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https://dev.to/ericrodriguez10/day-8-never-hardcode-keys-connecting-lambda-to-apis-using-aws-secrets-manager-daa#comments | Day 8: Never Hardcode Keys. Connecting Lambda to APIs using AWS Secrets Manager. - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Eric Rodríguez Posted on Jan 2 Day 8: Never Hardcode Keys. Connecting Lambda to APIs using AWS Secrets Manager. # aws # security # python # beginners The "Sticky Note" Problem Welcome to Day 8. Today started the implementation of my AI Financial Agent. The first requirement is connecting to the Open Banking API (GoCardless). To do this, I have a Secret ID and a Token. If I write these in my code, I am one git push away from a security disaster. The Solution: AWS Secrets Manager Today I learned how to decouple configuration from code. Step 1: Create the Secret I went to the AWS Console -> Secrets Manager -> Store a new secret. I entered my key/value pairs there. Step 2: The IAM Role My Lambda function needs permission to open that safe. I added a policy to my Lambda execution role: secretsmanager:GetSecretValue. Step 3: The Python Code (Boto3) Instead of a variable string, I used the Boto3 library: Python import boto3 def get_secret(): client = boto3.client('secretsmanager') response = client.get_secret_value(SecretId='MyBankKey') return response['SecretString'] Now, my code is clean, secure, and ready for production. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Eric Rodríguez Follow Software Dev exploring the AWS ecosystem. Turning coffee into cloud architecture (eventually). ☕☁️ Location Madrid, Spain Joined Dec 25, 2025 More from Eric Rodríguez Day 14: Scheduling AWS Lambda with EventBridge (The Serverless Cron). # aws # serverless # automation # devops Day 13: Sending AI Reports via Email using AWS SNS and Python. # aws # python # sns # devops Day 12: Building a simple RAG pipeline with Lambda, DynamoDB, and Bedrock. # aws # python # dynamodb # bedrock 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/bemals_dvanitha_5b14b68f9/protecting-your-website-with-cloudflare-security-performance-and-reliability-part-1-24jk#comments | Protecting Your Website with Cloudflare: Security, Performance, and Reliability [Part 1] - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Bemals Dvanitha Posted on Jan 9 Protecting Your Website with Cloudflare: Security, Performance, and Reliability [Part 1] # devops # security # webdev # cloudflare Application availability and security are just as important in today's web infrastructure as application logic. Distributed denial-of-service attacks, abusive traffic, automated crawlers, and common web exploits can impair performance or completely stop services, even with well-configured servers and properly encrypted connections. Operating as a security and performance layer between users and origin servers, Cloudflare is located at the network edge. It protects against large-scale DDoS attacks, malicious bots, and abusive request patterns by stopping traffic before it reaches your infrastructure. It also reduces latency through intelligent caching and worldwide content delivery. Cloudflare provides a wide range of controls for contemporary threats in addition to standard CDN functionality. These include rate limiting to safeguard APIs and login endpoints, Turnstile for seamless human verification, AI-driven bot and crawler management, adaptive DDoS mitigation, and integrated defenses against frequent attacks like SQL injection, cross-site scripting, and credential abuse. This post will discuss how a website can be strengthened against actual threats using Cloudflare. We'll concentrate on useful setups and essential features, such as DDoS defense, crawler control, Turnstile, rate limiting, caching techniques, and common attack prevention, demonstrating how they cooperate to lower attack surface while preserving user experience and performance. Connecting Your Domain to Cloudflare via Nameserver Update You must assign DNS authority by changing your domain's nameservers at the domain provider (such as GoDaddy or Namecheap) in order to put Cloudflare in front of your website. At this point, no DNS records have been changed; this is the only necessary adjustment. The following steps avoid needless changes during onboarding and adhere to a safe, production-ready workflow. 1. Add Your Domain in Cloudflare From the Cloudflare dashboard, navigate to Domains → Onboard a domain and enter your existing domain name. When prompted to import DNS configuration, select: Manually enter DNS records (Advanced) Even if you do not plan to add records immediately, this option gives you full control and avoids assumptions made by automated scans. During onboarding, Cloudflare presents initial controls for AI crawlers and training bots. You can: Block AI training bots globally Allow them selectively Or leave them unblocked This setting can be changed later and does not affect nameserver activation, but Cloudflare applies it once traffic starts passing through its network. Continue with the setup. 2. Select a Cloudflare Plan To continue, select the Free plan. This plan already consists of: DDoS defense at the network layer DNS for Global Anycast Caching and CDN Basic bot detection and WAF SSL for all Later on, you can upgrade without having to switch nameservers once more. 3. Obtain Cloudflare Nameservers Cloudflare will now assign two authoritative nameservers for your domain These values are unique per domain. At this point, Cloudflare will show the domain status as Pending until nameserver delegation is completed. 4. Replace Nameservers at Your Domain Provider (GoDaddy Example) For GoDaddy, the process is: Open your domain settings Go to DNS / Nameservers Choose Custom nameservers Remove all existing nameserver entries Paste the two Cloudflare nameservers exactly as provided Save the changes 5. Verify Nameserver Propagation Nameserver changes require global propagation. To confirm progress, use: whatsmydns.net 6. Confirm Domain Activation in Cloudflare Once propagation finishes: Cloudflare will mark the domain as Active DNS authority is fully delegated Cloudflare now sits in front of your infrastructure Creating DNS Records and Routing Traffic Through Cloudflare Once your domain is Active in Cloudflare, Cloudflare is now the authoritative DNS provider. The next step is to create DNS records that point traffic to your application server. In this setup, the origin server is an Amazon Web Services EC2 instance or any other vpc running NGINX. Origin Server Setup (NGINX + SSL) The EC2 instance runs NGINX as the web server and reverse proxy. SSL termination on the origin is handled using Certbot with Let’s Encrypt. To avoid repeating implementation details, the full server-side setup—including: NGINX installation Reverse proxy configuration SSL certificate issuance Automatic renewal —is covered in detail in the following article: 👉 Boost Your Website’s Security: NGINX and SSL Setup with Certbot Made Easy 🔗 full_guide_for_nginx_certbot_setup This Cloudflare guide intentionally focuses on edge-level protection, while the linked article covers origin-level security. Create DNS Records in Cloudflare Navigate to: Domain → DNS → Records This is where Cloudflare resolves hostnames to your origin server and determines whether traffic is proxied through its edge. Example: Creating an A Record for an API or Application Add a new record with the following values: Type: A Name: api (or @ for root domain) IPv4 address: <EC2_PUBLIC_IP> Proxy status: Proxied (orange cloud enabled) TTL: Auto Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Key points: The Proxied status ensures traffic passes through Cloudflare Cloudflare now hides the origin IP and applies security controls Requests no longer reach the EC2 instance directly Once saved, Cloudflare immediately begins routing traffic. Verify DNS Propagation To confirm the DNS record is resolving globally, use: whatsmydns.net Confirm Application Reachability After DNS propagation completes, validate application access via HTTPS: check-ssl Architecture Overview and Design Rationale By combining: Cloudflare at the edge (DNS, DDoS, bot control, rate limiting) NGINX on EC2 as the origin End-to-end HTTPS via Certbot You get: Reduced attack surface Hidden origin IP Built-in DDoS mitigation Secure, encrypted traffic from client to server This separation keeps responsibilities clear and the system easier to maintain. What’s Next As this guide has grown to cover multiple layers of infrastructure—domain configuration, Cloudflare onboarding, DNS routing, and origin server setup—it makes sense to split the remaining topics into a follow-up article. In Part 2, we’ll focus entirely on Cloudflare’s edge-level security and traffic controls, including: AI Crawl Control and bot behavior management Rate limiting for APIs and sensitive endpoints Caching strategies to reduce origin load and improve latency Turnstile for user-friendly request validation Additional protections for common abuse and automated attacks Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Bemals Dvanitha Follow Joined Dec 27, 2025 More from Bemals Dvanitha Boost Your Website’s Security: NGINX and SSL Setup with Certbot Made Easy # devops # nginx # certbot # ssl Docker Is Not Dead — But Podman Might Be Better # docker # containers # podman # devops 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.python.org/tr/3/ | 3.14.2 Documentation Tema Otomatik Açık Koyu İndir Bu belgeleri indir Sürüme göre dokümanlar Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Tüm sürümler Diğer kaynaklar PEP (Python Geliştirme Önerileri) Endeksi Başlangıç Kılavuzu Kitap Listesi İşitsel/Görsel Konuşmalar Python Geliştirici Rehberi Navigasyon dizin modülleri | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » | Tema Otomatik Açık Koyu | Python 3.14.2 belgelendirmesi Hoş geldin! Bu sayfada, Python 3.14.2 için resmi dokümantasyonu bulabilirsin. Documentation sections: Python 3.14 sürümündeki yenilikler nelerdir? Or all "What's new" documents since Python 2.0 Öğretici Start here: a tour of Python's syntax and features Library reference Standard library and builtins Language reference Syntax and language elements Python setup and usage How to install, configure, and use Python Python NASIL'ları In-depth topic manuals Installing Python modules Third-party modules and PyPI.org Distributing Python modules Publishing modules for use by other people Extending and embedding For C/C++ programmers Python's C API C API reference SSS (Sıkça Sorulan Sorular) Frequently asked questions (with answers!) Deprecations Deprecated functionality Indices, glossary, and search: Global module index All modules and libraries General index All functions, classes, and terms Sözlük Terms explained Arama sayfası Search this documentation Complete table of contents Lists all sections and subsections Project information: Reporting issues Contributing to docs Dokümantasyonu indir History and license of Python Telif Hakkı Dokümantasyon hakkında İndir Bu belgeleri indir Sürüme göre dokümanlar Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Tüm sürümler Diğer kaynaklar PEP (Python Geliştirme Önerileri) Endeksi Başlangıç Kılavuzu Kitap Listesi İşitsel/Görsel Konuşmalar Python Geliştirici Rehberi « Navigasyon dizin modülleri | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » | Tema Otomatik Açık Koyu | © Telif Hakkı 2001 Python Software Foundation. Bu sayfa, Python Software Foundation License Version 2 kapsamında lisanslanmıştır. Dokümantasyondaki örnekler, tarifler ve diğer kodlar ek olarak Zero Clause BSD License kapsamında lisanslanmıştır. Daha fazla bilgi için Geçmiş ve Lisans bölümüne bakın. Python Software Foundation kâr amacı gütmeyen bir kuruluştur. Lütfen bağış yapın. En son Oca 13, 2026 (07:20 UTC) tarihinde güncellendi. Bir bug mı buldunuz ? Sphinx 8.2.3 ile oluşturuldu. | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/evanlin/til-deploying-to-heroku-with-github-releases-and-golang-1lj3 | [TIL] Deploying to Heroku with Github Releases and Golang - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Evan Lin Posted on Jan 11 • Originally published at evanlin.com on Jan 11 [TIL] Deploying to Heroku with Github Releases and Golang # cicd # github # go # tutorial title: [TIL][Heroku][Golang] Deploying Services to Heroku Using Github Release published: false date: 2023-12-28 00:00:00 UTC tags: canonical_url: http://www.evanlin.com/til-cicd-heroku/ ---  # CICD on Github Action - Go Build When teaching students how to build their own side projects, it's often necessary to showcase their product ideas through Github. Among the important aspects, besides "documentation writing," is the implementation of "CICD." * * * #### Sample Code Repo: [kkdai/bookmark-makerserver: A IFTTT MakerServer to help you post your tweet to github issue as a bookmark](https://github.com/kkdai/bookmark-makerserver) * * * There's a basic Golang CICD tool `Golang Build` on Github Action. Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode name: Go on: push: branches: [master] pull_request: branches: [master] jobs: build: runs-on: ubuntu-latest steps: - uses: actions/checkout@v4 - name: Set up Go uses: actions/setup-go@v5 with: go-version: 1.21 - name: Build run: go build -v ./... - name: Test run: go test -v ./... Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This is the [basic template provided by Github Action](https://docs.github.com/en/actions/automating-builds-and-tests/building-and-testing-go), which allows you to run `Go Build` related commands during `Pull Request` and after `Merge`.  ## Setting up Deployment to Heroku on Github You can also refer to the [basic setup tutorial provided by Heroku and how to install Github Action](https://github.com/marketplace/actions/deploy-to-heroku). Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode name: Deploy on: push: branches: - master jobs: build: runs-on: ubuntu-latest steps: - uses: actions/checkout@v2 - uses: akhileshns/ heroku-deploy@v3.12.14 # This is the action with: heroku_api_key: $ heroku_app_name: "YOUR APP's NAME" #Must be unique in Heroku heroku_email: "YOUR EMAIL" - The `HEROKU_API_KEY` can be obtained from the [Heroku personal account web page](https://dashboard.heroku.com/account).  ### Original Setting: Deploy when Merged to Master / Main However, the settings inside are triggered only when `Push Master/Main`. This is actually a bit troublesome, as every Merge to the Master/Main branch will trigger a deployment. This will cause PRs like Document Updates to also trigger repeated Deployments. ### How to Change to Deploy via Github Release? If you need to select deploy to Heroku directly by `Draft a new release`, you need to make the following changes. Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode name: Deploy on: release: types: [created] By doing this, the Deploy can become more intuitive. ## Completed CICD Process and Future Outlook: - Pull Request –> `Go Build` checks the editability of the code. - In the future, you can consider adding some Test Coverage tools to do unit testing, or even more related test content. - After Ｍurged, also run `Go Build`. - In the future, you can add some automated document update actions. - After Release, it will Deploy to Heroku. - Currently, they are all Cloud Services. If there are multi-cloud platforms or different Dev / Product clusters, they can be separated. # Reference Documents - [Basic template provided by Github Action: Building and testing Go](https://docs.github.com/en/actions/automating-builds-and-tests/building-and-testing-go) - [Basic setup tutorial provided by Heroku and how to install Github Action](https://github.com/marketplace/actions/deploy-to-heroku) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Evan Lin Follow Attitude is Everything. @golangtw Co-Organizer / LINE Taiwan Technology Evangelist. Golang GDE. Location Taipei Work Technology Evangelist at LINE Corp. Joined Jun 16, 2020 More from Evan Lin [TIL] Golang community discussion about PTT BBS # community # backend # discuss # go Go 1.16: Retracting Versions in Go Modules # go # learning # tooling [Learning Notes] Golang: A Simple Introduction to New Features in Golang 1.16 # go # learning # tutorial 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem © 2016 - 2026. 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https://www.python.org/psf/get-involved/#content | 👋 Hey Community Members! | Python Software Foundation Notice: While JavaScript is not essential for this website, your interaction with the content will be limited. Please turn JavaScript on for the full experience. Skip to content ▼ Close Python PSF Docs PyPI Jobs Community ▲ The Python Network Donate ≡ Menu Search This Site GO A A Smaller Larger Reset Socialize LinkedIn Mastodon Chat on IRC Twitter About Mission Statement Board of Directors & Officers PSF Staff Annual Impact Report Fiscal Sponsorees Public Records Legal & Policies PSF FAQ Developers in Residence Sponsorship PSF Sponsors Apply to Sponsor Sponsorship Prospectus 2025-26 Membership Sign up as a Member of the PSF! Membership FAQ PSF Elections Nominate a Fellow & Fellows Roster Donate End of year fundraiser 2025: Python is for Everyone Donate to the PSF Become a Supporting Member of the PSF PSF Matching Donations Volunteer Volunteer for the PSF PSF Work Groups Volunteer for PyCon US Grants Grants program Grants Program FAQ PyCon US News & Community Subscribe to the Newsletter PSF Blog Python Community Code of Conduct Community Awards Discourse Python >>> Get Involved 👋 Hey Community Members! More than 20 ways to get involved & stay informed! Watch any of these talks given about the PSF (most recent one is about PyPI presented by Ee, our Director of Infrastructure!) Want to financially support the PSF? Donate! Read our blog Sign up to receive our quarterly newsletter Follow us on Twitter or Mastodon Become a Basic member If you are already a Basic member, consider becoming a Contributing , Managing , and/or Supporting member. If you want to be a PSF Board Member, add your nomination to this page next time we have an election (May/June 2022) Join the psf-community@ mailing list (basic members or above) Join the psf-vote@ mailing list and be an active voter (must be a Contributing, Managing, Supporting, and/or Fellow member) Nominate someone to be a Fellow member If you are a Fellow member already, join the Fellow Work Group to help vote in new Fellow members Nominate someone to receive a Community Service Award Interested in packaging? Check out the discussion on Discourse Help PyPI test out new beta features Follow PyCon on Twitter! Interested in Python in Education? Join the Education Sig mailing list Interested in jobs.python.org? Help us review job postings or help us improve the functionality Know of a Python community workshop or training that could use additional funding? Direct them to our grants page ! See someone using the Python or PyCon trademark incorrectly? Notify the Trademarks Committee Know of a company that should sponsor the PSF? Tell us or link them to our sponsor page . When the PSF has a donation campaign happening, help us by sharing it with your community and by sharing it on social media (we have one happening right now: https://www.python.org/psf/donations/2021-q4-drive/ ) Participate in the 2021 Python Developers Survey: https://surveys.jetbrains.com/s3/python-developers-survey-2021 The PSF The Python Software Foundation is the organization behind Python. Become a member of the PSF and help advance the software and our mission. ▲ Back to Top About Applications Quotes Getting Started Help Python Brochure Downloads All releases Source code Windows macOS Android Other Platforms License Alternative Implementations Documentation Docs Audio/Visual Talks Beginner's Guide FAQ Non-English Docs PEP Index Python Books Python Essays Community Diversity Mailing Lists IRC Forums PSF Annual Impact Report Python Conferences Special Interest Groups Python Logo Python Wiki Code of Conduct Community Awards Get Involved Shared Stories Success Stories Arts Business Education Engineering Government Scientific Software Development News Python News PSF Newsletter PSF News PyCon US News News from the Community Events Python Events User Group Events Python Events Archive User Group Events Archive Submit an Event Contributing Developer's Guide Issue Tracker python-dev list Core Mentorship Report a Security Issue ▲ Back to Top Help & General Contact Diversity Initiatives Submit Website Bug Status Copyright ©2001-2026. Python Software Foundation Legal Statements Privacy Notice Powered by PSF Community Infrastructure --> | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://www.python.org/community/sigs/#site-map | Python Special Interest Groups | Python.org Notice: While JavaScript is not essential for this website, your interaction with the content will be limited. Please turn JavaScript on for the full experience. Skip to content ▼ Close Python PSF Docs PyPI Jobs Community ▲ The Python Network Donate ≡ Menu Search This Site GO A A Smaller Larger Reset Socialize LinkedIn Mastodon Chat on IRC Twitter About Applications Quotes Getting Started Help Python Brochure Downloads All releases Source code Windows macOS Android Other Platforms License Alternative Implementations Documentation Docs Audio/Visual Talks Beginner's Guide FAQ Non-English Docs PEP Index Python Books Python Essays Community Diversity Mailing Lists IRC Forums PSF Annual Impact Report Python Conferences Special Interest Groups Python Logo Python Wiki Code of Conduct Community Awards Get Involved Shared Stories Success Stories Arts Business Education Engineering Government Scientific Software Development News Python News PSF Newsletter PSF News PyCon US News News from the Community Events Python Events User Group Events Python Events Archive User Group Events Archive Submit an Event Python >>> Special Interest Groups Python Special Interest Groups About There are a number of Special Interest Groups (SIGs) for focused collaborative efforts to develop, improve, or maintain specific Python resources. Each SIG has a charter, a coordinator, a mailing list, and a directory on the Python website. SIG membership is informal, defined by subscription to the SIG's mailing list. Anyone can join a SIG, and participate in the development discussions via the SIG's mailing list. Below is the list of currently active Python SIGs, with links to their resources. The link in the first column directs you to the SIG's home page: a page with more information about the SIG. The links in the "Info" column direct you to the SIG's archives, and to the SIG's Mailman page, which you can use to subscribe or unsubscribe yourself and to change your subscription options. The SIG mailing lists are managed by GNU Mailman , a web-based interface for mailing lists written in Python. Retired There is also a list of retired SIGs ; these SIGs existed in the past but are no longer active. Their archives and home pages are retained. A retired SIG can be revived, using the same criteria as for creating a new SIG. Regional Groups There are also local Python User Groups , organized by region rather than by special interest. Archives All SIG mailing lists are archived. python.org hosts the Mailman archives . Click on the link in the "Archive" column below for the archive of your favorite SIG. Name Coordinator Description Info capi-sig Campbell Barton Support for Using the Python/C API archive , subscribe cplusplus-sig Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve Development of Python/C++ bindings archive , subscribe datetime-sig Alexander Belopolsky Discussions related to date and time archive , subscribe db-sig Andy Todd Databases archive , subscribe distutils-sig A.M. 