | h | o | n | +---+---+---+---+---+---+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 The first row of numbers gives the position of the indices 0…6 in the string; the second row gives the corresponding negative indices. The slice from i to j consists of all characters between the edges labeled i and j , respectively. For non-negative indices, the length of a slice is the difference of the indices, if both are within bounds. For example, the length of word[1:3] is 2. Attempting to use an index that is too large will result in an error: >>> word [ 42 ] # the word only has 6 characters Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> IndexError : string index out of range However, out of range slice indexes are handled gracefully when used for slicing: >>> word [ 4 : 42 ] 'on' >>> word [ 42 :] '' Python strings cannot be changed — they are immutable . Therefore, assigning to an indexed position in the string results in an error: >>> word [ 0 ] = 'J' Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : 'str' object does not support item assignment >>> word [ 2 :] = 'py' Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : 'str' object does not support item assignment If you need a different string, you should create a new one: >>> 'J' + word [ 1 :] 'Jython' >>> word [: 2 ] + 'py' 'Pypy' The built-in function len() returns the length of a string: >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious' >>> len ( s ) 34 See also Text Sequence Type — str Strings are examples of sequence types , and support the common operations supported by such types. String Methods Strings support a large number of methods for basic transformations and searching. f-strings String literals that have embedded expressions. Format String Syntax Information about string formatting with str.format() . printf-style String Formatting The old formatting operations invoked when strings are the left operand of the % operator are described in more detail here. 3.1.3. Lists ¶ Python knows a number of compound data types, used to group together other values. The most versatile is the list , which can be written as a list of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Lists might contain items of different types, but usually the items all have the same type. >>> squares = [ 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 ] >>> squares [1, 4, 9, 16, 25] Like strings (and all other built-in sequence types), lists can be indexed and sliced: >>> squares [ 0 ] # indexing returns the item 1 >>> squares [ - 1 ] 25 >>> squares [ - 3 :] # slicing returns a new list [9, 16, 25] Lists also support operations like concatenation: >>> squares + [ 36 , 49 , 64 , 81 , 100 ] [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100] Unlike strings, which are immutable , lists are a mutable type, i.e. it is possible to change their content: >>> cubes = [ 1 , 8 , 27 , 65 , 125 ] # something's wrong here >>> 4 ** 3 # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65! 64 >>> cubes [ 3 ] = 64 # replace the wrong value >>> cubes [1, 8, 27, 64, 125] You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using the list.append() method (we will see more about methods later): >>> cubes . append ( 216 ) # add the cube of 6 >>> cubes . append ( 7 ** 3 ) # and the cube of 7 >>> cubes [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343] Simple assignment in Python never copies data. When you assign a list to a variable, the variable refers to the existing list . Any changes you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other variables that refer to it.: >>> rgb = [ "Red" , "Green" , "Blue" ] >>> rgba = rgb >>> id ( rgb ) == id ( rgba ) # they reference the same object True >>> rgba . append ( "Alph" ) >>> rgb ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"] All slice operations return a new list containing the requested elements. This means that the following slice returns a shallow copy of the list: >>> correct_rgba = rgba [:] >>> correct_rgba [ - 1 ] = "Alpha" >>> correct_rgba ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"] >>> rgba ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"] Assignment to slices is also possible, and this can even change the size of the list or clear it entirely: >>> letters = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' , 'd' , 'e' , 'f' , 'g' ] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'] >>> # replace some values >>> letters [ 2 : 5 ] = [ 'C' , 'D' , 'E' ] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g'] >>> # now remove them >>> letters [ 2 : 5 ] = [] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g'] >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list >>> letters [:] = [] >>> letters [] The built-in function len() also applies to lists: >>> letters = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' , 'd' ] >>> len ( letters ) 4 It is possible to nest lists (create lists containing other lists), for example: >>> a = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' ] >>> n = [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] >>> x = [ a , n ] >>> x [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]] >>> x [ 0 ] ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> x [ 0 ][ 1 ] 'b' 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming ¶ Of course, we can use Python for more complicated tasks than adding two and two together. For instance, we can write an initial sub-sequence of the Fibonacci series as follows: >>> # Fibonacci series: >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next >>> a , b = 0 , 1 >>> while a < 10 : ... print ( a ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 This example introduces several new features. The first line contains a multiple assignment : the variables a and b simultaneously get the new values 0 and 1. On the last line this is used again, demonstrating that the expressions on the right-hand side are all evaluated first before any of the assignments take place. The right-hand side expressions are evaluated from the left to the right. The while loop executes as long as the condition (here: a < 10 ) remains true. In Python, like in C, any non-zero integer value is true; zero is false. The condition may also be a string or list value, in fact any sequence; anything with a non-zero length is true, empty sequences are false. The test used in the example is a simple comparison. The standard comparison operators are written the same as in C: < (less than), > (greater than), == (equal to), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or equal to) and != (not equal to). The body of the loop is indented : indentation is Python’s way of grouping statements. At the interactive prompt, you have to type a tab or space(s) for each indented line. In practice you will prepare more complicated input for Python with a text editor; all decent text editors have an auto-indent facility. When a compound statement is entered interactively, it must be followed by a blank line to indicate completion (since the parser cannot guess when you have typed the last line). Note that each line within a basic block must be indented by the same amount. The print() function writes the value of the argument(s) it is given. It differs from just writing the expression you want to write (as we did earlier in the calculator examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments, floating-point quantities, and strings. Strings are printed without quotes, and a space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely, like this: >>> i = 256 * 256 >>> print ( 'The value of i is' , i ) The value of i is 65536 The keyword argument end can be used to avoid the newline after the output, or end the output with a different string: >>> a , b = 0 , 1 >>> while a < 1000 : ... print ( a , end = ',' ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987, Footnotes [ 1 ] Since ** has higher precedence than - , -3**2 will be interpreted as -(3**2) and thus result in -9 . To avoid this and get 9 , you can use (-3)**2 . [ 2 ] Unlike other languages, special characters such as \n have the same meaning with both single ( '...' ) and double ( "..." ) quotes. The only difference between the two is that within single quotes you don’t need to escape " (but you have to escape \' ) and vice versa. Table of Contents 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming Previous topic 2. Using the Python Interpreter Next topic 4. More Control Flow Tools This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 3. An Informal Introduction to Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. 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Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Yield Sec says 74% of US gambling goes to illegal operators A new study has raised fresh questions about the direction of US online gambling. According to Yield Sec, most online gambling money still flows outside regulated casinos. The finding adds tension to the industry. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Maine to Legalize Online Casinos Through Tribal Operators Maine is set to legalize online casinos run by tribal operators, marking a major shift in state gambling policy. The move limits licenses, reshapes regulation, and sparks debate over fairness, control, and future market balance. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Casino Scam Lord Chen Zhi Extradited to China Chinese authorities have taken casino boss Chen Zhi into custody after his extradition from Cambodia, stepping up a wide international crackdown on casino-linked scams, digital money laundering, and worker abuse tied to his Prince Group businesses. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Virginia Reviews Gambling Oversight and Legalisation in 2026 Virginia lawmakers may return to online casino legalisation in 2026 as gambling growth tests state oversight, reopening debate over regulation, consumer protection, and whether one gaming commission could better manage the industry. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Reflex Gaming Launches Candy Crazed Pandas Reflex Gaming has opened the year with Candy Crazed Pandas DoubleMax, a new slot built around rising multipliers, panda-themed symbols, and high volatility play that may appeal to players seeking larger swings and sustained feature pressure. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 KSA Moves to Recover Fine from Instant Casino The Dutch gambling regulator Kansspelautoriteit has moved to enforce a penalty against Instant Casino after the operator missed the deadline to pay a fine linked to unlicensed gambling activity in the Netherlands. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Betinia Appoints Diego Simeone as Brand Ambassador Drake, streamer Adin Ross, and the crypto gambling site Stake have become targets of a new class-action lawsuit in Virginia, where plaintiffs accuse the defendants of promoting an unlicensed gambling service and using internal payment tools to move funds Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 MelBet Leaves Ugandan Gambling Market The National Lotteries and Gaming Regulatory Board confirmed that Fox Bet Limited lost authorisation to operate MelBet in Uganda from January 1, 2026, amid the rollout of stricter licensing and compliance rules for casino operators. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 GGBet is exiting the UK market GGBet has announced plans to exit the UK market, confirming that it is winding down operations and preparing to close its UK-facing website as regulatory and tax pressures continue to mount. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 UK Online Gambling Sector Shrinks as Operators Pull Back The UK online gambling market is showing early signs of slowdown in 2026. Several licensed operators are cutting costs or planning to leave — driven by tighter bonus rules and much higher taxes. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Stakelogic Expands With Marathonbet in Spain Stakelogic has signed a new deal with Marathonbet in Spain, marking its first partnership of the year and showing a clear plan to grow its casino game presence in a tightly regulated European market. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 BetMGM Brings FashionTV Brand Into US Online Casinos BetMGM has announced a new partnership with FashionTV Gaming Group, bringing fashion-branded casino games to US markets. The deal adds another branded play as competition grows across regulated online casinos. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 BGaming prepares for return to ICE Barcelona BGaming is preparing for a visible return to ICE Barcelona, scheduled for January 19–21. The event may mark an important checkpoint — not a finish line — for a supplier seeking broader industry relevance. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Provably fair Provably fair is a system that lets you prove that the crash point was randomly generated before you placed your bet, and the casino could not secretly change it after you bet. Jan 13, 2026 Bankroll Bankroll is the amount of disposable money you have ring-fenced purely for gambling — money that you are fully prepared and emotionally comfortable to lose 100% of without it ruining your life or finances. Jan 13, 2026 DJ Wild Poker DJ Wild Poker (also known as DJ Wild Stud Poker) is a casino table game played against the dealer. It uses a 53-card deck, where all deuces (2s) and the joker act as wild cards. Players place Ante and Blind bets, then decide whether to Fold or Play after seeing their cards. Winning hands pay even money, while the Blind bet follows a special payout table. The strongest hand is Five Wilds, followed by a royal flush and other standard poker rankings. Some versions also feature optional side bets, such as Trips or Bad Beat. Jan 13, 2026 Cluster Pay Slot Mechanic Explained Cluster Pay is a win mechanic in slot games where you need to land a group (cluster) of matching symbols that touch each other horizontally or vertically. Usually, it takes 4 or more adjacent symbols of the same kind to create a winning combination. Wins are based on connected symbol groups anywhere on the grid. Slots with this mechanic often have larger layouts like 5×5, 6×6, or bigger, and are frequently combined with additional reel mechanics like Cascading Reels. Jan 13, 2026 Coin Size Coin size is the value of a single coin used when placing bets in some slot games, especially classic or older video slots. It helps control how much you bet per spin. Coin size usually works together with other settings like bet level or number of coins per line. For example, if your coin size is $0.10 and you're betting 50 coins, your total bet per spin is $5 (50 × 0.10). Jan 13, 2026 Cold Slot Cold Slot is a slot game that, over a recent period, has paid out less than expected based on its theoretical RTP. This means the actual RTP during that time was lower than the slot’s documented average. However, because each spin result is controlled by a random number generator (RNG), this does not affect the chances for the next player — every spin is independent and random. Jan 13, 2026 Slot Features Slot feature is any extra action in a slot game that changes standard spins or increases the chance of a win. Examples: free spins, respins, special symbols. Features can be triggered by certain symbols, specific game events, or randomly. Jan 13, 2026 Free Spins Free Spins are a popular slot feature and a type of casino bonus that allow players to spin the reels without using funds from their balance. They can be triggered during gameplay like a bonus feature in a slot, or received as part of a casino bonus — either with a deposit or without, depending on the bonus type and requirements. Jan 13, 2026 Gamble Feature Gamble Feature is a slot feature (primarily found in Play'n GO slots) that lets players choose between Gamble and Collect after a winning spin. By using this feature, players can try to increase their winnings by playing an additional round — choosing either a color, which multiplies the win by 2x, or a suit, which multiplies it by 4x. Multipliers and game types may vary depending on the provider, but the core idea remains the same. In some cases, you can collect part of your win and continue gambling with the rest. Games often set certain limits for the Gamble Feature, such as a maximum of 10 rounds or a 10x multiplier cap. Jan 13, 2026 High Limit Slots High Limit Slots are slot games where the maximum bet per spin starts at $1 000 or more. These slots are developed for high rollers who prefer to bet large amounts and aim for big wins. High limit slots often offer above-average winning potential and may include features like progressive jackpots. Jan 13, 2026 Hit and Run Hit and Run is a strategy or approach in casino games, where players make a quick bet, aim for a short-term win, and then leave the game immediately after achieving a profit, minimizing the risk of losing the winnings. Jan 13, 2026 Game Credits Game Credits are the virtual currency used in casino games. Players use them to place bets and receive winnings. The credit balance is usually funded by depositing real money using available payment methods. Jan 13, 2026 Hold and Win Hold and Win is a slot feature that locks special symbols in place and gives you respins. The goal is to collect as many winning symbols as possible before the respins run out. Also known as Hold and Spin and Lock-and-Spin. Jan 13, 2026 Hot Slot Hot Slot is a slot game that, over a recent period, has paid out more than expected based on its theoretical RTP. This means the actual RTP during that time was higher than the slot’s documented average. However, since each spin result is controlled by a random number generator (RNG), this does not affect the chances for the next player — every spin is independent and random. Also known as Loose Slot. Jan 13, 2026 Low Limit Slot A low limit slot is a game that allows small bets per spin, usually ranging from $0.10 to $1. These games often feature low to medium volatility, offering more frequent but smaller wins. Some of them are known as “penny slots.” However, despite the name, the actual minimum bet on penny slots is often higher than one cent, since players typically bet on multiple paylines. Jan 13, 2026 Megaways Megaways is a type of Ways to Win mechanic used in slot games. It offers a dynamic, non-fixed number of ways to win, which changes with every spin depending on how many symbols appear on each reel. The Megaways system was originally developed and patented by Big Time Gaming. Jan 13, 2026 Multiplier A multiplier is a part of the win mechanic in slot games that increases your winnings by multiplying them by a certain factor, such as ×2, ×3, or more. By default, all wins are paid with a multiplier of ×1. Multipliers can increase during base gameplay or bonus rounds, multiplying the total win amount. For example, a ×2 multiplier doubles your win, while a ×5 multiplier multiplies it by 5. Jan 13, 2026 Nudge Symbol Nudge Symbol is a slot symbol mechanic where a symbol moves (nudges) up or down by one or more positions after the reels stop spinning. The main purpose is to help form a winning combination or trigger a bonus feature. In most cases, it applies to stacked bonus symbols so they nudge into full view and complete a winning combination. Jan 13, 2026 Gambling Horoscope: Is Today My Lucky Day to Gamble? Gambling luck astrology in 2026 unveils the most opportune days and strategies for players to enhance their gaming outcomes. As astrologist Susan Miller states, "The magical thing about astrology is you are completely unique — no chart will ever be replicated again." In 2026, celestial movements promise unique opportunities for players who rely on astrological insights.If you're wondering, "Is today my lucky day for gambling?" this guide will help you identify the best times to play and choose games that align with your zodiac sign. 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Janvrin Richard Jan 13, 2026 Affiliate Disclosure We value your trust and strive for maximum transparency in everything we do.Maintaining honesty and openness in our interaction with users is essential to us.This Affiliate Disclosure explains how affiliate links work and why our content remains objective at all times. Trajkovski Andrej Jan 13, 2026 Demographics and Behavioral Patterns of Online Gamblers Not all people gamble equally, and not all people are equally likely to engage in online gambling. While there are some well-known demographic and behavioral patterns relating to “traditional”, offline gambling, online casinos have been around only for a short while. Gandotra Divya Jan 13, 2026 Industry Talks — Exclusive Interviews, Q&As & Podcasts from iGaming Leaders At SlotsUp, we take pride in providing our readers with the most comprehensive and accurate information about the iGaming industry. To do that, we’ve decided to reach out to some of the biggest names in the business for exclusive interviews. Janvrin Richard Jan 13, 2026 Sweet Bonanza Candyland - Live Game Pragmatic Play is adored for its immersive slots online and table games and shows hosted by real dealers. One of this provider’s most vibrant live shows is Sweet Bonanza CandyLand, which is based on a popular slot machine, so its elements will be used during the live stream. Gover Matthew Jan 13, 2026 Interview with BGaming Team: Details on Merge Up™ Slot, Innovations Insights and More Greetings, BGaming team! As enthusiasts in the realm of online slots, we’re thrilled to connect with a team behind the captivating Merge Up™ slot. Before delving into its details, we’d love to explore the innovative spirit driving BGaming and learn more about your vision. Mykhailiuta Maryna Jan 13, 2026 Live Blackjack Games A complete history of gambling is incomplete without mentioning blackjack and the impact it has had on punters worldwide, as well as on the culture of gambling. In land-based casinos, the game requires no specific skill and bankroll; anyone can play at a variety of stake levels. Janvrin Richard Jan 13, 2026 Casino Mania - Social Gaming Adventure for Fun and Entertainment Casino Mania, an innovative sweepstakes casino app, is readily accessible on both the App Store and Google Play. Developed by Alphabet Technology and introduced in 2017, this casino app operates exclusively with gold coins, providing a platform for social online casino games designed purely for entertainment, without the allure of real cash prizes. Trajkovski Andrej Jan 13, 2026 Crazy Time - Live C | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/react-native-android-integration#initialization | Android Integration - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Android iOS React Native Android Integration iOS Integration Manage Users Sync Events iOS Push Setup Android Push (FCM) Flutter React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation React Native Android Integration Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog React Native Android Integration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT This document will cover integration steps for Android side of your ReactNative application. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install Package npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @ suprsend / react - native - sdk @ latest 2 Add the below dependency Add the this dependency in project level build.gradle , inside allprojects > repositories . build.gradle Copy Ask AI allprojects { repositories { ... mavenCentral () // add this } } 3 Add Android SDK dependency inside in app level build.gradle. build.gradle Copy Ask AI dependencies { ... implementation 'com.suprsend:rn:0.1.10' // add this } Note: If you get any error regarding minSdkVersion please update it to 19 or more. Initialization 1 Initialise the Suprsend Android SDK Initialise the Suprsend android SDK in MainApplication.java inside onCreate method and just above super.onCreate() line. javascript Copy Ask AI import app . suprsend . SSApi ; // import sdk ... SSApi . Companion . init ( this , WORKSPACE KEY , WORKSPACE SECRET ); // inside onCreate method just above super.onCreate() line Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will get them the tokens from Settings -> API Keys inside Suprsend dashboard . 2 Import SuprSend SDK in your client side Javascript code. javascript Copy Ask AI import suprsend from "@suprsend/react-native-sdk" ; Logging By default the logs of SuprSend SDK are disabled. You can enable the logs just in debug mode while in development by the below condition. javascript Copy Ask AI suprsend . enableLogging (); // available from v2.0.2 // deprecated from v2.0.2 suprsend . setLogLevel ( level ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "VERBOSE" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "DEBUG" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "INFO" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "ERROR" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "OFF" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Integration This document will cover integration steps for iOS side of your ReactNative application. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization Logging | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#id4 | 3. An Informal Introduction to Python — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming Previous topic 2. Using the Python Interpreter Next topic 4. More Control Flow Tools This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 3. An Informal Introduction to Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | 3. An Informal Introduction to Python ¶ In the following examples, input and output are distinguished by the presence or absence of prompts ( >>> and … ): to repeat the example, you must type everything after the prompt, when the prompt appears; lines that do not begin with a prompt are output from the interpreter. Note that a secondary prompt on a line by itself in an example means you must type a blank line; this is used to end a multi-line command. You can use the “Copy” button (it appears in the upper-right corner when hovering over or tapping a code example), which strips prompts and omits output, to copy and paste the input lines into your interpreter. Many of the examples in this manual, even those entered at the interactive prompt, include comments. Comments in Python start with the hash character, # , and extend to the end of the physical line. A comment may appear at the start of a line or following whitespace or code, but not within a string literal. A hash character within a string literal is just a hash character. Since comments are to clarify code and are not interpreted by Python, they may be omitted when typing in examples. Some examples: # this is the first comment spam = 1 # and this is the second comment # ... and now a third! text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes." 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator ¶ Let’s try some simple Python commands. Start the interpreter and wait for the primary prompt, >>> . (It shouldn’t take long.) 3.1.1. Numbers ¶ The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression into it and it will write the value. Expression syntax is straightforward: the operators + , - , * and / can be used to perform arithmetic; parentheses ( () ) can be used for grouping. For example: >>> 2 + 2 4 >>> 50 - 5 * 6 20 >>> ( 50 - 5 * 6 ) / 4 5.0 >>> 8 / 5 # division always returns a floating-point number 1.6 The integer numbers (e.g. 2 , 4 , 20 ) have type int , the ones with a fractional part (e.g. 5.0 , 1.6 ) have type float . We will see more about numeric types later in the tutorial. Division ( / ) always returns a float. To do floor division and get an integer result you can use the // operator; to calculate the remainder you can use % : >>> 17 / 3 # classic division returns a float 5.666666666666667 >>> >>> 17 // 3 # floor division discards the fractional part 5 >>> 17 % 3 # the % operator returns the remainder of the division 2 >>> 5 * 3 + 2 # floored quotient * divisor + remainder 17 With Python, it is possible to use the ** operator to calculate powers [ 1 ] : >>> 5 ** 2 # 5 squared 25 >>> 2 ** 7 # 2 to the power of 7 128 The equal sign ( = ) is used to assign a value to a variable. Afterwards, no result is displayed before the next interactive prompt: >>> width = 20 >>> height = 5 * 9 >>> width * height 900 If a variable is not “defined” (assigned a value), trying to use it will give you an error: >>> n # try to access an undefined variable Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> NameError : name 'n' is not defined There is full support for floating point; operators with mixed type operands convert the integer operand to floating point: >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1 14.0 In interactive mode, the last printed expression is assigned to the variable _ . This means that when you are using Python as a desk calculator, it is somewhat easier to continue calculations, for example: >>> tax = 12.5 / 100 >>> price = 100.50 >>> price * tax 12.5625 >>> price + _ 113.0625 >>> round ( _ , 2 ) 113.06 This variable should be treated as read-only by the user. Don’t explicitly assign a value to it — you would create an independent local variable with the same name masking the built-in variable with its magic behavior. In addition to int and float , Python supports other types of numbers, such as Decimal and Fraction . Python also has built-in support for complex numbers , and uses the j or J suffix to indicate the imaginary part (e.g. 3+5j ). 3.1.2. Text ¶ Python can manipulate text (represented by type str , so-called “strings”) as well as numbers. This includes characters “ ! ”, words “ rabbit ”, names “ Paris ”, sentences “ Got your back. ”, etc. “ Yay! :) ”. They can be enclosed in single quotes ( '...' ) or double quotes ( "..." ) with the same result [ 2 ] . >>> 'spam eggs' # single quotes 'spam eggs' >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!" # double quotes 'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!' >>> '1975' # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings '1975' To quote a quote, we need to “escape” it, by preceding it with \ . Alternatively, we can use the other type of quotation marks: >>> 'doesn \' t' # use \' to escape the single quote... "doesn't" >>> "doesn't" # ...or use double quotes instead "doesn't" >>> '"Yes," they said.' '"Yes," they said.' >>> " \" Yes, \" they said." '"Yes," they said.' >>> '"Isn \' t," they said.' '"Isn\'t," they said.' In the Python shell, the string definition and output string can look different. The print() function produces a more readable output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped and special characters: >>> s = 'First line. \n Second line.' # \n means newline >>> s # without print(), special characters are included in the string 'First line.\nSecond line.' >>> print ( s ) # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line First line. Second line. If you don’t want characters prefaced by \ to be interpreted as special characters, you can use raw strings by adding an r before the first quote: >>> print ( 'C:\some \n ame' ) # here \n means newline! C:\some ame >>> print ( r 'C:\some\name' ) # note the r before the quote C:\some\name There is one subtle aspect to raw strings: a raw string may not end in an odd number of \ characters; see the FAQ entry for more information and workarounds. String literals can span multiple lines. One way is using triple-quotes: """...""" or '''...''' . End-of-line characters are automatically included in the string, but it’s possible to prevent this by adding a \ at the end of the line. In the following example, the initial newline is not included: >>> print ( """ \ ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] ... -h Display this usage message ... -H hostname Hostname to connect to ... """ ) Usage: thingy [OPTIONS] -h Display this usage message -H hostname Hostname to connect to >>> Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the + operator, and repeated with * : >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium' >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium' 'unununium' Two or more string literals (i.e. the ones enclosed between quotes) next to each other are automatically concatenated. >>> 'Py' 'thon' 'Python' This feature is particularly useful when you want to break long strings: >>> text = ( 'Put several strings within parentheses ' ... 'to have them joined together.' ) >>> text 'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.' This only works with two literals though, not with variables or expressions: >>> prefix = 'Py' >>> prefix 'thon' # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal File "<stdin>" , line 1 prefix 'thon' ^^^^^^ SyntaxError : invalid syntax >>> ( 'un' * 3 ) 'ium' File "<stdin>" , line 1 ( 'un' * 3 ) 'ium' ^^^^^ SyntaxError : invalid syntax If you want to concatenate variables or a variable and a literal, use + : >>> prefix + 'thon' 'Python' Strings can be indexed (subscripted), with the first character having index 0. There is no separate character type; a character is simply a string of size one: >>> word = 'Python' >>> word [ 0 ] # character in position 0 'P' >>> word [ 5 ] # character in position 5 'n' Indices may also be negative numbers, to start counting from the right: >>> word [ - 1 ] # last character 'n' >>> word [ - 2 ] # second-last character 'o' >>> word [ - 6 ] 'P' Note that since -0 is the same as 0, negative indices start from -1. In addition to indexing, slicing is also supported. While indexing is used to obtain individual characters, slicing allows you to obtain a substring: >>> word [ 0 : 2 ] # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded) 'Py' >>> word [ 2 : 5 ] # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded) 'tho' Slice indices have useful defaults; an omitted first index defaults to zero, an omitted second index defaults to the size of the string being sliced. >>> word [: 2 ] # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded) 'Py' >>> word [ 4 :] # characters from position 4 (included) to the end 'on' >>> word [ - 2 :] # characters from the second-last (included) to the end 'on' Note how the start is always included, and the end always excluded. This makes sure that s[:i] + s[i:] is always equal to s : >>> word [: 2 ] + word [ 2 :] 'Python' >>> word [: 4 ] + word [ 4 :] 'Python' One way to remember how slices work is to think of the indices as pointing between characters, with the left edge of the first character numbered 0. Then the right edge of the last character of a string of n characters has index n , for example: +---+---+---+---+---+---+ | P | y | t | h | o | n | +---+---+---+---+---+---+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 The first row of numbers gives the position of the indices 0…6 in the string; the second row gives the corresponding negative indices. The slice from i to j consists of all characters between the edges labeled i and j , respectively. For non-negative indices, the length of a slice is the difference of the indices, if both are within bounds. For example, the length of word[1:3] is 2. Attempting to use an index that is too large will result in an error: >>> word [ 42 ] # the word only has 6 characters Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> IndexError : string index out of range However, out of range slice indexes are handled gracefully when used for slicing: >>> word [ 4 : 42 ] 'on' >>> word [ 42 :] '' Python strings cannot be changed — they are immutable . Therefore, assigning to an indexed position in the string results in an error: >>> word [ 0 ] = 'J' Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : 'str' object does not support item assignment >>> word [ 2 :] = 'py' Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : 'str' object does not support item assignment If you need a different string, you should create a new one: >>> 'J' + word [ 1 :] 'Jython' >>> word [: 2 ] + 'py' 'Pypy' The built-in function len() returns the length of a string: >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious' >>> len ( s ) 34 See also Text Sequence Type — str Strings are examples of sequence types , and support the common operations supported by such types. String Methods Strings support a large number of methods for basic transformations and searching. f-strings String literals that have embedded expressions. Format String Syntax Information about string formatting with str.format() . printf-style String Formatting The old formatting operations invoked when strings are the left operand of the % operator are described in more detail here. 3.1.3. Lists ¶ Python knows a number of compound data types, used to group together other values. The most versatile is the list , which can be written as a list of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Lists might contain items of different types, but usually the items all have the same type. >>> squares = [ 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 ] >>> squares [1, 4, 9, 16, 25] Like strings (and all other built-in sequence types), lists can be indexed and sliced: >>> squares [ 0 ] # indexing returns the item 1 >>> squares [ - 1 ] 25 >>> squares [ - 3 :] # slicing returns a new list [9, 16, 25] Lists also support operations like concatenation: >>> squares + [ 36 , 49 , 64 , 81 , 100 ] [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100] Unlike strings, which are immutable , lists are a mutable type, i.e. it is possible to change their content: >>> cubes = [ 1 , 8 , 27 , 65 , 125 ] # something's wrong here >>> 4 ** 3 # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65! 64 >>> cubes [ 3 ] = 64 # replace the wrong value >>> cubes [1, 8, 27, 64, 125] You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using the list.append() method (we will see more about methods later): >>> cubes . append ( 216 ) # add the cube of 6 >>> cubes . append ( 7 ** 3 ) # and the cube of 7 >>> cubes [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343] Simple assignment in Python never copies data. When you assign a list to a variable, the variable refers to the existing list . Any changes you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other variables that refer to it.: >>> rgb = [ "Red" , "Green" , "Blue" ] >>> rgba = rgb >>> id ( rgb ) == id ( rgba ) # they reference the same object True >>> rgba . append ( "Alph" ) >>> rgb ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"] All slice operations return a new list containing the requested elements. This means that the following slice returns a shallow copy of the list: >>> correct_rgba = rgba [:] >>> correct_rgba [ - 1 ] = "Alpha" >>> correct_rgba ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"] >>> rgba ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"] Assignment to slices is also possible, and this can even change the size of the list or clear it entirely: >>> letters = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' , 'd' , 'e' , 'f' , 'g' ] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'] >>> # replace some values >>> letters [ 2 : 5 ] = [ 'C' , 'D' , 'E' ] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g'] >>> # now remove them >>> letters [ 2 : 5 ] = [] >>> letters ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g'] >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list >>> letters [:] = [] >>> letters [] The built-in function len() also applies to lists: >>> letters = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' , 'd' ] >>> len ( letters ) 4 It is possible to nest lists (create lists containing other lists), for example: >>> a = [ 'a' , 'b' , 'c' ] >>> n = [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] >>> x = [ a , n ] >>> x [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]] >>> x [ 0 ] ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> x [ 0 ][ 1 ] 'b' 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming ¶ Of course, we can use Python for more complicated tasks than adding two and two together. For instance, we can write an initial sub-sequence of the Fibonacci series as follows: >>> # Fibonacci series: >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next >>> a , b = 0 , 1 >>> while a < 10 : ... print ( a ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 This example introduces several new features. The first line contains a multiple assignment : the variables a and b simultaneously get the new values 0 and 1. On the last line this is used again, demonstrating that the expressions on the right-hand side are all evaluated first before any of the assignments take place. The right-hand side expressions are evaluated from the left to the right. The while loop executes as long as the condition (here: a < 10 ) remains true. In Python, like in C, any non-zero integer value is true; zero is false. The condition may also be a string or list value, in fact any sequence; anything with a non-zero length is true, empty sequences are false. The test used in the example is a simple comparison. The standard comparison operators are written the same as in C: < (less than), > (greater than), == (equal to), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or equal to) and != (not equal to). The body of the loop is indented : indentation is Python’s way of grouping statements. At the interactive prompt, you have to type a tab or space(s) for each indented line. In practice you will prepare more complicated input for Python with a text editor; all decent text editors have an auto-indent facility. When a compound statement is entered interactively, it must be followed by a blank line to indicate completion (since the parser cannot guess when you have typed the last line). Note that each line within a basic block must be indented by the same amount. The print() function writes the value of the argument(s) it is given. It differs from just writing the expression you want to write (as we did earlier in the calculator examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments, floating-point quantities, and strings. Strings are printed without quotes, and a space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely, like this: >>> i = 256 * 256 >>> print ( 'The value of i is' , i ) The value of i is 65536 The keyword argument end can be used to avoid the newline after the output, or end the output with a different string: >>> a , b = 0 , 1 >>> while a < 1000 : ... print ( a , end = ',' ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987, Footnotes [ 1 ] Since ** has higher precedence than - , -3**2 will be interpreted as -(3**2) and thus result in -9 . To avoid this and get 9 , you can use (-3)**2 . [ 2 ] Unlike other languages, special characters such as \n have the same meaning with both single ( '...' ) and double ( "..." ) quotes. The only difference between the two is that within single quotes you don’t need to escape " (but you have to escape \' ) and vice versa. Table of Contents 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming Previous topic 2. Using the Python Interpreter Next topic 4. More Control Flow Tools This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 3. An Informal Introduction to Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. 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https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html | 4. More Control Flow Tools — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements 4.5. else Clauses on Loops 4.6. pass Statements 4.7. match Statements 4.8. Defining Functions 4.9. More on Defining Functions 4.9.1. Default Argument Values 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments 4.9.3. Special parameters 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments 4.9.3.4. Function Examples 4.9.3.5. Recap 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions 4.9.7. Documentation Strings 4.9.8. Function Annotations 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style Previous topic 3. An Informal Introduction to Python Next topic 5. Data Structures This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 4. More Control Flow Tools | Theme Auto Light Dark | 4. More Control Flow Tools ¶ As well as the while statement just introduced, Python uses a few more that we will encounter in this chapter. 4.1. if Statements ¶ Perhaps the most well-known statement type is the if statement. For example: >>> x = int ( input ( "Please enter an integer: " )) Please enter an integer: 42 >>> if x < 0 : ... x = 0 ... print ( 'Negative changed to zero' ) ... elif x == 0 : ... print ( 'Zero' ) ... elif x == 1 : ... print ( 'Single' ) ... else : ... print ( 'More' ) ... More There can be zero or more elif parts, and the else part is optional. The keyword ‘ elif ’ is short for ‘else if’, and is useful to avoid excessive indentation. An if … elif … elif … sequence is a substitute for the switch or case statements found in other languages. If you’re comparing the same value to several constants, or checking for specific types or attributes, you may also find the match statement useful. For more details see match Statements . 4.2. for Statements ¶ The for statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used to in C or Pascal. Rather than always iterating over an arithmetic progression of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the user the ability to define both the iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python’s for statement iterates over the items of any sequence (a list or a string), in the order that they appear in the sequence. For example (no pun intended): >>> # Measure some strings: >>> words = [ 'cat' , 'window' , 'defenestrate' ] >>> for w in words : ... print ( w , len ( w )) ... cat 3 window 6 defenestrate 12 Code that modifies a collection while iterating over that same collection can be tricky to get right. Instead, it is usually more straight-forward to loop over a copy of the collection or to create a new collection: # Create a sample collection users = { 'Hans' : 'active' , 'Éléonore' : 'inactive' , '景太郎' : 'active' } # Strategy: Iterate over a copy for user , status in users . copy () . items (): if status == 'inactive' : del users [ user ] # Strategy: Create a new collection active_users = {} for user , status in users . items (): if status == 'active' : active_users [ user ] = status 4.3. The range() Function ¶ If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-in function range() comes in handy. It generates arithmetic progressions: >>> for i in range ( 5 ): ... print ( i ) ... 0 1 2 3 4 The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; range(10) generates 10 values, the legal indices for items of a sequence of length 10. It is possible to let the range start at another number, or to specify a different increment (even negative; sometimes this is called the ‘step’): >>> list ( range ( 5 , 10 )) [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] >>> list ( range ( 0 , 10 , 3 )) [0, 3, 6, 9] >>> list ( range ( - 10 , - 100 , - 30 )) [-10, -40, -70] To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine range() and len() as follows: >>> a = [ 'Mary' , 'had' , 'a' , 'little' , 'lamb' ] >>> for i in range ( len ( a )): ... print ( i , a [ i ]) ... 0 Mary 1 had 2 a 3 little 4 lamb In most such cases, however, it is convenient to use the enumerate() function, see Looping Techniques . A strange thing happens if you just print a range: >>> range ( 10 ) range(0, 10) In many ways the object returned by range() behaves as if it is a list, but in fact it isn’t. It is an object which returns the successive items of the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it doesn’t really make the list, thus saving space. We say such an object is iterable , that is, suitable as a target for functions and constructs that expect something from which they can obtain successive items until the supply is exhausted. We have seen that the for statement is such a construct, while an example of a function that takes an iterable is sum() : >>> sum ( range ( 4 )) # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 6 Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as arguments. In chapter Data Structures , we will discuss in more detail about list() . 4.4. break and continue Statements ¶ The break statement breaks out of the innermost enclosing for or while loop: >>> for n in range ( 2 , 10 ): ... for x in range ( 2 , n ): ... if n % x == 0 : ... print ( f " { n } equals { x } * { n // x } " ) ... break ... 4 equals 2 * 2 6 equals 2 * 3 8 equals 2 * 4 9 equals 3 * 3 The continue statement continues with the next iteration of the loop: >>> for num in range ( 2 , 10 ): ... if num % 2 == 0 : ... print ( f "Found an even number { num } " ) ... continue ... print ( f "Found an odd number { num } " ) ... Found an even number 2 Found an odd number 3 Found an even number 4 Found an odd number 5 Found an even number 6 Found an odd number 7 Found an even number 8 Found an odd number 9 4.5. else Clauses on Loops ¶ In a for or while loop the break statement may be paired with an else clause. If the loop finishes without executing the break , the else clause executes. In a for loop, the else clause is executed after the loop finishes its final iteration, that is, if no break occurred. In a while loop, it’s executed after the loop’s condition becomes false. In either kind of loop, the else clause is not executed if the loop was terminated by a break . Of course, other ways of ending the loop early, such as a return or a raised exception, will also skip execution of the else clause. This is exemplified in the following for loop, which searches for prime numbers: >>> for n in range ( 2 , 10 ): ... for x in range ( 2 , n ): ... if n % x == 0 : ... print ( n , 'equals' , x , '*' , n // x ) ... break ... else : ... # loop fell through without finding a factor ... print ( n , 'is a prime number' ) ... 2 is a prime number 3 is a prime number 4 equals 2 * 2 5 is a prime number 6 equals 2 * 3 7 is a prime number 8 equals 2 * 4 9 equals 3 * 3 (Yes, this is the correct code. Look closely: the else clause belongs to the for loop, not the if statement.) One way to think of the else clause is to imagine it paired with the if inside the loop. As the loop executes, it will run a sequence like if/if/if/else. The if is inside the loop, encountered a number of times. If the condition is ever true, a break will happen. If the condition is never true, the else clause outside the loop will execute. When used with a loop, the else clause has more in common with the else clause of a try statement than it does with that of if statements: a try statement’s else clause runs when no exception occurs, and a loop’s else clause runs when no break occurs. For more on the try statement and exceptions, see Handling Exceptions . 4.6. pass Statements ¶ The pass statement does nothing. It can be used when a statement is required syntactically but the program requires no action. For example: >>> while True : ... pass # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C) ... This is commonly used for creating minimal classes: >>> class MyEmptyClass : ... pass ... Another place pass can be used is as a place-holder for a function or conditional body when you are working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking at a more abstract level. The pass is silently ignored: >>> def initlog ( * args ): ... pass # Remember to implement this! ... For this last case, many people use the ellipsis literal ... instead of pass . This use has no special meaning to Python, and is not part of the language definition (you could use any constant expression here), but ... is used conventionally as a placeholder body as well. See The Ellipsis Object . 4.7. match Statements ¶ A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to successive patterns given as one or more case blocks. This is superficially similar to a switch statement in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages), but it’s more similar to pattern matching in languages like Rust or Haskell. Only the first pattern that matches gets executed and it can also extract components (sequence elements or object attributes) from the value into variables. If no case matches, none of the branches is executed. The simplest form compares a subject value against one or more literals: def http_error ( status ): match status : case 400 : return "Bad request" case 404 : return "Not found" case 418 : return "I'm a teapot" case _ : return "Something's wrong with the internet" Note the last block: the “variable name” _ acts as a wildcard and never fails to match. You can combine several literals in a single pattern using | (“or”): case 401 | 403 | 404 : return "Not allowed" Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and can be used to bind variables: # point is an (x, y) tuple match point : case ( 0 , 0 ): print ( "Origin" ) case ( 0 , y ): print ( f "Y= { y } " ) case ( x , 0 ): print ( f "X= { x } " ) case ( x , y ): print ( f "X= { x } , Y= { y } " ) case _ : raise ValueError ( "Not a point" ) Study that one carefully! The first pattern has two literals, and can be thought of as an extension of the literal pattern shown above. But the next two patterns combine a literal and a variable, and the variable binds a value from the subject ( point ). The fourth pattern captures two values, which makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment (x, y) = point . If you are using classes to structure your data you can use the class name followed by an argument list resembling a constructor, but with the ability to capture attributes into variables: class Point : def __init__ ( self , x , y ): self . x = x self . y = y def where_is ( point ): match point : case Point ( x = 0 , y = 0 ): print ( "Origin" ) case Point ( x = 0 , y = y ): print ( f "Y= { y } " ) case Point ( x = x , y = 0 ): print ( f "X= { x } " ) case Point (): print ( "Somewhere else" ) case _ : print ( "Not a point" ) You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide an ordering for their attributes (e.g. dataclasses). You can also define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the __match_args__ special attribute in your classes. If it’s set to (“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the y attribute to the var variable): Point ( 1 , var ) Point ( 1 , y = var ) Point ( x = 1 , y = var ) Point ( y = var , x = 1 ) A recommended way to read patterns is to look at them as an extended form of what you would put on the left of an assignment, to understand which variables would be set to what. Only the standalone names (like var above) are assigned to by a match statement. Dotted names (like foo.bar ), attribute names (the x= and y= above) or class names (recognized by the “(…)” next to them like Point above) are never assigned to. Patterns can be arbitrarily nested. For example, if we have a short list of Points, with __match_args__ added, we could match it like this: class Point : __match_args__ = ( 'x' , 'y' ) def __init__ ( self , x , y ): self . x = x self . y = y match points : case []: print ( "No points" ) case [ Point ( 0 , 0 )]: print ( "The origin" ) case [ Point ( x , y )]: print ( f "Single point { x } , { y } " ) case [ Point ( 0 , y1 ), Point ( 0 , y2 )]: print ( f "Two on the Y axis at { y1 } , { y2 } " ) case _ : print ( "Something else" ) We can add an if clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”. If the guard is false, match goes on to try the next case block. Note that value capture happens before the guard is evaluated: match point : case Point ( x , y ) if x == y : print ( f "Y=X at { x } " ) case Point ( x , y ): print ( f "Not on the diagonal" ) Several other key features of this statement: Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences. An important exception is that they don’t match iterators or strings. Sequence patterns support extended unpacking: [x, y, *rest] and (x, y, *rest) work similar to unpacking assignments. The name after * may also be _ , so (x, y, *_) matches a sequence of at least two items without binding the remaining items. Mapping patterns: {"bandwidth": b, "latency": l} captures the "bandwidth" and "latency" values from a dictionary. Unlike sequence patterns, extra keys are ignored. An unpacking like **rest is also supported. (But **_ would be redundant, so it is not allowed.) Subpatterns may be captured using the as keyword: case ( Point ( x1 , y1 ), Point ( x2 , y2 ) as p2 ): ... will capture the second element of the input as p2 (as long as the input is a sequence of two points) Most literals are compared by equality, however the singletons True , False and None are compared by identity. Patterns may use named constants. These must be dotted names to prevent them from being interpreted as capture variable: from enum import Enum class Color ( Enum ): RED = 'red' GREEN = 'green' BLUE = 'blue' color = Color ( input ( "Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': " )) match color : case Color . RED : print ( "I see red!" ) case Color . GREEN : print ( "Grass is green" ) case Color . BLUE : print ( "I'm feeling the blues :(" ) For a more detailed explanation and additional examples, you can look into PEP 636 which is written in a tutorial format. 