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Report Abuse Krishna Pravin Posted on May 14, 2020 • Edited on May 29, 2020 for loop vs .map() for making multiple API calls # javascript # api # async Promise / async-await is used for making API calls. const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Assuming I have a list of ids of todo items and I want the title of all them then I shall use the below snippet inside an async function const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] for ( const id of todoIdList ) { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This same can be written with any of these for , for...in , for...of loops. Assuming each API request arbitrarily takes 100ms exactly, the total time taken for getting the details of four todo items will have to be greater than 400ms if we use any of the above-mentioned loops. This execution time can be drastically reduced by using .map() . const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] await Promise . all ( todoIdList . map ( async ( id ) => { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) }) ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Adding timers const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] console . time ( ' for {} ' ); for ( const id of todoIdList ) { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) } console . timeEnd ( ' for {} ' ); console . time ( ' .map() ' ); await Promise . all ( todoIdList . map ( async ( id ) => { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) }) ) console . timeEnd ( ' .map() ' ); Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode The Reason for loop for loop goes to the next iteration only after the whole block's execution is completed. In the above scenario only after both the promises(await) gets resolved , for loop moves to the next iteration and makes the API call for the next todo item. .map() .map() moves on to the next item as soon as a promise is returned . It does not wait until the promise is resolved. In the above scenario, .map() does not wait until the response for todo items comes from the server. It makes all the API calls one by one and for each API call it makes, a respective promise is returned. Promise.all waits until all of these promises are resolved. async/await is syntactic sugar for Promises It will be more clear if the same code is written without async/await const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] console . time ( ' .map() ' ) Promise . all ( todoIdList . map ( id => { return new Promise (( resolve ) => { fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) . then ( response => { return new Promise (() => { response . json () . then ( todo => { console . log ( todo . title ) resolve () }) }) }) }) }) ) . then (() => { console . timeEnd ( ' .map() ' ); }) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode It is not possible to mimic the respective code for for loop by replacing async/await with Promises because, the control which triggers the next iteration will have to written within the .then() block. This piece of code will have to be created within the JS engine. All the snippets are working code, you can try it directly in the browser console. Note: snippets need to be enclosed within an async function except for the last one use Axios or any other suitable library if fetch is not available. Let me know if there is an even better and easy/short way of making API calls. Also, do not forget to mention any mistakes I've made or tips, suggestions to improve this content. Top comments (6) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Quinn Quinn Quinn Follow Joined Jun 28, 2021 • Jun 28 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Not really a fair comparison. Map is creating a new array of promises then asynchronously executing them. To do this with a for loop you would do something like this: const todoIdList = [1, 2, 3, 4] const promiseList = [] for (const id of todoIdList) { const response = fetch( https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/${id} ) promiseList.push(response.json()) } const responses = Promise.all(promiseList) Like comment: Like comment: 5 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. Tech IT Work Software Engineer - Full Stack at Gyanmatrix Technologies Joined Jun 10, 2019 • Jul 26 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This approach looks good. Pushing the promises into an array within for loop will achieve concurrency. But when we have a need for more than one await inside the block, it will not work. In the above code, response.json() won't work because response is a promise, it won't have json() method. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Yogendra Yogendra Yogendra Follow Location Bengaluru, India Work Web Developer at LayerIV Joined Sep 25, 2020 • Jan 31 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is quite great. But, could you tell me what is the optimum way to resolve multiple promises and get their statuses, as Promise.all() fails as soon as any of the Promise rejects? I heard of Promise.allSettled() but is only available in recent versions of ES. Thanks!! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. Tech IT Work Software Engineer - Full Stack at Gyanmatrix Technologies Joined Jun 10, 2019 • Feb 9 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Shim: npmjs.com/package/promise.allsettled Polyfill: logic24by7.com/promise-allsettled-... Like comment: Like comment: Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Rajesh Moka Rajesh Moka Rajesh Moka Follow I am a front end developer. I like building stuff with react. Location India Work Front End Developer at Tata Consultancy Services Joined May 27, 2020 • Jan 20 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is a great article. I had trouble understanding the last example without async await but with promises. I knew promise.all takes promises array as an argument, but why did we write promise in each fetch call? Can u explain a little Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. Tech IT Work Software Engineer - Full Stack at Gyanmatrix Technologies Joined Jun 10, 2019 • Jan 29 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide The last example(using promise) is the same as the previous one(using await). We have a promise inside fetch because parsing response as json response.json() returns a promise. For each API call, Promise.all() will first wait for the API call's response to arrive, and then it will wait for the json parsing to complete. When Promise.all takes an array of promises, it will wait for all the inner promises as well to get resolved. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. 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https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translations/translating/ | Translating Contents Menu Expand Light mode Dark mode Auto light/dark, in light mode Auto light/dark, in dark mode Skip to content Python Developer's Guide Python Developer's Guide Getting started Setup and building Fixing “easy” issues (and beyond) Git bootcamp and cheat sheet Lifecycle of a pull request Where to get help Generative AI Development workflow Following Python’s development Changing Python Development cycle Adding to the stdlib Standard library extension modules Changing Python’s C API Changing CPython’s grammar Porting to a new platform Software Bill-of-Materials (SBOM) Python Security Response Team (PSRT) Issues and triaging Issue tracker Triaging an issue GitHub labels GitHub issues for BPO users Triage Team Documentation Getting started Helping with documentation Style guide reStructuredText markup Translations Translating Coordinating Helping with the Developer’s Guide Testing and buildbots Running and writing tests Silence warnings from the test suite Increase test coverage Working with buildbots New buildbot workers Development tools Argument Clinic Tutorial How-to guides GDB support Dynamic analysis with Clang Tools for tracking compiler warnings Core team Responsibilities Accepting pull requests Experts index Team log Motivations and affiliations How to join the core team Memorialization CPython’s internals Status of Python versions Python Contributor’s Guide (draft) [Plan for the Contributor’s Guide] Introduction The CPython project Code of Conduct Roles Governance Generative AI GitHub Directory structure Communication channels Outreach Issues and triaging Issue tracker Triaging an issue GitHub labels Reviewing Triage Team Documentation contributions Getting started Helping with documentation Style guide reStructuredText markup Pull request lifecycle Translating Helping with the Developer’s Guide Code contributions Setup and building Git tips Pull request lifecycle Development workflow Following Python’s development Development cycle Adding to the stdlib Standard library extension modules Changing Python’s C API Changing Python Changing CPython’s grammar Porting to a new platform Software Bill-of-Materials (SBOM) Python Security Response Team (PSRT) Testing and buildbots Running and writing tests Silence warnings from the test suite Increase test coverage Working with buildbots New buildbot workers Development tools Argument Clinic Tutorial How-to guides GDB support Dynamic analysis with Clang Tools for tracking compiler warnings Core team Responsibilities Accepting pull requests Experts index Team log Motivations and affiliations How to join the core team Accessibility, design, and user success Security and infrastructure contributions Workflows Install Git Get the source code Install Dependencies Compile and build Regenerating auto-created files Install Git Using GitHub Codespaces Back to top View this page Edit this page Translating ¶ There are several documentation translations already in production and can be found in the language switcher; others are works in progress. To get started read your repository’s contributing guide, which is generally the README file, and this page. If your language isn’t listed below, feel free to start the translation! See coordination to get started. For more details about translations and their progress, see translations.python.org . Language Coordination team Links Arabic (ar) Abdur-Rahmaan Janhangeer ( @Abdur-rahmaanJ ) GitHub Bengali (bn-IN) Kushal Das ( @kushaldas ) GitHub French (fr) Julien Palard ( @JulienPalard ) AFPy/python-docs-fr , mirror Greek (el) Lysandros Nikolaou ( @lysnikolaou ), Fanis Petkos ( @thepetk ), Panagiotis Skias ( @skpanagiotis ) GitHub Hindi (hi-IN) Sanyam Khurana ( @CuriousLearner ) GitHub Hungarian (hu) GitHub Indonesian (id) Irvan Putra ( @irvan-putra ), Jeff Jacobson ( @jwjacobson ), Lutfi Zuchri ( @lutfizuchri ) GitHub Italian (it) Alessandro Cucci ( @acuccie3 , email ) GitHub , original announcement Japanese (ja) Kinebuchi Tomohiko ( @cocoatomo ), Atsuo Ishimoto ( @atsuoishimoto ) GitHub Korean (ko) 오동권 ( @flowdas ) GitHub Marathi (mr) Sanket Garade ( @sanketgarade , email ) GitHub Lithuanian (lt) Albertas Gimbutas ( @albertas , email ) original announcement Persian (fa) Alireza Shabani ( @revisto ) GitHub Polish (pl) Maciej Olko ( @m-aciek ), Stan Ulbrych ( @StanFromIreland ) GitHub , Transifex , original announcement Brazilian Portuguese (pt-br) Rafael Fontenelle ( @rffontenelle ), Marco Rougeth ( @rougeth ) GitHub , guide , Telegram , article Romanian (ro) Octavian Mustafa ( @octaG-M , email ) GitHub Russian (ru) Daniil Kolesnikov ( @MLGRussianXP , email ) GitHub , original announcement Simplified Chinese (zh-cn) Shengjing Zhu ( @zhsj ), Du, Meng ( @dumeng ) GitHub , Transifex Spanish (es) Raúl Cumplido ( @raulcd ) GitHub Swedish (sv) Daniel Nylander ( @yeager ) GitHub Traditional Chinese (zh-tw) 王威翔 Matt Wang ( @mattwang44 ), Josix Wang ( @josix ) GitHub Turkish (tr) Ege Akman ( @egeakman ) GitHub , RTD Ukrainian (uk) Dmytro Kazanzhy ( @kazanzhy , email ) GitHub , Transifex How to get help ¶ If there is already a repository for your language team (there may be links to Telegrams/Discords in the README ), join and introduce yourself. Your fellow translators will be more than happy to help! General discussions about translations occur on the Python Docs Discord #translations channel and the translations category of the Python Discourse. Style guide ¶ Before translating, you should familiarize yourself with the general documentation style guide . Some translation-specific guidelines are explained below. Translate the meaning ¶ Try to stay as close as possible to the original text. Focus on translating its meaning in the best possible way. Gender neutrality ¶ Many languages use grammatical gender. When possible and natural, prefer gender-neutral or inclusive forms. Aim to reflect the inclusive tone of the English documentation. Roles and links ¶ The Python docs contain many roles ( :role:`target` ) that link to other parts of the documentation. Do not translate reStructuredText roles targets, such as :func:`print` or :ref:`some-section` because it will break the link. If alternate text ( :role:`text <target>` ) is provided, it generally should be translated. You can also introduce alternate text for translation if the target is not a name or term. Links ( `text <target>`_ ) should be handled similarly. If possible, the target should be updated to match the language. See also reStructuredText markup Translation quality ¶ Translators should know both English and the language they are translating to. Translators should aim for a similar level of quality as that of the English documentation. Do not rely solely on machine translation. These tools can be useful to speed up work, but often produce inaccurate or misleading results and should be reviewed by a human. Terminology ¶ The documentation is full of technical terms, some are common in general programming and have translations, whereas others are specific to Python and previous translations are not available. Translation teams should keep the translations of these terms consistent, which is done with glossaries. Some general guidelines for deciding on a translation: Use existing community conventions over inventing new terms. You can use a hybrid English form if users are generally familiar with the English word. For common terms, the English word may be best. Use other translations as a reference as to what they did for the word. Be careful to not translate names. Use your best judgment. When you translate a specific term, record it in your translations glossary to help fellow translators and ensure consistency. Dialects ¶ Some translations receive contributions from people of several different dialects, understandably the language will differ. It is recommended however that translators try to keep files and sections consistent. Code examples ¶ Translate values in code examples, that is string literals, and comments. Don’t translate keywords or names, including variable, function, class, argument, and attribute names. An example of a translated codeblock from the tutorial is provided below: def cheeseshop ( kind , * arguments , ** keywords ): print ( "-- Czy jest może" , kind , "?" ) print ( "-- Przykro mi, nie mamy już sera" , kind ) for arg in arguments : print ( arg ) print ( "-" * 40 ) for kw in keywords : print ( kw , ":" , keywords [ kw ]) Transifex ¶ Important There are many translations in the python-doc organization on Transifex , some of which, however, are not used or do not have a coordination team. Confirm that a coordination team exists before you begin translating. Several language projects use Transifex as their translation interface. Translations on Transifex are carried out via a web interface, similar to Weblate. You should translate the python-newest project. If you are new to Transifex, it is recommended that you take the time to read through the following resources from the Transifex documentation: Getting started as a translator : This covers signing up for an account and joining a translation team. Translating with the Web Editor : This covers getting to the editor, searching and filtering strings, and translating strings. Other Tools in the Editor : This covers the history, glossary, comments, keyboard shortcuts, and more. Starting with the basics : A group of documents with basic information. Within the organization, a project for translating the Python Docs Sphinx Theme can also be found. For further information about Transifex see our documentation . Resources ¶ Some useful resources: Git bootcamp and cheat sheet : Several translations accept contributions by pull requests. Most have their own guide for how to do this, but this can provide useful tips. Translation issues & improvements GitHub project: This project contains issues and pull requests that aim to improve the Python documentation for translations. Python Pootle archive : Pootle is no longer used for translation. Contains translations for old Python versions. Translation FAQ ¶ How do I build a docs translation? ¶ To build a documentation translation for a specific language, you need to have Python installed and a local copy of the CPython repository and translation repository (see table above). The PO files must be placed in a locales/ LANG /LC_MESSAGES/ (replacing LANG with the translation’s language code) folder inside the Doc/ directory of the CPython repository. You can then build with make by adding a SPHINXOPTS="-D language=LANG" variable before the target or by using Sphinx directly and adding a -D language=LANG option. For example: # Build the HTML format of the Polish translation using make make SPHINXOPTS = "-D language=pl" html # Build the HTML format of the Romanian translation using Sphinx directly python -m sphinx -b html . build/html -D language = ro Which version of the Python documentation should I work on? ¶ You should work on the latest branch available to you for translation (this should be the latest non-alpha branch), the translations should then be propagated by your languages coordination team. How do I translate the Python Docs Sphinx Theme? ¶ The Sphinx theme for the Python documentation supports localization. You can translate either on Transifex (see translating on Transifex for more information) or locally by following the steps outlined below. To translate locally, clone the Python Docs Sphinx Theme repository and run the following commands to generate the PO files. Replace LANG with the same language code that is used for the docs translation: python babel_runner.py extract python babel_runner.py init -l LANG The file can then be found at: python-docs-theme/locale/LANG/LC_MESSAGES/python-docs-theme.po After translating, submit your PO file via a pull request to the repository . See our Git bootcamp and cheat sheet for more information about using Git. To update an existing translation after source changes, run: python babel_runner.py update # To update source for all languages python babel_runner.py update -l LANG # To update source just for LANG The coordination team for my language is inactive, what do I do? ¶ If you would like to coordinate, open a pull request in the devguide adding yourself to the table at the top of this page, and ping @python/editorial-board . 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Pila louis Posted on Sep 16, 2020 Constructors in Python (__init vs __new__) # python # programming # 100daysofcode Most object-oriented programming languages such as Java, C++, C#..etc have the concept of a constructor, a special method that creates and initializes the object when it is created. Python is a little different; it has a constructor and an initializer. The constructor function is rarely used unless you're doing something exotic. So, we'll start our discussion with the initialization method. The assumption in this article is that you already know the basics of classes and objects in python. The constructor function in python is called __new__ and __init__ is the initializer function. Quoting the python documentation, __new__ is used when you need to control the creation of a new instance while __init__ is used when you need to control the initialization of a new instance. __new__ is the first step of instance creation. It's called first and is responsible for returning a new instance of your class. In contrast, __init__ doesn't return anything; it's only responsible for initializing the instance after it's been created. In general, you shouldn't need to override __new__ unless you're subclassing an immutable type like str, int, Unicode, or tuple. NOTE: Never name a function of your own with leading and trailing double underscores. It may mean nothing to Python, but there's always the possibility that the designers of Python will add a function that has a special purpose with that name in the future, and when they do, your code will break. Example 1: Using __init__ class Point: def __init__(self, data): self.num = data def print_num(self): print(self.num) obj = Point(100) obj.print_num() Output: 100 Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class and is used to access variables that belong to the class. Example 2: class Person: def __new__(cls): return object.__new__(cls) def __init__(self): self.instance_method() def instance_method(self): print('success!') personObj = Person() Notice that __init__ receives the argument self, while __new__ receives the class (cls ). Since self is a reference to the instance, this should tell you quite evidently that the instance is already created by the time __init__ gets called, since it gets passed the instance. It's also possible to call instance methods precisely because the instance has already been created. Thank you for reading. 