4.8. Defining Functions ¶ We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary boundary: >>> def fib ( n ): # write Fibonacci series less than n ... """Print a Fibonacci series less than n.""" ... a , b = 0 , 1 ... while a < n : ... print ( a , end = ' ' ) ... a , b = b , a + b ... print () ... >>> # Now call the function we just defined: >>> fib ( 2000 ) 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 The keyword def introduces a function definition . It must be followed by the function name and the parenthesized list of formal parameters. The statements that form the body of the function start at the next line, and must be indented. The first statement of the function body can optionally be a string literal; this string literal is the function’s documentation string, or docstring . (More about docstrings can be found in the section Documentation Strings .) There are tools which use docstrings to automatically produce online or printed documentation, or to let the user interactively browse through code; it’s good practice to include docstrings in code that you write, so make a habit of it. The execution of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local variables of the function. More precisely, all variable assignments in a function store the value in the local symbol table; whereas variable references first look in the local symbol table, then in the local symbol tables of enclosing functions, then in the global symbol table, and finally in the table of built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of enclosing functions cannot be directly assigned a value within a function (unless, for global variables, named in a global statement, or, for variables of enclosing functions, named in a nonlocal statement), although they may be referenced. The actual parameters (arguments) to a function call are introduced in the local symbol table of the called function when it is called; thus, arguments are passed using call by value (where the value is always an object reference , not the value of the object). [ 1 ] When a function calls another function, or calls itself recursively, a new local symbol table is created for that call. A function definition associates the function name with the function object in the current symbol table. The interpreter recognizes the object pointed to by that name as a user-defined function. Other names can also point to that same function object and can also be used to access the function: >>> fib <function fib at 10042ed0> >>> f = fib >>> f ( 100 ) 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 Coming from other languages, you might object that fib is not a function but a procedure since it doesn’t return a value. In fact, even functions without a return statement do return a value, albeit a rather boring one. This value is called None (it’s a built-in name). Writing the value None is normally suppressed by the interpreter if it would be the only value written. You can see it if you really want to using print() : >>> fib ( 0 ) >>> print ( fib ( 0 )) None It is simple to write a function that returns a list of the numbers of the Fibonacci series, instead of printing it: >>> def fib2 ( n ): # return Fibonacci series up to n ... """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n.""" ... result = [] ... a , b = 0 , 1 ... while a < n : ... result . append ( a ) # see below ... a , b = b , a + b ... return result ... >>> f100 = fib2 ( 100 ) # call it >>> f100 # write the result [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89] This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features: The return statement returns with a value from a function. return without an expression argument returns None . Falling off the end of a function also returns None . The statement result.append(a) calls a method of the list object result . A method is a function that ‘belongs’ to an object and is named obj.methodname , where obj is some object (this may be an expression), and methodname is the name of a method that is defined by the object’s type. Different types define different methods. Methods of different types may have the same name without causing ambiguity. (It is possible to define your own object types and methods, using classes , see Classes ) The method append() shown in the example is defined for list objects; it adds a new element at the end of the list. In this example it is equivalent to result = result + [a] , but more efficient. 4.9. More on Defining Functions ¶ It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments. There are three forms, which can be combined. 4.9.1. Default Argument Values ¶ The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments. This creates a function that can be called with fewer arguments than it is defined to allow. For example: def ask_ok ( prompt , retries = 4 , reminder = 'Please try again!' ): while True : reply = input ( prompt ) if reply in { 'y' , 'ye' , 'yes' }: return True if reply in { 'n' , 'no' , 'nop' , 'nope' }: return False retries = retries - 1 if retries < 0 : raise ValueError ( 'invalid user response' ) print ( reminder ) This function can be called in several ways: giving only the mandatory argument: ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?') giving one of the optional arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2) or even giving all arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!') This example also introduces the in keyword. This tests whether or not a sequence contains a certain value. The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the defining scope, so that i = 5 def f ( arg = i ): print ( arg ) i = 6 f () will print 5 . Important warning: The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a difference when the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or instances of most classes. For example, the following function accumulates the arguments passed to it on subsequent calls: def f ( a , L = []): L . append ( a ) return L print ( f ( 1 )) print ( f ( 2 )) print ( f ( 3 )) This will print [ 1 ] [ 1 , 2 ] [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] If you don’t want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can write the function like this instead: def f ( a , L = None ): if L is None : L = [] L . append ( a ) return L 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments ¶ Functions can also be called using keyword arguments of the form kwarg=value . For instance, the following function: def parrot ( voltage , state = 'a stiff' , action = 'voom' , type = 'Norwegian Blue' ): print ( "-- This parrot wouldn't" , action , end = ' ' ) print ( "if you put" , voltage , "volts through it." ) print ( "-- Lovely plumage, the" , type ) print ( "-- It's" , state , "!" ) accepts one required argument ( voltage ) and three optional arguments ( state , action , and type ). This function can be called in any of the following ways: parrot ( 1000 ) # 1 positional argument parrot ( voltage = 1000 ) # 1 keyword argument parrot ( voltage = 1000000 , action = 'VOOOOOM' ) # 2 keyword arguments parrot ( action = 'VOOOOOM' , voltage = 1000000 ) # 2 keyword arguments parrot ( 'a million' , 'bereft of life' , 'jump' ) # 3 positional arguments parrot ( 'a thousand' , state = 'pushing up the daisies' ) # 1 positional, 1 keyword but all the following calls would be invalid: parrot () # required argument missing parrot ( voltage = 5.0 , 'dead' ) # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument parrot ( 110 , voltage = 220 ) # duplicate value for the same argument parrot ( actor = 'John Cleese' ) # unknown keyword argument In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments. All the keyword arguments passed must match one of the arguments accepted by the function (e.g. actor is not a valid argument for the parrot function), and their order is not important. This also includes non-optional arguments (e.g. parrot(voltage=1000) is valid too). No argument may receive a value more than once. Here’s an example that fails due to this restriction: >>> def function ( a ): ... pass ... >>> function ( 0 , a = 0 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : function() got multiple values for argument 'a' When a final formal parameter of the form **name is present, it receives a dictionary (see Mapping Types — dict ) containing all keyword arguments except for those corresponding to a formal parameter. This may be combined with a formal parameter of the form *name (described in the next subsection) which receives a tuple containing the positional arguments beyond the formal parameter list. ( *name must occur before **name .) For example, if we define a function like this: def cheeseshop ( kind , * arguments , ** keywords ): print ( "-- Do you have any" , kind , "?" ) print ( "-- I'm sorry, we're all out of" , kind ) for arg in arguments : print ( arg ) print ( "-" * 40 ) for kw in keywords : print ( kw , ":" , keywords [ kw ]) It could be called like this: cheeseshop ( "Limburger" , "It's very runny, sir." , "It's really very, VERY runny, sir." , shopkeeper = "Michael Palin" , client = "John Cleese" , sketch = "Cheese Shop Sketch" ) and of course it would print: -- Do you have any Limburger ? -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger It's very runny, sir. It's really very, VERY runny, sir. ---------------------------------------- shopkeeper : Michael Palin client : John Cleese sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed to match the order in which they were provided in the function call. 4.9.3. Special parameters ¶ By default, arguments may be passed to a Python function either by position or explicitly by keyword. For readability and performance, it makes sense to restrict the way arguments can be passed so that a developer need only look at the function definition to determine if items are passed by position, by position or keyword, or by keyword. A function definition may look like: def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2): ----------- ---------- ---------- | | | | Positional or keyword | | - Keyword only -- Positional only where / and * are optional. If used, these symbols indicate the kind of parameter by how the arguments may be passed to the function: positional-only, positional-or-keyword, and keyword-only. Keyword parameters are also referred to as named parameters. 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments ¶ If / and * are not present in the function definition, arguments may be passed to a function by position or by keyword. 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters ¶ Looking at this in a bit more detail, it is possible to mark certain parameters as positional-only . If positional-only , the parameters’ order matters, and the parameters cannot be passed by keyword. Positional-only parameters are placed before a / (forward-slash). The / is used to logically separate the positional-only parameters from the rest of the parameters. If there is no / in the function definition, there are no positional-only parameters. Parameters following the / may be positional-or-keyword or keyword-only . 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments ¶ To mark parameters as keyword-only , indicating the parameters must be passed by keyword argument, place an * in the arguments list just before the first keyword-only parameter. 4.9.3.4. Function Examples ¶ Consider the following example function definitions paying close attention to the markers / and * : >>> def standard_arg ( arg ): ... print ( arg ) ... >>> def pos_only_arg ( arg , / ): ... print ( arg ) ... >>> def kwd_only_arg ( * , arg ): ... print ( arg ) ... >>> def combined_example ( pos_only , / , standard , * , kwd_only ): ... print ( pos_only , standard , kwd_only ) The first function definition, standard_arg , the most familiar form, places no restrictions on the calling convention and arguments may be passed by position or keyword: >>> standard_arg ( 2 ) 2 >>> standard_arg ( arg = 2 ) 2 The second function pos_only_arg is restricted to only use positional parameters as there is a / in the function definition: >>> pos_only_arg ( 1 ) 1 >>> pos_only_arg ( arg = 1 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg' The third function kwd_only_arg only allows keyword arguments as indicated by a * in the function definition: >>> kwd_only_arg ( 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given >>> kwd_only_arg ( arg = 3 ) 3 And the last uses all three calling conventions in the same function definition: >>> combined_example ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given >>> combined_example ( 1 , 2 , kwd_only = 3 ) 1 2 3 >>> combined_example ( 1 , standard = 2 , kwd_only = 3 ) 1 2 3 >>> combined_example ( pos_only = 1 , standard = 2 , kwd_only = 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only' Finally, consider this function definition which has a potential collision between the positional argument name and **kwds which has name as a key: def foo ( name , ** kwds ): return 'name' in kwds There is no possible call that will make it return True as the keyword 'name' will always bind to the first parameter. For example: >>> foo ( 1 , ** { 'name' : 2 }) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : foo() got multiple values for argument 'name' >>> But using / (positional only arguments), it is possible since it allows name as a positional argument and 'name' as a key in the keyword arguments: >>> def foo ( name , / , ** kwds ): ... return 'name' in kwds ... >>> foo ( 1 , ** { 'name' : 2 }) True In other words, the names of positional-only parameters can be used in **kwds without ambiguity. 4.9.3.5. Recap ¶ The use case will determine which parameters to use in the function definition: def f ( pos1 , pos2 , / , pos_or_kwd , * , kwd1 , kwd2 ): As guidance: Use positional-only if you want the name of the parameters to not be available to the user. This is useful when parameter names have no real meaning, if you want to enforce the order of the arguments when the function is called or if you need to take some positional parameters and arbitrary keywords. Use keyword-only when names have meaning and the function definition is more understandable by being explicit with names or you want to prevent users relying on the position of the argument being passed. For an API, use positional-only to prevent breaking API changes if the parameter’s name is modified in the future. 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists ¶ Finally, the least frequently used option is to specify that a function can be called with an arbitrary number of arguments. These arguments will be wrapped up in a tuple (see Tuples and Sequences ). Before the variable number of arguments, zero or more normal arguments may occur. def write_multiple_items ( file , separator , * args ): file . write ( separator . join ( args )) Normally, these variadic arguments will be last in the list of formal parameters, because they scoop up all remaining input arguments that are passed to the function. Any formal parameters which occur after the *args parameter are ‘keyword-only’ arguments, meaning that they can only be used as keywords rather than positional arguments. >>> def concat ( * args , sep = "/" ): ... return sep . join ( args ) ... >>> concat ( "earth" , "mars" , "venus" ) 'earth/mars/venus' >>> concat ( "earth" , "mars" , "venus" , sep = "." ) 'earth.mars.venus' 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists ¶ The reverse situation occurs when the arguments are already in a list or tuple but need to be unpacked for a function call requiring separate positional arguments. For instance, the built-in range() function expects separate start and stop arguments. If they are not available separately, write the function call with the * -operator to unpack the arguments out of a list or tuple: >>> list ( range ( 3 , 6 )) # normal call with separate arguments [3, 4, 5] >>> args = [ 3 , 6 ] >>> list ( range ( * args )) # call with arguments unpacked from a list [3, 4, 5] In the same fashion, dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the ** -operator: >>> def parrot ( voltage , state = 'a stiff' , action = 'voom' ): ... print ( "-- This parrot wouldn't" , action , end = ' ' ) ... print ( "if you put" , voltage , "volts through it." , end = ' ' ) ... print ( "E's" , state , "!" ) ... >>> d = { "voltage" : "four million" , "state" : "bleedin' demised" , "action" : "VOOM" } >>> parrot ( ** d ) -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised ! 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions ¶ Small anonymous functions can be created with the lambda keyword. This function returns the sum of its two arguments: lambda a, b: a+b . Lambda functions can be used wherever function objects are required. They are syntactically restricted to a single expression. Semantically, they are just syntactic sugar for a normal function definition. Like nested function definitions, lambda functions can reference variables from the containing scope: >>> def make_incrementor ( n ): ... return lambda x : x + n ... >>> f = make_incrementor ( 42 ) >>> f ( 0 ) 42 >>> f ( 1 ) 43 The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function. Another use is to pass a small function as an argument. For instance, list.sort() takes a sorting key function key which can be a lambda function: >>> pairs = [( 1 , 'one' ), ( 2 , 'two' ), ( 3 , 'three' ), ( 4 , 'four' )] >>> pairs . sort ( key = lambda pair : pair [ 1 ]) >>> pairs [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')] 4.9.7. Documentation Strings ¶ Here are some conventions about the content and formatting of documentation strings. The first line should always be a short, concise summary of the object’s purpose. For brevity, it should not explicitly state the object’s name or type, since these are available by other means (except if the name happens to be a verb describing a function’s operation). This line should begin with a capital letter and end with a period. If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description. The following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object’s calling conventions, its side effects, etc. The Python parser strips indentation from multi-line string literals when they serve as module, class, or function docstrings. Here is an example of a multi-line docstring: >>> def my_function (): ... """Do nothing, but document it. ... ... No, really, it doesn't do anything: ... ... >>> my_function() ... >>> ... """ ... pass ... >>> print ( my_function . __doc__ ) Do nothing, but document it. No, really, it doesn't do anything: >>> my_function() >>> 4.9.8. Function Annotations ¶ Function annotations are completely optional metadata information about the types used by user-defined functions (see PEP 3107 and PEP 484 for more information). Annotations are stored in the __annotations__ attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of the function. Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name, followed by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation. Return annotations are defined by a literal -> , followed by an expression, between the parameter list and the colon denoting the end of the def statement. The following example has a required argument, an optional argument, and the return value annotated: >>> def f ( ham : str , eggs : str = 'eggs' ) -> str : ... print ( "Annotations:" , f . __annotations__ ) ... print ( "Arguments:" , ham , eggs ) ... return ham + ' and ' + eggs ... >>> f ( 'spam' ) Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>} Arguments: spam eggs 'spam and eggs' 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style ¶ Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a good time to talk about coding style . Most languages can be written (or more concise, formatted ) in different styles; some are more readable than others. Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting a nice coding style helps tremendously for that. For Python, PEP 8 has emerged as the style guide that most projects adhere to; it promotes a very readable and eye-pleasing coding style. Every Python developer should read it at some point; here are the most important points extracted for you: Use 4-space indentation, and no tabs. 4 spaces are a good compromise between small indentation (allows greater nesting depth) and large indentation (easier to read). Tabs introduce confusion, and are best left out. Wrap lines so that they don’t exceed 79 characters. This helps users with small displays and makes it possible to have several code files side-by-side on larger displays. Use blank lines to separate functions and classes, and larger blocks of code inside functions. When possible, put comments on a line of their own. Use docstrings. Use spaces around operators and after commas, but not directly inside bracketing constructs: a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4) . Name your classes and functions consistently; the convention is to use UpperCamelCase for classes and lowercase_with_underscores for functions and methods. Always use self as the name for the first method argument (see A First Look at Classes for more on classes and methods). Don’t use fancy encodings if your code is meant to be used in international environments. Python’s default, UTF-8, or even plain ASCII work best in any case. Likewise, don’t use non-ASCII characters in identifiers if there is only the slightest chance people speaking a different language will read or maintain the code. Footnotes [ 1 ] Actually, call by object reference would be a better description, since if a mutable object is passed, the caller will see any changes the callee makes to it (items inserted into a list). Table of Contents 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements 4.5. else Clauses on Loops 4.6. pass Statements 4.7. match Statements 4.8. Defining Functions 4.9. More on Defining Functions 4.9.1. Default Argument Values 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments 4.9.3. Special parameters 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments 4.9.3.4. Function Examples 4.9.3.5. Recap 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions 4.9.7. Documentation Strings 4.9.8. Function Annotations 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style Previous topic 3. An Informal Introduction to Python Next topic 5. Data Structures This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Tutorial » 4. More Control Flow Tools | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. 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https://dev.to/embernoglow/marching-cubes-algorithm-written-in-rust-473d#hello-everyone | Marching Cubes algorithm written in Rust - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse EmberNoGlow Posted on Jan 3 Marching Cubes algorithm written in Rust # rust # algorithms # opensource # programming Hello everyone 👋 I am happy to present my new AI-generated work: Marching cubes allow you to polygonize geometry created using a signed distance field! I created this for my project SDF model editor . License The code is distributed under the MIT license. For more information visit github Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse EmberNoGlow Follow Just a dude, a mid-level on Godot / Python developer and Rust beginner Joined Nov 18, 2025 More from EmberNoGlow From Zero to SDF Editor Beta: How I Used AI to Force My Dream Project Out of the Prototype Stage. What I learned? # python # sideprojects # opensource # discuss The most useless python utility for development you can make? Mem lol Pillow # python # meme # programming # learning 📜 Prototype of Voxel Terrain Generation in Godot 4 # godot # tool # opensource # gamedev 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/om_shree_0709/navigating-modern-parenthood-insights-from-this-weeks-conversations-3n38#comments | Navigating Modern Parenthood: Insights from This Week's Conversations - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Om Shree Posted on Oct 19, 2025 Navigating Modern Parenthood: Insights from This Week's Conversations # discuss # learning # development # mentalhealth Parenting in 2025 feels like walking a tightrope balancing the pull of daily demands with the deep desire to guide our children toward lives of quiet confidence and connection. As autumn settles in, a handful of fresh perspectives from experts and parents alike have surfaced, offering grounded ways to nurture growth without overcomplicating things. Drawn from reports and discussions this October, these ideas focus on fostering resilience, sparking joy through simple activities, adapting our approaches to fit real life, and keeping technology in its place. They're reminders that small, intentional shifts can ripple through family life in meaningful ways. Building Resilience Through Everyday Challenges One of the most reassuring pieces to emerge this week comes from a reflection on what effective parenting looks like in hindsight: the subtle habits that equip children to face the world with steadiness. It's easy to second-guess our efforts amid the chaos of spills, arguments, and endless questions, but consider these markers of progress not as distant goals, but as cues to lean into now. For instance, if your child is learning to pause before reacting in frustration, that's a sign you're modeling emotional steadiness. Encourage this by sharing your own moments of calm: "I felt upset earlier, so I took a deep breath want to try it with me?" Similarly, fostering a sense of security while granting space for independence might mean stepping back during a playground squabble, then debriefing later: "What felt hard about that? What helped you figure it out?" These aren't grand gestures; they're the quiet repetitions that teach kids they can trust themselves. Another layer comes from a recent column on the value of discomfort not as punishment, but as a gentle teacher. In an era where we can solve most problems with a quick search or delivery, experts urge parents to let children encounter "just right" hurdles, much like the fairy-tale porridge that's neither too hot nor too cold. Start with play: Set up a climbing frame or a puzzle that stretches their skills without overwhelming them. Supervise from nearby, offering a nudge like, "Show me what you've tried so far," rather than jumping in to fix it. When frustration bubbles up, try this straightforward sequence: Name the feeling ("This seems really tough right now"), remind them it's normal ("That's how we know our mind is stretching"), suggest one small next step ("What if we start with this piece?"), and notice their effort afterward ("I saw you slow down and think that's smart"). Over time, this builds not just problem-solving, but a comfort with the messiness of trying. And remember, it starts with us: If we're anxious about their struggle, take a breath ourselves. Modeling that poise shows children that unease is temporary, not a roadblock. Sparking Connection with the Rhythm of Music Amid the structure of school routines and after-school shuttles, October's parenting spotlight has turned to something delightfully uncomplicated: music. Far from a mere distraction, tunes and rhythms can weave through the day as a thread of bonding and brain-building. Research highlights how they sharpen language, coordination, and even math intuition, all while giving kids a safe outlet for big feelings. Incorporate it without fanfare turn a car ride into a sing-along, or clap out beats during dinner prep. Ask open questions like, "What instrument do you hear hiding in this song?" to draw them in deeper. For younger ones, raid the kitchen for makeshift drums (pots and spoons work wonders) or add silly sound effects to bedtime stories: a whoosh for the wind, a rumble for thunder. Dance parties in the living room? They're not just fun; they help little bodies learn control and expression. The beauty here is in the low pressure no lessons required, just shared moments that linger. Adapting Styles to Fit Your Family's Story No two families are alike, and a new survey underscores what many parents sense intuitively: Rigid labels like "gentle" or "strict" often fall short. Instead, today's parents are mixing approaches, drawing from empathy one moment and clear expectations the next. Nearly nine in ten agree there's no universal blueprint, with most weaving in elements like attachment-focused warmth alongside cause-and-effect guidance. To make this work, start with honest reflection: What patterns from your own childhood served you well, and which might you gently shift? In a tough spot like a toddler toppling groceries blend compassion ("I see you're feeling wild today") with gentle accountability ("Let's pick these up together so no one gets hurt"). As children grow, revisit what fits: A style heavy on emotional check-ins might pair with tech-aware boundaries for school-age kids. The key is flexibility eighty-four percent of parents say their methods have evolved, often after pausing to think, "What would I do differently next time?" This isn't about perfection; it's about presence, tuning into your child's cues while honoring your own instincts. Keeping Screens as Tools, Not Takeovers With devices woven into every corner of life, a timely set of guidelines has resurfaced this month, emphasizing balance over bans. The aim? Protect sleep, connections, and focus without sparking rebellion. Begin with basics: Tailor limits to age perhaps an hour for elementary schoolers, focused on creative apps rather than endless scrolling. Designate no-go zones, like the dinner table or bedrooms, to safeguard family talks and rest. Lead by example; if you're glued to your phone during meals, it's a silent lesson in priorities. Involve your kids in the rules they're more likely to stick to agreements they help shape, building their own sense of control. Tools like built-in timers can track habits transparently, sparking family chats about patterns. Shift toward quality: Co-watch educational videos, discussing what stands out, or cap passive viewing in favor of joint projects. And don't forget the counterbalance swap screen time for board games, walks, or baking sessions. These aren't chores; they're the glue that reminds everyone of the warmth beyond the glow. As October's leaves turn, these threads from recent dialogues resilience through real challenges, music's quiet magic, adaptive guidance, and mindful tech use offer a roadmap that's less about doing more and more about being present in the doing. Parenting unfolds one ordinary day at a time, and in tuning into these fresh nudges, we give our children (and ourselves) room to breathe, grow, and connect. What small step might you try this week? Top comments (5) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Juno Threadborne Juno Threadborne Juno Threadborne Follow 🧵 Writer. 🧑💻 Coder. ✨ Often found bending reality for sport. https://thrd.me Location Hampton, VA Pronouns he/him Joined Oct 16, 2025 • Oct 20 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide The mindful tech use piece really hit me. I've always let me kids have what seems like unfettered access to things like YouTube, but in reality I'm just monitoring from a distance. And, at least in my case, I'm consistently impressed with what I see them watch. Educational videos, guides in mastering skills, etc. I may be an outlier, but it's been a joy to see my kids consistently seek out growth unprompted. Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Technical Evangelist | AI Researcher | Simplifying Complex AI & Agent Workflows for Developers Email omshree0709@gmail.com Location India Education Jaypee University Of Information Technology Pronouns He/Him Work Founder of Shreesozo Joined Feb 27, 2025 • Oct 22 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Glad you liked it sir ! Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Mahua Vaidya Mahua Vaidya Mahua Vaidya Follow Just here to build reading as a habit Joined Sep 8, 2025 • Oct 19 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide haha, nice! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Technical Evangelist | AI Researcher | Simplifying Complex AI & Agent Workflows for Developers Email omshree0709@gmail.com Location India Education Jaypee University Of Information Technology Pronouns He/Him Work Founder of Shreesozo Joined Feb 27, 2025 • Oct 19 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide ❤️ Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Some comments may only be visible to logged-in visitors. Sign in to view all comments. Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Om Shree Follow Technical Evangelist | AI Researcher | Simplifying Complex AI & Agent Workflows for Developers Location India Education Jaypee University Of Information Technology Pronouns He/Him Work Founder of Shreesozo Joined Feb 27, 2025 More from Om Shree Parenting in 2025: Finding Our Center in a World That Never Stops # learning # education # development 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/integrate-python-sdk#initialization | Integrate Python SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Node.js SDK Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Python SDK Integrate Python SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Python SDK Integrate Python SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Install & Initialize SuprSend Python SDK using your workspace credentials for sending notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install 'libmagic' system package. You can skip this step if you already have this package installed in your system. bash Copy Ask AI # if you are using linux / debian based systems sudo apt install libmagic # If you are using macOS brew install libmagic 2 Install 'suprsend-py-sdk' using pip bash Copy Ask AI $ pip install suprsend-py-sdk # to upgrade to latest SDK version $ pip install suprsend-py-sdk --upgrade Python version 3.7 or later is required If your python3 version is lower than 3.7, upgrade it. Schema Validation Support : If you’re using schema validation for workflow payloads, you need Python SDK v0.15.0 or later. The API response format was modified to support schema validation, and older SDK versions may not properly handle validation errors. Initialization For initializing SDK, you need workspace_key and workspace_secret. You will get both the tokens from your Suprsend dashboard (Developers -> API Keys). python Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Suprsend # Initialize SDK supr_client = Suprsend( "WORKSPACE KEY" , "WORKSPACE SECRET" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Users Create, update, & manage user profiles and communication channels using Python SDK methods. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Follow User actions Jess Lee Building DEV and Forem with everyone here. Interested in the future. Location USA / TAIWAN Joined Joined on Jul 29, 2016 Email address jess@forem.com github website twitter website Pronouns she/they Work Co-Founder & COO at Forem Warm Welcome This badge is awarded to members who leave wonderful comments in the Welcome Thread. Every week, we'll pick individuals based on their participation in the thread. Which means, every week you'll have a chance to get awarded! 😊 Got it Close JavaScript Awarded to the top JavaScript author each week Got it Close React Awarded to the top React author each week Got it Close 2 DEV Challenge Volunteer Judge Awarded for judging a DEV Challenge and nominating winners. 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Got it Close One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close Show all 47 badges More info about @jess Organizations The DEV Team CodeNewbie The Future Team Google Developer Experts Available for Speaking engagements, meetups, podcasts, etc. Post 5 posts published Comment 2225 comments written Tag 2 tags followed We started a new routine called 'highs and lows' to get our kids to open up more! Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Oct 22 '25 We started a new routine called 'highs and lows' to get our kids to open up more! # discuss 19 reactions Comments 2 comments 2 min read Want to connect with Jess Lee? Create an account to connect with Jess Lee. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in International Travel with Toddlers: Car Seat (or vest!) Considerations Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Oct 14 '25 International Travel with Toddlers: Car Seat (or vest!) Considerations # travel # gear 15 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read How do you think about screen time and technology? Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Oct 14 '25 How do you think about screen time and technology? # discuss # technology 5 reactions Comments 3 comments 1 min read Welcome to Parenting! Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Oct 14 '25 Welcome to Parenting! # welcome 31 reactions Comments 10 comments 1 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. 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https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/developer/referencing-the-aws-sdk-for-net-standard-2-0-from-unity-xamarin-or-uwp/ | Referencing the AWS SDK for .NET Standard 2.0 from Unity, Xamarin, or UWP | AWS Developer Tools Blog Skip to Main Content Filter: All English Contact us AWS Marketplace Support My account Search Filter: All Sign in to console Create account AWS Blogs Home Blogs Editions AWS Developer Tools Blog Referencing the AWS SDK for .NET Standard 2.0 from Unity, Xamarin, or UWP by Matteo Prosperi on 11 JUN 2019 in .NET , AWS SDK for .NET , Intermediate (200) Permalink Share In March 2019, AWS announced support for .NET Standard 2.0 in SDK for .NET . They also announced plans to remove the Portable Class Library (PCL) assemblies from NuGet packages in favor of the .NET Standard 2.0 binaries. If you’re starting a new project targeting a platform supported by .NET Standard 2.0, especially recent versions of Unity, Xamarin and UWP, you may want to use the .NET Standard 2.0 assemblies for the AWS SDK instead of the PCL assemblies. Currently, it’s challenging to consume .NET Standard 2.0 assemblies from NuGet packages directly in your PCL, Xamarin, or UWP applications. Unfortunately, the new csproj file format and NuGet don’t let you select assemblies for a specific target framework (in this case, .NET Standard 2.0). This limitation can cause problems because NuGet always restores the assemblies for the target framework of the project being built (in this case, one of the legacy PCL assemblies). Considering this limitation, our guidance is for your application to directly reference the AWS SDK assemblies (DLL files) which can be downloaded as a .zip file from here . Every version of the SDK assemblies is also archived and available at a URI like http://sdk-for-net.amazonwebservices.com/releases/aws-sdk-netstandard2.0-3.3.597.0.zip. When using Unity (2018.1 or newer), choose .NET 4.x Equivalent as Scripting Runtime Version and copy the AWS SDK for .NET assemblies into the Asset folder. If you are using IL2CPP to build your Unity project, you must add a link.xml file to your Asset folder to prevent code stripping in the AWSSDK assemblies. The link.xml file must list all the AWSSDK assemblies you are using and must be marked with the preserve=”all” attribute. The file should look like this: <linker> <assembly fullname="AWSSDK.Core" preserve="all"/> <assembly fullname="AWSSDK.DynamoDBv2" preserve="all"/> <assembly fullname="AWSSDK.Lambda" preserve="all"/> </linker> More information about IL2CPP and the link.xml file can be found in the Unity documentation . At this time, not all features specific to the PCL and Unity SDK libraries have been ported over to .NET Standard 2.0. To suggest features, changes, or leave other feedback to make PCL and Unity development easier, open an issue on our aws-sdk-net-issues GitHub repo . Consuming the assemblies from the .zip files will only be needed until PCL assemblies are removed from the NuGet packages. At that time, restoring the NuGet packages from an iOS, Android or UWP project (either a Xamarin or Unity project) should result in the .NET Standard 2.0 assemblies being referenced and included in your build outputs. Matteo Prosperi Resources Developer Resources & Community Open Source Repos Twitch Live Coding Labs on Github Follow Instagram Reddit Twitter Facebook LinkedIn Twitch Email Updates {"data":{"items":[{"fields":{"footer":"{\n \"createAccountButtonLabel\": \"Create an AWS account\",\n \"createAccountButtonURL\": \"https://portal.aws.amazon.com/gp/aws/developer/registration/index.html?nc1=f_ct&src=footer_signup\",\n \"backToTopText\": \"Back to top\",\n \"eoeText\": \"Amazon is an Equal Opportunity Employer: Minority / Women / Disability / Veteran / Gender Identity / Sexual Orientation / Age.\",\n \"copyrightText\": \"© 2025, Amazon Web Services, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved.\",\n \"items\": [\n {\n \"name\": \"Learn\",\n \"linkURL\": \"\",\n \"items\": [\n {\n \"heading\": \"What Is AWS?\",\n \"linkURL\": \"/what-is-aws/?nc1=f_cc\"\n },\n {\n \"heading\": \"What Is Cloud Computing?\",\n \"linkURL\": \"/what-is-cloud-computing/?nc1=f_cc\"\n },\n {\n \"heading\": \"What Is Agentic AI?\",\n \"linkURL\": \"/what-is/agentic-ai/?nc1=f_cc\"\n },\n {\n \"heading\": \"Cloud Computing Concepts Hub\",\n \"linkURL\": \"/what-is/?nc1=f_cc\"\n },\n {\n \"heading\": \"AWS Cloud Security\",\n \"li | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://openapi.tools/categories/ides | IDEs and GUI Editors | OpenApi.tools, from APIs You Won't Hate Sponsored by Zudoku - Open-source, highly customizable API documentation powered by OpenAPI Get Started Sponsor openapi.tools GitHub Get Started All Tools All Categories Legacy Tools Contributing Sponsors Sponsor Badges Collections Arazzo Support Overlays Support Open Source Tools SaaS Tools OpenAPI Tool Categories Annotations Code generators Converters Data Validators Documentation Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) Gateways HTTP Clients IDEs and GUI Editors Learning Miscellaneous Mock Servers Monitoring OpenAPI-aware Frameworks Parsers Schema Validators SDK Generators Security Server Implementations Testing Text Editors © 2026 APIs You Won't Hate Get in touch to become a Sponsor . This site is community-driven and OSS , built with Astro and hosted on Netlify . IDEs and GUI Editors Visual editors help you design APIs without needing to memorize the entire OpenAPI specification. IDEs and GUI Editors There are additional tools in this category, but they only support legacy versions of OpenAPI. If you really need to work with some old OpenAPI descriptions perhaps these legacy tools could be of use * * * | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/ms-teams-template#content-area | Microsoft teams Template - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? 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Navigation Channel Editors Microsoft teams Template Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Channel Editors Microsoft teams Template OpenAI Open in ChatGPT How to design simple MS Teams template using markdown editor or use JSONNET editor to replicate Microsoft’s adaptive card design. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Design Template You can design a simple text template with our default markdown editor. For advanced formatting and interactive options like buttons, images, and avatars, you can use Microsoft’s adaptive card design in JSONNET editor. Please note that the variable format for both editors will be different. We’ll cover more about it in the next sections. Design simple text template using Markdown editor You can send simple text templates using the markdown editor in teams. Variables has to be added in handlebars format. Supported markdown syntax in Teams text messages: Format Syntax Headings # Heading level 1 . Refer all heading formats here line break end a line with two or more spaces, and then type return ( only 1 continuous line break is supported ) Bold **bold text** or __bold text__ Italic _italic text_ or *italic text* Bold Italic ***bold italic text*** or ___bold italic text___ >Blockquotes > block quote text Lists (1) First item (2) Second item Refer more lists format here code At the command prompt, type code . Links [Duck Duck Go](https://duckduckgo.com) Adding dynamic data in markdown editor We use handlebarsjs as the template variable language in the markdown editor. You can learn about handlebarsjs here. If you are new to templates, we would recommend reading the templates documentation first to understand the basics of templating with SuprSend. To add dynamic data, first add the variable data from your event and workflow request in the Mock data . Enter the variables in JSON format as shown in the screenshot below. This JSON should be the same as passed in your workflow or event request (it is a part of the data field for workflow and properties field for event). Now, you can use your added sample by adding variables in the template. Type {{ and you’ll start getting auto-suggestions of the variables added in your sample data below the text field. You can select the variable from the dropdown or directly type it in. As a general rule, all the variables have to be entered within double curly brackets: {{variable_name}} . For URLs and links, we recommend using triple curly braces {{{url}}} .This is to avoid escaping html entities in handlebars. You can also write transformations like date-time formatting, if-else statement inside your templates using handlebar helpers . Design adaptive card template using JSONNET editor You can switch to JSONNET editor for advanced formatting and interactive options like buttons, images, and avatars. Microsoft provides support for adaptive card design to design such templates using a drag-and-drop editor. You can design your template in the adaptive card designer and copy the JSON payload from your designer into the Teams JSONNET editor. We have also created some sample templates for a quick start. You can choose one of the samples from the right side options on top of the editor to start editing. We have used some mock data in our examples. Copy-paste the mock data values in the global Mock Data button to see the preview. Please note that the variable format ${variable} used in adaptive card is not supported in the JSONNET editor. You’ll have to add the variable in JSONNET format as data.variable Adding dynamic data in JSONNET editor To add dynamic data, first add the variable data from your event and workflow request in the Mock data . Enter the variables in `JSON` format as shown in the screenshot below. This JSON should be the same as passed in your workflow or event request (it is a part of the `data` field for workflow and `properties` field for event). Once the variables are declared, you can add them in the template as data.<variable_name> . Note that you will be able to enter a variable name even when you have not declared it inside the ‘Mock data’ button. However, the preview will not load without declaring the variables in Mock Data . Hence it’s advised to always declare variables before loading the preview of the template. Below are some examples of how to enter variables in the JSONNET editor. We’ll use the sample shown in the screenshot above as a reference point. Add nested variable To enter a nested variable, enter in the format data.var1.var2.var3 . Eg. to refer to city in the example above, you need to enter data.location.city Add Variable with space and special characters in variable name If you have any space in the variable name, enclose it in square bracket data.event['first name'] or data[$brand].brand_name Add Single array element To refer to an array element, enter in format data.var[*index*].var2}} . Eg. to refer to product_name of the first element of the array array , enter data.array[0].product_name Add list of array items Enter in the below format to add a dynamic list of items. In the above example, variable array has a list of product items, with product_name , and product_price as array properties. Below is an example code to fetch array items in a text field list: JSONNET Copy Ask AI { "$schema" : "http://adaptivecards.io/schemas/adaptive-card.json" , "body" : [ { "text" : product.name + " at " + product.price , "type" : "TextBlock" , "wrap" : true } for product in data.products ], "type" : "AdaptiveCard" , "version" : "1.6" } You’ll need to add mock data for the variables added in your JSONNET template to view the parsed JSON template. JSON template will throw an error in case of missing mock data for a variable Preview message Click on the Load Preview button to load the message preview. You will be able to see if your template is rendering properly with the sample mock data by loading the preview of your draft version. Make sure to see the preview before publishing the template to check if the parsed JSON is valid or not. Publish the template Once finalized, you can publish the template by clicking on Publish template button on the draft version. Your template is now ready to be triggered. At the time of sending communication, if there is a variable present in the template whose value is not rendered due to mismatch or missing, SuprSend will simply discard the template and not send that particular notification to your user. Please note that the rest of the templates will still be sent. Eg. if there is an error in rendering Teams template, but email template is successfully rendered, Teams notification will not be triggered, but email notification will be triggered by SuprSend. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Testing the Template How to send a test notification from the template editor to your device for actual message preview. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Design Template Design simple text template using Markdown editor Adding dynamic data in markdown editor Design adaptive card template using JSONNET editor Adding dynamic data in JSONNET editor Preview message Publish the template | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://openapi.tools/sponsor | Sponsor OpenAPI.tools | OpenApi.tools, from APIs You Won't Hate Sponsored by Zudoku - Open-source, highly customizable API documentation powered by OpenAPI Get Started Sponsor openapi.tools GitHub Get Started All Tools All Categories Legacy Tools Contributing Sponsors Sponsor Badges Collections Arazzo Support Overlays Support Open Source Tools SaaS Tools OpenAPI Tool Categories Annotations Code generators Converters Data Validators Documentation Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) Gateways HTTP Clients IDEs and GUI Editors Learning Miscellaneous Mock Servers Monitoring OpenAPI-aware Frameworks Parsers Schema Validators SDK Generators Security Server Implementations Testing Text Editors © 2026 APIs You Won't Hate Get in touch to become a Sponsor . This site is community-driven and OSS , built with Astro and hosted on Netlify . Sponsor OpenAPI.tools OpenAPI.tools is a community-driven directory helping developers discover the best tools for working with OpenAPI descriptions. With thousands of monthly visitors searching for API tooling, sponsorship gives your product prominent visibility in the OpenAPI ecosystem. Why Sponsor? Reach your target audience - Developers actively looking for API tools Priority placement - Sponsored tools appear first in category listings "Sponsored" badge - Clear visual distinction that builds trust Backlink opportunity - Display our badge on your site linking back to your listing Support the community - Help us maintain and improve this free resource Sponsorship Benefits Benefit Included Priority listing in categories ✓ "Sponsored" badge on your tool ✓ Embeddable badges for your website ✓ Banner rotation (limited spots) Contact us Featured testimonial ✓ Current Sponsors We're proud to work with these companies building great OpenAPI tools: ✨ Stainless - Generate SDKs in popular languages and publish them to package managers (like npm). // Speakeasy - Generate & publish SDKs in 10+ languages, Terraform Providers, and docs from OpenAPI. Zudoku - OpenAPI powered, highly customizable, API reference and documentation framework with CDN packaged and self-hosted options. Wiremock - WireMock Cloud is a managed, hosted version of WireMock, developed by the same team who wrote the open-source project. It is built on the same technology that powers open source WireMock and is 100% compatible with the WireMock API, with additional features that make it quick and easy to mock any API you depend on. WireMock Cloud also introduces advanced capabilities such as chaos engineering, OpenAPI generation, validation and documentation as well as better collaboration and user management. Sponsor Badges As a sponsor, you can display our badges on your website to show your partnership and link back to your tool listing. Visit our badges page for embed codes and badge options. How to Sponsor Corporate Sponsors : Contact us through GitHub Sponsors or reach out directly via apisyouwonthate.com . Individual Supporters : If you're not a corporation and want to support us, consider becoming a paid member of APIs You Won't Hate . About APIs You Won't Hate OpenAPI.tools is maintained by the team behind APIs You Won't Hate , a community dedicated to helping developers build better APIs. Your sponsorship supports both this directory and the broader API education mission. * * * | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://openapi.tools/categories/domain-specific-languages | Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) | OpenApi.tools, from APIs You Won't Hate Sponsored by Zudoku - Open-source, highly customizable API documentation powered by OpenAPI Get Started Sponsor openapi.tools GitHub Get Started All Tools All Categories Legacy Tools Contributing Sponsors Sponsor Badges Collections Arazzo Support Overlays Support Open Source Tools SaaS Tools OpenAPI Tool Categories Annotations Code generators Converters Data Validators Documentation Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) Gateways HTTP Clients IDEs and GUI Editors Learning Miscellaneous Mock Servers Monitoring OpenAPI-aware Frameworks Parsers Schema Validators SDK Generators Security Server Implementations Testing Text Editors © 2026 APIs You Won't Hate Get in touch to become a Sponsor . This site is community-driven and OSS , built with Astro and hosted on Netlify . Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) Writing YAML by hand is no fun, and maybe you don't want a GUI, so use a Domain Specific Language to write OpenAPI in your language of choice. Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs) There are additional tools in this category, but they only support legacy versions of OpenAPI. If you really need to work with some old OpenAPI descriptions perhaps these legacy tools could be of use * * * | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/new/learning | New Post - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Join the Parenting Parenting is a community of 3,676,891 amazing parents Continue with Apple Continue with Google Continue with Facebook Continue with Forem Continue with GitHub Continue with Twitter (X) OR Email Password Remember me Forgot password? By signing in, you are agreeing to our privacy policy , terms of use and code of conduct . New to Parenting? Create account . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close About Parenting Welcome to Parenting! Parenting is the most rewarding, challenging, and unpredictable journey of a lifetime. Whether you're celebrating a first smile, navigating the tumultuous teens, or learning to let go with adult children, we're here for you. Parenting is a warm and supportive community built by parents, for parents. We're here to share the unfiltered realities—the sleepless nights and the belly laughs, the tough questions and the proudest moments. You are not alone on this adventure. Our Mission Our purpose is simple: to create a judgment-free space where parents can connect, share experiences, and find solidarity. We embrace the idea that there is no one-size-fits-all manual for raising children. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#int | Built-in Functions — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Previous topic Introduction Next topic Built-in Constants This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Built-in Functions | Theme Auto Light Dark | Built-in Functions ¶ The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. Built-in Functions A abs() aiter() all() anext() any() ascii() B bin() bool() breakpoint() bytearray() bytes() C callable() chr() classmethod() compile() complex() D delattr() dict() dir() divmod() E enumerate() eval() exec() F filter() float() format() frozenset() G getattr() globals() H hasattr() hash() help() hex() I id() input() int() isinstance() issubclass() iter() L len() list() locals() M map() max() memoryview() min() N next() O object() oct() open() ord() P pow() print() property() R range() repr() reversed() round() S set() setattr() slice() sorted() staticmethod() str() sum() super() T tuple() type() V vars() Z zip() _ __import__() abs ( number , / ) ¶ Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be an integer, a floating-point number, or an object implementing __abs__() . If the argument is a complex number, its magnitude is returned. aiter ( async_iterable , / ) ¶ Return an asynchronous iterator for an asynchronous iterable . Equivalent to calling x.__aiter__() . Note: Unlike iter() , aiter() has no 2-argument variant. Added in version 3.10. all ( iterable , / ) ¶ Return True if all elements of the iterable are true (or if the iterable is empty). Equivalent to: def all ( iterable ): for element in iterable : if not element : return False return True awaitable anext ( async_iterator , / ) ¶ awaitable anext ( async_iterator , default , / ) When awaited, return the next item from the given asynchronous iterator , or default if given and the iterator is exhausted. This is the async variant of the next() builtin, and behaves similarly. This calls the __anext__() method of async_iterator , returning an awaitable . Awaiting this returns the next value of the iterator. If default is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise StopAsyncIteration is raised. Added in version 3.10. any ( iterable , / ) ¶ Return True if any element of the iterable is true. If the iterable is empty, return False . Equivalent to: def any ( iterable ): for element in iterable : if element : return True return False ascii ( object , / ) ¶ As repr() , return a string containing a printable representation of an object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by repr() using \x , \u , or \U escapes. This generates a string similar to that returned by repr() in Python 2. bin ( integer , / ) ¶ Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”. The result is a valid Python expression. If integer is not a Python int object, it has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. Some examples: >>> bin ( 3 ) '0b11' >>> bin ( - 10 ) '-0b1010' If the prefix “0b” is desired or not, you can use either of the following ways. >>> format ( 14 , '#b' ), format ( 14 , 'b' ) ('0b1110', '1110') >>> f ' { 14 : #b } ' , f ' { 14 : b } ' ('0b1110', '1110') See also enum.bin() to represent negative values as twos-complement. See also format() for more information. class bool ( object = False , / ) ¶ Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of True or False . The argument is converted using the standard truth testing procedure . If the argument is false or omitted, this returns False ; otherwise, it returns True . The bool class is a subclass of int (see Numeric Types — int, float, complex ). It cannot be subclassed further. Its only instances are False and True (see Boolean Type - bool ). Changed in version 3.7: The parameter is now positional-only. breakpoint ( * args , ** kws ) ¶ This function drops you into the debugger at the call site. Specifically, it calls sys.breakpointhook() , passing args and kws straight through. By default, sys.breakpointhook() calls pdb.set_trace() expecting no arguments. In this case, it is purely a convenience function so you don’t have to explicitly import pdb or type as much code to enter the debugger. However, sys.breakpointhook() can be set to some other function and breakpoint() will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into the debugger of choice. If sys.breakpointhook() is not accessible, this function will raise RuntimeError . By default, the behavior of breakpoint() can be changed with the PYTHONBREAKPOINT environment variable. See sys.breakpointhook() for usage details. Note that this is not guaranteed if sys.breakpointhook() has been replaced. Raises an auditing event builtins.breakpoint with argument breakpointhook . Added in version 3.7. class bytearray ( source = b'' ) class bytearray ( source , encoding , errors = 'strict' ) Return a new array of bytes. The bytearray class is a mutable sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256. It has most of the usual methods of mutable sequences, described in Mutable Sequence Types , as well as most methods that the bytes type has, see Bytes and Bytearray Operations . The optional source parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few different ways: If it is a string , you must also give the encoding (and optionally, errors ) parameters; bytearray() then converts the string to bytes using str.encode() . If it is an integer , the array will have that size and will be initialized with null bytes. If it is an object conforming to the buffer interface , a read-only buffer of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array. If it is an iterable , it must be an iterable of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256 , which are used as the initial contents of the array. Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created. See also Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview and Bytearray Objects . class bytes ( source = b'' ) class bytes ( source , encoding , errors = 'strict' ) Return a new “bytes” object which is an immutable sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256 . bytes is an immutable version of bytearray – it has the same non-mutating methods and the same indexing and slicing behavior. Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for bytearray() . Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see String and Bytes literals . See also Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview , Bytes Objects , and Bytes and Bytearray Operations . callable ( object , / ) ¶ Return True if the object argument appears callable, False if not. If this returns True , it is still possible that a call fails, but if it is False , calling object will never succeed. Note that classes are callable (calling a class returns a new instance); instances are callable if their class has a __call__() method. Added in version 3.2: This function was first removed in Python 3.0 and then brought back in Python 3.2. chr ( codepoint , / ) ¶ Return the string representing a character with the specified Unicode code point. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a' , while chr(8364) returns the string '€' . This is the inverse of ord() . The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in base 16). ValueError will be raised if it is outside that range. @ classmethod ¶ Transform a method into a class method. A class method receives the class as an implicit first argument, just like an instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this idiom: class C : @classmethod def f ( cls , arg1 , arg2 ): ... The @classmethod form is a function decorator – see Function definitions for details. A class method can be called either on the class (such as C.f() ) or on an instance (such as C().f() ). The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the implied first argument. Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those, see staticmethod() in this section. For more information on class methods, see The standard type hierarchy . Changed in version 3.9: Class methods can now wrap other descriptors such as property() . Changed in version 3.10: Class methods now inherit the method attributes ( __module__ , __name__ , __qualname__ , __doc__ and __annotations__ ) and have a new __wrapped__ attribute. Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13: Class methods can no longer wrap other descriptors such as property() . compile ( source , filename , mode , flags = 0 , dont_inherit = False , optimize = -1 ) ¶ Compile the source into a code or AST object. Code objects can be executed by exec() or eval() . source can either be a normal string, a byte string, or an AST object. Refer to the ast module documentation for information on how to work with AST objects. The filename argument should give the file from which the code was read; pass some recognizable value if it wasn’t read from a file ( '<string>' is commonly used). The mode argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be 'exec' if source consists of a sequence of statements, 'eval' if it consists of a single expression, or 'single' if it consists of a single interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that evaluate to something other than None will be printed). The optional arguments flags and dont_inherit control which compiler options should be activated and which future features should be allowed. If neither is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with the same flags that affect the code that is calling compile() . If the flags argument is given and dont_inherit is not (or is zero) then the compiler options and the future statements specified by the flags argument are used in addition to those that would be used anyway. If dont_inherit is a non-zero integer then the flags argument is it – the flags (future features and compiler options) in the surrounding code are ignored. Compiler options and future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to specify multiple options. The bitfield required to specify a given future feature can be found as the compiler_flag attribute on the _Feature instance in the __future__ module. Compiler flags can be found in ast module, with PyCF_ prefix. The argument optimize specifies the optimization level of the compiler; the default value of -1 selects the optimization level of the interpreter as given by -O options. Explicit levels are 0 (no optimization; __debug__ is true), 1 (asserts are removed, __debug__ is false) or 2 (docstrings are removed too). This function raises SyntaxError or ValueError if the compiled source is invalid. If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see ast.parse() . Raises an auditing event compile with arguments source and filename . This event may also be raised by implicit compilation. Note When compiling a string with multi-line code in 'single' or 'eval' mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline character. This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete statements in the code module. Warning It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a sufficiently large/complex string when compiling to an AST object due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler. Changed in version 3.2: Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines. Also, input in 'exec' mode does not have to end in a newline anymore. Added the optimize parameter. Changed in version 3.5: Previously, TypeError was raised when null bytes were encountered in source . Added in version 3.8: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT can now be passed in flags to enable support for top-level await , async for , and async with . class complex ( number = 0 , / ) ¶ class complex ( string , / ) class complex ( real = 0 , imag = 0 ) Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a complex number from real and imaginary parts. Examples: >>> complex ( '+1.23' ) (1.23+0j) >>> complex ( '-4.5j' ) -4.5j >>> complex ( '-1.23+4.5j' ) (-1.23+4.5j) >>> complex ( ' \t ( -1.23+4.5J ) \n ' ) (-1.23+4.5j) >>> complex ( '-Infinity+NaNj' ) (-inf+nanj) >>> complex ( 1.23 ) (1.23+0j) >>> complex ( imag =- 4.5 ) -4.5j >>> complex ( - 1.23 , 4.5 ) (-1.23+4.5j) If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in the same format as for float() ) or an imaginary part (in the same format but with a 'j' or 'J' suffix), or both real and imaginary parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in this case). The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces and the round parentheses '(' and ')' , which are ignored. The string must not contain whitespace between '+' , '-' , the 'j' or 'J' suffix, and the decimal number. For example, complex('1+2j') is fine, but complex('1 + 2j') raises ValueError . More precisely, the input must conform to the complexvalue production rule in the following grammar, after parentheses and leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed: complexvalue : floatvalue | floatvalue ( "j" | "J" ) | floatvalue sign absfloatvalue ( "j" | "J" ) If the argument is a number, the constructor serves as a numeric conversion like int and float . For a general Python object x , complex(x) delegates to x.__complex__() . If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to __float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__() . If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each argument may be any numeric type (including complex). If both arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real component real and the imaginary component imag . If both arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the real component real.real-imag.imag and the imaginary component real.imag+imag.real . If one of arguments is a real number, only its real component is used in the above expressions. See also complex.from_number() which only accepts a single numeric argument. If all arguments are omitted, returns 0j . The complex type is described in Numeric Types — int, float, complex . Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed. Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to __index__() if __complex__() and __float__() are not defined. Deprecated since version 3.14: Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. delattr ( object , name , / ) ¶ This is a relative of setattr() . The arguments are an object and a string. The string must be the name of one of the object’s attributes. The function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it. For example, delattr(x, 'foobar') is equivalent to del x.foobar . name need not be a Python identifier (see setattr() ). class dict ( ** kwargs ) class dict ( mapping , / , ** kwargs ) class dict ( iterable , / , ** kwargs ) Create a new dictionary. The dict object is the dictionary class. See dict and Mapping Types — dict for documentation about this class. For other containers see the built-in list , set , and tuple classes, as well as the collections module. dir ( ) ¶ dir ( object , / ) Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object. If the object has a method named __dir__() , this method will be called and must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom __getattr__() or __getattribute__() function to customize the way dir() reports their attributes. If the object does not provide __dir__() , the function tries its best to gather information from the object’s __dict__ attribute, if defined, and from its type object. The resulting list is not necessarily complete and may be inaccurate when the object has a custom __getattr__() . The default dir() mechanism behaves differently with different types of objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete, information: If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module’s attributes. If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases. Otherwise, the list contains the object’s attributes’ names, the names of its class’s attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class’s base classes. The resulting list is sorted alphabetically. For example: >>> import struct >>> dir () # show the names in the module namespace ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct'] >>> dir ( struct ) # show the names in the struct module ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into', 'unpack', 'unpack_from'] >>> class Shape : ... def __dir__ ( self ): ... return [ 'area' , 'perimeter' , 'location' ] ... >>> s = Shape () >>> dir ( s ) ['area', 'location', 'perimeter'] Note Because dir() is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more than it tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names, and its detailed behavior may change across releases. For example, metaclass attributes are not in the result list when the argument is a class. divmod ( a , b , / ) ¶ Take two (non-complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division. With mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For integers, the result is the same as (a // b, a % b) . For floating-point numbers the result is (q, a % b) , where q is usually math.floor(a / b) but may be 1 less than that. In any case q * b + a % b is very close to a , if a % b is non-zero it has the same sign as b , and 0 <= abs(a % b) < abs(b) . enumerate ( iterable , start = 0 ) ¶ Return an enumerate object. iterable must be a sequence, an iterator , or some other object which supports iteration. The __next__() method of the iterator returned by enumerate() returns a tuple containing a count (from start which defaults to 0) and the values obtained from iterating over iterable . >>> seasons = [ 'Spring' , 'Summer' , 'Fall' , 'Winter' ] >>> list ( enumerate ( seasons )) [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')] >>> list ( enumerate ( seasons , start = 1 )) [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')] Equivalent to: def enumerate ( iterable , start = 0 ): n = start for elem in iterable : yield n , elem n += 1 eval ( source , / , globals = None , locals = None ) ¶ Parameters : source ( str | code object ) – A Python expression. globals ( dict | None ) – The global namespace (default: None ). locals ( mapping | None ) – The local namespace (default: None ). Returns : The result of the evaluated expression. Raises : Syntax errors are reported as exceptions. Warning This function executes arbitrary code. Calling it with user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities. The source argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the globals and locals mappings as global and local namespace. If the globals dictionary is present and does not contain a value for the key __builtins__ , a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module builtins is inserted under that key before source is parsed. That way you can control what builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own __builtins__ dictionary into globals before passing it to eval() . If the locals mapping is omitted it defaults to the globals dictionary. If both mappings are omitted, the source is executed with the globals and locals in the environment where eval() is called. Note, eval() will only have access to the nested scopes (non-locals) in the enclosing environment if they are already referenced in the scope that is calling eval() (e.g. via a nonlocal statement). Example: >>> x = 1 >>> eval ( 'x+1' ) 2 This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as those created by compile() ). In this case, pass a code object instead of a string. If the code object has been compiled with 'exec' as the mode argument, eval() 's return value will be None . Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the exec() function. The globals() and locals() functions return the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use by eval() or exec() . If the given source is a string, then leading and trailing spaces and tabs are stripped. See ast.literal_eval() for a function that can safely evaluate strings with expressions containing only literals. Raises an auditing event exec with the code object as the argument. Code compilation events may also be raised. Changed in version 3.13: The globals and locals arguments can now be passed as keywords. Changed in version 3.13: The semantics of the default locals namespace have been adjusted as described for the locals() builtin. exec ( source , / , globals = None , locals = None , * , closure = None ) ¶ Warning This function executes arbitrary code. Calling it with user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities. This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. source must be either a string or a code object. If it is a string, the string is parsed as a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error occurs). [ 1 ] If it is a code object, it is simply executed. In all cases, the code that’s executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section File input in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the nonlocal , yield , and return statements may not be used outside of function definitions even within the context of code passed to the exec() function. The return value is None . In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the current scope. If only globals is provided, it must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will be used for both the global and the local variables. If globals and locals are given, they are used for the global and local variables, respectively. If provided, locals can be any mapping object. Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. Note When exec gets two separate objects as globals and locals , the code will be executed as if it were embedded in a class definition. This means functions and classes defined in the executed code will not be able to access variables assigned at the top level (as the “top level” variables are treated as class variables in a class definition). If the globals dictionary does not contain a value for the key __builtins__ , a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module builtins is inserted under that key. That way you can control what builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own __builtins__ dictionary into globals before passing it to exec() . The closure argument specifies a closure–a tuple of cellvars. It’s only valid when the object is a code object containing free (closure) variables . The length of the tuple must exactly match the length of the code object’s co_freevars attribute. Raises an auditing event exec with the code object as the argument. Code compilation events may also be raised. Note The built-in functions globals() and locals() return the current global and local namespace, respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use as the second and third argument to exec() . Note The default locals act as described for function locals() below. Pass an explicit locals dictionary if you need to see effects of the code on locals after function exec() returns. Changed in version 3.11: Added the closure parameter. Changed in version 3.13: The globals and locals arguments can now be passed as keywords. Changed in version 3.13: The semantics of the default locals namespace have been adjusted as described for the locals() builtin. filter ( function , iterable , / ) ¶ Construct an iterator from those elements of iterable for which function is true. iterable may be either a sequence, a container which supports iteration, or an iterator. If function is None , the identity function is assumed, that is, all elements of iterable that are false are removed. Note that filter(function, iterable) is equivalent to the generator expression (item for item in iterable if function(item)) if function is not None and (item for item in iterable if item) if function is None . See itertools.filterfalse() for the complementary function that returns elements of iterable for which function is false. class float ( number = 0.0 , / ) ¶ class float ( string , / ) Return a floating-point number constructed from a number or a string. Examples: >>> float ( '+1.23' ) 1.23 >>> float ( ' -12345 \n ' ) -12345.0 >>> float ( '1e-003' ) 0.001 >>> float ( '+1E6' ) 1000000.0 >>> float ( '-Infinity' ) -inf If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace. The optional sign may be '+' or '-' ; a '+' sign has no effect on the value produced. The argument may also be a string representing a NaN (not-a-number), or positive or negative infinity. More precisely, the input must conform to the floatvalue production rule in the following grammar, after leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed: sign : "+" | "-" infinity : "Infinity" | "inf" nan : "nan" digit : <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd> digitpart : digit ([ "_" ] digit )* number : [ digitpart ] "." digitpart | digitpart [ "." ] exponent : ( "e" | "E" ) [ sign ] digitpart floatnumber : number [ exponent ] absfloatvalue : floatnumber | infinity | nan floatvalue : [ sign ] absfloatvalue Case is not significant, so, for example, “inf”, “Inf”, “INFINITY”, and “iNfINity” are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity. Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating-point number, a floating-point number with the same value (within Python’s floating-point precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python float, an OverflowError will be raised. For a general Python object x , float(x) delegates to x.__float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__() . See also float.from_number() which only accepts a numeric argument. If no argument is given, 0.0 is returned. The float type is described in Numeric Types — int, float, complex . Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed. Changed in version 3.7: The parameter is now positional-only. Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to __index__() if __float__() is not defined. format ( value , format_spec = '' , / ) ¶ Convert a value to a “formatted” representation, as controlled by format_spec . The interpretation of format_spec will depend on the type of the value argument; however, there is a standard formatting syntax that is used by most built-in types: Format Specification Mini-Language . The default format_spec is an empty string which usually gives the same effect as calling str(value) . A call to format(value, format_spec) is translated to type(value).__format__(value, format_spec) which bypasses the instance dictionary when searching for the value’s __format__() method. A TypeError exception is raised if the method search reaches object and the format_spec is non-empty, or if either the format_spec or the return value are not strings. Changed in version 3.4: object().