😄 END!!! Top comments (3) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Tongyu Lu Tongyu Lu Tongyu Lu Follow High school student at PRISMS. Interested in CS, ML, game-dev. USACO Platinum qualified, but still getting better at projects. Codes for fun. Location Earth Education https://prismsus.org Joined Jul 30, 2020 • Mar 7 '21 • Edited on Mar 7 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide You can actually use super (). method_name ( * args , ** kw ) # PEP 3135 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode In this case, it can be super (). __new__ ( cls , * args , ** kw ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode The cls is actually necessary for __new__ . See more about PEP 3135 → Like comment: Like comment: 4 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Adyasha Mohanty Adyasha Mohanty Adyasha Mohanty Follow talks in bits believe in queue DS life is abstract data type Joined Feb 25, 2024 • Feb 25 '24 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thank you for making me clear in new and init Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Matheesha Matheesha Matheesha Follow Joined Jun 6, 2024 • Jul 6 '24 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide So are people teaching wrong when they call __init__ the constructor? 🤔 Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Pila louis Follow Full-stack software engineer with over 3years of industrial experience. I work well in a fast-paced environment. I am able to rise up to whatever it takes to make an impact in a new environment. 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https://docs.python.org/sv/3/ | 3.14.2 Documentation Tema Auto Ljus Mörk Ladda ner Ladda ner dessa dokument Dokument efter version Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Alla versioner Övriga resurser PEP Index Beginner's Guide Book List Audio/Visual Talks Python Developer’s Guide Navigering index moduler | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » | Tema Auto Ljus Mörk | Python 3.14.2 documentation Välkommen till Python! Detta är den officiella dokumentationen för Python 3.14.2. Dokumentationsavsnitt: Vad är nytt i Python 3.14? Eller alla "Vad är nytt"-dokument sedan Python 2.0 Handledning Börja här: en genomgång av Pythons syntax och funktioner Biblioteksreferens Standardbibliotek och inbyggda funktioner Språkreferens Syntax och språkliga element Installation och användning av Python Så här installerar, konfigurerar och använder du Python Python HOWTOs Fördjupade ämnesmanualer Installera Python-moduler Tredjepartsmoduler och PyPI.org Distribuera Python-moduler Publicering av moduler för användning av andra personer Utökning och inbäddning För C/C++-programmerare Pythons C API C API-referens Frågor och svar Ofta ställda frågor (med svar!) Föråldringar Föråldrad funktionalitet Index, ordlista och sökning: Globalt modulindex Alla moduler och bibliotek Allmänt index Alla funktioner, klasser och termer Ordlista Villkor förklarade Söksida Sök i denna dokumentation Fullständig innehållsförteckning Listar alla avsnitt och underavsnitt Projektinformation: Rapportera problem Bidra till dokumentation Ladda ner dokumentationen Historik och licens för Python Upphovsrätt Om dokumentationen Ladda ner Ladda ner dessa dokument Dokument efter version Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Alla versioner Övriga resurser PEP Index Beginner's Guide Book List Audio/Visual Talks Python Developer’s Guide « Navigering index moduler | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » | Tema Auto Ljus Mörk | © Upphovsrätt 2001 Python Software Foundation. Denna sida är licensierad enligt Python Software Foundation License version 2. Exempel, recept och annan kod i dokumentationen är dessutom licensierade under Zero Clause BSD-licensen. Se Historik och licens för mer information. Python Software Foundation är ett icke-vinstdrivande företag. Donera. Senast uppdaterad jan. 13, 2026 (07:17 UTC). Har du hittat ett fel ? Skapad med hjälp av Sphinx 8.2.3. | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Machine Learning Follow Hide A branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer science which focuses on the use of data and algorithms to imitate the way that humans learn, gradually improving its accuracy. Create Post submission guidelines Articles and discussions should be directly related to the machine learning. Questions are encouraged! (See the #help tag) Older #machinelearning posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 75 … 596 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu How to Build a Voice AI Agent for HVAC Customer Support: My Experience CallStack Tech CallStack Tech CallStack Tech Follow Jan 13 How to Build a Voice AI Agent for HVAC Customer Support: My Experience # ai # voicetech # machinelearning # webdev Comments Add Comment 14 min read Building a "Remembering" AI Trading Agent with Python, LangGraph, and Obsidian Jaeil Woo Jaeil Woo Jaeil Woo Follow Jan 11 Building a "Remembering" AI Trading Agent with Python, LangGraph, and Obsidian # opensource # python # machinelearning # ai Comments Add Comment 2 min read AI Engineering: Why the Environment Is the Most Ignored Long-Term Asset yuer yuer yuer Follow Jan 13 AI Engineering: Why the Environment Is the Most Ignored Long-Term Asset # cuda # gpu # machinelearning Comments Add Comment 5 min read Data Poisoning as Mythic Corruption: How Attackers Taint the Well of AI Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Follow Jan 12 Data Poisoning as Mythic Corruption: How Attackers Taint the Well of AI # 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It’s about trade-offs. # webdev # ai # machinelearning # programming 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read The Non-Drinker's Guide to Clustering Algorithms 🎉 Seenivasa Ramadurai Seenivasa Ramadurai Seenivasa Ramadurai Follow Jan 11 The Non-Drinker's Guide to Clustering Algorithms 🎉 # algorithms # beginners # datascience # machinelearning Comments Add Comment 2 min read AI Trading: Lesson Learned #134: RAG Architecture Misunderstanding - Wrong Fix Applied Igor Ganapolsky Igor Ganapolsky Igor Ganapolsky Follow Jan 11 AI Trading: Lesson Learned #134: RAG Architecture Misunderstanding - Wrong Fix Applied # ai # trading # python # machinelearning Comments Add Comment 2 min read loading... trending guides/resources Beyond Coding: Your Accountability Buddy with Claude Code Skill If You’re Learning AI, These 5 Books Are All You Need AI World Clocks Qwen-Image-Edit-2511：人物一致性再上新台阶 LightRAG Tutorial: A Practical Guide to Knowledge Graph-Based RAG Train a Custom Z‑Image Turbo LoRA with the Ostris AI Toolkit (RunPod Edition) Complete Guide to Run AI Models Locally, Even on Mid-Tier Laptop Prompt Length vs. Context Window: The Real Limits Behind LLM Performance Building a Unified Benchmarking Pipeline for Computer Vision — Without Rewriting Code for Every Task A step-by-step guide to fine-tuning MedGemma for breast tumor classification Fabrice Bellard Releases MicroQuickJS Building Sentence Transformers in Rust: A Practical Guide with Burn, ONNX Runtime, and Candle 5 Key Performance Benchmarks for AI Development in 2025 LightRAG Tutorial: Getting Started with Knowledge Graph-Based RAG Z-Image: Alibaba's 6B-Parameter Open-Source Model Revolutionizes Efficient Image Generation Amazing Z-Image Workflow v3.0: Complete Guide to Enhanced ComfyUI Image Generation Toon: A Lightweight Data Format That Helps Cut LLM Token Costs ESP32-S3 + TensorFlow Lite Micro: A Practical Guide to Local Wake Word & Edge AI Inference Join the AI Agents Intensive Course Writing Challenge with Google and Kaggle Cracking the Medical Coding Challenge: Fine-Tuning BioBERT for ICD-10 Classification (Part 1) 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://peps.python.org/topic/typing/ | Typing PEPs | peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » Typing PEPs Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme Typing PEPs Introduction This is the index of all Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) labelled under the ‘Typing’ topic. This is a sub-index of PEP 0 , the PEP index. Many recent PEPs propose changes to Python’s static type system or otherwise relate to type annotations. They are listed here for reference. Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs PEP Title Authors PA 729 Typing governance process Jelle Zijlstra, Shantanu Jain Other Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors IF 482 Literature Overview for Type Hints Łukasz Langa IF 483 The Theory of Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Ivan Levkivskyi Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) PEP Title Authors SA 728 TypedDict with Typed Extra Items Zixuan James Li 3.15 Open PEPs (under consideration) PEP Title Authors S 718 Subscriptable functions James Hilton-Balfe 3.15 S 746 Type checking Annotated metadata Adrian Garcia Badaracco 3.15 S 747 Annotating Type Forms David Foster, Eric Traut 3.15 S 764 Inline typed dictionaries Victorien Plot 3.15 S 767 Annotating Read-Only Attributes Eneg 3.15 S 781 Make TYPE_CHECKING a built-in constant Inada Naoki 3.15 S 800 Disjoint bases in the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.15 Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) PEP Title Authors SF 484 Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.5 SF 526 Syntax for Variable Annotations Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, Guido van Rossum 3.6 SF 544 Protocols: Structural subtyping (static duck typing) Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.8 SF 560 Core support for typing module and generic types Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 561 Distributing and Packaging Type Information Emma Harper Smith 3.7 SF 585 Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections Łukasz Langa 3.9 SF 586 Literal Types Michael Lee, Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 589 TypedDict: Type Hints for Dictionaries with a Fixed Set of Keys Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 591 Adding a final qualifier to typing Michael J. Sullivan, Ivan Levkivskyi 3.8 SF 593 Flexible function and variable annotations Till Varoquaux, Konstantin Kashin 3.9 SF 604 Allow writing union types as X | Y Philippe PRADOS, Maggie Moss 3.10 SF 612 Parameter Specification Variables Mark Mendoza 3.10 SF 613 Explicit Type Aliases Shannon Zhu 3.10 SF 646 Variadic Generics Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Vincent Siles 3.11 SF 647 User-Defined Type Guards Eric Traut 3.10 SF 649 Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.14 SF 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or potentially-missing David Foster 3.11 SF 673 Self Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, James Hilton-Balfe 3.11 SF 675 Arbitrary Literal String Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Graham Bleaney 3.11 SF 681 Data Class Transforms Erik De Bonte, Eric Traut 3.11 SF 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python Jelle Zijlstra 3.12 SF 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing Franek Magiera 3.12 SF 695 Type Parameter Syntax Eric Traut 3.12 SF 696 Type Defaults for Type Parameters James Hilton-Balfe 3.13 SF 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing Steven Troxler, Joshua Xu, Shannon Zhu 3.12 SF 702 Marking deprecations using the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 705 TypedDict: Read-only items Alice Purcell 3.13 SF 742 Narrowing types with TypeIs Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 749 Implementing PEP 649 Jelle Zijlstra 3.14 Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs PEP Title Authors SS 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations Łukasz Langa 3.7 SR 677 Callable Type Syntax Steven Troxler, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan 3.11 SW 724 Stricter Type Guards Rich Chiodo, Eric Traut, Erik De Bonte 3.13 SW 727 Documentation in Annotated Metadata Sebastián Ramírez 3.13 PEP Types Key I — Informational : Non-normative PEP containing background, guidelines or other information relevant to the Python ecosystem P — Process : Normative PEP describing or proposing a change to a Python community process, workflow or governance S — Standards Track : Normative PEP with a new feature for Python, implementation change for CPython or interoperability standard for the ecosystem More info in PEP 1 . PEP Status Key A — Accepted : Normative proposal accepted for implementation A — Active : Currently valid informational guidance, or an in-use process D — Deferred : Inactive draft that may be taken up again at a later time <No letter> — Draft : Proposal under active discussion and revision F — Final : Accepted and implementation complete, or no longer active P — Provisional : Provisionally accepted but additional feedback needed R — Rejected : Formally declined and will not be accepted S — Superseded : Replaced by another succeeding PEP W — Withdrawn : Removed from consideration by sponsor or authors More info in PEP 1 . Contents Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs Other Informational PEPs Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) Open PEPs (under consideration) Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs PEP Types Key PEP Status Key | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://www.highlight.io/docs/general/product-features/dashboards/sql-editor | SQL Editor Star us on GitHub Star Docs Sign in Sign up General Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Menu Highlight Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Docs Home SDK Client SDK API Reference Cloudflare Worker SDK API Reference Go SDK API Reference Hono SDK API Reference Java SDK API Reference Next.JS SDK API Reference Node.JS SDK API Reference Python SDK API Reference Ruby SDK API Reference Rust SDK API Reference Docs / Highlight Docs / Product Features / Dashboards / SQL Editor SQL Editor The SQL editor lets you write custom SELECT queries to retrieve your highlight.io data and aggregate it in useful ways. This is an alternative to the query builder, useful when you need to do more complex transformations to your data. The output is displayed in the same charts and tables supported by the query builder. ClickHouse SQL Highlight.io metadata is stored in ClickHouse, and the SQL editor supports the ClickHouse SQL dialect. For questions about supported syntax or functions, you can check out the ClickHouse docs . Time series data We added a built-in macro $time_interval(<duration>) to make time series queries easier to write. On our backend, this macro expands to toStartOfInterval(Timestamp, <duration>) . You can use this macro to group results by their timestamp. For example, returning a count for every hour: SELECT $time_interval('1 hour'), count() FROM logs WHERE service_name='prod' GROUP BY 1 For more details, you can read about the toStartOfInterval function in the ClickHouse docs . Date range filtering The dashboard's date range is applied as a filter to all SQL queries. For example, if your graph uses SELECT count() FROM logs and the dashboard's filter is Last 4 hours , your result will only include logs within the last 4 hours. A WHERE clause will filter in addition to the date range filter and will not include results outside the 4 hour range. Graphs will be updated dynamically whenever the dashboard's date range is updated. Multiple series To display multiple series, you can include multiple select expressions. For example, graphing an hourly count and average duration of all traces: SELECT $time_interval('1 hour'), count(), avg(duration) FROM traces GROUP BY 1 Querying custom fields Behind the scenes, we transform your SQL to simplify queries over our schema. Custom fields and metadata can be recorded with all highlight.io logs, traces, sessions, and errors. This data is stored without any type metadata on our backend - for numeric aggregations, you should first convert it to the appropriate type. For example, if your application records a custom integer field to record how many items are in a user's shopping cart: SELECT email, avg(toInt64(cart_size)) FROM sessions GROUP BY 1 ORDER BY 2 DESC LIMIT 100 Column aliases If you want your data to be graphed with custom labels, you can alias the appropriate expressions. For example: SELECT uniqExact(email) as "User Count" FROM sessions Limitations Currently, the SQL editor is restricted to a single SELECT query - this will be relaxed in the near future to support nested SELECT queries, UNION queries, and common table expressions. Dashboard Variables Metrics (beta) Community / Support Suggest Edits? Follow us! [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://www.python.org/psf/get-involved/#python-network | 👋 Hey Community Members! | Python Software Foundation Notice: While JavaScript is not essential for this website, your interaction with the content will be limited. Please turn JavaScript on for the full experience. Skip to content ▼ Close Python PSF Docs PyPI Jobs Community ▲ The Python Network Donate ≡ Menu Search This Site GO A A Smaller Larger Reset Socialize LinkedIn Mastodon Chat on IRC Twitter About Mission Statement Board of Directors & Officers PSF Staff Annual Impact Report Fiscal Sponsorees Public Records Legal & Policies PSF FAQ Developers in Residence Sponsorship PSF Sponsors Apply to Sponsor Sponsorship Prospectus 2025-26 Membership Sign up as a Member of the PSF! Membership FAQ PSF Elections Nominate a Fellow & Fellows Roster Donate End of year fundraiser 2025: Python is for Everyone Donate to the PSF Become a Supporting Member of the PSF PSF Matching Donations Volunteer Volunteer for the PSF PSF Work Groups Volunteer for PyCon US Grants Grants program Grants Program FAQ PyCon US News & Community Subscribe to the Newsletter PSF Blog Python Community Code of Conduct Community Awards Discourse Python >>> Get Involved 👋 Hey Community Members! More than 20 ways to get involved & stay informed! Watch any of these talks given about the PSF (most recent one is about PyPI presented by Ee, our Director of Infrastructure!) Want to financially support the PSF? Donate! Read our blog Sign up to receive our quarterly newsletter Follow us on Twitter or Mastodon Become a Basic member If you are already a Basic member, consider becoming a Contributing , Managing , and/or Supporting member. If you want to be a PSF Board Member, add your nomination to this page next time we have an election (May/June 2022) Join the psf-community@ mailing list (basic members or above) Join the psf-vote@ mailing list and be an active voter (must be a Contributing, Managing, Supporting, and/or Fellow member) Nominate someone to be a Fellow member If you are a Fellow member already, join the Fellow Work Group to help vote in new Fellow members Nominate someone to receive a Community Service Award Interested in packaging? Check out the discussion on Discourse Help PyPI test out new beta features Follow PyCon on Twitter! Interested in Python in Education? Join the Education Sig mailing list Interested in jobs.python.org? Help us review job postings or help us improve the functionality Know of a Python community workshop or training that could use additional funding? Direct them to our grants page ! See someone using the Python or PyCon trademark incorrectly? Notify the Trademarks Committee Know of a company that should sponsor the PSF? Tell us or link them to our sponsor page . When the PSF has a donation campaign happening, help us by sharing it with your community and by sharing it on social media (we have one happening right now: https://www.python.org/psf/donations/2021-q4-drive/ ) Participate in the 2021 Python Developers Survey: https://surveys.jetbrains.com/s3/python-developers-survey-2021 The PSF The Python Software Foundation is the organization behind Python. Become a member of the PSF and help advance the software and our mission. ▲ Back to Top About Applications Quotes Getting Started Help Python Brochure Downloads All releases Source code Windows macOS Android Other Platforms License Alternative Implementations Documentation Docs Audio/Visual Talks Beginner's Guide FAQ Non-English Docs PEP Index Python Books Python Essays Community Diversity Mailing Lists IRC Forums PSF Annual Impact Report Python Conferences Special Interest Groups Python Logo Python Wiki Code of Conduct Community Awards Get Involved Shared Stories Success Stories Arts Business Education Engineering Government Scientific Software Development News Python News PSF Newsletter PSF News PyCon US News News from the Community Events Python Events User Group Events Python Events Archive User Group Events Archive Submit an Event Contributing Developer's Guide Issue Tracker python-dev list Core Mentorship Report a Security Issue ▲ Back to Top Help & General Contact Diversity Initiatives Submit Website Bug Status Copyright ©2001-2026. Python Software Foundation Legal Statements Privacy Notice Powered by PSF Community Infrastructure --> | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/loiconlyone/jai-galere-pendant-3-semaines-pour-monter-un-cluster-kubernetes-et-voila-ce-que-jai-appris-30l6#le-vagrantfile-ou-comment-lancer-3-vms-dun-coup | J'ai galéré pendant 3 semaines pour monter un cluster Kubernetes (et voilà ce que j'ai appris) - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. 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Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse BeardDemon Posted on Jan 10 J'ai galéré pendant 3 semaines pour monter un cluster Kubernetes (et voilà ce que j'ai appris) # kubernetes # devops # learning Le contexte Bon, soyons honnêtes. Au début, j'avais un gros bordel de scripts bash éparpillés partout. Genre 5-6 fichiers avec des noms comme install-docker.sh , setup-k8s-FINAL-v3.sh (oui, le v3...). À chaque fois que je devais recréer mon infra, c'était 45 minutes de galère + 10 minutes à me demander pourquoi ça marchait pas. J'avais besoin de quelque chose de plus propre pour mon projet SAE e-commerce. Ce que je voulais vraiment Pas un truc de démo avec minikube. Non. Je voulais: 3 VMs qui tournent vraiment (1 master + 2 workers) Tout automatisé - je tape une commande et ça se déploie ArgoCD pour faire du GitOps (parce que push to deploy c'est quand même cool) Des logs centralisés (Loki + Grafana) Et surtout : pouvoir tout péter et tout recréer en 10 minutes L'architecture (spoiler: ça marche maintenant) ┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ Mon PC (Debian) │ │ ┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐ ┌─────────┐ │ │ Master │ │ Worker 1 │ │ Worker 2│ │ │ .56.10 │ │ .56.11 │ │ .56.12 │ │ └──────────┘ └──────────┘ └─────────┘ └─────────────────────────────────────────┘ Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Chaque VM a 4Go de RAM et 4 CPUs. Oui, ça bouffe des ressources. Non, ça passe pas sur un laptop pourri. Comment c'est organisé J'ai tout mis dans un repo bien rangé (pour une fois): ansible-provisioning/ ├── Vagrantfile # Les 3 VMs ├── playbook.yml # Le chef d'orchestre ├── manifests/ # Mes applis K8s │ ├── apiclients/ │ ├── apicatalogue/ │ ├── databases/ │ └── ... (toutes mes APIs) └── roles/ # Les briques Ansible ├── docker/ ├── kubernetes/ ├── k8s-master/ └── argocd/ Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Chaque rôle fait UN truc. C'est ça qui a changé ma vie. Shell scripts → Ansible : pourquoi j'ai migré Avant (la galère) J'avais un script prepare-system.sh qui ressemblait à ça: #!