__format__(format_spec) raises TypeError if format_spec is not an empty string. class frozenset ( iterable = () , / ) Return a new frozenset object, optionally with elements taken from iterable . frozenset is a built-in class. See frozenset and Set Types — set, frozenset for documentation about this class. For other containers see the built-in set , list , tuple , and dict classes, as well as the collections module. getattr ( object , name , / ) ¶ getattr ( object , name , default , / ) Return the value of the named attribute of object . name must be a string. If the string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, the result is the value of that attribute. For example, getattr(x, 'foobar') is equivalent to x.foobar . If the named attribute does not exist, default is returned if provided, otherwise AttributeError is raised. name need not be a Python identifier (see setattr() ). Note Since private name mangling happens at compilation time, one must manually mangle a private attribute’s (attributes with two leading underscores) name in order to retrieve it with getattr() . globals ( ) ¶ Return the dictionary implementing the current module namespace. For code within functions, this is set when the function is defined and remains the same regardless of where the function is called. hasattr ( object , name , / ) ¶ The arguments are an object and a string. The result is True if the string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, False if not. (This is implemented by calling getattr(object, name) and seeing whether it raises an AttributeError or not.) hash ( object , / ) ¶ Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are integers. They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash value (even if they are of different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0). Note For objects with custom __hash__() methods, note that hash() truncates the return value based on the bit width of the host machine. help ( ) ¶ help ( request ) Invoke the built-in help system. (This function is intended for interactive use.) If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the interpreter console. If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation topic, and a help page is printed on the console. If the argument is any other kind of object, a help page on the object is generated. Note that if a slash(/) appears in the parameter list of a function when invoking help() , it means that the parameters prior to the slash are positional-only. For more info, see the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters . This function is added to the built-in namespace by the site module. Changed in version 3.4: Changes to pydoc and inspect mean that the reported signatures for callables are now more comprehensive and consistent. hex ( integer , / ) ¶ Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with “0x”. If integer is not a Python int object, it has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. Some examples: >>> hex ( 255 ) '0xff' >>> hex ( - 42 ) '-0x2a' If you want to convert an integer number to an uppercase or lower hexadecimal string with prefix or not, you can use either of the following ways: >>> ' %#x ' % 255 , ' %x ' % 255 , ' %X ' % 255 ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF') >>> format ( 255 , '#x' ), format ( 255 , 'x' ), format ( 255 , 'X' ) ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF') >>> f ' { 255 : #x } ' , f ' { 255 : x } ' , f ' { 255 : X } ' ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF') See also format() for more information. See also int() for converting a hexadecimal string to an integer using a base of 16. Note To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the float.hex() method. id ( object , / ) ¶ Return the “identity” of an object. This is an integer which is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same id() value. CPython implementation detail: This is the address of the object in memory. Raises an auditing event builtins.id with argument id . input ( ) ¶ input ( prompt , / ) If the prompt argument is present, it is written to standard output without a trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read, EOFError is raised. Example: >>> s = input ( '--> ' ) --> Monty Python's Flying Circus >>> s "Monty Python's Flying Circus" If the readline module was loaded, then input() will use it to provide elaborate line editing and history features. Raises an auditing event builtins.input with argument prompt before reading input Raises an auditing event builtins.input/result with the result after successfully reading input. class int ( number = 0 , / ) ¶ class int ( string , / , base = 10 ) Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or return 0 if no arguments are given. Examples: >>> int ( 123.45 ) 123 >>> int ( '123' ) 123 >>> int ( ' -12_345 \n ' ) -12345 >>> int ( 'FACE' , 16 ) 64206 >>> int ( '0xface' , 0 ) 64206 >>> int ( '01110011' , base = 2 ) 115 If the argument defines __int__() , int(x) returns x.__int__() . If the argument defines __index__() , it returns x.__index__() . For floating-point numbers, this truncates towards zero. If the argument is not a number or if base is given, then it must be a string, bytes , or bytearray instance representing an integer in radix base . Optionally, the string can be preceded by + or - (with no space in between), have leading zeros, be surrounded by whitespace, and have single underscores interspersed between digits. A base-n integer string contains digits, each representing a value from 0 to n-1. The values 0–9 can be represented by any Unicode decimal digit. The values 10–35 can be represented by a to z (or A to Z ). The default base is 10. The allowed bases are 0 and 2–36. Base-2, -8, and -16 strings can be optionally prefixed with 0b / 0B , 0o / 0O , or 0x / 0X , as with integer literals in code. For base 0, the string is interpreted in a similar way to an integer literal in code , in that the actual base is 2, 8, 10, or 16 as determined by the prefix. Base 0 also disallows leading zeros: int('010', 0) is not legal, while int('010') and int('010', 8) are. The integer type is described in Numeric Types — int, float, complex . Changed in version 3.4: If base is not an instance of int and the base object has a base.__index__ method, that method is called to obtain an integer for the base. Previous versions used base.__int__ instead of base.__index__ . Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed. Changed in version 3.7: The first parameter is now positional-only. Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to __index__() if __int__() is not defined. Changed in version 3.11: int string inputs and string representations can be limited to help avoid denial of service attacks. A ValueError is raised when the limit is exceeded while converting a string to an int or when converting an int into a string would exceed the limit. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation. Changed in version 3.14: int() no longer delegates to the __trunc__() method. isinstance ( object , classinfo , / ) ¶ Return True if the object argument is an instance of the classinfo argument, or of a (direct, indirect, or virtual ) subclass thereof. If object is not an object of the given type, the function always returns False . If classinfo is a tuple of type objects (or recursively, other such tuples) or a Union Type of multiple types, return True if object is an instance of any of the types. If classinfo is not a type or tuple of types and such tuples, a TypeError exception is raised. TypeError may not be raised for an invalid type if an earlier check succeeds. Changed in version 3.10: classinfo can be a Union Type . issubclass ( class , classinfo , / ) ¶ Return True if class is a subclass (direct, indirect, or virtual ) of classinfo . A class is considered a subclass of itself. classinfo may be a tuple of class objects (or recursively, other such tuples) or a Union Type , in which case return True if class is a subclass of any entry in classinfo . In any other case, a TypeError exception is raised. Changed in version 3.10: classinfo can be a Union Type . iter ( iterable , / ) ¶ iter ( callable , sentinel , / ) Return an iterator object. The first argument is interpreted very differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, the single argument must be a collection object which supports the iterable protocol (the __iter__() method), or it must support the sequence protocol (the __getitem__() method with integer arguments starting at 0 ). If it does not support either of those protocols, TypeError is raised. If the second argument, sentinel , is given, then the first argument must be a callable object. The iterator created in this case will call callable with no arguments for each call to its __next__() method; if the value returned is equal to sentinel , StopIteration will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned. See also Iterator Types . One useful application of the second form of iter() is to build a block-reader. For example, reading fixed-width blocks from a binary database file until the end of file is reached: from functools import partial with open ( 'mydata.db' , 'rb' ) as f : for block in iter ( partial ( f . read , 64 ), b '' ): process_block ( block ) len ( object , / ) ¶ Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection (such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set). CPython implementation detail: len raises OverflowError on lengths larger than sys.maxsize , such as range(2 ** 100) . class list ( iterable = () , / ) Rather than being a function, list is actually a mutable sequence type, as documented in Lists and Sequence Types — list, tuple, range . locals ( ) ¶ Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol table, with variable names as the keys, and their currently bound references as the values. At module scope, as well as when using exec() or eval() with a single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as globals() . At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the metaclass constructor. When using exec() or eval() with separate local and global arguments, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function call. In all of the above cases, each call to locals() in a given frame of execution will return the same mapping object. Changes made through the mapping object returned from locals() will be visible as assigned, reassigned, or deleted local variables, and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local variables will immediately affect the contents of the returned mapping object. In an optimized scope (including functions, generators, and coroutines), each call to locals() instead returns a fresh dictionary containing the current bindings of the function’s local variables and any nonlocal cell references. In this case, name binding changes made via the returned dict are not written back to the corresponding local variables or nonlocal cell references, and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local variables and nonlocal cell references does not affect the contents of previously returned dictionaries. Calling locals() as part of a comprehension in a function, generator, or coroutine is equivalent to calling it in the containing scope, except that the comprehension’s initialised iteration variables will be included. In other scopes, it behaves as if the comprehension were running as a nested function. Calling locals() as part of a generator expression is equivalent to calling it in a nested generator function. Changed in version 3.12: The behaviour of locals() in a comprehension has been updated as described in PEP 709 . Changed in version 3.13: As part of PEP 667 , the semantics of mutating the mapping objects returned from this function are now defined. The behavior in optimized scopes is now as described above. Aside from being defined, the behaviour in other scopes remains unchanged from previous versions. map ( function , iterable , / , * iterables , strict = False ) ¶ Return an iterator that applies function to every item of iterable , yielding the results. If additional iterables arguments are passed, function must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel. With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the shortest iterable is exhausted. If strict is True and one of the iterables is exhausted before the others, a ValueError is raised. For cases where the function inputs are already arranged into argument tuples, see itertools.starmap() . Changed in version 3.14: Added the strict parameter. max ( iterable , / , * , key = None ) ¶ max ( iterable , / , * , default , key = None ) max ( arg1 , arg2 , / , * args , key = None ) Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more arguments. If one positional argument is provided, it should be an iterable . The largest item in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are provided, the largest of the positional arguments is returned. There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The key argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that used for list.sort() . The default argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is empty. If the iterable is empty and default is not provided, a ValueError is raised. If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one encountered. This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools such as sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0] and heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc) . Changed in version 3.4: Added the default keyword-only parameter. Changed in version 3.8: The key can be None . class memoryview ( object ) Return a “memory view” object created from the given argument. See Memory Views for more information. min ( iterable , / , * , key = None ) ¶ min ( iterable , / , * , default , key = None ) min ( arg1 , arg2 , / , * args , key = None ) Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more arguments. If one positional argument is provided, it should be an iterable . The smallest item in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is returned. There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The key argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that used for list.sort() . The default argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is empty. If the iterable is empty and default is not provided, a ValueError is raised. If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one encountered. This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools such as sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0] and heapq.nsmallest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc) . Changed in version 3.4: Added the default keyword-only parameter. Changed in version 3.8: The key can be None . next ( iterator , / ) ¶ next ( iterator , default , / ) Retrieve the next item from the iterator by calling its __next__() method. If default is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise StopIteration is raised. class object ¶ This is the ultimate base class of all other classes. It has methods that are common to all instances of Python classes. When the constructor is called, it returns a new featureless object. The constructor does not accept any arguments. Note object instances do not have __dict__ attributes, so you can’t assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of object . oct ( integer , / ) ¶ Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”. The result is a valid Python expression. If integer is not a Python int object, it has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. For example: >>> oct ( 8 ) '0o10' >>> oct ( - 56 ) '-0o70' If you want to convert an integer number to an octal string either with the prefix “0o” or not, you can use either of the following ways. >>> ' %#o ' % 10 , ' %o ' % 10 ('0o12', '12') >>> format ( 10 , '#o' ), format ( 10 , 'o' ) ('0o12', '12') >>> f ' { 10 : #o } ' , f ' { 10 : o } ' ('0o12', '12') See also format() for more information. open ( file , mode = 'r' , buffering = -1 , encoding = None , errors = None , newline = None , closefd = True , opener = None ) ¶ Open file and return a corresponding file object . If the file cannot be opened, an OSError is raised. See Reading and Writing Files for more examples of how to use this function. file is a path-like object giving the pathname (absolute or relative to the current working directory) of the file to be opened or an integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped. (If a file descriptor is given, it is closed when the returned I/O object is closed unless closefd is set to False .) mode is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is opened. It defaults to 'r' which means open for reading in text mode. Other common values are 'w' for writing (truncating the file if it already exists), 'x' for exclusive creation, and 'a' for appending (which on some Unix systems, means that all writes append to the end of the file regardless of the current seek position). In text mode, if encoding is not specified the encoding used is platform-dependent: locale.getencoding() is called to get the current locale encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave encoding unspecified.) The available modes are: Character Meaning 'r' open for reading (default) 'w' open for writing, truncating the file first 'x' open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists 'a' open for writing, appending to the end of file if it exists 'b' binary mode 't' text mode (default) '+' open for updating (reading and writing) The default mode is 'r' (open for reading text, a synonym of 'rt' ). Modes 'w+' and 'w+b' open and truncate the file. Modes 'r+' and 'r+b' open the file with no truncation. As mentioned in the Overview , Python distinguishes between binary and text I/O. Files opened in binary mode (including 'b' in the mode argument) return contents as bytes objects without any decoding. In text mode (the default, or when 't' is included in the mode argument), the contents of the file are returned as str , the bytes having been first decoded using a platform-dependent encoding or using the specified encoding if given. Note Python doesn’t depend on the underlying operating system’s notion of text files; all the processing is done by Python itself, and is therefore platform-independent. buffering is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy. Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary mode), 1 to select line buffering (only usable when writing in text mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size in bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer. Note that specifying a buffer size this way applies for binary buffered I/O, but TextIOWrapper (i.e., files opened with mode='r+' ) would have another buffering. To disable buffering in TextIOWrapper , consider using the write_through flag for io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() . When no buffering argument is given, the default buffering policy works as follows: Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is max(min(blocksize, 8 MiB), DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE) when the device block size is available. On most systems, the buffer will typically be 128 kilobytes long. “Interactive” text files (files for which isatty() returns True ) use line buffering. Other text files use the policy described above for binary files. encoding is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file. This should only be used in text mode. The default encoding is platform dependent (whatever locale.getencoding() returns), but any text encoding supported by Python can be used. See the codecs module for the list of supported encodings. errors is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding errors are to be handled—this cannot be used in binary mode. A variety of standard error handlers are available (listed under Error Handlers ), though any error handling name that has | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://parenting.forem.com/privacy#a-provide-our-services | Privacy Policy - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/t/gear | Gear - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close # gear Follow Hide toys for tone obsessives Create Post Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu International Travel with Toddlers: Car Seat (or vest!) Considerations Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Oct 14 '25 International Travel with Toddlers: Car Seat (or vest!) Considerations # travel # gear 15 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/eli-sanderson/how-becoming-a-parent-helped-me-notice-the-small-things-i79#comments | How Becoming a Parent Helped Me Notice the Small Things - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Eli Sanderson Posted on Nov 21, 2025 How Becoming a Parent Helped Me Notice the Small Things # celebrations # discuss # newparents I never thought I’d be the kind of person who took pictures of everything my baby did. Before I became a parent, I used to laugh when people showed me twenty nearly identical photos of their kid doing something simple—like eating peas or staring at a lamp. I’d smile politely and pretend to understand. Now I’m that person. I became that person the moment I held my son for the first time. Something in me shifted. It didn’t happen gradually. It happened all at once. His fingers curled around mine, so tiny and warm, and suddenly every second felt important. Not in a dramatic way—just in a very quiet, very tender way. I wanted to remember everything, even the things that didn’t seem special. But the funny part is: at first, I completely forgot about pictures. The first week was a blur of diapers, soft cries, and trying to figure out if I was doing anything right. I held him, fed him, changed him, rocked him, stared at him, and tried not to panic. Every time he moved, I felt a mix of love and worry so strong it made my chest ache. It wasn’t until about day eight that I realized I only had four photos of him. Four. One from the hospital. One from the car ride home. One where he yawned. And one where he poked himself in the cheek. They were fine photos, but they weren’t moments. Not really. They were just proof he existed. So one morning, while my son slept swaddled like a tiny burrito, I picked up my phone and told myself, “I’m going to start paying attention today.” I didn’t know what that meant at the time. Not really. But I stepped into the day with that quiet promise in my head. The first picture I took that day was of his hand. Just his hand resting on my shirt while I held him. His fingers were curled in a loose shape, like he was dreaming of holding something. The sunlight came through the blinds and drew little lines across his skin. I kept staring at the photo afterward, surprised by how soft it looked. That was it. That was the start. After that, the pictures changed. They weren’t rushed anymore. They weren’t “take-this-before-he-moves” photos. They were little pauses. Tiny breaths. Small pieces of a day that would pass whether I noticed them or not. I started taking pictures of the way he slept. Not just the cute sleeping positions, but the little ones—the way his bottom lip stuck out when he dreamed, the way his eyelashes rested on his cheeks like soft shadows, the way his hair curled on the side he slept on. I took pictures of his feet. His tiny socks never stayed on, and his toes curled in the funniest ways. One picture caught his foot pressed against my arm while he stretched. I had never thought feet could make me emotional, but there I was, staring at a tiny foot and feeling something warm in my throat. One morning, I held him close while rocking him, and his hand rested against my neck. I felt the warmth of it long after he fell back asleep. I took a picture of that too—not his whole face, just his hand and my shoulder. When I look at it now, I can still remember the weight of him. But the best photos were the ones that happened when I wasn’t trying. There was a day when he lifted his head for the first time during tummy time. He looked a little like a confused turtle. His eyes were huge. His forehead wrinkled. He wobbled, lifted again, wobbled again, then face-planted gently into the blanket. I didn’t take a picture of the face-plant (I was too busy making sure he was okay), but I took one of the moment right after—his expression somewhere between triumph and “Why did I do that?” Then came the day he discovered his own hands. If you’ve never watched a baby realize they have hands, it’s kind of magical. He saw them. Actually saw them. He stared. He wiggled his fingers. He looked shocked and delighted and confused all at once. I took pictures of the whole process—his eyebrows raised, his mouth opened in wonder, his small hands lit by morning sun. Those pictures are still some of my favorites. People kept telling me, “Don’t worry about taking pictures. Just be present.” And I understood what they meant, but taking pictures didn’t take me out of the moment. It brought me deeper into it. To take a picture, I had to notice things I never saw before. Tiny things. Fleeting things. Like the way his hair tuft stuck up after naps. Or the way he gripped my thumb tightly whenever he drank his bottle. Or the way his eyes tracked the ceiling fan even though it wasn’t moving. Or the way his whole body tensed before he sneezed. Or the way he smiled in his sleep—those tiny, secret smiles. I took pictures of all of it, not because I wanted to make a perfect photo album but because I didn’t want these small pieces of life to fade. As the months went on, I learned to use my phone camera better. Nothing fancy—just better angles, better light, more patience. I took fewer rushed shots. More quiet ones. I found that the best pictures came when I didn’t force anything. When I let the moment be the moment. There was a rainy afternoon when he sat in my lap and stared out the window. The raindrops streaked down the glass, and the city outside looked hazy and soft. I lifted the camera slowly and captured the side of his face—round cheek, tiny ear, the reflection of the window in his eyes. That photo still feels like a dream. Then there was the evening we sat on the floor with a pile of toys. He grabbed a soft giraffe and tried to chew on its ear. I snapped a picture of him concentrating so hard his tongue stuck out. That’s when I realized babies don’t just chew things—they study them with their whole bodies. One of the most meaningful pictures I ever took wasn’t cute at all. It was late, and he was having trouble settling. He cried hard, and I rocked him, humming softly. His face was red, his cheeks wet, his eyebrows scrunched. I took a picture—not to capture his sadness, but to remind myself that these moments mattered too. The hard nights. The tired days. The love that doesn’t stop just because everything feels heavy. Looking at that picture later reminded me that parenting isn’t just the highlight reel—it’s the whole story. I kept photographing the small things: The way he held his bottle with both hands as if it weighed a hundred pounds. The way his hair glowed orange in sunset light. The way he kicked his feet when he saw me walk into the room. The way he scrunched his nose when he tasted something new. The way he fell asleep on my chest, breathing slow and warm. Every picture felt like a tiny anchor in a sea of days that move faster than anyone tells you they will. And then one day, something happened that I wasn’t ready for. He crawled. It was slow, clumsy, and full of determination. I felt my heart lift and break at the same time. I wanted to cheer. I wanted to cry. I wanted to freeze the moment so it wouldn’t slip away. I took a picture of him lifting one knee, his face serious and focused. Then I put the camera down and let myself feel the moment fully. When I picked it up again, he was already across the room. That’s what parenting is. Moments that change everything—and happen in the blink of an eye. There was another moment when he stood while holding onto the couch. His legs shook. His fingers tightened. His face glowed with pride. I took a picture of his feet pressing into the carpet, and it made me realize how quickly he was growing. Sometimes I scroll through the photos late at night—picture after picture of small, quiet moments I would’ve forgotten. The way his hand fit inside mine. The way his eyes searched my face. The way he laughed when I blew raspberries on his belly. All the tiny things that didn’t feel tiny at all. One night, after a long day of teething and fussiness and me feeling stretched too thin, I stumbled onto a little story someone had posted that reminded me of gentleness. It helped calm my mind in a way I really needed. I saved it, and sometimes I come back to it . It reminded me that paying attention is its own kind of love. Parenting is messy. Hard. Beautiful. Exhausting. Tender. All at once. And taking pictures helped me hold onto the parts that made everything worth it. Sometimes I think the photos aren’t really for the future at all. They’re for right now. They help me pause. They help me breathe. They help me see the magic hiding in ordinary moments. Because the truth is, babies don’t stay tiny. Their fingers stretch. Their legs grow strong. Their faces change. Their voices take shape. And the world moves so quickly it’s easy to forget how much each day mattered. So I keep taking pictures. Not perfect ones. Not staged ones. Just honest ones. Pictures of moments I don’t want to forget. Moments that feel small until they’re gone. Moments that make me feel like the luckiest person in the room. Moments I’ll look back on someday and think, “Oh. This was it. This was everything.” Parenting taught me that the small things are never really small. They’re the whole world in pieces. And now, every time I pick up my camera, I feel grateful. Not for the photo itself, but for the chance to see the moment before it passes. These little moments are the ones that stay. And I’m glad I didn’t miss them. Top comments (1) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Jess Lee Jess Lee Jess Lee Follow Building DEV and Forem with everyone here. Interested in the future. Email jess@forem.com Location USA / TAIWAN Pronouns she/they Work Co-Founder & COO at Forem Joined Jul 29, 2016 • Nov 24 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks for the lovely post! I'll share that I will probably feel forever guilty that I have wayyyy more photos of my first kid than my second 😅 Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Eli Sanderson Follow Joined Nov 21, 2025 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/privacy#d-other-purposes | Privacy Policy - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. 