/bin/bash swapoff -a sed -i '/swap/d' /etc/fstab modprobe br_netfilter # ... 50 lignes de commandes # Aucune gestion d'erreur # Si ça plante au milieu, bonne chance Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Le pire ? Si je relançais le script après un fail, tout pétait. Genre le sed essayait de supprimer une ligne qui existait plus. Classique. Après (je respire enfin) Maintenant j'ai un rôle Ansible system-prepare : - name : Virer le swap shell : swapoff -a ignore_errors : yes - name : Enlever le swap du fstab lineinfile : path : /etc/fstab regexp : ' .*swap.*' state : absent - name : Charger br_netfilter modprobe : name : br_netfilter state : present Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode La différence ? Je peux relancer 10 fois, ça fait pas de conneries C'est lisible par un humain Si ça plante, je sais exactement où Le Vagrantfile (ou comment lancer 3 VMs d'un coup) Vagrant . configure ( "2" ) do | config | config . vm . box = "debian/bullseye64" # Config libvirt (KVM/QEMU) config . vm . provider "libvirt" do | libvirt | libvirt . memory = 4096 libvirt . cpus = 4 libvirt . management_network_address = "192.168.56.0/24" end # NFS pour partager les manifests config . vm . synced_folder "." , "/vagrant" , type: "nfs" , nfs_version: 4 # Le master config . vm . define "vm-master" do | vm | vm . vm . network "private_network" , ip: "192.168.56.10" vm . vm . hostname = "master" end # Les 2 workers ( 1 .. 2 ). each do | i | config . vm . define "vm-slave- #{ i } " do | vm | vm . vm . network "private_network" , ip: "192.168.56.1 #{ i } " vm . vm . hostname = "slave- #{ i } " end end # Ansible se lance automatiquement config . vm . provision "ansible" do | ansible | ansible . playbook = "playbook.yml" ansible . groups = { "master" => [ "vm-master" ], "workers" => [ "vm-slave-1" , "vm-slave-2" ] } end end Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Un vagrant up et boom, tout se monte tout seul. Le playbook : l'ordre c'est important --- # 1. Tous les nœuds en même temps - name : Setup de base hosts : k8s_cluster roles : - system-prepare # Swap off, modules kernel - docker # Docker + containerd - kubernetes # kubelet, kubeadm, kubectl # 2. Le master d'abord - name : Init master hosts : master roles : - k8s-master # kubeadm init + Flannel # 3. Les workers ensuite, un par un - name : Join workers hosts : workers serial : 1 # IMPORTANT: un à la fois roles : - k8s-worker # 4. Les trucs bonus sur le master - name : Dashboard + ArgoCD + Monitoring hosts : master roles : - k8s-dashboard - argocd - logging - metrics-server Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Le serial: 1 c'est crucial. J'avais essayé sans, les deux workers essayaient de join en même temps et ça partait en cacahuète. Les rôles en détail Rôle: k8s-master (le chef d'orchestre) C'est lui qui initialise le cluster. Voici les parties importantes: - name : Init cluster k8s command : kubeadm init --apiserver-advertise-address=192.168.56.10 --pod-network-cidr=10.244.0.0/16 when : not k8s_initialise.stat.exists - name : Copier config kubectl copy : src : /etc/kubernetes/admin.conf dest : /home/vagrant/.kube/config owner : vagrant group : vagrant - name : Installer Flannel (réseau pod) shell : | kubectl apply -f https://github.com/flannel-io/flannel/releases/latest/download/kube-flannel.yml environment : KUBECONFIG : /home/vagrant/.kube/config - name : Générer commande join pour les workers copy : content : " kubeadm join 192.168.56.10:6443 --token {{ k8s_token.stdout }} --discovery-token-ca-cert-hash sha256:{{ k8s_ca_hash.stdout }}" dest : /vagrant/join.sh mode : ' 0755' - name : Créer fichier .master-ready copy : content : " Master initialized" dest : /vagrant/.master-ready Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Le fichier .master-ready c'est un flag pour dire aux workers "go, vous pouvez join maintenant". Rôle: k8s-worker (le suiveur patient) - name : Attendre que le fichier .master-ready existe wait_for : path : /vagrant/.master-ready timeout : 600 - name : Joindre le cluster shell : bash /vagrant/join.sh args : creates : /etc/kubernetes/kubelet.conf register : join_result failed_when : - join_result.rc != 0 - " 'already exists in the cluster' not in join_result.stderr" - name : Attendre que le node soit Ready shell : | for i in {1..60}; do STATUS=$(kubectl get node $(hostname) -o jsonpath='{.status.conditions[?(@.type=="Ready")].status}') if [ "$STATUS" = "True" ]; then exit 0 fi sleep 5 done exit 1 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Le worker attend gentiment que le master soit prêt avant de faire quoi que ce soit. Les galères que j'ai rencontrées Galère #1: NFS qui marche pas Au début, le partage NFS entre l'hôte et les VMs plantait. Symptôme: mount.nfs: Connection timed out Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Solution: # Sur l'hôte sudo apt install nfs-kernel-server sudo systemctl start nfs-server sudo ufw allow from 192.168.56.0/24 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Le firewall bloquait les connexions NFS. Classique. Galère #2: Kubeadm qui timeout Le kubeadm init prenait 10 minutes et finissait par timeout. Cause: Pas assez de RAM sur les VMs (j'avais mis 2Go). Solution: Passer à 4Go par VM. Ça bouffe mais c'est nécessaire. Galère #3: Les workers qui join pas Les workers restaient en NotReady même après le join. Cause: Flannel (le CNI) était pas encore installé sur le master. Solution: Attendre que Flannel soit complètement déployé avant de faire join les workers: - name : Attendre Flannel command : kubectl wait --for=condition=ready pod -l app=flannel -n kube-flannel --timeout=300s environment : KUBECONFIG : /etc/kubernetes/admin.conf Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Galère #4: Ansible qui relance tout à chaque fois Au début, chaque vagrant provision refaisait TOUT depuis zéro. Solution: Ajouter des conditions when partout: - name : Init cluster k8s command : kubeadm init ... when : not k8s_initialise.stat.exists # ← Ça sauve des vies Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode L'idempotence c'est vraiment la base avec Ansible. Les commandes utiles au quotidien # Lancer tout cd ansible-provisioning && vagrant up # Vérifier l'état du cluster vagrant ssh vm-master -c 'kubectl get nodes' # Voir les pods vagrant ssh vm-master -c 'kubectl get pods -A' # Refaire le provisioning (sans détruire les VMs) vagrant provision # Tout péter et recommencer vagrant destroy -f && vagrant up # SSH sur le master vagrant ssh vm-master # Logs d'un pod vagrant ssh vm-master -c 'kubectl logs -n apps apicatalogue-xyz' Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode ArgoCD et les applications Une fois le cluster monté, ArgoCD déploie automatiquement mes apps. Voici comment je déclare l'API Catalogue: apiVersion : argoproj.io/v1alpha1 kind : Application metadata : name : catalogue-manager-application namespace : argocd spec : destination : namespace : apps server : https://kubernetes.default.svc source : path : ansible-provisioning/manifests/apicatalogue repoURL : https://github.com/uha-sae53/Vagrant.git targetRevision : main project : default syncPolicy : automated : prune : true selfHeal : true Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode ArgoCD surveille mon repo GitHub. Dès que je change un manifest, ça se déploie automatiquement. Metrics Server et HPA J'ai aussi ajouté le Metrics Server pour l'auto-scaling: - name : Installer Metrics Server shell : | kubectl apply -f https://github.com/kubernetes-sigs/metrics-server/releases/latest/download/components.yaml environment : KUBECONFIG : /etc/kubernetes/admin.conf - name : Patcher pour ignorer TLS (dev seulement) shell : | kubectl patch deployment metrics-server -n kube-system --type='json' \ -p='[{"op": "add", "path": "/spec/template/spec/containers/0/args/-", "value": "--kubelet-insecure-tls"}]' Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Avec ça, mes pods peuvent scaler automatiquement en fonction de la charge CPU/RAM. Le résultat final Après tout ça, voici ce que je peux faire: # Démarrer tout de zéro vagrant up # ⏱️ 8 minutes plus tard... # Vérifier que tout tourne vagrant ssh vm-master -c 'kubectl get pods -A' # Résultat: # NAMESPACE NAME READY STATUS # apps apicatalogue-xyz 1/1 Running # apps apiclients-abc 1/1 Running # apps apicommandes-def 1/1 Running # apps api-panier-ghi 1/1 Running # apps frontend-jkl 1/1 Running # argocd argocd-server-xxx 1/1 Running # logging grafana-yyy 1/1 Running # logging loki-0 1/1 Running # kube-system metrics-server-zzz 1/1 Running Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Tout fonctionne, tout est automatisé. Conclusion Ce que j'ai appris: Ansible > scripts shell (vraiment, vraiment) L'idempotence c'est pas un luxe Tester chaque rôle séparément avant de tout brancher Les workers doivent attendre le master (le serial: 1 sauve des vies) 4Go de RAM minimum par VM pour K8s Le code complet est sur GitHub: https://github.com/uha-sae53/Vagrant Des questions ? Ping moi sur Twitter ou ouvre une issue sur le repo. Et si vous galérez avec Kubernetes, vous êtes pas seuls. J'ai passé 3 semaines là-dessus, c'est normal que ce soit compliqué au début. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse BeardDemon Follow Nananère je suis très sérieux... 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https://docs.python.org/it/3/ | 3.14.2 Documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Download Scarica questi documenti Documenti per versione Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Tutte le versioni Altre risorse Indice PEP Guida per principianti Elenco di Libri Interventi audio/video Guida per sviluppatori Python Navigazione indice moduli | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » | Theme Auto Light Dark | Documentazione Python 3.14.2 Benvenuti! Questa è la documentazione di Python 3.14.2. Sezioni della documentazione: Cosa c'è di nuovo in Python 3.14? o tutti i documenti "Cosa c'è di nuovo" dalla versione 2.0 di Python Tutorial Inizia da qui: un tour della sintassi e delle funzionalità di Python Riferimenti alla libreria Libreria standard e funzioni integrate Guida al Linguaggio Sintassi ed elementi del linguaggio Installazione e utilizzo di Python Come installare, configurare e utilizzare Python HOWTO Python Manuali di argomenti approfonditi Installazione dei moduli Python PyPI.org e moduli di terze parti Distribuzione dei moduli Python Pubblicazione di moduli per l'uso da parte di altre persone Estendere ed integrare Tutorial per programmatori C/C++ L'API C di Python Riferimento all'API C Le FAQ Domande frequenti (con risposte!) Deprecations Deprecated functionality Indici, glossario e ricerca: Indice globale dei moduli Tutti i moduli e le librerie Indice generale Tutte le funzioni, le classi, i termini Glossario Spiegazione dei termini Pagina di Ricerca Cerca in questa documentazione Tabella dei contenuti completa Elenca tutte le sezioni e sottosezioni Informazioni sul progetto: Segnalazione di problemi Contributing to docs Scarica questa documentazione Storia e licenza di Python Copyright Informazioni sulla documentazione Download Scarica questi documenti Documenti per versione Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Tutte le versioni Altre risorse Indice PEP Guida per principianti Elenco di Libri Interventi audio/video Guida per sviluppatori Python « Navigazione indice moduli | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Ultimo aggiornamento gen 13, 2026 (06:41 UTC). Found a bug ? Created using Sphinx 8.2.3. | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/realnamehidden1_61/how-do-you-handle-orchestration-in-apigee-x-using-servicecallout-flowcallout-24ff#comments | How Do You Handle Orchestration in Apigee X Using ServiceCallout & FlowCallout? - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse realNameHidden Posted on Jan 8 How Do You Handle Orchestration in Apigee X Using ServiceCallout & FlowCallout? # apigee # interivew # gcp # apigeex Introduction 🚦 Imagine this situation 👇 A client calls one API , but behind the scenes your backend must: Call Customer Service Then call Order Service Then call Payment Service Combine all responses Finally send one clean response back to the client If your backend handles all this logic, things quickly become slow, tightly coupled, and hard to maintain . This is exactly where Apigee X shines in modern API management . Apigee X sits in front of your backend systems and acts like a smart traffic controller : Manages API proxies Enforces security Controls traffic And most importantly for this blog 👉 orchestrates multiple backend calls What you’ll learn in this blog By the end, you’ll understand: What API orchestration really means When to use ServiceCallout vs FlowCallout How to combine multiple backend calls inside Apigee X Best practices to avoid common orchestration mistakes This guide is beginner-friendly , practical, and Medium-ready 🚀 Core Concepts 🧩 What Is API Orchestration? Think of API orchestration like a restaurant waiter 🍽️ You (client) place one order The waiter talks to: Kitchen Dessert counter Billing desk You receive one final plate 👉 Apigee X becomes that waiter , coordinating multiple backend services. API Proxies in Apigee X An API Proxy in Apigee X is a layer that: Receives client requests Applies security, quotas, and transformations Communicates with backend services Returns responses to clients Instead of clients calling multiple services , they call one proxy . ServiceCallout vs FlowCallout (Simple Explanation) Feature Think of it as Best For ServiceCallout Asking another counter for info Calling REST/SOAP services FlowCallout Calling internal helper logic Reusable policies, JS, shared flows Step-by-Step Example: Backend Orchestration in Apigee X 🛠️ Scenario A single API must return: Customer details Order summary Behind the scenes: Call Customer API Call Order API Combine responses Send final response Step 1: Create an API Proxy Create a Reverse Proxy Client calls /customer-summary Client → Apigee X → Multiple Backends → Final Response Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 2: Call Backend #1 Using ServiceCallout <ServiceCallout name= "SC-GetCustomer" > <Request variable= "customerRequest" > <Set> <Verb> GET </Verb> <Path> /customers/{customerId} </Path> </Set> </Request> <Response> customerResponse </Response> <HTTPTargetConnection> <URL> https://backend-customer-api </URL> </HTTPTargetConnection> </ServiceCallout> Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode 📌 What’s happening? Apigee calls Customer API Response is stored in customerResponse No client involvement yet Step 3: Call Backend #2 Using ServiceCallout <ServiceCallout name= "SC-GetOrders" > <Request variable= "orderRequest" > <Set> <Verb> GET </Verb> <Path> /orders/{customerId} </Path> </Set> </Request> <Response> orderResponse </Response> <HTTPTargetConnection> <URL> https://backend-order-api </URL> </HTTPTargetConnection> </ServiceCallout> Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Now Apigee has: Customer data Order data Step 4: Combine Responses Using JavaScript (FlowCallout) <FlowCallout name= "FC-CombineResponse" > <SharedFlowBundle> combine-response-flow </SharedFlowBundle> </FlowCallout> Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Inside JavaScript: var customer = JSON . parse ( context . getVariable ( " customerResponse.content " )); var orders = JSON . parse ( context . getVariable ( " orderResponse.content " )); var finalResponse = { customer : customer , orders : orders }; context . setVariable ( " response.content " , JSON . stringify ( finalResponse )); Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode 📌 Result Client receives one clean response , unaware of multiple backend calls. When to Use ServiceCallout vs FlowCallout 🎯 ✅ Use ServiceCallout when: Calling REST/SOAP backend services Fetching external data Making synchronous HTTP calls ✅ Use FlowCallout when: Reusing logic across proxies Combining or transforming data Applying shared business rules 👉 Real-world orchestration usually uses both together Best Practices ✅ Keep orchestration lightweight Don’t turn Apigee into a full backend replacement Reuse logic with Shared Flows Perfect for FlowCallout Handle failures gracefully Use FaultRules for backend timeouts Set timeouts carefully Multiple calls = higher latency risk Monitor performance Orchestration adds processing time Common Mistakes to Avoid ❌ ❌ Making too many sequential ServiceCallouts ❌ Hardcoding backend URLs ❌ Ignoring timeout and retry policies ❌ Putting heavy business logic in Apigee ❌ Not logging intermediate responses Conclusion 🧠 API orchestration is a powerful pattern in API Proxies in Apigee X . By combining: ServiceCallout → to talk to backends FlowCallout → to reuse and process logic You can: Reduce client complexity Improve API consistency Centralize control at the gateway This approach is widely used in API management , microservices , and enterprise integrations . Call to Action 🚀 💬 Have you used ServiceCallout or FlowCallout in production? 📩 Drop your questions in the comments ⭐ Follow for more Apigee X , API security , and API traffic management blogs Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse realNameHidden Follow Actively Looking For Work Youtube Channel Link : https://www.youtube.com/@realNameHiddenn Blog : https://idiotprogrammern.blogspot.com/ Location India Work Looking For Work email : realnamehiddenyt@gmail.com Joined Oct 23, 2021 More from realNameHidden You Want Correlation IDs for Logging Across All Proxies — Here’s How to Do It in Apigee X # apigee # apigeex # gcp # interview Your Backend Sends 200 OK Even When an Order Fails — How Do You Fix It in Apigee X? # apigee # apigeex # gcp # interview When Would You Group Multiple API Proxies Into a Single Product in Apigee X? # apigee # apigeex # interview # gcp 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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http://pyfound.blogspot.com/2019/07/pypi-now-supports-uploading-via-api.html | Python Software Foundation News: PyPI now supports uploading via API token   News from the Python Software Foundation Wednesday, July 31, 2019 PyPI now supports uploading via API token We're further increasing the security of the Python Package Index with another new beta feature: scoped API tokens for package upload. This is thanks to a grant from the Open Technology Fund , coordinated by the Packaging Working Group of the Python Software Foundation . Over the last few months, we've added two-factor authentication (2FA) login security methods . We added Time-based One-Time Password (TOTP) support in late May and physical security device support in mid-June. Now, over 1600 users have started using physical security devices or TOTP applications to better secure their accounts. And over the past week, over 7.8% of logins to PyPI.org have been protected by 2FA, up from 3% in the month of June. PyPI interface for adding an API token for package upload Now, we have another improvement: you can use API tokens to upload packages to PyPI and Test PyPI ! And we've designed the token to be a drop-in replacement for the username and password you already use (warning: this is a beta feature that we need your help to test ). How it works: Go to your PyPI account settings and select "Add API token". When you create an API token, you choose its scope: you can create a token that can upload to all the projects you maintain or own, or you can limit its scope to just one project. PyPI API token management interface The token management screen shows you when each of your tokens were created, and last used. And you can revoke one token without revoking others, and without having to change your password on PyPI and in configuration files. Uploading with an API token is currently optional but encouraged; in the future, PyPI will set and enforce a policy requiring users with two-factor authentication enabled to use API tokens to upload (rather than just their password sans second factor). Watch our announcement mailing list for future details. Immediately after creating the API token, PyPI gives the user one chance to copy it Why: These API tokens can only be used to upload packages to PyPI, and not to log in more generally. This makes it safer to automate package upload and store the credential in the cloud, since a thief who copies the token won't also gain the ability to delete the project, delete old releases, or add or remove collaborators. And, since the token is a long character string (with 32 bytes of entropy and a service identifier) that PyPI has securely generated on the server side, we vastly reduce the potential for credential reuse on other sites and for a bad actor to guess the token. Help us test: Please try this out ! This is a beta feature and we expect that users will find minor issues over the next few weeks; we ask for your bug reports. If you find any potential security vulnerabilities, please follow our published security policy . (Please don't report security issues in Warehouse via GitHub, IRC, or mailing lists. Instead, please directly email security@python.org.) If you find an issue that is not a security vulnerability, please report it via GitHub . We'd particularly like testing from: Organizations that automate uploads using continuous integration People who save PyPI credentials in a .pypirc file Windows users People on mobile devices People on very slow connections Organizations where users share an auth token within a group Projects with 4+ maintainers or owners People who usually block cookies and JavaScript People who maintain 20+ projects People who created their PyPI account 6+ years ago What's next for PyPI: Next, we'll move on to working on an advanced audit trail of sensitive user actions, plus improvements to accessibility and localization for PyPI (some of which have already started). More details are in our progress reports on Discourse . Thanks to the Open Technology Fund for funding this work. And please sign up for the PyPI Announcement Mailing List for future updates. Posted by Sumana Harihareswara at 7/31/2019 12:02:00 PM Labels: pypi Newer Post Older Post Home Mission The mission of the Python Software Foundation is to promote, protect, and advance the Python programming language, and to support and facilitate the growth of a diverse and international community of Python programmers. Python Software Foundation Grants Program Membership Awards Meeting Minutes PSF Sponsors A big thank you to the above PSF sponsors for supporting our mission! 