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C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. 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Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/react-native-android-integration#installation | Android Integration - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Android iOS React Native Android Integration iOS Integration Manage Users Sync Events iOS Push Setup Android Push (FCM) Flutter React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation React Native Android Integration Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog React Native Android Integration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT This document will cover integration steps for Android side of your ReactNative application. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Install Package npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @ suprsend / react - native - sdk @ latest 2 Add the below dependency Add the this dependency in project level build.gradle , inside allprojects > repositories . build.gradle Copy Ask AI allprojects { repositories { ... mavenCentral () // add this } } 3 Add Android SDK dependency inside in app level build.gradle. build.gradle Copy Ask AI dependencies { ... implementation 'com.suprsend:rn:0.1.10' // add this } Note: If you get any error regarding minSdkVersion please update it to 19 or more. Initialization 1 Initialise the Suprsend Android SDK Initialise the Suprsend android SDK in MainApplication.java inside onCreate method and just above super.onCreate() line. javascript Copy Ask AI import app . suprsend . SSApi ; // import sdk ... SSApi . Companion . init ( this , WORKSPACE KEY , WORKSPACE SECRET ); // inside onCreate method just above super.onCreate() line Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will get them the tokens from Settings -> API Keys inside Suprsend dashboard . 2 Import SuprSend SDK in your client side Javascript code. javascript Copy Ask AI import suprsend from "@suprsend/react-native-sdk" ; Logging By default the logs of SuprSend SDK are disabled. You can enable the logs just in debug mode while in development by the below condition. javascript Copy Ask AI suprsend . enableLogging (); // available from v2.0.2 // deprecated from v2.0.2 suprsend . setLogLevel ( level ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "VERBOSE" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "DEBUG" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "INFO" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "ERROR" ) suprsend . setLogLevel ( "OFF" ) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Integration This document will cover integration steps for iOS side of your ReactNative application. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization Logging | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/privacy#3-how-we-use-your-information | Privacy Policy - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/ctypes.html#module-ctypes | ctypes — A foreign function library for Python — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents ctypes — A foreign function library for Python ctypes tutorial Loading dynamic link libraries Accessing functions from loaded dlls Calling functions Fundamental data types Calling functions, continued Calling variadic functions Calling functions with your own custom data types Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) Return types Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) Structures and unions Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order Bit fields in structures and unions Arrays Pointers Thread safety without the GIL Type conversions Incomplete Types Callback functions Accessing values exported from dlls Surprises Variable-sized data types ctypes reference Finding shared libraries Listing loaded shared libraries Loading shared libraries Foreign functions Function prototypes Utility functions Data types Fundamental data types Structured data types Arrays and pointers Exceptions Previous topic errno — Standard errno system symbols Next topic Command-line interface libraries This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Generic Operating System Services » ctypes — A foreign function library for Python | Theme Auto Light Dark | ctypes — A foreign function library for Python ¶ Source code: Lib/ctypes ctypes is a foreign function library for Python. It provides C compatible data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared libraries. It can be used to wrap these libraries in pure Python. This is an optional module . If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules . ctypes tutorial ¶ Note: The code samples in this tutorial use doctest to make sure that they actually work. Since some code samples behave differently under Linux, Windows, or macOS, they contain doctest directives in comments. Note: Some code samples reference the ctypes c_int type. On platforms where sizeof(long) == sizeof(int) it is an alias to c_long . So, you should not be confused if c_long is printed if you would expect c_int — they are actually the same type. Loading dynamic link libraries ¶ ctypes exports the cdll , and on Windows windll and oledll objects, for loading dynamic link libraries. You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects. cdll loads libraries which export functions using the standard cdecl calling convention, while windll libraries call functions using the stdcall calling convention. oledll also uses the stdcall calling convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows HRESULT error code. The error code is used to automatically raise an OSError exception when the function call fails. Changed in version 3.3: Windows errors used to raise WindowsError , which is now an alias of OSError . Here are some examples for Windows. Note that msvcrt is the MS standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the cdecl calling convention: >>> from ctypes import * >>> print ( windll . kernel32 ) <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...> >>> print ( cdll . msvcrt ) <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...> >>> libc = cdll . msvcrt >>> Windows appends the usual .dll file suffix automatically. Note Accessing the standard C library through cdll.msvcrt will use an outdated version of the library that may be incompatible with the one being used by Python. Where possible, use native Python functionality, or else import and use the msvcrt module. On Linux, it is required to specify the filename including the extension to load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load libraries. Either the LoadLibrary() method of the dll loaders should be used, or you should load the library by creating an instance of CDLL by calling the constructor: >>> cdll . LoadLibrary ( "libc.so.6" ) <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...> >>> libc = CDLL ( "libc.so.6" ) >>> libc <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...> >>> Accessing functions from loaded dlls ¶ Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects: >>> libc . printf <_FuncPtr object at 0x...> >>> print ( windll . kernel32 . GetModuleHandleA ) <_FuncPtr object at 0x...> >>> print ( windll . kernel32 . MyOwnFunction ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> File "ctypes.py" , line 239 , in __getattr__ func = _StdcallFuncPtr ( name , self ) AttributeError : function 'MyOwnFunction' not found >>> Note that win32 system dlls like kernel32 and user32 often export ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function. The UNICODE version is exported with a W appended to the name, while the ANSI version is exported with an A appended to the name. The win32 GetModuleHandle function, which returns a module handle for a given module name, has the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as GetModuleHandle depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not: /* ANSI version */ HMODULE GetModuleHandleA ( LPCSTR lpModuleName ); /* UNICODE version */ HMODULE GetModuleHandleW ( LPCWSTR lpModuleName ); windll does not try to select one of them by magic, you must access the version you need by specifying GetModuleHandleA or GetModuleHandleW explicitly, and then call it with bytes or string objects respectively. Sometimes, dlls export functions with names which aren’t valid Python identifiers, like "??2@YAPAXI@Z" . In this case you have to use getattr() to retrieve the function: >>> getattr ( cdll . msvcrt , "??2@YAPAXI@Z" ) <_FuncPtr object at 0x...> >>> On Windows, some dlls export functions not by name but by ordinal. These functions can be accessed by indexing the dll object with the ordinal number: >>> cdll . kernel32 [ 1 ] <_FuncPtr object at 0x...> >>> cdll . kernel32 [ 0 ] Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> File "ctypes.py" , line 310 , in __getitem__ func = _StdcallFuncPtr ( name , self ) AttributeError : function ordinal 0 not found >>> Calling functions ¶ You can call these functions like any other Python callable. This example uses the rand() function, which takes no arguments and returns a pseudo-random integer: >>> print ( libc . rand ()) 1804289383 On Windows, you can call the GetModuleHandleA() function, which returns a win32 module handle (passing None as single argument to call it with a NULL pointer): >>> print ( hex ( windll . kernel32 . GetModuleHandleA ( None ))) 0x1d000000 >>> ValueError is raised when you call an stdcall function with the cdecl calling convention, or vice versa: >>> cdll . kernel32 . GetModuleHandleA ( None ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> ValueError : Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing) >>> >>> windll . msvcrt . printf ( b "spam" ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> ValueError : Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess) >>> To find out the correct calling convention you have to look into the C header file or the documentation for the function you want to call. On Windows, ctypes uses win32 structured exception handling to prevent crashes from general protection faults when functions are called with invalid argument values: >>> windll . kernel32 . GetModuleHandleA ( 32 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> OSError : exception: access violation reading 0x00000020 >>> There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with ctypes , so you should be careful anyway. The faulthandler module can be helpful in debugging crashes (e.g. from segmentation faults produced by erroneous C library calls). None , integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these function calls. None is passed as a C NULL pointer, bytes objects and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains their data ( char * or wchar_t * ). Python integers are passed as the platform’s default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C type. Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have to learn more about ctypes data types. Fundamental data types ¶ ctypes defines a number of primitive C compatible data types: ctypes type C type Python type c_bool _Bool bool (1) c_char char 1-character bytes object c_wchar wchar_t 1-character string c_byte char int c_ubyte unsigned char int c_short short int c_ushort unsigned short int c_int int int c_int8 int8_t int c_int16 int16_t int c_int32 int32_t int c_int64 int64_t int c_uint unsigned int int c_uint8 uint8_t int c_uint16 uint16_t int c_uint32 uint32_t int c_uint64 uint64_t int c_long long int c_ulong unsigned long int c_longlong __int64 or long long int c_ulonglong unsigned __int64 or unsigned long long int c_size_t size_t int c_ssize_t ssize_t or Py_ssize_t int c_time_t time_t int c_float float float c_double double float c_longdouble long double float c_char_p char * (NUL terminated) bytes object or None c_wchar_p wchar_t * (NUL terminated) string or None c_void_p void * int or None The constructor accepts any object with a truth value. Additionally, if IEC 60559 compatible complex arithmetic (Annex G) is supported in both C and libffi , the following complex types are available: ctypes type C type Python type c_float_complex float complex complex c_double_complex double complex complex c_longdouble_complex long double complex complex All these types can be created by calling them with an optional initializer of the correct type and value: >>> c_int () c_long(0) >>> c_wchar_p ( "Hello, World" ) c_wchar_p(140018365411392) >>> c_ushort ( - 3 ) c_ushort(65533) >>> Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed afterwards: >>> i = c_int ( 42 ) >>> print ( i ) c_long(42) >>> print ( i . value ) 42 >>> i . value = - 99 >>> print ( i . value ) -99 >>> Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types c_char_p , c_wchar_p , and c_void_p changes the memory location they point to, not the contents of the memory block (of course not, because Python string objects are immutable): >>> s = "Hello, World" >>> c_s = c_wchar_p ( s ) >>> print ( c_s ) c_wchar_p(139966785747344) >>> print ( c_s . value ) Hello World >>> c_s . value = "Hi, there" >>> print ( c_s ) # the memory location has changed c_wchar_p(139966783348904) >>> print ( c_s . value ) Hi, there >>> print ( s ) # first object is unchanged Hello, World >>> You should be careful, however, not to pass them to functions expecting pointers to mutable memory. If you need mutable memory blocks, ctypes has a create_string_buffer() function which creates these in various ways. The current memory block contents can be accessed (or changed) with the raw property; if you want to access it as NUL terminated string, use the value property: >>> from ctypes import * >>> p = create_string_buffer ( 3 ) # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes >>> print ( sizeof ( p ), repr ( p . raw )) 3 b'\x00\x00\x00' >>> p = create_string_buffer ( b "Hello" ) # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string >>> print ( sizeof ( p ), repr ( p . raw )) 6 b'Hello\x00' >>> print ( repr ( p . value )) b'Hello' >>> p = create_string_buffer ( b "Hello" , 10 ) # create a 10 byte buffer >>> print ( sizeof ( p ), repr ( p . raw )) 10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00' >>> p . value = b "Hi" >>> print ( sizeof ( p ), repr ( p . raw )) 10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00' >>> The create_string_buffer() function replaces the old c_buffer() function (which is still available as an alias). To create a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type wchar_t , use the create_unicode_buffer() function. Calling functions, continued ¶ Note that printf prints to the real standard output channel, not to sys.stdout , so these examples will only work at the console prompt, not from within IDLE or PythonWin : >>> printf = libc . printf >>> printf ( b "Hello, %s \n " , b "World!" ) Hello, World! 14 >>> printf ( b "Hello, %S \n " , "World!" ) Hello, World! 14 >>> printf ( b " %d bottles of beer \n " , 42 ) 42 bottles of beer 19 >>> printf ( b " %f bottles of beer \n " , 42.5 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> ctypes.ArgumentError : argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2 >>> As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings, and bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding ctypes type, so that they can be converted to the required C data type: >>> printf ( b "An int %d , a double %f \n " , 1234 , c_double ( 3.14 )) An int 1234, a double 3.140000 31 >>> Calling variadic functions ¶ On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters. On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for regular functions. On those platforms it is required to specify the argtypes attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments: libc . printf . argtypes = [ ctypes . c_char_p ] Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is advised to always specify argtypes for all variadic functions. Calling functions with your own custom data types ¶ You can also customize ctypes argument conversion to allow instances of your own classes be used as function arguments. ctypes looks for an _as_parameter_ attribute and uses this as the function argument. The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a ctypes instance, or an object with an _as_parameter_ attribute: >>> class Bottles : ... def __init__ ( self , number ): ... self . _as_parameter_ = number ... >>> bottles = Bottles ( 42 ) >>> printf ( b " %d bottles of beer \n " , bottles ) 42 bottles of beer 19 >>> If you don’t want to store the instance’s data in the _as_parameter_ instance variable, you could define a property which makes the attribute available on request. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) ¶ It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions exported from DLLs by setting the argtypes attribute. argtypes must be a sequence of C data types (the printf() function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a variable number and different types of parameters depending on the format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with this feature): >>> printf . argtypes = [ c_char_p , c_char_p , c_int , c_double ] >>> printf ( b "String ' %s ', Int %d , Double %f \n " , b "Hi" , 10 , 2.2 ) String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000 37 >>> Specifying a format protects against incompatible argument types (just as a prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to valid types: >>> printf ( b " %d %d %d " , 1 , 2 , 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> ctypes.ArgumentError : argument 2: TypeError: 'int' object cannot be interpreted as ctypes.c_char_p >>> printf ( b " %s %d %f \n " , b "X" , 2 , 3 ) X 2 3.000000 13 >>> If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls, you have to implement a from_param() class method for them to be able to use them in the argtypes sequence. The from_param() class method receives the Python object passed to the function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself, its _as_parameter_ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C function argument in this case. Again, the result should be an integer, string, bytes, a ctypes instance, or an object with an _as_parameter_ attribute. Return types ¶ By default functions are assumed to return the C int type. Other return types can be specified by setting the restype attribute of the function object. The C prototype of time() is time_t time(time_t *) . Because time_t might be of a different type than the default return type int , you should specify the restype attribute: >>> libc . time . restype = c_time_t The argument types can be specified using argtypes : >>> libc . time . argtypes = ( POINTER ( c_time_t ),) To call the function with a NULL pointer as first argument, use None : >>> print ( libc . time ( None )) 1150640792 Here is a more advanced example, it uses the strchr() function, which expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string: >>> strchr = libc . strchr >>> strchr ( b "abcdef" , ord ( "d" )) 8059983 >>> strchr . restype = c_char_p # c_char_p is a pointer to a string >>> strchr ( b "abcdef" , ord ( "d" )) b'def' >>> print ( strchr ( b "abcdef" , ord ( "x" ))) None >>> If you want to avoid the ord("x") calls above, you can set the argtypes attribute, and the second argument will be converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char: >>> strchr . restype = c_char_p >>> strchr . argtypes = [ c_char_p , c_char ] >>> strchr ( b "abcdef" , b "d" ) b'def' >>> strchr ( b "abcdef" , b "def" ) Traceback (most recent call last): ctypes.ArgumentError : argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected >>> print ( strchr ( b "abcdef" , b "x" )) None >>> strchr ( b "abcdef" , b "d" ) b'def' >>> You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for example) as the restype attribute, if the foreign function returns an integer. The callable will be called with the integer the C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the result of your function call. This is useful to check for error return values and automatically raise an exception: >>> GetModuleHandle = windll . kernel32 . GetModuleHandleA >>> def ValidHandle ( value ): ... if value == 0 : ... raise WinError () ... return value ... >>> >>> GetModuleHandle . restype = ValidHandle >>> GetModuleHandle ( None ) 486539264 >>> GetModuleHandle ( "something silly" ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> File "<stdin>" , line 3 , in ValidHandle OSError : [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found. >>> WinError is a function which will call Windows FormatMessage() api to get the string representation of an error code, and returns an exception. WinError takes an optional error code parameter, if no one is used, it calls GetLastError() to retrieve it. Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is available through the errcheck attribute; see the reference manual for details. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) ¶ Sometimes a C api function expects a pointer to a data type as parameter, probably to write into the corresponding location, or if the data is too large to be passed by value. This is also known as passing parameters by reference . ctypes exports the byref() function which is used to pass parameters by reference. The same effect can be achieved with the pointer() function, although pointer() does a lot more work since it constructs a real pointer object, so it is faster to use byref() if you don’t need the pointer object in Python itself: >>> i = c_int () >>> f = c_float () >>> s = create_string_buffer ( b ' \000 ' * 32 ) >>> print ( i . value , f . value , repr ( s . value )) 0 0.0 b'' >>> libc . sscanf ( b "1 3.14 Hello" , b " %d %f %s " , ... byref ( i ), byref ( f ), s ) 3 >>> print ( i . value , f . value , repr ( s . value )) 1 3.1400001049 b'Hello' >>> Structures and unions ¶ Structures and unions must derive from the Structure and Union base classes which are defined in the ctypes module. Each subclass must define a _fields_ attribute. _fields_ must be a list of 2-tuples , containing a field name and a field type . The field type must be a ctypes type like c_int , or any other derived ctypes type: structure, union, array, pointer. Here is a simple example of a POINT structure, which contains two integers named x and y , and also shows how to initialize a structure in the constructor: >>> from ctypes import * >>> class POINT ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "x" , c_int ), ... ( "y" , c_int )] ... >>> point = POINT ( 10 , 20 ) >>> print ( point . x , point . y ) 10 20 >>> point = POINT ( y = 5 ) >>> print ( point . x , point . y ) 0 5 >>> POINT ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : too many initializers >>> You can, however, build much more complicated structures. A structure can itself contain other structures by using a structure as a field type. Here is a RECT structure which contains two POINTs named upperleft and lowerright : >>> class RECT ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "upperleft" , POINT ), ... ( "lowerright" , POINT )] ... >>> rc = RECT ( point ) >>> print ( rc . upperleft . x , rc . upperleft . y ) 0 5 >>> print ( rc . lowerright . x , rc . lowerright . y ) 0 0 >>> Nested structures can also be initialized in the constructor in several ways: >>> r = RECT ( POINT ( 1 , 2 ), POINT ( 3 , 4 )) >>> r = RECT (( 1 , 2 ), ( 3 , 4 )) Field descriptor s can be retrieved from the class , they are useful for debugging because they can provide useful information. See CField : >>> POINT . x <ctypes.CField 'x' type=c_int, ofs=0, size=4> >>> POINT . y <ctypes.CField 'y' type=c_int, ofs=4, size=4> >>> Warning ctypes does not support passing unions or structures with bit-fields to functions by value. While this may work on 32-bit x86, it’s not guaranteed by the library to work in the general case. Unions and structures with bit-fields should always be passed to functions by pointer. Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order ¶ By default, Structure and Union fields are laid out in the same way the C compiler does it. It is possible to override this behavior entirely by specifying a _layout_ class attribute in the subclass definition; see the attribute documentation for details. It is possible to specify the maximum alignment for the fields and/or for the structure itself by setting the class attributes _pack_ and/or _align_ , respectively. See the attribute documentation for details. ctypes uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions. To build structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the BigEndianStructure , LittleEndianStructure , BigEndianUnion , and LittleEndianUnion base classes. These classes cannot contain pointer fields. Bit fields in structures and unions ¶ It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields. Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is specified as the third item in the _fields_ tuples: >>> class Int ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "first_16" , c_int , 16 ), ... ( "second_16" , c_int , 16 )] ... >>> print ( Int . first_16 ) <ctypes.CField 'first_16' type=c_int, ofs=0, bit_size=16, bit_offset=0> >>> print ( Int . second_16 ) <ctypes.CField 'second_16' type=c_int, ofs=0, bit_size=16, bit_offset=16> It is important to note that bit field allocation and layout in memory are not defined as a C standard; their implementation is compiler-specific. By default, Python will attempt to match the behavior of a “native” compiler for the current platform. See the _layout_ attribute for details on the default behavior and how to change it. Arrays ¶ Arrays are sequences, containing a fixed number of instances of the same type. The recommended way to create array types is by multiplying a data type with a positive integer: TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10 Here is an example of a somewhat artificial data type, a structure containing 4 POINTs among other stuff: >>> from ctypes import * >>> class POINT ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = ( "x" , c_int ), ( "y" , c_int ) ... >>> class MyStruct ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "a" , c_int ), ... ( "b" , c_float ), ... ( "point_array" , POINT * 4 )] >>> >>> print ( len ( MyStruct () . point_array )) 4 >>> Instances are created in the usual way, by calling the class: arr = TenPointsArrayType () for pt in arr : print ( pt . x , pt . y ) The above code print a series of 0 0 lines, because the array contents is initialized to zeros. Initializers of the correct type can also be specified: >>> from ctypes import * >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10 >>> ii = TenIntegers ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ) >>> print ( ii ) <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...> >>> for i in ii : print ( i , end = " " ) ... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 >>> Pointers ¶ Pointer instances are created by calling the pointer() function on a ctypes type: >>> from ctypes import * >>> i = c_int ( 42 ) >>> pi = pointer ( i ) >>> Pointer instances have a contents attribute which returns the object to which the pointer points, the i object above: >>> pi . contents c_long(42) >>> Note that ctypes does not have OOR (original object return), it constructs a new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an attribute: >>> pi . contents is i False >>> pi . contents is pi . contents False >>> Assigning another c_int instance to the pointer’s contents attribute would cause the pointer to point to the memory location where this is stored: >>> i = c_int ( 99 ) >>> pi . contents = i >>> pi . contents c_long(99) >>> Pointer instances can also be indexed with integers: >>> pi [ 0 ] 99 >>> Assigning to an integer index changes the pointed to value: >>> print ( i ) c_long(99) >>> pi [ 0 ] = 22 >>> print ( i ) c_long(22) >>> It is also possible to use indexes different from 0, but you must know what you’re doing, just as in C: You can access or change arbitrary memory locations. Generally you only use this feature if you receive a pointer from a C function, and you know that the pointer actually points to an array instead of a single item. Behind the scenes, the pointer() function does more than simply create pointer instances, it has to create pointer types first. This is done with the POINTER() function, which accepts any ctypes type, and returns a new type: >>> PI = POINTER ( c_int ) >>> PI <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'> >>> PI ( 42 ) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : expected c_long instead of int >>> PI ( c_int ( 42 )) <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...> >>> Calling the pointer type without an argument creates a NULL pointer. NULL pointers have a False boolean value: >>> null_ptr = POINTER ( c_int )() >>> print ( bool ( null_ptr )) False >>> ctypes checks for NULL when dereferencing pointers (but dereferencing invalid non- NULL pointers would crash Python): >>> null_ptr [ 0 ] Traceback (most recent call last): .... ValueError : NULL pointer access >>> >>> null_ptr [ 0 ] = 1234 Traceback (most recent call last): .... ValueError : NULL pointer access >>> Thread safety without the GIL ¶ From Python 3.13 onward, the GIL can be disabled on free threaded builds. In ctypes, reads and writes to a single object concurrently is safe, but not across multiple objects: >>> number = c_int ( 42 ) >>> pointer_a = pointer ( number ) >>> pointer_b = pointer ( number ) In the above, it’s only safe for one object to read and write to the address at once if the GIL is disabled. So, pointer_a can be shared and written to across multiple threads, but only if pointer_b is not also attempting to do the same. If this is an issue, consider using a threading.Lock to synchronize access to memory: >>> import threading >>> lock = threading . Lock () >>> # Thread 1 >>> with lock : ... pointer_a . contents = 24 >>> # Thread 2 >>> with lock : ... pointer_b . contents = 42 Type conversions ¶ Usually, ctypes does strict type checking. This means, if you have POINTER(c_int) in the argtypes list of a function or as the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of exactly the same type are accepted. There are some exceptions to this rule, where ctypes accepts other objects. For example, you can pass compatible array instances instead of pointer types. So, for POINTER(c_int) , ctypes accepts an array of c_int: >>> class Bar ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "count" , c_int ), ( "values" , POINTER ( c_int ))] ... >>> bar = Bar () >>> bar . values = ( c_int * 3 )( 1 , 2 , 3 ) >>> bar . count = 3 >>> for i in range ( bar . count ): ... print ( bar . values [ i ]) ... 1 2 3 >>> In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a pointer type (such as POINTER(c_int) ) in argtypes , an object of the pointed type ( c_int in this case) can be passed to the function. ctypes will apply the required byref() conversion in this case automatically. To set a POINTER type field to NULL , you can assign None : >>> bar . values = None >>> Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types. In C, you can cast one type into another type. ctypes provides a cast() function which can be used in the same way. The Bar structure defined above accepts POINTER(c_int) pointers or c_int arrays for its values field, but not instances of other types: >>> bar . values = ( c_byte * 4 )() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> TypeError : incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance >>> For these cases, the cast() function is handy. The cast() function can be used to cast a ctypes instance into a pointer to a different ctypes data type. cast() takes two parameters, a ctypes object that is or can be converted to a pointer of some kind, and a ctypes pointer type. It returns an instance of the second argument, which references the same memory block as the first argument: >>> a = ( c_byte * 4 )() >>> cast ( a , POINTER ( c_int )) <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...> >>> So, cast() can be used to assign to the values field of Bar the structure: >>> bar = Bar () >>> bar . values = cast (( c_byte * 4 )(), POINTER ( c_int )) >>> print ( bar . values [ 0 ]) 0 >>> Incomplete Types ¶ Incomplete Types are structures, unions or arrays whose members are not yet specified. In C, they are specified by forward declarations, which are defined later: struct cell ; /* forward declaration */ struct cell { char * name ; struct cell * next ; }; The straightforward translation into ctypes code would be this, but it does not work: >>> class cell ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "name" , c_char_p ), ... ( "next" , POINTER ( cell ))] ... Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>" , line 1 , in <module> File "<stdin>" , line 2 , in cell NameError : name 'cell' is not defined >>> because the new class cell is not available in the class statement itself. In ctypes , we can define the cell class and set the _fields_ attribute later, after the class statement: >>> from ctypes import * >>> class cell ( Structure ): ... pass ... >>> cell . _fields_ = [( "name" , c_char_p ), ... ( "next" , POINTER ( cell ))] >>> Let’s try it. We create two instances of cell , and let them point to each other, and finally follow the pointer chain a few times: >>> c1 = cell () >>> c1 . name = b "foo" >>> c2 = cell () >>> c2 . name = b "bar" >>> c1 . next = pointer ( c2 ) >>> c2 . next = pointer ( c1 ) >>> p = c1 >>> for i in range ( 8 ): ... print ( p . name , end = " " ) ... p = p . next [ 0 ] ... foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar >>> Callback functions ¶ ctypes allows creating C callable function pointers from Python callables. These are sometimes called callback functions . First, you must create a class for the callback function. The class knows the calling convention, the return type, and the number and types of arguments this function will receive. The CFUNCTYPE() factory function creates types for callback functions using the cdecl calling convention. On Windows, the WINFUNCTYPE() factory function creates types for callback functions using the stdcall calling convention. Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the remaining arguments. I will present an example here which uses the standard C library’s qsort() function, that is used to sort items with the help of a callback function. qsort() will be used to sort an array of integers: >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5 >>> ia = IntArray5 ( 5 , 1 , 7 , 33 , 99 ) >>> qsort = libc . qsort >>> qsort . restype = None >>> qsort() must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the comparison function, the callback. The callback will then be called with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a positive integer otherwise. So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return an integer. First we create the type for the callback function: >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE ( c_int , POINTER ( c_int ), POINTER ( c_int )) >>> To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets passed: >>> def py_cmp_func ( a , b ): ... print ( "py_cmp_func" , a [ 0 ], b [ 0 ]) ... return 0 ... >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC ( py_cmp_func ) >>> The result: >>> qsort ( ia , len ( ia ), sizeof ( c_int ), cmp_func ) py_cmp_func 5 1 py_cmp_func 33 99 py_cmp_func 7 33 py_cmp_func 5 7 py_cmp_func 1 7 >>> Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result: >>> def py_cmp_func ( a , b ): ... print ( "py_cmp_func" , a [ 0 ], b [ 0 ]) ... return a [ 0 ] - b [ 0 ] ... >>> >>> qsort ( ia , len ( ia ), sizeof ( c_int ), CMPFUNC ( py_cmp_func )) py_cmp_func 5 1 py_cmp_func 33 99 py_cmp_func 7 33 py_cmp_func 1 7 py_cmp_func 5 7 >>> As we can easily check, our array is sorted now: >>> for i in ia : print ( i , end = " " ) ... 1 5 7 33 99 >>> The function factories can be used as decorator factories, so we may as well write: >>> @CFUNCTYPE ( c_int , POINTER ( c_int ), POINTER ( c_int )) ... def py_cmp_func ( a , b ): ... print ( "py_cmp_func" , a [ 0 ], b [ 0 ]) ... return a [ 0 ] - b [ 0 ] ... >>> qsort ( ia , len ( ia ), sizeof ( c_int ), py_cmp_func ) py_cmp_func 5 1 py_cmp_func 33 99 py_cmp_func 7 33 py_cmp_func 1 7 py_cmp_func 5 7 >>> Note Make sure you keep references to CFUNCTYPE() objects as long as they are used from C code. ctypes doesn’t, and if you don’t, they may be garbage collected, crashing your program when a callback is made. Also, note that if the callback function is called in a thread created outside of Python’s control (e.g. by the foreign code that calls the callback), ctypes creates a new dummy Python thread on every invocation. This behavior is correct for most purposes, but it means that values stored with threading.local will not survive across different callbacks, even when those calls are made from the same C thread. Accessing values exported from dlls ¶ Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export variables. An example in the Python library itself is the Py_Version , Python runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer. ctypes can access values like this with the in_dll() class methods of the type. pythonapi is a predefined symbol giving access to the Python C api: >>> version = ctypes . c_int . in_dll ( ctypes . pythonapi , "Py_Version" ) >>> print ( hex ( version . value )) 0x30c00a0 An extended example which also demonstrates the use of pointers accesses the PyImport_FrozenModules pointer exported by Python. Quoting the docs for that value: This pointer is initialized to point to an array of _frozen records, terminated by one whose members are all NULL or zero. When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this table. Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules. So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful. To restrict the example size, we show only how this table can be read with ctypes : >>> from ctypes import * >>> >>> class struct_frozen ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = [( "name" , c_char_p ), ... ( "code" , POINTER ( c_ubyte )), ... ( "size" , c_int ), ... ( "get_code" , POINTER ( c_ubyte )), # Function pointer ... ] ... >>> We have defined the _frozen data type, so we can get the pointer to the table: >>> FrozenTable = POINTER ( struct_frozen ) >>> table = FrozenTable . in_dll ( pythonapi , "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap" ) >>> Since table is a pointer to the array of struct_frozen records, we can iterate over it, but we just have to make sure that our loop terminates, because pointers have no size. Sooner or later it would probably crash with an access violation or whatever, so it’s better to break out of the loop when we hit the NULL entry: >>> for item in table : ... if item . name is None : ... break ... print ( item . name . decode ( "ascii" ), item . size ) ... _frozen_importlib 31764 _frozen_importlib_external 41499 zipimport 12345 >>> The fact that standard Python has a frozen module and a frozen package (indicated by the negative size member) is not well known, it is only used for testing. Try it out with import __hello__ for example. Surprises ¶ There are some edges in ctypes where you might expect something other than what actually happens. Consider the following example: >>> from ctypes import * >>> class POINT ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = ( "x" , c_int ), ( "y" , c_int ) ... >>> class RECT ( Structure ): ... _fields_ = ( "a" , POINT ), ( "b" , POINT ) ... >>> p1 = POINT ( 1 , 2 ) >>> p2 = POINT ( 3 , 4 ) >>> rc = RECT ( p1 , p2 ) >>> print ( rc . a . x , rc . a . y , rc . b . x , rc . b . y ) 1 2 3 4 >>> # now swap the two points >>> rc . a , rc . b = rc . b , rc . a >>> print ( rc . a . x , rc . a . y , rc . b . x , rc . b . y ) 3 4 3 4 >>> Hm. We certainly expected the last statement to print 3 4 1 2 . What happened? Here are the steps of the rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a line above: >>> temp0 , temp1 = rc . b , rc . a >>> rc . a = temp0 >>> rc . b = temp1 >>> Note that temp0 and temp1 are objects still using the internal buffer of the rc object above. So executing rc.a = temp0 copies the buffer contents of temp0 into rc ‘s buffer. This, in turn, changes the contents of temp1 . So, the last assignment rc.b = temp1 , doesn’t have the expected effect. Keep in mind that retrieving sub-objects from Structure, Unions, and Arrays doesn’t copy the sub-object, instead it retrieves a wrapper object accessing the root-object’s underlying buffer. Another example that may behave differently from what one would expect is this: >>> s = c_char_p () >>> s . value = b "abc def ghi" >>> s . value b'abc def ghi' >>> s . value is s . value False >>> Note Objects instantiated from c_char_p can only have their value set to bytes or integers. Why is it printing False ? ctypes instances are objects containing a memory block plus some descriptor s accessing the contents of the memory. Storing a Python object in the memory block does not store the object itself, instead the contents of the object is stored. Accessing the contents again constructs a new Python object each time! Variable-sized data types ¶ ctypes provides some support for variable-sized arrays and structures. The resize() function can be used to resize the memory buffer of an existing ctypes object. The function takes the object as first argument, and the requested size in bytes as the second argument. The memory block cannot be made smaller than the natural memory block specified by the objects type, a ValueError is raised if this is tried: >>> short_array = ( c_short * 4 )() >>> print ( sizeof ( short_array )) 8 >>> resize ( short_array , 4 ) Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError : minimum size is 8 >>> resize ( short_array , 32 ) >>> sizeof ( short_array ) 32 >>> sizeof ( type ( short_array )) 8 >>> This is nice and fine, but how would one access the additional elements contained in this array? Since the type still only knows about 4 elements, we get errors accessing other elements: >>> short_array [:] [0, 0, 0, 0] >>> short_array [ 7 ] Traceback (most recent call last): ... IndexError : invalid index >>> Another way to use variable-sized data types with ctypes is to use the dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after the required size is already known, on a case by case basis. ctypes reference ¶ Finding shared libraries ¶ When programming in a compiled language, shared libraries are accessed when compiling/linking a program, and when the program is run. The purpose of the find_library() function is to locate a library in a way similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on platforms with several versions of a shared library the most recent should be loaded), while the ctypes library loaders act like when a program is run, and call the runtime loader directly. The ctypes.util module provides a function which can help to determine the library to load. ctypes.util. find_library ( name ) Try to find a library and return a pathname. name is the library name without any prefix like lib , suffix like .so , .dylib or version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option -l ). If no library can be found, returns None . The exact functionality is system dependent. On Linux, find_library() tries to run external programs ( /sbin/ldconfig , gcc , objdump and ld ) to find the library file. It returns the filename of the library file. Note that if the output of these programs does not correspond to the dynamic linker used by Python, the result of this function may be misleading. Changed in version 3.6: On Linux, the value of the environment variable LD_LIBRARY_PATH is used when searching for libraries, if a library cannot be found by any other means. Here are some examples: >>> from ctypes.util import find_library >>> find_library ( "m" ) 'libm.so.6' >>> find_library ( "c" ) 'libc.so.6' >>> find_library ( "bz2" ) 'libbz2.so.1.0' >>> On macOS and Android, find_library() uses the system’s standard naming schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if successful: >>> from ctypes.util import find_library >>> find_library ( "c" ) '/usr/lib/libc.dylib' >>> find_library ( "m" ) '/usr/lib/libm.dylib' >>> find_library ( "bz2" ) '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib' >>> find_library ( "AGL" ) '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL' >>> On Windows, find_library() searches along the system search path, and returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined naming scheme a call like find_library("c") will fail and return None . If wrapping a shared library with ctypes , it may be better to determine the shared library name at development time, and hardcode that into the wrapper module instead of using find_library() to locate the library at runtime. Listing loaded shared libraries ¶ When writing code that relies on code loaded from shared libraries, it can be useful to know which shared libraries have already been loaded into the current process. The ctypes.util module provides the dllist() function, which calls the different APIs provided by the various platforms to help determine which shared libraries have already been loaded into the current process. The exact output of this function will be system dependent. On most platforms, the first entry of this list represents the current process itself, which may be an empty string. For example, on glibc-based Linux, the return may look like: >>> from ctypes.util import dllist >>> dllist () ['', 'linux-vdso.so.1', '/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6', '/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6', ... ] Loading shared libraries ¶ There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process. One way is to instantiate one of the following classes: class ctypes. CDLL ( name , mode = DEFAULT_MODE , handle = None , use_errno = False , use_last_error = False , winmode = None ) ¶ Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries. Functions in these libraries use the standard C calling convention, and are assumed to return int . On Windows creating a CDLL instance may fail even if the DLL name exists. When a dependent DLL of the loaded DLL is not found, a OSError error is raised with the message “[WinError 126] The specified module could not be found”. This error message does not contain the name of the missing DLL because the Windows API does not return this information making this error hard to diagnose. To resolve this error and determine which DLL is not found, you need to find the list of dependent DLLs and determine which one is not found using Windows debugging and tracing tools. Changed in version 3.12: The name parameter can now be a path-like object . See also Microsoft DUMPBIN tool – A tool to find DLL dependents. class ctypes. OleDLL ( name , mode = DEFAULT_MODE , handle = None , use_errno = False , use_last_error = False , winmode = None ) ¶ Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries, functions in these libraries use the stdcall calling convention, and are assumed to return the windows specific HRESULT code. HRESULT values contain information specifying whether the function call failed or succeeded, together with additional error code. If the return value signals a failure, an OSError is automatically raised. Availability : Windows Changed in version 3.3: WindowsError used to be raised, which is now an alias of OSError . Changed in version 3.12: The name parameter can now be a path-like object . class ctypes. WinDLL ( name , mode = DEFAULT_MODE , handle = None , use_errno = False , use_last_error = False , winmode = None ) ¶ Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries, functions in these libraries use the stdcall calling convention, and are assumed to return int by default. Availability : Windows Changed in version 3.12: The name parameter can now be a path-like obj | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/reference/cli-intro#available-commands | CLI Overview - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Versioning Versioning and Support Policy CLI Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview BETA Quickstart Installation Authentication Enable Autocompletion Global Flags Profile Commands and Flags Add Profile Use Profile List Profile Modify Profile Remove Profile Sync Sync Assets Workflow Commands and Flags List Workflows Pull Workflows Push Workflows Enable Workflow Disable Workflow Schema Commands and Flags List Schemas Pull Schemas Push Schemas Commit Schema Generate Types Event Commands and Flags List Events Pull Events Push Events Preference Category Commands and Flags List Categories Pull Categories Push Categories Commit Categories List Category Translations Pull Category Translations Push Category Translations Translation Commands and Flags List Translations Pull Translations Push Translations Commit Translations Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Getting Started with CLI CLI Overview OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Introduction to SuprSend CLI for managing notification infrastructure from the command line. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Beta Feature - The SuprSend CLI is under active development. Commands and flags may change, and new functionality will be added over time. If you encounter issues or need additional commands, please open an issue on GitHub or contribute directly — the project is open source. The SuprSend CLI is a powerful command-line interface that enables developers to setup CI/CD pipeline for notification changes and manage, automate, and sync SuprSend assets across multiple workspaces. With a few commands, you can handle workflows, schemas, events, and even integrate directly with AI agents. Benefits of using SuprSend CLI Developers often prefer CLI as it offers speed, automation, and flexibility . Instead of writing boilerplate code or clicking through multiple screens on UI, you can run a single command or script to perform repeatable actions—ideal for modern DevOps and automation. By using the CLI, you can: Automate with CI/CD Deployment – Release notification changes through feature or bugfix branches, just like any other piece of code: version it, test it, and deploy it. Work with assets locally – Create, edit, and commit workflows, schemas, and translation files locally. Version Control Changes – Pull all assets locally and track them in Git for maintaining release history. Enforce Approval gates for production releases - Setup strict checks that all changes on production go through approval process so that nothing goes live without check. What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Manage Assets – List, pull, push, and commit notification workflows, schemas, preference categories, and events. Sync Across Workspaces – Transfer assets between workspaces for multi-environment setups. AI Agent Integration – Start an MCP server from the CLI and connect SuprSend with AI agents or developer copilots. Available Commands Profile Manage objects : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Object Management APIs . Command Description profile list List profiles in a workspace profile add Add a new profile profile modify Modify an existing profile profile remove Remove a profile profile use Switch to a specific profile Workflow Manage workflows : create, update, enable, disable, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Workflow Management APIs . Command Description workflow list List workflows in a workspace workflow push Push local workflows to SuprSend workflow pull Pull workflows from SuprSend to local files workflow enable Enable a workflow workflow disable Disable a workflow Schema Manage schemas : create, update, commit, reset, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Schema Management APIs . Command Description schema list List schemas in a workspace schema push Push local schemas to SuprSend schema pull Pull schemas from SuprSend to local files schema commit Commit a schema to make it live generate-types Generate type definitions from JSON schemas Event Manage events : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Event Management APIs . Command Description event list List events in a workspace event push Push local events to SuprSend event pull Pull events from SuprSend to local files Category Manage categories : create, update, list, and promote across workspaces. Also, see Category Management APIs . Command Description category list List categories in a workspace category pull Pull categories from SuprSend to local files category push Push local categories to SuprSend category commit Commit categories to make them live Sync Manage sync : sync assets between workspaces. Command Description sync Sync assets between workspaces Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Quickstart Get up and running with SuprSend CLI in minutes. Complete setup, authentication, and start using right away. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of using SuprSend CLI What You Can Do with SuprSend CLI Available Commands Profile Workflow Schema Event Category Sync | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
https://parenting.forem.com/privacy#2-personal-information-we-collect | Privacy Policy - Parenting Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Parenting Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Parenting — A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Parenting © 2016 - 2026. Navigating the chaos and joy of parenting. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:39 |
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