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Right menu The Twelve-Factor App: 5 Surprising Truths About Modern Software Dhruv Dhruv Dhruv Follow Jan 12 The Twelve-Factor App: 5 Surprising Truths About Modern Software # twelvefactorapp # systemdesign # devops # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 4 min read Engineering Trust: A Deep Dive into the NL2SQL Secure Execution Pipeline Nadeem Khan Nadeem Khan Nadeem Khan Follow Jan 12 Engineering Trust: A Deep Dive into the NL2SQL Secure Execution Pipeline # rag # database # security # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 5 min read Day 5: C Strings: The Danger of the Null Terminator (\0) Ujjawal Chaudhary Ujjawal Chaudhary Ujjawal Chaudhary Follow Jan 12 Day 5: C Strings: The Danger of the Null Terminator (\0) # c # security # coding # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 1 min read The Features I Killed to Ship The 80 Percent App in 4 Weeks Malawige Inusha Thathsara Gunasekara Malawige Inusha Thathsara Gunasekara Malawige Inusha Thathsara Gunasekara Follow Jan 12 The Features I Killed to Ship The 80 Percent App in 4 Weeks # flutter # softwareengineering # devops # learning Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why LLMs Are Bad at "First Try" and Great at Verification Shinsuke KAGAWA Shinsuke KAGAWA Shinsuke KAGAWA Follow Jan 12 Why LLMs Are Bad at "First Try" and Great at Verification # ai # llm # softwareengineering # promptengineering Comments Add Comment 6 min read When Tests Keep Passing, but Design Stops Moving Felix Asher Felix Asher Felix Asher Follow Jan 12 When Tests Keep Passing, but Design Stops Moving # tdd # ai # testing # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 3 min read From Writing Code to Teaching AI: The Rise of the AI-Assisted Developer Amit Shrivastava Amit Shrivastava Amit Shrivastava Follow Jan 12 From Writing Code to Teaching AI: The Rise of the AI-Assisted Developer # ai # aiinpractice # career # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 3 min read Real-World Error Handling in Distributed Systems Saber Amani Saber Amani Saber Amani Follow Jan 12 Real-World Error Handling in Distributed Systems # softwareengineering # dotnet # systemdesign # cloud Comments Add Comment 5 min read Local RAG vs Cloud RAG: What Changes When You Leave the Demo Parth Sarthi Sharma Parth Sarthi Sharma Parth Sarthi Sharma Follow Jan 12 Local RAG vs Cloud RAG: What Changes When You Leave the Demo # ai # rag # vectordatabase # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 3 min read Requirement to software Delivery in midsize comp CHEATSHEET Software Jutsu Software Jutsu Software Jutsu Follow Jan 12 Requirement to software Delivery in midsize comp CHEATSHEET # softwareengineering # development Comments Add Comment 4 min read Browser Internals: A Senior Engineer's Deep Dive Arghya Majumder Arghya Majumder Arghya Majumder Follow Jan 11 Browser Internals: A Senior Engineer's Deep Dive # browser # googlechrome # browserarchitecture # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 4 min read Layered Architecture vs Feature Folders Saber Amani Saber Amani Saber Amani Follow Jan 11 Layered Architecture vs Feature Folders # architecture # systemdesign # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 3 min read Ticket Booking System (BookMyShow) High-level System Design Arghya Majumder Arghya Majumder Arghya Majumder Follow Jan 11 Ticket Booking System (BookMyShow) High-level System Design # softwareengineering # softwaredevelopment # locking # ticketbookingsystem Comments Add Comment 58 min read A Skill do Dev do Futuro: Por que a engenharia de software é à prova de tempo Tiago Calado Tiago Calado Tiago Calado Follow Jan 11 A Skill do Dev do Futuro: Por que a engenharia de software é à prova de tempo # webdev # ai # career # softwareengineering Comments 2 comments 8 min read [TW_DevRel] Company Visit to NTU Software Engineering Course on October 28, 2022 Evan Lin Evan Lin Evan Lin Follow Jan 11 [TW_DevRel] Company Visit to NTU Software Engineering Course on October 28, 2022 # learning # softwareengineering # community # career Comments Add Comment 5 min read The Engine Under the Hood: Go’s GMP, Java’s Locks, and Erlang’s Heaps Ayush Kumar Anand Ayush Kumar Anand Ayush Kumar Anand Follow Jan 11 The Engine Under the Hood: Go’s GMP, Java’s Locks, and Erlang’s Heaps # go # backend # erlang # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 4 min read Structured Concurrency in Go: Stop Letting Goroutines Escape Serif COLAKEL Serif COLAKEL Serif COLAKEL Follow Jan 11 Structured Concurrency in Go: Stop Letting Goroutines Escape # go # softwaredevelopment # softwareengineering # backend Comments Add Comment 2 min read Video Streaming Platform (YouTube / Hotstar / Netflix / Prime) High-level System Design Arghya Majumder Arghya Majumder Arghya Majumder Follow Jan 11 Video Streaming Platform (YouTube / Hotstar / Netflix / Prime) High-level System Design # videostreamingsystemdesign # softwareengineering # youtube # netflix Comments Add Comment 78 min read Architecting Rx-Gated E-commerce with EMR Integration: Best Path for Authorize-Only Payments and Clinical Approval Workflow MattyIce MattyIce MattyIce Follow Jan 8 Architecting Rx-Gated E-commerce with EMR Integration: Best Path for Authorize-Only Payments and Clinical Approval Workflow # discuss # architecture # softwaredevelopment # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 1 min read The Responsibility Trap: Why "Caring" is the Newest Technical Debt Ekong Ikpe Ekong Ikpe Ekong Ikpe Follow Jan 11 The Responsibility Trap: Why "Caring" is the Newest Technical Debt # softwareengineering # devex # sustainability Comments Add Comment 2 min read Being Strong Is a Choice. Brian Kim Brian Kim Brian Kim Follow Jan 11 Being Strong Is a Choice. # showdev # saas # architecture # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 12 min read AI Does Tasks. Humans Do Deals. synthaicode synthaicode synthaicode Follow Jan 10 AI Does Tasks. Humans Do Deals. # ai # career # softwareengineering # management Comments Add Comment 3 min read **8 Python Concurrency Techniques That Transform Slow Code Into High-Performance Applications** Nithin Bharadwaj Nithin Bharadwaj Nithin Bharadwaj Follow Jan 10 **8 Python Concurrency Techniques That Transform Slow Code Into High-Performance Applications** # programming # devto # python # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 12 min read My First Anniversary at insightsoftware — A Year of Learning Real Software Engineering SUVAM AGRAWAL SUVAM AGRAWAL SUVAM AGRAWAL Follow Jan 9 My First Anniversary at insightsoftware — A Year of Learning Real Software Engineering # insightsoftware # softwareengineering # software # softwaredevelopment 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Why Startups and IndieDevs Should Choose Monolith First, Lessons From My Micro-SaaS Project, For ... Saber Amani Saber Amani Saber Amani Follow Jan 9 Why Startups and IndieDevs Should Choose Monolith First, Lessons From My Micro-SaaS Project, For ... # softwareengineering # dotnet # systemdesign # devops Comments Add Comment 4 min read loading... trending guides/resources The 2026 Software Developer Roadmap: From Rejections to a Dream Tech Job Deadlocks in Go: The Silent Production Killer Princípios do Clean Code The Art of Software Architecture: A Desi Developer's Guide to Building Systems That Actually Work Experience-First Portfolio: A New Approach to Showcasing Engineering Skills Self-Improving AI: One Prompt That Makes Claude Learn From Every Mistake Unit Testing Using Spring Boot, JUnit and Mockito Database Transactions and ACID Properties: Guaranteeing Data Consistency Claude Code in Production: 40% Productivity Increase on a Large Project How to Build Production-Grade Agentic AI 🌐 Stop Fighting Next.js Search Params: Use nuqs for Type-Safe URL State Microsoft Agent Framework with Ollama (.NET/C#) How AI Coding Agents Are Reshaping Developer Workflows How I Implemented 71 Files with Zero Rework Using cc-sdd Create a Text Editor in Go - Search Building an IMU Simulator from the Ground Up: A Journey Through Inertial Navigation The Barrel Trap: How I Learned to Stop Re‑Exporting and Love Explicit Imports You're NOT doing everything wrong Understanding How Computers Actually Work Microsoft Agent Framework with Foundry Local in .NET/C# 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7odLW_hG7s&list=PLNG_1j3cPCaZZ7etkzWA7JfdmKWT0pMsa&index=8 | Things I learnt from the new React docs - YouTube 정보 보도자료 저작권 문의하기 크리에이터 광고 개발자 약관 개인정보처리방침 정책 및 안전 YouTube 작동의 원리 새로운 기능 테스트하기 © 2026 Google LLC, Sundar Pichai, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View CA 94043, USA, 0807-882-594 (무료), yt-support-solutions-kr@google.com, 호스팅: Google LLC, 사업자정보 , 불법촬영물 신고 크리에이터들이 유튜브 상에 게시, 태그 또는 추천한 상품들은 판매자들의 약관에 따라 판매됩니다. 유튜브는 이러한 제품들을 판매하지 않으며, 그에 대한 책임을 지지 않습니다. var ytInitialData = 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https://peps.python.org/api/ | PEPs API | peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEPs API Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEPs API peps.json There is a read-only JSON document of every published PEP available at https://peps.python.org/api/peps.json . Each PEP is represented as a JSON object, keyed by the PEP number. The structure of each JSON object is as follows: { "<PEP number>" : { "number" : integer , // always identical to <PEP number> "title" : string , "authors" : string , "discussions_to" : string | null , "status" : "Accepted" | "Active" | "Deferred" | "Draft" | "Final" | "Provisional" | "Rejected" | "Superseded" | "Withdrawn" , "type" : "Informational" | "Process" | "Standards Track" , "topic" : "governance" | "packaging" | "release" | "typing" | "" , "created" : string , "python_version" : string | null , "post_history" : string | null , "resolution" : string | null , "requires" : string | null , "replaces" : string | null , "superseded_by" : string | null , "author_names" : Array < string > , "url" : string }, } Date values are formatted as DD-MMM-YYYY, and multiple dates are combined in a comma-separated list. A selection of example PEPs are shown here, illustrating some of the possible values for each field: { "12" : { "number" : 12 , "title" : "Sample reStructuredText PEP Template" , "authors" : "David Goodger, Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon" , "discussions_to" : null , "status" : "Active" , "type" : "Process" , "topic" : "" , "created" : "05-Aug-2002" , "python_version" : null , "post_history" : "`30-Aug-2002 <https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/KX3AS7QAY26QH3WIUAEOCCNXQ4V2TGGV/>`__" , "resolution" : null , "requires" : null , "replaces" : null , "superseded_by" : null , "author_names" : [ "David Goodger" , "Barry Warsaw" , "Brett Cannon" ], "url" : "https://peps.python.org/pep-0012/" }, "160" : { "number" : 160 , "title" : "Python 1.6 Release Schedule" , "authors" : "Fred L. Drake, Jr." , "discussions_to" : null , "status" : "Final" , "type" : "Informational" , "topic" : "release" , "created" : "25-Jul-2000" , "python_version" : "1.6" , "post_history" : null , "resolution" : null , "requires" : null , "replaces" : null , "superseded_by" : null , "author_names" : [ "Fred L. Drake, Jr." ], "url" : "https://peps.python.org/pep-0160/" }, "3124" : { "number" : 3124 , "title" : "Overloading, Generic Functions, Interfaces, and Adaptation" , "authors" : "Phillip J. Eby" , "discussions_to" : "python-3000@python.org" , "status" : "Deferred" , "type" : "Standards Track" , "topic" : "" , "created" : "28-Apr-2007" , "python_version" : null , "post_history" : "30-Apr-2007" , "resolution" : null , "requires" : "3107, 3115, 3119" , "replaces" : "245, 246" , "superseded_by" : null , "author_names" : [ "Phillip J. Eby" ], "url" : "https://peps.python.org/pep-3124/" } } release-cycle.json There is a read-only JSON document of Python releases available at https://peps.python.org/api/release-cycle.json . Each feature version is represented as a JSON object, keyed by the minor version number (“X.Y”). The structure of each JSON object is as follows: { "<language version number>" : { "branch" : string , "pep" : integer , "status" : 'feature' | 'prerelease' | 'bugfix' | 'security' | 'end-of-life' , "first_release" : string , // Date formatted as YYYY-MM-DD "end_of_life" : string , // Date formatted as YYYY-MM-DD "release_manager" : string }, } For example: { "3.15" : { "branch" : "main" , "pep" : 790 , "status" : "feature" , "first_release" : "2026-10-01" , "end_of_life" : "2031-10" , "release_manager" : "Hugo van Kemenade" }, "3.14" : { "branch" : "3.14" , "pep" : 745 , "status" : "bugfix" , "first_release" : "2025-10-07" , "end_of_life" : "2030-10" , "release_manager" : "Hugo van Kemenade" } } python-releases.json A more complete JSON document of all Python releases since version 1.6 is available at https://peps.python.org/api/python-releases.json and includes metadata about each feature release cycle, for example: { "metadata" : { "3.14" : { "pep" : 745 , "status" : "bugfix" , "branch" : "3.14" , "release_manager" : "Hugo van Kemenade" , "start_of_development" : "2024-05-08" , "feature_freeze" : "2025-05-07" , "first_release" : "2025-10-07" , "end_of_bugfix" : "2027-10-07" , "end_of_life" : "2030-10-01" } } } And also detailed information about each individual release within that cycle, for example: { "releases" : { "3.14" : [ { "stage" : "3.14.0 candidate 3" , "state" : "actual" , "date" : "2025-09-18" , "note" : "" }, { "stage" : "3.14.0 final" , "state" : "actual" , "date" : "2025-10-07" , "note" : "" }, { "stage" : "3.14.1" , "state" : "expected" , "date" : "2025-12-02" , "note" : "" } ] } } Contents release-cycle.json python-releases.json Page Source (GitHub) | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.python.org/3/library/posix.html#module-posix | posix — The most common POSIX system calls — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents posix — The most common POSIX system calls Large File Support Notable Module Contents Previous topic shlex — Simple lexical analysis Next topic pwd — The password database This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Unix-specific services » posix — The most common POSIX system calls | Theme Auto Light Dark | posix — The most common POSIX system calls ¶ This module provides access to operating system functionality that is standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly disguised Unix interface). Availability : Unix. Do not import this module directly. Instead, import the module os , which provides a portable version of this interface. On Unix, the os module provides a superset of the posix interface. On non-Unix operating systems the posix module is not available, but a subset is always available through the os interface. Once os is imported, there is no performance penalty in using it instead of posix . In addition, os provides some additional functionality, such as automatically calling putenv() when an entry in os.environ is changed. Errors are reported as exceptions; the usual exceptions are given for type errors, while errors reported by the system calls raise OSError . Large File Support ¶ Several operating systems (including AIX and Solaris) provide support for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where int and long are 32-bit values. This is typically accomplished by defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values. Such files are sometimes referred to as large files . Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an off_t is larger than a long and the long long is at least as large as an off_t . It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain compiler flags to enable this mode. For example, with Solaris 2.6 and 2.7 you need to do something like: CFLAGS = "`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT = "-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \ ./ configure On large-file-capable Linux systems, this might work: CFLAGS = '-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT = "-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \ ./ configure Notable Module Contents ¶ In addition to many functions described in the os module documentation, posix defines the following data item: posix. environ ¶ A dictionary representing the string environment at the time the interpreter was started. Keys and values are bytes on Unix and str on Windows. For example, environ[b'HOME'] ( environ['HOME'] on Windows) is the pathname of your home directory, equivalent to getenv("HOME") in C. Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment passed on by execv() , popen() or system() ; if you need to change the environment, pass environ to execve() or add variable assignments and export statements to the command string for system() or popen() . Changed in version 3.2: On Unix, keys and values are bytes. Note The os module provides an alternate implementation of environ which updates the environment on modification. Note also that updating os.environ will render this dictionary obsolete. Use of the os module version of this is recommended over direct access to the posix module. Table of Contents posix — The most common POSIX system calls Large File Support Notable Module Contents Previous topic shlex — Simple lexical analysis Next topic pwd — The password database This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Unix-specific services » posix — The most common POSIX system calls | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Last updated on Jan 13, 2026 (06:19 UTC). Found a bug ? Created using Sphinx 8.2.3. | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/t/ai/page/1768 | Artificial Intelligence Page 1768 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Artificial Intelligence Follow Hide Artificial intelligence leverages computers and machines to mimic the problem-solving and decision-making capabilities found in humans and in nature. Create Post submission guidelines Posts about artificial intelligence. Older #ai posts 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/inbox-overview | Overview - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? Quick Start Guide Best Practices Plan Your Integration Go-live checklist CORE CONCEPTS Templates Users Events Workflow Notification Categories Preferences Tenants Lists Broadcast Objects Translations DLT Guidelines Whatsapp Template Guidelines WORKFLOW BUILDER Design Workflow Node List Workflow Settings Trigger Workflow Validate Trigger Payload Tenant Workflows Notification Inbox Overview Multi Tabs React Javascript (Angular, Vuejs etc) React Native Flutter (Headless) PREFERENCE CENTRE Embedded Preference Centre Javascript Angular React VENDOR INTEGRATION GUIDE Overview Email Integrations SMS Integrations Android Push Whatsapp Integrations iOS Push Chat Integrations Vendor Fallback Tenant Vendor INTEGRATIONS Webhook Connectors MONITORING & DEBUGGING Logs Audit Logs Error Guides MANAGE YOUR ACCOUNT Authentication Methods Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Notification Inbox Overview Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Notification Inbox Overview OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Learn about features and benefits of SuprSend’s notification inbox, with link to live demo and git repository. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT A notification inbox is a centralized place for all your in-app notifications, offering several advantages over other notification channels. With a notification inbox, users can receive real-time transactional updates related to payment reminders, software updates, new features, etc. within the app. You can use SuprSend Inbox to easily integrate feeds, inboxes, and toasts into your product. Check Live demo in Inbox Playground Benefits of notification inbox over other communication channels Real-time updates: A notification inbox delivers real-time updates to users, providing timely and relevant information. 100% deliverability: Notifications sent through a notification inbox have a high deliverability rate and are perfect for sending important updates and messages. Flexibility in message design: There is no limitation to the type and length of content that you can send with Inbox. Hence, the messages can be designed as per your requirement. Plus, you can add any type of click action to inbox message components which offer great flexibility in driving user engagement. Integrating SuprSend inbox With SuprSend Inbox, You can effortlessly add a beautifully designed, highly functional inbox to your product in an hour. There is no infrastructure required at your end to manage and store inbox notifications, and for state management such as read, seen, and archive tracking You get ready components to handle any use such as showing toast, showing profile avatar in your notification, handling different click actions in your notification component, etc. Inbox messages are completely secure with HMAC encoded user identification to safeguard them from unauthorized access. This means you can use it to send sensitive information related to payments, billing, account updates, etc. You can customize it to match your brand style using pre-defined UI customization options or build your headless UI using hooks SDKs are available in all common languages React (Web) Angular (Web) React Native (App) Flutter (App) Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Multi Tabs Learn how to set up stores to filter and display notifications in separate inbox tabs such as Read, Unread, and more. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of notification inbox over other communication channels Integrating SuprSend inbox | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/ | PEP 4 – Deprecation of Standard Modules | peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEP 4 Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEP 4 – Deprecation of Standard Modules Author : Brett Cannon <brett at python.org>, Martin von Löwis <martin at v.loewis.de> Status : Active Type : Process Created : 01-Oct-2000 Post-History : Table of Contents Introduction Procedure for declaring a module deprecated Copyright Introduction When new modules were added to the standard Python library in the past, it was not possible to foresee whether they would still be useful in the future. Even though Python “Comes With Batteries Included”, batteries may discharge over time. Carrying old modules around is a burden on the maintainer, especially when there is no interest in the module anymore. At the same time, removing a module from the distribution is difficult, as it is not known in general whether anybody is still using it. This PEP defines a procedure for removing modules from the standard Python library. Usage of a module may be ‘deprecated’, which means that it may be removed from a future Python release. Procedure for declaring a module deprecated To remove a top-level module/package from the standard library, a PEP is required. The deprecation process is outlined in PEP 387 . For removing a submodule of a package in the standard library, PEP 387 must be followed, but a PEP is not required. Copyright This document has been placed in the public domain. Source: https://github.com/python/peps/blob/main/peps/pep-0004.rst Last modified: 2025-02-01 08:59:27 GMT Contents Introduction Procedure for declaring a module deprecated Copyright Page Source (GitHub) | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/rsionnach/shift-left-reliability-4poo#the-missing%C2%A0layer | Shift-Left Reliability - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Rob Fox Posted on Jan 12 Shift-Left Reliability # sre # devops # cicd # platformengineering We've become exceptionally good at incident response. Modern teams restore service quickly, run thoughtful postmortems, and hold themselves accountable through corrective actions. And yet… A team ships a change that passes every test, gets all the required approvals, and still brings down checkout for 47 minutes. The postmortem conclusion? "We should have known our latency SLO was already at 94% before deploying." Many postmortems point to the same root cause: changes we introduced ourselves. Not hardware failures. Not random outages. Just software behaving exactly as we told it to. We continue to treat reliability as something to evaluate once those changes are already live. This isn't a failure of tooling or process. It's a question of when we decide whether a system is ready. The paradox We've invested heavily in observing and responding to failure - better alerting, faster incident response, thorough postmortems. Teams care deeply about reliability and spend significant time optimizing how they respond to incidents. But when in a service's lifecycle are they supposed to define reliability? Where's the innovation that happens before deployment? Where reliability decisions actually happen today I've seen multiple teams running identical technology stacks with completely different SLOs, metrics, and alerts. Nobody told them what to implement, what's best-practice or how to tune their alerts. They want to be good reliability citizens, but getting from the theory in the handbook to putting that theory into practice is not straightforward. Services regularly move into production with SLOs being created months later - or never. Dashboards are missing, insufficient, or inconsistent. "Looks fine to me" during PR reviews. Tribal knowledge. Varying levels of understanding across teams. Reliability is fundamentally bespoke and ungoverned. That's the core issue. The missing layer GitHub gave us version control for code. Terraform gave us version control for infrastructure. Security has transformed with shift-left - finding flaws as code is written, not after deployment. We're still missing version control for reliability. We need a specification that defines requirements, validates them against reality, and generates the artifacts: dashboards, SLOs, alerts, escalation policies. If the specification is validated and the artifacts created, the same tool can check in real-time whether a service is in breach - and block high-risk deployments in CI/CD. What shift-left reliability actually means Shift-left reliability doesn't mean more alerts and dashboards, more postmortems or more people in the room. It means: Spec - Define reliability requirements as code before production deployment Validate - Test those requirements against reality Enforce - Gate deployments through CI/CD Engineers don't write PromQL or Grafana JSON - they declare intent, and reliability becomes deterministic. Outcomes are predictable, consistent, transparent, and follow best practice. An executable reliability contract Keep it simple. A team creates a service.yaml file with their reliability intent: name: payment-api tier: critical type: api team: payments dependencies: - postgresql - redis Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Here is a complete service.yaml example . Tooling validates metrics, SLOs, and error budgets then generates these artifacts automatically. This is the approach I am exploring with an open-source project called NthLayer. NthLayer runs in any CI/CD pipeline - GitHub Actions, ArgoCD, Jenkins, Tekton, GitLab CI. The goal isn't to be an inflexible blocker; it's visible risk and explicit decisions. Overrides are fine when they're intentional, logged, and owned. When a deployment is attempted, the specification is evaluated against reality: $ nthlayer check-deploy - service payment-api ERROR: Deployment blocked - availability SLO at 99.2% (target: 99.95%) - error budget exhausted: -47 minutes remaining - 3 P1 incidents in last 7 days Exit code: 2 (BLOCKED) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Why now? SLOs have had 8+ years to mature and move from the Google SRE Handbook into mainstream practice. GitOps has normalized declarative configuration. Platform Engineering has matured as a discipline. The concepts are ready but the tooling has lagged behind. This is a deliberate shift in approach. Reliability is no longer up for debate during incidents. Services have defined owners with deterministic standards. We can stop reinventing the reliability wheel every time a new service is onboarded. If requirements change, update the service.yaml , run NthLayer and every service benefits from adopting the new standard. What this does not replace NthLayer doesn't replace service catalogs, developer portals, observability platforms, or incident management. It doesn't predict failures or eliminate human judgment. It's upstream of all these systems. The goal: a reliability specification, automated deployment gates and to reduce cognitive load to implement best practices. Open questions I don't have all the answers but two questions I keep returning to are: Contract Drift: What happens when the spec says 99.95% but reality has been 99.5% for months? Is the contract wrong, or is the service broken? Emergency Overrides: How should they work? Who approves? How do you prevent them from becoming the default? The timing problem Where do reliability decisions actually happen in your organization? What would it look like to decide readiness before deployment? What reliability rules do you wish you could enforce automatically? The timing problem isn't going away. The only question is whether you address it before deployment - or learn about it in the postmortem. NthLayer is open source and looking for early adopters. If you're tired of reliability being an afterthought: pip install nthlayer nthlayer init nthlayer check-deploy --service your-service Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode → github.com/rsionnach/nthlayer Star the repo, open an issue, or tell me I'm wrong. I want to hear how reliability decisions happen in your organization. Rob Fox is a Senior Site Reliability Engineer focused on platform and reliability tooling. He's exploring how reliability engineering can move earlier in the software delivery lifecycle. Find him on GitHub . Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Rob Fox Follow Sr Site Reliability Engineer. Building NthLayer, an open-source tool for shift-left reliability. Opinions are my own. github.com/rsionnach Location Dublin, Ireland Joined Jan 6, 2026 Trending on DEV Community Hot The First Week at a Startup Taught Me More Than I Expected # startup # beginners # career # learning How I Built an AI Terraform Review Agent on Serverless AWS # aws # terraform # serverless # devops How to Crack Any Software Developer Interview in 2026 (Updated for AI & Modern Hiring) # softwareengineering # programming # career # interview 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/integrate-javascript-sdk | Integrate Javascript SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Integrate Javascript SDK WebPush Preferences Events and User methods InApp Feed Migration guide from v1 Android iOS React Native Flutter React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Javascript Integrate Javascript SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Javascript Integrate Javascript SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Web SDK Integration to enable WebPush, Preferences, & In-app feed in javascript websites like React, Vue, and Next.js. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT 📘 Upgrading major version of SDK: We have changed the web SDK authentication from workspace key-secret to public key and JWT based authentication. This is done to improve security in frontend applications. Refer the v1 SDK documentation For migrating to v2, follow this guide This is the client JavaScript SDK used to integrate SuprSend features like Webpush, Preferences in JavaScript websites like React, Next.js, Angular, Vue.js etc. NPM Link GitHub Link Installation npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @suprsend/web-sdk@latest Integration 1 Create Client Create suprSendClient instance and use same instance to access all the methods of SuprSend library. syntax Copy Ask AI import SuprSend from '@suprsend/web-sdk' ; export const suprSendClient = new SuprSend ( publicApiKey : string ); Params Description publicApiKey* This is public Key used to authenticate API calls to SuprSend. Get it in SuprSend dashboard ApiKeys -> Public Keys section 2 Authenticate User Authenticate user so that all the actions performed after authenticating will be w.r.t that user. This is mandatory step and need to be called before using any other method. This is usually performed after successful login and on reload of page to re-authenticate user. syntax Copy Ask AI const authResponse = await suprSendClient . identify ( distinctId : any , userToken ?: string , // only needed in production environments for security { refreshUserToken : ( oldUserToken : string , tokenPayload : Dictionary ) => Promise < string > } ); Properties Description distinctId* Unique identifier to identify a user across platform. userToken Mandatory when enhanced security mode is on. This is ES256 JWT token generated in your server-side. Refer docs to create userToken. refreshUserToken This function is called by SDK internally to get new userToken before existing token is expired. The returned string is used as the new userToken. Returns: Promise<ApiResponse> 2.1 Check if user is authenticated This method will check if user is authenticated i.e. distinctId is attached to SuprSend instance. To check for userToken also pass checkUserToken flag true. syntax Copy Ask AI suprSendClient . isIdentified ( checkUserToken ?: boolean ): boolean 3 Reset user This will remove user data from SuprSend instance. This is usually called on logout action. syntax Copy Ask AI await suprSendClient . reset (); Returns: Promise<ApiResponse> Response structure Almost all the methods in this SDK return response type Promise<ApiResponse> syntax Copy Ask AI interface ApiResponse { status : 'success' | 'error' ; statusCode ?: number ; error ?: { type ?: string ; message ?: string }; body ?: any ; } // success response { status : "success" , body ?: any , statusCode ?: number } // error response { status : "error" , error : { type : string , message : string } } Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous WebPush Step-by-Step Guide to setup WebPush notification in javascript websites like React, Vue, and Next.js. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Integration 2.1 Check if user is authenticated Response structure | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-QO-KO90iQ | React Today and Tomorrow - Sophie Alpert and Dan Abramov - React Conf 2018 - YouTube 정보 보도자료 저작권 문의하기 크리에이터 광고 개발자 약관 개인정보처리방침 정책 및 안전 YouTube 작동의 원리 새로운 기능 테스트하기 © 2026 Google LLC, Sundar Pichai, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View CA 94043, USA, 0807-882-594 (무료), yt-support-solutions-kr@google.com, 호스팅: Google LLC, 사업자정보 , 불법촬영물 신고 크리에이터들이 유튜브 상에 게시, 태그 또는 추천한 상품들은 판매자들의 약관에 따라 판매됩니다. 유튜브는 이러한 제품들을 판매하지 않으며, 그에 대한 책임을 지지 않습니다. var ytInitialData = {"responseContext":{"serviceTrackingParams":[{"service":"CSI","params":[{"key":"c","value":"WEB"},{"key":"cver","value":"2.20260109.01.00"},{"key":"yt_li","value":"0"},{"key":"GetWatchNext_rid","value":"0x90c8e6d90676c068"}]},{"service":"GFEEDBACK","params":[{"key":"logged_in","value":"0"},{"key":"visitor_data","value":"CgtldVo3elE3SWtibyj6jZjLBjIKCgJLUhIEGgAgGg%3D%3D"}]},{"service":"GUIDED_HELP","params":[{"key":"logged_in","value":"0"}]},{"service":"ECATCHER","params":[{"key":"client.version","value":"2.20260109"},{"key":"client.name","value":"WEB"}]}],"mainAppWebResponseContext":{"loggedOut":true,"trackingParam":"kx_fmPxhoPZRf1AN_8yQAbOc0pb0sCMz8m-qowi4scW4whHRgkussh7BwOcCE59TDtslLKPQ-SS"},"webResponseContextExtensionData":{"webResponseContextPreloadData":{"preloadMessageNames":["twoColumnWatchNextResults","results","videoPrimaryInfoRenderer","videoViewCountRenderer","menuRenderer","menuServiceItemRenderer","segmentedLikeDislikeButtonViewModel","likeButtonViewModel","toggleButtonViewModel","buttonViewModel","modalWithTitleAndButtonRenderer","buttonRenderer","dislikeButtonViewModel","unifiedSharePanelRenderer","menuFlexibleItemRenderer","videoSecondaryInfoRenderer","videoOwnerRenderer","subscribeButtonRenderer","subscriptionNotificationToggleButtonRenderer","menuPopupRenderer","confirmDialogRenderer","metadataRowContainerRenderer","compositeVideoPrimaryInfoRenderer","itemSectionRenderer","continuationItemRenderer","secondaryResults","lockupViewModel","thumbnailViewModel","thumbnailOverlayBadgeViewModel","thumbnailBadgeViewModel","thumbnailHoverOverlayToggleActionsViewModel","lockupMetadataViewModel","decoratedAvatarViewModel","avatarViewModel","contentMetadataViewModel","sheetViewModel","listViewModel","listItemViewModel","autoplay","playerOverlayRenderer","menuNavigationItemRenderer","watchNextEndScreenRenderer","endScreenVideoRenderer","thumbnailOverlayTimeStatusRenderer","thumbnailOverlayNowPlayingRenderer","playerOverlayAutoplayRenderer","playerOverlayVideoDetailsRenderer","autoplaySwitchButtonRenderer","quickActionsViewModel","decoratedPlayerBarRenderer","multiMarkersPlayerBarRenderer","markerRenderer","chapterRenderer","notificationActionRenderer","speedmasterEduViewModel","engagementPanelSectionListRenderer","engagementPanelTitleHeaderRenderer","sortFilterSubMenuRenderer","sectionListRenderer","adsEngagementPanelContentRenderer","chipBarViewModel","chipViewModel","macroMarkersListRenderer","macroMarkersInfoItemRenderer","macroMarkersListItemRenderer","toggleButtonRenderer","structuredDescriptionContentRenderer","videoDescriptionHeaderRenderer","factoidRenderer","viewCountFactoidRenderer","expandableVideoDescriptionBodyRenderer","horizontalCardListRenderer","richListHeaderRenderer","videoDescriptionTranscriptSectionRenderer","videoDescriptionInfocardsSectionRenderer","desktopTopbarRenderer","topbarLogoRenderer","fusionSearchboxRenderer","topbarMenuButtonRenderer","multiPageMenuRenderer","hotkeyDialogRenderer","hotkeyDialogSectionRenderer","hotkeyDialogSectionOptionRenderer","voiceSearchDialogRenderer","cinematicContainerRenderer"]},"ytConfigData":{"visitorData":"CgtldVo3elE3SWtibyj6jZjLBjIKCgJLUhIEGgAgGg%3D%3D","rootVisualElementType":3832},"webPrefetchData":{"navigationEndpoints":[{"clickTrackingParams":"CAAQg2ciEwjBq-7_kIiSAxWwmlYBHXtcK1MyDHJlbGF0ZWQtYXV0b0ikpPedit-D8leaAQUIAxD4HcoBBAWswHc=","commandMetadata":{"webCommandMetadata":{"url":"/watch?v=wXLf18DsV-I\u0026pp=QAFIAQ%3D%3D","webPageType":"WEB_PAGE_TYPE_WATCH","rootVe":3832}},"watchEndpoint":{"videoId":"wXLf18DsV-I","params":"EAEYAdoBBAgBKgA%3D","playerParams":"QAFIAQ%3D%3D","watchEndpointSupportedPrefetchConfig":{"prefetchHintConfig":{"prefetchPriority":0,"countdownUiRelativeSecondsPrefetchCondition":-3}}}},{"clickTrackingParams":"CAAQg2ciEwjBq-7_kIiSAxWwmlYBHXtcK1MyDHJlbGF0ZWQtYXV0b0ikpPedit-D8leaAQUIAxD4HcoBBAWswHc=","commandMetadata":{"webCommandMetadata":{"url":"/watch?v=wXLf18DsV-I\u0026pp=QAFIAQ%3D%3D","webPageType":"WEB_PAGE_TYPE_WATCH","rootVe":3832}},"watchEndpoint":{"videoId":"wXLf18DsV-I","params":"EAEYAdoBBAgBKgA%3D","playerParams":"QAFIAQ%3D%3D","watchEndpointSupportedPrefetchConfig":{"prefetchHintConfig":{"prefetchPriority":0,"countdownUiRelativeSecondsPrefetchCondition":-3}}}},{"clickTrackingParams":"CAAQg2ciEwjBq-7_kIiSAxWwmlYBHXtcK1MyDHJlbGF0ZWQtYXV0b0ikpPedit-D8leaAQUIAxD4HcoBBAWswHc=","commandMetadata":{"webCommandMetadata":{"url":"/watch?v=wXLf18DsV-I\u0026pp=QAFIAQ%3D%3D","webPageType":"WEB_PAGE_TYPE_WATCH","rootVe":3832}},"watchEndpoint":{"videoId":"wXLf18DsV-I","params":"EAEYAdoBBAgBKgA%3D","playerParams":"QAFIAQ%3D%3D","watchEndpointSupportedPrefetchConfig":{"prefetchHintConfig":{"prefetchPriority":0,"countdownUiRelativeSecondsPrefetchCondition":-3}}}}]},"hasDecorated":true}},"contents":{"twoColumnWatchNextResults":{"results":{"results":{"contents":[{"videoPrimaryInfoRenderer":{"title":{"runs":[{"text":"React 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs | What is SuprSend? - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? Quick Start Guide Best Practices Plan Your Integration Go-live checklist CORE CONCEPTS Templates Users Events Workflow Notification Categories Preferences Tenants Lists Broadcast Objects Translations DLT Guidelines Whatsapp Template Guidelines WORKFLOW BUILDER Design Workflow Node List Workflow Settings Trigger Workflow Validate Trigger Payload Tenant Workflows Notification Inbox Overview Multi Tabs React Javascript (Angular, Vuejs etc) React Native Flutter (Headless) PREFERENCE CENTRE Embedded Preference Centre Javascript Angular React VENDOR INTEGRATION GUIDE Overview Email Integrations SMS Integrations Android Push Whatsapp Integrations iOS Push Chat Integrations Vendor Fallback Tenant Vendor INTEGRATIONS Webhook Connectors MONITORING & DEBUGGING Logs Audit Logs Error Guides MANAGE YOUR ACCOUNT Authentication Methods Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Learn about SuprSend and how you can use it to power multi-channel product notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT SuprSend has all the features set which enable you to send notifications in a reliable and scalable manner, as well as take care of end-user experience, thereby eliminating the need to build any notification service in-house. Benefits of using SuprSend as your notification stack: You do not have to do any vendor integrations for channels in your code. You can easily add/remove/prioritise vendors and channels from your SuprSend account, You can design powerful templates for all channels together and manage them from a single place, You can leverage powerful features to experiment fast with notifications as well as take care of end user experience without writing a single line of code. Introduction to Workflows Communications are made up of multiple components - trigger, logic, content, variables, target user, channels, vendors, etc. Typical communication solutions have one or more components intertwined with each other. SuprSend solves communications from a different and more powerful approach, which we call Workflows. At SuprSend, all the constituent components are decoupled from each other, making it modular in nature. The components can come from any source. All these components are configured as nodes in Workflows, where the processing happens for delivery and optimisation. This allows Workflows to handle any complexity possible in your communication use cases. How do you trigger notifications? You can trigger notifications in one of the two ways: Send events to SuprSend from your frontend clients (android app, website, etc) via SuprSend Client SDK, and create a Workflow on SuprSend platform to trigger notification on an event. Create workflow and trigger notification from your backend itself using an omni-channel HTTPS API method, or you can use our Backend SDK. All the other components (like vendors, templates, optimisation, scaling, etc.) are created and managed on SuprSend platform. You can check the ‘Core Concepts’ section that lists down the components used in the platform, so you can navigate the platform and use all the features with ease. SuprSend APIs You can try out SuprSend APIs from our Postman collection Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Overview Start setting up your notifications with SuprSend by following quick start guides for one of the mentioned channels. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of using SuprSend as your notification stack: Introduction to Workflows How do you trigger notifications? SuprSend APIs | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/flutter | Android Integration - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK SuprSend Client SDK Authentication Javascript Android iOS React Native Flutter Android Integration iOS Integration Manage Users Sync Events iOS Push Setup Android Push Setup (FCM) React Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Flutter Android Integration Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Flutter Android Integration OpenAI Open in ChatGPT This document will cover integration steps for Android side of your Flutter application. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation 1 Open your Flutter project’s pubspec.yaml file Add following line of code inside dependencies in pubspec.yaml file pubsec.yaml Copy Ask AI dependencies : flutter : sdk : flutter suprsend_flutter_sdk : "^2.4.0" 2 Run flutter pub get in the terminal shell Copy Ask AI flutter pub get Troubleshooting notes: In case you face compilation errors or warnings, please perform the following troubleshooting steps: Ensure mavenCentral is present under repositories in project’s build.gradle Perform gradle sync Initialization 1 Initialize Suprsend Flutter SDK To integrate SuprSend in your Android app, you will need to initialize the suprsend flutter SDK in your MainApplication class. Note : SSApi.init should only be called in Application class, not inside Activity class( MainActivity.kt ). If your project does not have an Application class, create it manually and register it in the AndroidManifest. Example: If you create a new Application class named MainApplication.kt in your source package, go to your AndroidManifest file and enter the path of the class in the tag like this: AndroidManifest.xml Copy Ask AI < application ... android:name = ".MainApplication" ... > MainApplication.kt Copy Ask AI package <your-package-name> import android.app.Application import app.suprsend.SSApi ; // import sdk class MainApplication : Application (){ override fun onCreate () { SSApi. init ( this , WORKSPACE KEY, WORKSPACE SECRET) // Important! without this, SDK will not work SSApi. initXiaomi ( this , xiaomi_app_id, xiaomi_api_key) // Optional. Add this if you want to support Xiaomi notifications framework super . onCreate () } } Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with values linked to your account. You’ll find it on SuprSend dashboard (Developers -> API Keys) page. 2 Import SuprSend SDK in your client side code Import suprsend SDK in your dart file. Go back to the flutter folder and follow below steps: Main.dart Copy Ask AI import 'package:suprsend_flutter_sdk/suprsend.dart' ; Logging By default the logs of SuprSend SDK are disabled. We recommend you to enable the SDK logs by setting its value to VERBOSE. You can enable the logs just in debug mode while in development by below condition. Dart Copy Ask AI suprsend . setLogLevel ( level ); suprsend . setLogLevel ( LogLevels . VERBOSE ); suprsend . setLogLevel ( LogLevels . DEBUG ); suprsend . setLogLevel ( LogLevels . INFO ); suprsend . setLogLevel ( LogLevels . ERROR ); suprsend . setLogLevel ( LogLevels . OFF ); Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Integration This document will cover integration steps for iOS side of your Flutter application. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization Logging | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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https://dev.to/keefdrive | Keerthi - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Keerthi I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Joined Joined on Aug 7, 2020 github website twitter website Work ui developer More info about @keefdrive Badges Five Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least five years. Got it Close Four Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least four years. Got it Close Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. 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Sign in A crash course in React.js and D3 Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Nov 16 '21 A crash course in React.js and D3 # react # javascript # d3js # webdev 152 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Create react app vs Vite Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Sep 22 '21 Create react app vs Vite # webdev # react # javascript # vite 110 reactions Comments 20 comments 4 min read Scroll animation in Javascript using IntersectionObserver Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Jun 30 '21 Scroll animation in Javascript using IntersectionObserver # javascript # webdev # css # html 589 reactions Comments 11 comments 7 min read Styled components cheat sheet for React Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Jun 16 '21 Styled components cheat sheet for React # styledcomponents # webdev # react # javascript 213 reactions Comments 3 comments 4 min read Create fancy borders for your images. Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow May 27 '21 Create fancy borders for your images. # css # html # webdev 59 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Create a Navbar in NextJs using shared layouts and CSS modules. Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Mar 23 '21 Create a Navbar in NextJs using shared layouts and CSS modules. # javascript # nextjs # react # webdev 15 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read The top 5 ReactJs chart libraries, video review. Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Feb 12 '21 The top 5 ReactJs chart libraries, video review. # react # webdev # reactnative # javascript 50 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Top 5 most hearted animations and designs on codepen, whats under the hood ? 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Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Oct 30 '20 A basic responsive bar chart in reactjs can be hand coded easily. # javascript # react # css # webdev 10 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read ReactJs Animation: Create login/register form with react-spring animation Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Sep 28 '20 ReactJs Animation: Create login/register form with react-spring animation # react # css # javascript # animation 173 reactions Comments 6 comments 5 min read How to create an animated login register web page with HTML, CSS, and javascript Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Sep 8 '20 How to create an animated login register web page with HTML, CSS, and javascript # ui # css # javascript # html 28 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read CSS3: Blending and flexing Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow Aug 25 '20 CSS3: Blending and flexing # discuss # css # html # webdev 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Can bootstrap 5 handle complex designs? 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Right menu Kotlin 코루틴: 비동기 프로그래밍 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin 코루틴: 비동기 프로그래밍 # programming # kotlin # coroutine # async Comments Add Comment 1 min read Kotlin 기본 문법: 변수, 타입, 문자열 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin 기본 문법: 변수, 타입, 문자열 # programming # kotlin # variables # types Comments Add Comment 2 min read Kotlin Null Safety와 타입 캐스팅 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin Null Safety와 타입 캐스팅 # programming # kotlin # nullsafety # casting Comments Add Comment 2 min read Kotlin 제어문: if, when, for, while dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin 제어문: if, when, for, while # programming # kotlin # if # when Comments Add Comment 2 min read Kotlin 프로퍼티와 위임: Property, Delegation, lateinit dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin 프로퍼티와 위임: Property, Delegation, lateinit # programming # kotlin # property # delegation Comments Add Comment 2 min read Kotlin 기타 기능: Annotation, Enum, Exception, 문서화 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin 기타 기능: Annotation, Enum, Exception, 문서화 # programming # kotlin # annotation # enum Comments Add Comment 2 min read use Android RecyclerView with 2 lines dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 30 '25 use Android RecyclerView with 2 lines # mobile # android # recyclerview # kotlin 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Android Coroutine API Call and Error Handling in Retrofit2 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 30 '25 Android Coroutine API Call and Error Handling in Retrofit2 # mobile # android # kotlin # coroutine Comments Add Comment 10 min read Kotlin 컬렉션: Array, List, Map dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Kotlin 컬렉션: Array, List, Map # programming # kotlin # array # list Comments Add Comment 1 min read 🚀 Como criar um novo projeto Spring Boot Thiago Matos Thiago Matos Thiago Matos Follow Dec 29 '25 🚀 Como criar um novo projeto Spring Boot # java # kotlin # springboot # tutorial Comments Add Comment 16 min read [Android] How to make Proguard keep Kotlin data class dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 30 '25 [Android] How to make Proguard keep Kotlin data class # mobile # android # proguard # kotlin 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Android Push Notifications implementation made easy with Bloomreach Aziz Aziz Aziz Follow Dec 30 '25 Android Push Notifications implementation made easy with Bloomreach # android # notification # kotlin # mobile 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Kapper 1.6: Faster Performance, Bulk Operations, and a Brand New Documentation Site Dries Samyn Dries Samyn Dries Samyn Follow Jan 1 Kapper 1.6: Faster Performance, Bulk Operations, and a Brand New Documentation Site # sql # kotlin 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Offline-First Android: Build Apps That Keep Working When the Network Doesn’t Mohan Sankaran Mohan Sankaran Mohan Sankaran Follow Dec 27 '25 Offline-First Android: Build Apps That Keep Working When the Network Doesn’t # android # kotlin # architecture # offline 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read POO? 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse realNameHidden Posted on Jan 5 Your Backend Sends 200 OK Even When an Order Fails — How Do You Fix It in Apigee X? # apigee # gcp # apigeex # interview Learn how to fix incorrect 200 OK responses in API Proxies in Apigee X and return proper error codes using policies and fault handling. Introduction: The “It Worked… But Actually Didn’t” Problem 😬 Imagine this. A client application places an order. Your backend fails the order due to insufficient balance or inventory issues. But the API response still says: HTTP/ 1.1 200 OK { "status" : "FAILED" , "reason" : "INSUFFICIENT_FUNDS" } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode From the client’s point of view, the request succeeded . This is a very common real-world problem in modern systems—especially in payments, BFSI, and microservices architectures. This is where API Proxies in Apigee X shine. In this blog, you’ll learn: Why this problem happens Why it’s dangerous How to modify responses in Apigee X to return the correct HTTP status codes Best practices you can apply immediately What Is an API Proxy in Apigee X? An API proxy in Apigee X sits between: Client apps Backend services Think of it like a smart translator + traffic controller : It understands backend responses It can modify headers, body, and status codes It enforces API standards without touching backend code ELI5 Analogy 🧒 Your backend is like a kitchen. The kitchen knows the food is burnt But the waiter still tells the customer: “Your food is ready!” 👉 Apigee X is the head waiter who checks the plate before serving and says: “Nope. This should go back with the right message.” Why Returning 200 OK on Failure Is a Bad Idea ❌ Problem Impact Client assumes success Data inconsistency Retries don’t trigger Orders get stuck Monitoring misses failures SLA violations Violates REST standards Poor API design Correct HTTP semantics are critical for: API consumers Observability Reliability API security Step-by-Step: Fixing This in Apigee X (Beginner-Friendly) Scenario Backend always returns HTTP 200 Business failure is inside response body We want Apigee X to: Detect failure Convert it to proper HTTP error code Step 1: Example Backend Response (Problematic) { "orderStatus" : "FAILED" , "errorCode" : "ORDER_REJECTED" , "message" : "Order could not be processed" } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 2: Add an AssignMessage Policy in Response Flow <AssignMessage name= "AM-Set-Error-Response" > <AssignTo createNew= "false" transport= "http" /> <Set> <StatusCode> 400 </StatusCode> <ReasonPhrase> Bad Request </ReasonPhrase> </Set> </AssignMessage> Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 3: Add a Condition (Only Modify When Order Fails) Attach the policy in the TargetEndpoint Response with a condition: <Step> <Name> AM-Set-Error-Response </Name> <Condition> response.content AsString matches "FAILED" </Condition> </Step> Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode ✅ Now Apigee X returns: HTTP / 1.1 400 Bad Request Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 4: (Optional) Use RaiseFault for Cleaner Error Design <RaiseFault name= "RF-Order-Failed" > <FaultResponse> <Set> <StatusCode> 422 </StatusCode> <ReasonPhrase> Unprocessable Entity </ReasonPhrase> <Payload contentType= "application/json" > { "error": "ORDER_FAILED", "message": "Order processing failed at backend" } </Payload> </Set> </FaultResponse> </RaiseFault> Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Attach it conditionally the same way. When Should You Use This Pattern? Common Real-World Use Cases Payments declined but backend returns 200 Inventory failure masked as success Legacy systems that can’t change response codes Partner APIs with inconsistent contracts Best Practices for Apigee X Response Handling ✅ 1️⃣ Never Trust Backend HTTP Status Blindly Always validate business status , not just HTTP code. 2️⃣ Standardize Error Codes at the Proxy Layer Use Apigee X to enforce REST standards consistently. 3️⃣ Prefer RaiseFault for Business Errors It gives: Cleaner error handling Centralized fault logic Better observability 4️⃣ Log Before Modifying Responses Use MessageLogging to avoid blind debugging. 5️⃣ Don’t Overuse Regex on Large Payloads For complex logic, use JavaScript policy instead. Common Mistakes to Avoid ❌ Returning 200 with error messages Modifying responses without conditions Hardcoding logic per backend Ignoring API monitoring and analytics Conclusion: Apigee X = Control Without Backend Changes 🎯 To summarize: Backends returning 200 OK on failure is common It breaks API contracts and client logic API Proxies in Apigee X give you full control You can fix response codes without touching backend code This is one of the most powerful—and underrated—capabilities of API management . Call to Action 💬 Have you faced this issue in real projects? 👇 Comment below: 📌 Follow for more Apigee X , API security , and API traffic management insights. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse realNameHidden Follow Actively Looking For Work Youtube Channel Link : https://www.youtube.com/@realNameHiddenn Blog : https://idiotprogrammern.blogspot.com/ Location India Work Looking For Work email : realnamehiddenyt@gmail.com Joined Oct 23, 2021 More from realNameHidden How Does @Async Work Internally in Spring Boot? # java # interview # spring # springboot How Do You Handle Orchestration in Apigee X Using ServiceCallout & FlowCallout? # apigee # interivew # gcp # apigeex You Want Correlation IDs for Logging Across All Proxies — Here’s How to Do It in Apigee X # apigee # apigeex # gcp # interview 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Future Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. 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http://www.mattmahoney.net/dc/text.html | Large Text Compression Benchmark Large Text Compression Benchmark Matt Mahoney Last update: July 3, 2025. history This competition ranks lossless data compression programs by the compressed size (including the size of the decompression program) of the first 10 9 bytes of the XML text dump of the English version of Wikipedia on Mar. 3, 2006. About the test data . The goal of this benchmark is not to find the best overall compression program, but to encourage research in artificial intelligence and natural language processing (NLP). A fundamental problem in both NLP and text compression is modeling: the ability to distinguish between high probability strings like recognize speech and low probability strings like reckon eyes peach . Rationale . This is an open benchmark. Anyone may contribute results. Please read the rules first. Open source compression improvements to this benchmark with certain hardware restrictions may be eligible for the Hutter Prize . Benchmark Results Compressors are ranked by the compressed size of enwik9 (10 9 bytes) plus the size of a zip archive containing the decompresser. Options are selected for maximum compression at the cost of speed and memory. Other data in the table does not affect rankings. This benchmark is for informational purposes only. There is no prize money for a top ranking. Notes about the table: Program: The version believed to give the best compression. A | denotes a combination of 2 programs. Compression options: selected for what I believe gives the best compression. enwik8: compressed size of first 10 8 bytes of enwik9. This data is used for the Hutter Prize, and is also ranked here but has no effect on this ranking. enwik9: compressed size of first 10 9 bytes of enwiki-20060303-pages-articles.xml. decompresser size: size of a zip archive containing the decompression program (source code or executable) and all associated files needed to run it (e.g. dictionaries). A letter following the size has the following meaning: x = executable size. s = source code size (if available and smaller). d = size of a separate decompression program (separate from compression). For self extracting archives (SFX), the size is 0 because the decompresser and compressed data are combined into one file. For testing, if no zip file is supplied I create archives using InfoZIP 2.32 -9. (Prior to July 1, 2008 I used 7zip 4.32 -tzip -mx=9). Total size: total size of compressed enwik9 + decompresser size, ranked smallest to largest. Comp: compression rate in nanoseconds per byte on the largest file tested (e.g. seconds for enwik9). Speed is approximate and has no effect on ranking. A ~ means "very approximate". Not all tests are done on the same computer. Times reported are the smaller of process time (summed over processors if multi-threaded) or real time as measured with timer ). If there is no note then the program was tested on a Compaq Presario 5440, 2.188 GHz, Athlon-64 3500+ in 32 bit Windows XP. An underlined time means that no better compressor is faster. Decomp: decompression time as above. If blank, decompression was not tested yet and ranking is pending verification that the output is identical. An underlined time means that no better compressor is faster. Mem: approximate memory used for compression in MB. Decompression uses the same or possibly less. There is some ambiguity whether a megabyte means 10 6 bytes or 2 20 bytes. The approximation is course enough that it doesn't matter. I use peak memory as measured with Windows Task Manager during compression (so if you really want to know, 1 MB = 1,024,000 bytes :) Memory does not include swap or temporary files. An underlined value means that no better compressor uses less memory. Alg: compression algorithm, referring to the method of parsing the input into symbols (strings, bytes, or bits) and estimating their probabilities (modeling) for choosing code lengths. Symbols may be arithmetic coded (fractional bit length for best compression), Huffman coded (bit aligned for speed), or byte aligned as a preprocessing step. Dict (Dictionary). Symbols are words, coded as 1 or 2 bytes, usually as a preprocessing step. LZ (Lempel Ziv). Symbols are strings. LZ77: repeated strings are coded by offset and length of previous occurrence. LZW (LZ Welch): repeats are coded as indexes into a dynamically built dictionary. ROLZ (Reduced Offset LZ): LZW with multiple small dictionaries selected by context. LZP (LZ predictive): ROLZ with a dictionary size of 1. on (Order-n, e.g. o0, o1, o2...): symbols are bytes, modeled by frequency distribution in context of last n bytes. PPM (Prediction by Partial Match): order-n, modeled in longest context matched, but dropping to lower orders for byte counts of 0. SR (Symbol Ranking): order-n, modeled by time since last seen. BWT (Burrows Wheeler Transform): bytes are sorted by context, then modeled by order-0 SR. ST (Sort Transform): BWT using stable sort with truncated string comparison. DMC (Dynamic Markov Coding): bits modeled by PPM. CM (Context Mixing): bits, modeled by combining predictions of independent models. LSTM (long short term memory): CM using neural network models. Tr: Transformer, CM using neural network with attention mechanism. Some compressors combine multiple steps such as Dict+PPM or LZP+DMC. I indicate the last stage before coding. Notes: Brief notes. See program descriptions for details. Usually this means the result was reported by somebody else on a different computer. Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Alg Note ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----- ----- --- --- ---- nncp v3.2 14,915,298 106,632,363 628,955 xd 107,261,318 241871 238670 7600 Tr 88 cmix v21 -t 14,623,723 107,963,380 281,387 sd 108,244,767 622949 638442 30950 CM 83 fx2-cmix 110,351,665 0 xd 110,351,665 272072 8811 CM 97 tensorflow-compress v4 15,905,037 113,542,413 55,283 sd 113,597,696 291394 290803 45360 LSTM 94 cmix-hp 10 Jun 2021 15,957,339 113,712,798 0 xd 113,712,798 189420 194280 6873 CM 89 fast-cmix 113,746,218 0 xd 113,746,218 121971 8027 CM 99 starlit 31 May 2021 15,215,107 114,951,433 0 xd 114,951,433 173953 171682 10233 CM 89 phda9 1.8 15,010,414 116,544,849 42,944 xd 116,587,793 86182 86305 6319 CM 83 gmix v1 16,246,629 122,336,013 182,085 sd 122,518,098 73986 70552 3751 CM 83 paq8px_v206fix1 -12L 15,849,084 124,696,410 402,949 s 125,099,359 291916 294847 28151 CM 93 durilca'kingsize -m13000 -o40 -t2 16,209,167 127,377,411 407,477 xd 127,784,888 1398 1797 13000 PPM 31 fxv v1 -1 -j -w -cfxcm1.pxv 15,946,608 128,804,372 494,797 x 129,299,169 20763 1628 CM 102 cmve 0.2.0 -m2,3,0x7fed7dfd 16,424,248 129,876,858 307,787 x 130,184,645 1140801 19963 CM 81 paq8hp12any -8 16,230,028 132,045,026 330,700 x 132,375,726 37660 37584 1850 CM 41 drt|emma 1.23 16,523,517 134,164,521 1,358,251 xd 135,522,772 73006 67097 3800 CM 81 zpaq 6.42 -m s10.0.5fmax6 17,855,729 142,252,605 4,760 sd 142,257,365 6699 14739 14000 CM 61 drt|lpaq9m 9 17,964,751 143,943,759 110,579 x 144,054,338 868 898 1542 CM 41 mcm 0.83 -x11 18,233,295 144,854,575 79,574 s 144,934,149 394 281 5961 CM 72 nanozip 0.09a -cc -m32g -p1 -t1 -nm 18,594,163 148,545,179 783,642 x 149,328,821 1149 1141 32000 CM 74 xwrt 3.2 -l14 -b255 -m96 -s -e40000 -f200 18,679,742 151,171,364 52,569 s 151,223,933 2537 2328 1691 CM fp8 v3 -8 18,438,169 153,188,176 50,068 s 153,238,244 20605 22593 1192 CM 26 WinRK 3.03 pwcm +td 800MB SFX 18,612,453 156,291,924 99,665 xd 156,391,589 68555 800 CM 10 ppmonstr J -m1700 -o16 19,055,092 157,007,383 42,019 x 157,049,402 3574 ~3600 1700 PPM zcm 0.93 -m8 -t1 19,572,089 159,135,549 227,659 x 159,363,208 421 411 3100 CM 48 slim 23d -m1700 -o12 19,077,276 159,772,839 69,453 x 159,842,292 5232 ~5400 1700 PPM bsc-m03 0.4.0 -b1000000000 20,293,393 160,258,936 105,456 xd 160,364,392 160 135 13000 BWT 96 bwmonstr 0.02 20,307,295 160,468,597 69,401 x 160,537,998 331801 156147 590 BWT 30 nanozipltcb 0.09 20,537,902 161,581,290 133,784 x 161,715,074 64 30 3350 BWT 40 kanzi -b 1024M -t RLT+TEXT+UTF -e TPAQX 19,098,186 161,690,495 397,855 x 162,088,350 490 480 3100 CM 103 M03 1.1b 1000000000 20,710,197 163,667,431 50,468 x 163,717,899 457 406 5735 BWT 52 bcm 2.03 -b1000x- 20,738,630 163,646,387 125,866 x 163,772,253 63 34 4096 BWT 98 glza 0.10.1 -x -p3 20,356,097 163,768,203 69,935 s 163,838,138 8184 11.9 8205 Dict 67 bsc 3.25 -b1000 -e2 20,786,794 163,884,462 74,297 xd 163,958,759 23 8 5000 BWT 96 bbb m1000 20,847,290 164,032,650 11,227 s 164,043,877 4524 2619 1401 BWT pcompress 3.1 -c libbsc -l14 -s1000m 20,769,968 163,391,884 1,370,611 x 164,762,495 359 74 3300 BWT 48 paq9a -9 19,974,112 165,193,368 13,749 s 165,207,117 3997 4021 1585 CM uda 0.300 19,393,460 166,272,261 11,264 x 166,283,525 25282 25174 180 CM BWTmix v1 c10000 20,608,793 167,852,106 9,565 x 167,861,671 1794 690 5000 BWT 49 lrzip 0.612 -z -L 9 -p 1 19,847,690 169,318,794 99,363 x 169,418,157 2987 2929 2700 CM 33 bzip3 -b 511 20,749,611 169,990,721 368,033 s 170,358,754 175 146 3700 BWT 103 cm4_ext 20,188,048 170,566,799 204,782 x 170,771,581 4123 4130 1906 CM 26 M1x2 v0.6 7 enwik7.txt 20,723,056 172,212,773 38,467 s 172,251,240 711 715 1051 CM 26 cmm4 v0.1e 96 20,569,034 172,669,955 31,314 x 172,701,269 2052 2056 1321 CM lstm-compress v3 20,318,653 173,874,407 144,567 s 174,018,974 92342 91876 9 LSTM 83 ccmx 1.30 7 20,857,925 174,142,092 15,014 x 174,157,106 1313 1338 1332 CM bit 0.7 -p=5 20,823,204 174,425,039 62,493 x 174,487,532 2050 2100 663 CM 26 mcomp 2.00 -mw -M320m 21,103,670 174,388,351 172,531 x 174,560,882 473 399 1643 BWT 26 epmopt|epm r9 -m800 -n20 --fixedorder:12 19,713,502 174,817,424 141,101 x 174,958,525 3179 3376 800 PPM WinUDA 2.91 mode 3 (194 MB) 20,332,366 174,975,730 17,203 x 174,992,933 23610 23473 194 CM dark 0.51 -b333mf 21,169,819 175,471,417 34,797 x 175,506,214 533 453 1692 BWT FreeArc 0.40pre-4 -mppmd:1012m:o13:r1 20,931,605 175,254,732 748,202 x 176,002,934 1175 1216 1046 PPM hook v1.4 1700 21,990,502 176,648,663 37,004 x 176,685,667 741 695 1777 DMC 26 7zip 4.46a -m0=ppmd:mem=1630m:o=10 ... 21,197,559 178,965,454 0 xd 178,965,454 503 546 1630 PPM 23 rings 2.5 -m8 -t1 20,873,959 178,747,360 240,523 x 178,987,883 280 163 2518 BWT 48 pimple2 20,871,457 180,251,530 78,642 x 180,330,172 18474 17992 128 CM ash 04a /m700 /o10 19,963,105 180,735,542 11,137 x 180,746,679 6100 5853 700 CM bce3 22,729,148 180,732,702 19,889 s 180,752,591 1151 2444 5000 CM 71 ocamyd LTCB 1.0 -s0 -m3 21,285,121 182,359,986 21,030 x 182,381,016 108960~110000 300 DMC 6 bee 0.79 b0154 -m3 -d8 20,975,994 182,373,904 57,046 x 182,430,950 9295 9285 512 PPM uhbc 1.0 -m3 -b100m 20,930,838 182,918,172 56,242 x 182,974,414 1569 809 800 BWT smac 1.20 21,781,544 183,190,888 4,356 x 183,195,244 4249 4399 1542 CM 26 ppmd J1 -m256 -o10 -r1 21,388,296 183,964,915 11,099 s 183,976,014 880 895 256 PPM tc 5.2 dev 2 21,481,399 184,939,711 41,112 x 184,980,823 3637 3655 230 CM bwtsdc v1 23,414,955 185,709,858 8,421 s 185,718,279 2100 420 5213 BWT 47 fbc v1.1 333333334 22,554,133 185,975,548 23,576 x 185,999,124 451 415 1647 BWT 55 ppmvc v1.1 -m256 -o8 -r1 21,484,294 186,208,405 25,241 x 186,233,646 898 913 272 PPM chile 0.4 -b=244141 22,218,917 186,979,614 11,530 s 186,991,144 2513 512 1426 BWT bwtdisk 0.9.0 -b 2 -m 3500 24,725,277 190,004,306 169,579 s 190,173,885 1124 3500 BWT 48 CTXf 0.75 pre b1 -me 22,072,783 191,008,871 57,337 x 191,066,298 1112 1037 78 PPM m03exp 2005-02-15 32MB blocks 21,948,192 191,250,500 44,593 x 191,295,093 ~4800 ~2100 256 BWT Stuffit 12.0.0.17 -m=4 -l=16 -x=30 22,105,654 190,372,707 2,658,122 xd 193,030,829 628 658 1062 PPM plzma v3b c2 ... (see below) 24,206,571 193,240,160 101,221 x 193,341,381 8889 55 10110 LZ77 58 crook v0.1 -m1600 -O8 22,503,627 193,333,159 8,539 s 193,341,698 483 513 1641 PPM 26 ppmx 0.03 22,572,808 193,643,464 54,964 x 193,698,428 777 784 609 PPM 26 lzturbo 1.1 -49 -b1000 -p0 24,416,777 194,681,713 110,670 x 194,792,383 1920 9 14700 LZ77 59 enc 0.15 aq 22,156,982 195,604,166 94,888 x 195,699,054 6843 6868 50 CM comprolz 0.11.0-bugfix1 -b250 -f 22,813,215 196,651,379 29,453 x 196,680,832 984 308 688 ROLZ 26 sbc 0.970r2 -ad -m3 -b63 22,470,539 197,066,203 99,094 xd 197,165,297 1733 313 224 BWT xz 5.2.1--lzma2=preset=9e,dict=1GiB,lc=4,pb=0 24,703,772 197,331,816 36,752 xd 197,368,568 5876 20 6000 LZ77 73 WinRAR 3.60b3 -mc7:128t+ -sfxWinCon.sfx 22,713,569 198,454,545 0 xd 198,454,545 506 415 128 PPM quark v0.95r beta -m1 -d25 -l8 22,988,924 198,600,023 80,264 x 198,680,287 27952 217 534 LZ77 lzip 1.14-rc3 -9 -s512MiB 24,756,063 199,410,543 21,682 s 199,432,225 2409 21 5632 LZ77 57 comprox 0.11.0-bugfix1 -b250 -f -m100 23,064,386 199,515,912 34,176 x 199,550,088 917 153 688 LZ77 26 bssc 0.95 alpha -b16383 23,117,061 201,810,709 45,489 x 201,856,198 578 217 140 BWT 4 flashzip 1.0.0 -mx7 -b7 23,869,034 202,363,445 123,053 x 202,486,498 1296 122 802 ROLZ 26 lzham 1.0 -d29 -x 25,002,070 202,237,199 191,600 s 202,428,799 1096 6.6 7800 LZ77 70 csarc 3.3 -m5 -d1024m 24,516,202 203,995,005 69,848 s 204,064,853 621 22 2463 LZ77 48 packet 1.9 -mx -b512 -h8 24,968,492 204,195,438 261,967 x 204,457,405 974 14 2824 LZ77 48 uharc 0.6b -mx -md32768 23,911,123 208,026,696 73,608 xd 208,100,304 1666 1330 50 PPM TarsaLZP Jan 29 2012 24,751,389 208,867,187 13,081 s 208,880,268 203 ~2000 LZP 54 GRZipII 0.2.4 -b8m 23,846,878 208,993,966 41,645 s 209,035,641 312 216 58 BWT 4x4 0.2a 4t (grzip:m1:h18) 23,833,244 208,787,642 317,097 x 209,104,739 386 240 269 BWT rzm 0.07h 24,361,070 210,126,103 17,667 x 210,143,770 2336 81 160 ROLZ pim 2.50 best 24,303,638 210,124,895 330,901 x 210,455,796 764 ~764 88 PPM CTW 0.1 -d6 -n16M -f16M 23,670,293 211,995,206 43,247 x 212,038,452 19221 19524 144 CM boa 0.58b -m15 24,322,643 213,845,481 55,813 x 213,901,294 3953 ~4100 17 PPM yxz 0.11 -m9 -b7 -h6 25,754,856 214,317,684 131,062 x 214,448,746 642 77 1590 LZ 26 zstd 0.6.0 -22 --ultra 25,405,601 215,674,670 69,687 s 215,744,357 701 2.2 792 LZ77 76 tornado 0.6 -16 25,768,105 217,749,028 83,694 s 217,832,722 1482 9 1290 LZ77 48 LZPXj 1.2h 9 25,205,783 217,880,584 4,853 s 217,885,437 783 717 1316 PPM scmppm 0.93.3 -l 9 25,198,832 217,867,392 37,043 s 217,904,435 708 644 20 PPM acb 2.00c u 25,063,656 218,473,968 38,976 x 218,512,944 10656 10883 16 LZ77 26 crushm 25,013,576 218,656,416 30,097 x 218,686,513 617 649 39 CM 26 PX v1.0 24,971,871 219,091,398 3,054 s 219,094,452 1838 1809 66 CM 3 DGCA 1.10 default+SFX 25,203,248 219,655,072 0 xd 219,655,072 858 270 76 Squeez 5.20.4600 sqx2.0 32MB Ultra 25,118,441 220,004,873 91,019 xd 220,095,892 2575 116 365 fpaq2 25,287,775 221,242,386 3,429 s 221,245,815 20183 20186 131 CM TinyCM 0.1 9 25,913,605 221,773,542 12,553 x 221,786,095 1342 1330 1083 CM 26 dmc c 1800000000 25,320,517 222,605,607 2,220 s 222,607,827 676 721 1800 DMC lza 0.82b -mx9 -b7 -h7 26,396,613 222,808,457 285,766 x 223,094,223 449 9.7 2000 LZ77 48 brotli 18-Feb-2016 -q 11 -w 24 25,764,698 223,597,884 542,385 s 224,140,269 3400 5.9 437 LZ77 48 szip 1.12a -b41o16 26,120,472 227,586,463 31,708 x 227,618,171 1191 289 21 BWT 26 balz 1.13 ex 26,421,416 228,337,644 49,024 x 228,286,668 3700 190 206 ROLZ lzpm 0.11 9 26,501,542 229,083,971 46,824 x 229,130,795 15395 57 740 ROLZ qazar 0.0pre5 -l7 -d9 -x7 26,455,170 229,846,871 71,959 x 229,918,830 5738 903 105 LZP KuaiZip 2.3.2 x86 25,895,915 227,905,650 3,857,649 x 231,763,299 1061 47 197 LZ77 26 qc 0.050 -8 26,763,343 232,784,501 46,100 x 232,830,601 8218 1503 151 ppms J -o5 26,310,248 233,442,414 16,467 x 233,458,881 330 354 1.8 PPM dzo beta 26,616,115 235,056,859 618,883 x 235,675,742 1088 159 200 LZ77 26 comprox_ba 20110929 27,828,189 242,846,243 4,134 s 242,850,377 397 101 226 BWTS 48 WinTurtle 1.60 512 MB buffer 28,379,612 245,217,944 160,090 x 245,378,034 273 237 583 PPM diz 26,545,256 246,679,382 12,945 s 246,692,327 21240 22746 1350 PPM 26 cabarc 1.00.0601 -m lzx:21 28,465,607 250,756,595 51,917 xd 250,808,853 1619 15 20 LZ77 sr3 28,926,691 253,031,980 9,399 s 253,054,625 148 160 68 SR 26 bzip2 1.0.2 -9 29,008,736 253,977,839 30,036 x 254,007,875 379 129 8 BWT rh5_x64 -window:27 c6 29,078,552 254,220,469 36,744 x 254,257,213 196 9.4 145 ROLZ 48 RangeCoderC v1.7 c7 26 28,788,013 254,527,369 7,858 x 254,535,227 2460 2436 1116 CM 26 quad v1.11 -x 29,110,579 256,145,858 13,387 s 256,159,245 956 116 34 ROLZ WinACE -sfx -m5 -d4096 29,481,470 257,237,710 0 xd 257,237,710 1080 77 4 lzsr 0.01 29,433,834 258,912,605 40,287 x 258,952,892 194 88 6 LZ77 26 libzling 20160107 e4 29,721,114 259,475,639 35,582 s 259,511,221 83 27 28 ROLZ 48 xpv5 c2 29,963,217 262,525,246 14,371 x 262,539,617 2359 516 9 ROLZ 26 sr3c 1.0 29,731,019 266,035,006 7,701 x 266,042,707 160 145 5 SR 26 lzc v0.08 10 30,611,315 266,565,255 11,364 x 266,576,619 302 63 550 LZ77 nakamichi 2019-Jul-01 32,917,888 277,293,058 112,899 s 277,405,957 8200000 1.3 302000 LZSS 85 crush 1.00 cx 31,731,711 279,491,430 2,489 s 279,493,919 948 2.9 148 LZ77 60 xeloz 0.3.5.3 c889 32,441,272 283,621,211 18,771 s 283,639,982 1079 8 230 LZ77 48 bzp 0.2 31,563,865 283,908,295 36,808 x 283,945,103 110 120 3 LZP lzwg -27 34,423,369 284,356,322 19,828 xd 284,376,150 135 41 1744 LZW 95 ha 0.98 a2 31,250,524 285,739,328 28,404 x 285,767,732 2010 1800 0.8 PPM ulz 0.06 c9 32,945,292 291,028,084 49,450 x 291,077,534 325 1.1 490 LZ77 82 irolz 33,310,676 292,448,365 4,584 s 292,452,949 274 144 17 ROLZ 26 lcssr 0.2 -b7 -l9 34,549,048 296,160,661 8,802 x 296,169,463 8186 8281 1184 SR zlite 33,975,840 298,470,807 4,880 s 298,475,687 61 28 36 ROLZ 26 lazy 1.00 5 35,024,082 306,245,949 5,986 s 306,251,935 273 24 96 LZ77 26 zhuff 0.97 beta -c2 34,907,478 308,530,122 63,209 x 308,593,331 24 3.5 32 LZ77 48 lzhhf 34,848,933 308,825,079 24,576 xd 308,849,655 392 12 14 LZ77 95 slug 1.27 35,093,954 309,201,454 6,809 x 309,208,263 32 28 14 ROLZ ect 0.9.5 -9 -zip --mt-deflate 34,950,275 309,402,124 352,904 s 309,755,028 1340 2900 LZ77 103 lzuf62 34,960,889 309,837,920 24,576 xd 309,862,496 375 11 14 LZ77 95 pigz 2.3 -11 35,002,893 309,812,953 52,717 s 309,865,670 2237 13 25 LZ77 48 kzip May 13 2006 /b1024 35,016,649 310,188,783 29,184 xd 310,217,967 6063 62 121 LZ77 2 uc2 rev 3 pro -tst 35,384,822 312,767,652 123,031 x 312,890,683 360 63 4 LZ77 qbp 35,434,557 313,013,756 3,232 xd 313,013,756 44 30 1 LZSS 104 thor 0.95 e4 35,795,184 314,092,324 49,925 x 314,142,249 64 34 16 LZP etincelle a3 35,776,971 314,801,710 44,103 x 314,845,813 29 18 976 ROLZ 26 lz5 1.3.3 -18 36,514,408 319,510,433 138,210 s 319,648,643 10578 3.7 1139 LZ77 48 gzip124hack 1.2.4 -9 36,273,716 321,050,648 62,653 x 321,113,301 149 19 1 LZ77 doboz 0.1 36,367,430 322,415,409 83,591 x 322,499,000 533 3.4 1200 LZ77 48 gzip 1.3.5 -9 36,445,248 322,591,995 38,801 x 322,630,796 101 17 1.6 LZ77 Info-ZIP 2.3.1 -9 36,445,373 322,592,120 57,583 x 322,649,703 104 35 0.1 LZ77 pkzip 2.0.4 -ex 36,556,552 323,403,526 29,184 xd 323,432,710 171 50 2.5 LZ77 jar (Java) 0.98-gcc cvfM 36,520,144 323,747,582 19,054 x 323,766,636 118 95 1.2 LZ77 PeaZip better, no integrity check 36,580,548 323,884,274 561,079 x 324,445,353 243 243 8 LZ77 20 arj 3.10 -m1 37,091,317 328,553,982 143,956 x 328,697,938 262 67 3 LZ77 26 lzgt3a 37,444,440 334,405,713 4,387 xd 334,410,100 1581 2886 2 LZ77 pucrunch -d -c0 39,199,165 350,265,471 34,359 s 350,299,830 2649 463 2 LZ77 packARC v0.7RC11 -sfx -np 38,375,065 361,905,425 0 xd 361,905,425 1359 1486 23 CM urban 38,215,763 362,677,440 4,280 s 362,681,720 381 450 6 o2 48 lzop v1.01 -9 41,217,688 366,349,786 54,438 x 366,404,224 289 12 1.8 LZ77 lzw 0.2 41,960,994 367,633,910 671 s 367,634,581 3597 31 18 LZW MTCompressor v1.0 41,295,546 370,152,396 3,620 x 370,156,016 173 117 74 LZ77 26 lz4x 1.02 c4 41,950,112 372,068,437 48,609 x 372,117,046 79 1.4 114 LZ77 68 arbc2z 38,756,037 379,054,068 6,255 sd 379,060,323 2659 2674 68 PPM lz4 v1.2 -c2 42,870,164 379,999,522 49,128 x 380,048,650 91 6 20 LZ77 26 lzss 0.02 cx 42,874,387 380,192,378 48,114 x 380,240,492 107 2.3 145 LZSS 63 xdelta 3.0u -9 44,288,463 389,302,725 107,985 x 389,410,710 1021 30 47 LZ77 brieflz 1.1.0 43,300,800 390,122,722 14,907 s 390,137,629 21 7.5 3 LZ77 48 mtari 0.2 41,655,528 397,232,608 4,156 s 397,236,764 80 99 18 CM 26 lzf 1.02 cx 45,198,298 406,805,983 48,359 x 406,854,342 68 2.2 151 LZ77 68 srank 1.1 -C8 43,091,439 409,217,739 6,546 x 409,224,285 51 45 2 SR QuickLZ 1.30b (quick3) 46,378,438 410,633,262 44,202 x 410,677,464 48 12 3 LZ77 stz 0.7.2 -c2 47,192,312 416,524,596 41,941 x 416,566,537 14 13 3 LZ77 26 compress 4.3d 45,763,941 424,588,663 16,473 x 424,605,136 103 70 1.8 LZW lzrw3-a 48,009,194 438,253,704 4,750 x 438,258,454 38 17 2 LZ77 fcm1 45,402,225 447,305,681 1,116 s 447,306,797 228 261 1 CM1 runcoder1 46,883,939 458,125,932 5,488 s 458,131,420 140 156 4 o1 26 data-shrinker 23Mar2012 51,658,517 459,825,318 3,706 s 459,829,024 14 4 2 LZ77 26 lzwc_bitwise 0.7 46,639,414 463,884,550 4,183 x 463,888,733 123 134 71 LZW 26 exdupe 0.3.3 53,717,422 478,788,378 1,092,986 x 479,881,364 27 5 1000 LZ77 48 lzv 0.1.0 54,950,847 488,436,027 10,385 x 488,446,412 4 2.6 3 LZ77 48 FastLZ Jun 12 2007 54,658,924 493,066,558 7,065 xd 493,073,623 18 13 1 LZ77 sharc 0.9.11b -c2 53,175,042 494,421,068 81,001 s 494,502,069 15 14 6 LZP 26 flzp v1 57,366,279 497,535,428 3,942 s 497,539,370 78 38 8 LZP alba 0.5.1 cd 52,728,620 515,760,096 4,870 s 515,764,966 239 10 4 BPE 48 lzpgt6 56,113,248 522,877,083 27,136 x 522,904,219 6 5 6 LZP 95 snappy 1.0.1 58,350,605 527,772,054 23,844 s 527,795,898 25 12 0.1 LZ77 26 bpe 5000 4096 200 3 53,906,667 532,250,688 1,037 sd 532,251,725 639 28 0.5 Dict 26 kwc 54,097,740 532,622,518 15,186 x 532,637,704 438 145 668 Dict 26 bpe2 v3 55,289,197 542,748,980 2,979 s 542,751,959 518 132 0.5 Dict 26 fpaq0f2 56,916,872 558,645,708 3,066 x 558,648,769 222 207 0.4 o0 ghost 456 5 55,357,196 568,004,779 696 sd 568,005,475 172800 245 88000 Dict 100 ppp 61,657,971 579,352,307 1,472 s 579,353,779 80 59 1 SR ksc 4 59,511,259 580,557,413 13,507 x 580,570,920 40050 7917 1700 SR 48 lzbw1 0.8 67,620,436 590,235,688 21,751 x 590,257,439 15 12 55 LZP 26 lzp2 0.7c 67,909,076 598,076,882 40,819 x 598,117,701 11 8 15 LZP 26 NTFS LZNT1 76,955,648 636,870,656 0 636,870,656 10 9 0.1 LZ77 26 shindlet_fs 62,890,267 637,390,277 1,275 xd 637,391,552 113 103 0.6 o0 arb255 63,501,996 644,561,595 4,871 sd 644,566,466 2551 2574 1.6 o0 compact 63,862,371 648,370,029 3,600 sd 648,373,629 216 164 0.2 o0 TinyLZP 0.1 79,220,546 694,274,932 2,811 s 694,277,743 32 38 10 LZP 26 smile 71,154,788 695,562,502 207 xd 695,562,709 10517 10414 0.6 MTF 26 barf (2 passes) 76,074,327 758,482,743 983,782 s 759,466,525 756 53 4 LZ77 arb2x v20060602 99,642,909 995,674,993 3,433 sd 995,678,426 2616 2464 1.6 o0b Fails on enwik9 Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Alg Note ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----- ----- --- --- ---- hipp 5819 /o8 20,555,951 (fails) 36,724 x 5570 5670 719 CM ppmz2 23,557,867 (fails) 29,362 s 92210 88070 1497 PPM 26 XMill 0.8 -w -P -9 -m800 26,579,004 (fails) 114,764 xd 616 530 800 PPM lzp3o2 33,041,439 (fails) 23,427 xd 230 270 151 LZP Programs that properly decompress enwik9 and don't use external dictionaries are still eligible for the Hutter Prize. Testing not yet completed Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Alg Note ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----- ----- --- --- ---- rdmc 0.06b 33,181,612 1394 1381 DMC 6 ESP v1.92 36,651,292 223 LZ77 16 Pareto frontier: compressed size vs. compression time as of Aug. 18, 2008 from the main table (options for maximum compression). Pareto frontier: compressed size vs. memory as of Aug. 18, 2008 (options for maximum compression). Notes about compressors I only test the latest supported version of a program. I attempt to find the options that select the best compression, but will not generally do an exhausitve search. If an option advertises maximum compression or memory, I don't try the alternatives. If you know of a better combination, please let me know. I will select the maximum memory setting that does not cause disk thrashing, usually about 1800 MB. If the compressor is not downloadable as a zip file then I will compress the source or executable (whichever archive is smaller) plus any other needed files (dictionaries) into a single zip archive using 7zip 4.32 -tzip -mx=9. If no executable is available I will attempt to compile in C or C++ (MinGW 3.4.2, Borland 5.5 or Digital Mars), Java 1.5.0, MASM, NASM, or gas. 1. Reported by Guillermo Gabrielli, May 16, 2006. Timed on a Celeron D325 2.53Ghz Windows XP SP2 256MB RAM. 2. Decompression size and time for pkzip 2.0.4. kzip only compresses. 3. Reported by Ilia Muraviev (author of PX, TC, pimple), June 10-July 18, 2006. Timed on a P4 3.0 GHz, 1GB RAM, WinXP SP2. 4. enwik9 reported by Johan de Bock, May 19, 2006. Timed on Intel Pentium-4 2.8 GHz 512KB L2-cache, 1024MB DDR-SDRAM. 5. Compressed with paq8h (VC++ compile) and decompressed with paq-8h (Intel compile of same source code). Normally compression and decompression are the same speed. 6. ocamyd 1.65.final and LTCB 1.0 reported by Mauro Vezzosi, May 30-June 20, 2006. Timed on a 1.91 GHz AMD Athlon XP 2600+, 512 MB, WinXP Pro 2002 SP2 using timer 3.01. ocamyd 1.66.final reported Feb. 3, 2007. Times are process times. 7. Under development by Mauro Vezzosi, May 24, 2006. 8. Reported by Denis Kyznetsov (author of qazar), June 2, 2006. 9. Reported by sportman, May 24, 2006. Timed on a Intel Pentium D 830 dual core 3.0GHz, 2 x 512MB DDR2-SDRAM PC4300 533Mhz memory timing 4-4-4-12 (833.000KB free), Windows XP Home SP2. CPU was at 52% so apparently only one of 2 cores was used. Decompression verified on enwik8 only (not timed, about 2.5 hours). WinRK compression options: Model size 800MB, Audio model order: 255, Bit-stream model order: 27, Use text dictionary: Enabled, Fast analyses: Disabled, Fast executable code compression: Disabled 10. Reported by Malcolm Taylor (author of WinRK), May 24, 2006. Timed on an Athlon X2 4400+ with 2GB, running WinXP 64. Decompression not tested. decompresser size is based on SFX stub size reported by Artyom (A.A.Z.), Sept. 2, 2007, although it was not tested this way. 11. Reported by sportman, May 25, 2006. CPU as in note 9. 12. Reported by sportman, May 30, 2006. CPU as in 9 (50% utilized). 13. xwrt 3.2 options are -2 -b255 -m250 -s -f64. ppmonstr J options are -o10 -m1650. 14. Reported by Michael A Maniscalco, June 15, 2006. 15. Reported by Jeremiah Gilbert on the Hutter group, Aug. 18, 2006. Tested under Linux on a dual Xeon 1.6 GHz(lv) (overclocked to 2.13 GHz) with 2 GB memory. Time is user+sys (real=196500 B/ns). 16. Reported by Anthony Williams, Aug. 19-22. 2006. Timed on a 2.53 GHz Pentium 4 with 512 MB under WinXP Home SP2. 17. Tested Aug. 20, 2006 under Ubuntu Linux 2.6.15 on a 2.2 GHz Athlon-64 with 2 GB memory. Time is approximate wall time due to disk thrashing. User+sys time is 153600 ns/byte compress, 148650 decompress. 18. Reported by Dmitry Shkarin (author of durilca4linux), Aug. 22-23, 2006 for durilca4linux_1; and Oct. 16-18, 2006 for durilca4linux_2. 3 GB memory usage is RAM + swap. Tested on AMD Athlon X2 4400+, 2.22 GHz, 2 GB memory under SuSE Linux AMD64 v10.0. durilca4linux_3 reported Feb. 21, 2008 using 4 GB RAM + 1 GB swap. v2 reported Apr. 22, 2008. v3 reported May 22, 2008. 19. enwik8 confirmed by sportman, Sept. 20, 2006. Compression time 61480 ns/byte timed on a 2 x dual core (only one core active) Intel Woodcrest 2GHz with 1333MHz fsb and 4GB 667MHz CL5 memory under SiSoftware Sandra Lite 2007.SP1 (10.105). Drystone ALU 37,014 MIPS, Whetstone iSSE3 25,393 MFLOPS, Integer x8 iSSE4 220,008 it/s, Floating-point x4 iSSE2 119,227 it/s. 20. Reported by Giorgio Tani (author of PeaZip) on Nov. 10, 2006. Tested on a MacBook Pro, Intel T2500 Core Duo CPU (one core used), with 512 MB memory under WinXP SP2. Time is combined compression and decompression. 21. enwik9 -8 reported by sportman, Dec. 12-13, 2006. Hardware as note 19. enwik9 decompression not verified. paq8hp7 -8 enwik8 compression was reported as 16,417,650 (4 bytes longer; the size depends on the length of the input filename, which was enwik8.txt rather than enwik8). I verified enwik8 -7 and -8 decompression. 22. paq8hp8 -8 enwik9 reported by sportman, Jan. 18, 2007. paq8hp10 -8 enwik9 on Apr. 2, 2007. paq8hp11 -8 enwik9 on May 10, 2007. paq8hp12 -8 enwik8/9 on May 20, 2007. Hardware as in note 19. Decompression verified for enwik8 only. 23. 7zip 4.46a options were -m0=PPMd:mem=1630m:o=10 -sfx7xCon.sfx 24. paq8o8-intel (intel compile of paq8o8) -1, paq8o8z-jun7 (DOS port of paq8o8) -1 reported by Rugxulo on Jun 10, 2008. Timed on a AMD64x2 TK-53 Tyler 1.7 GHz laptop with Vista Home Premium SP1. 25. paq8o8z -1 enwik8 (DJGPP compile) reported by Rugxulo on Jun 17, 2008. Tested on a 2.52 Ghz P4 Northwood, no HTT, WinXP Home SP2. 26. Tested on a Gateway M-7301U laptop with 2.0 GHz dual core Pentium T3200 (1MB L2 cache), 3 GB RAM, Vista SP1, 32 bit. Run times are similar to my older computer. 27. enwik9 size reported by Eugene Shelwien, Mar. 5, 2009. enwik8 size and all speeds are tested as in note 26. 28. Reported by Eugene Shelwien on a Q6600, 3.3 GHz, WinXP SP3, ramdrive: bcm 0.06 on Mar. 15, 2009, bcm 0.08 on June 1, 2009. 29. Reported by kaitz (KZ): paq8p3 on Apr. 19, 2009, v2 on Apr. 21, 2009, paq8pxd on Jan. 21, 2012, v2 on Feb. 11, 2012, v3 on Feb. 23, 2012, v4 on Apr. 23, 2012. 2012 tests on a Core2Duo T8300 2.4 GHz, 2 GB. 30. Reported by Sami Runsas (author of bwmonstr), July 14, 2009. Tested on an Athlon XP 2200 (Win32). 31. Reported by Dmitry Shkarin, July 21, 2009, Nov. 12, 2009. Tested on a 3.8 GHz Q9650 with 16 GB memory under Windows XP 64bit Pro SP2. Requires msvcr90.dll. 32. Reported by Mike Russell, Sept. 11, 2009. Tested on an 2.93 GHz Intel Q6800 with 3.5 GB memory. 33. Reported by Con Kolivas (author of lrzip) on Nov. 27, 2009 (lrzip 0.40), Nov. 30, 2009 (lrzip 0.42), Mar. 17, 2012 (lrzip 0.612). Tested on a 3 GHz quad core Q9650, 8 GB, 64 bit debian linux. 34. Reported by sportman, Nov. 29, 2009 (durilca'kingsize), Nov. 30, 2009 (durilca'kingsize4), Apr. 8, 2010 (bsc 1.0.0). Test hardware: 2 x 2.4GHz (overclocked at 2.53 GHz) quad core Xeon Nahalem, 24GB DDR3 1066MHz, 8 x 2TB RAID5, Windows 2008 Server R2 64bit 35. Reported by zody on Dec. 12, 2009. Tested in Windows 7, x64, 3.6 GHz e8200, 4 GB 1066 MHz RAM. 36. Reported by Ilia Muraviev on Dec. 16, 2009. Tested on a 2.40 GHz Core 2 Duo, DDR2-800 4GB RAM, Windows7 x64. 37. Reported by Sami Runsas, Mar. 3, 2010. Tested under Win64 on a Q6600 at 3.0 GHz. 38. Reported by Ilya Grebnov, Apr. 7, 2010. Tested on an Intel Core 2 Duo E8500, 8 GB memory, Windows 7. 39. Reported by Ilya Grebnov, Apr. 8, 2010. Tested on an Intel Core 2 Quad Q9400, 8 GB memory, Windows 7. bsc 2.00 on May 3, 2010. bsc 2.2.0 on June 15, 2010. 40. Reported by Sami Runsas, May 10, 2010. Tested on an overclocked Intel Core i7 860. nanozip 0.08a tested June 6, 2010. nanozip 0.09a on Nov. 5, 2011. 41. lpaq9m reported by Alexander Rhatushnyak on June 9, 2010. Tested on an Intel Core i7 CPU 930 (8 core), 2.8 GHz, 2.99 GB RAM. paq8hp12any tested June 28, 2010. 42. Reported by Michal Hajicek, June 4, 2010 on an AMD Phenom II 965, 64 bit Windows. WinRK, ppmonstr on June 14. 43. Reported by Ilia Muraviev, June 26, 2010. Tested on a Core 2 Quad Q9300, 2.50 GHz, 4 GB DDR2, Windows 7. 44. Timed on a Dell Latitude E6510 laptop Core I7 M620, 2.66 GHz, 4 GB, Windows 7 32-bit. 45. Reported by Richard Geldreich (lzham author) on Aug. 30, 2010. Tested on a 2.6 GHz Core i7 (quad core + HT), 6 GB, Win7 x64. 46. Reported by Stefan Gedo (ST author) on Oct. 14, 2010. Tested on Athlon II X4 635 2.9 GHz, 4 GB memory, Windows 7. 47. Reported by David A. Scott on Dec. 15, 2010. Tested on a I3-370 with 6 GB DDR3 1033 MHz memory. 48. Timed on a Dell Latitude E6510 laptop Core I7 M620, 2.66 GHz, 4 GB, Ubuntu Linux 64-bit. 49. Tested by the author on a Q9450, 3.52 GHz = 440x8, ramdrive. 50. Tested by the author on an Intel Core i7-2600, 3.4 GHz, Kingston 8 GB DDR3, WD VeloicRaptor 10000 RPM 600 GB SATA3, Windows 7 Ultimate SP1. 51. Tested by Bulat Ziganshin on i7-2600, 4.6 GHz with 1600 MHz RAM (8-8-8-21-1T) and NVIDEA GeForce 560Ti at 900/2000 MHz. 52. Tested by Michael Maniscalco on an 8 core Intel Xeon E5620, 2.40 GHz, 12 GB memory running Windows 7 Enterprise SP1, 64 bit. 53. Tested by the author on a Core i7-2600K @ 4.6GHz, 8GB DDR3 @ 1866MHz, 240GB Corsair Force GT SSD. 54. Tested by Piotr Tarsa on a Core 2 Duo E8400, 8 GiB RAM, Ubuntu 11.10 64-bit, OpenJDK 7. 55. Tested by David Catt on a 64 bit Windows 7 laptop, 2.33 GHz, 4 GB, 4 cores. 56. Reported by the author on a Athlon II X4 635 2.9 GHz, 4GB, Windows 8 Enterprise. 57. Reported by the author on a x86_64 Athlon 64 X2 5200+ with 8 GiB of RAM running GNU/Linux 2.6.38.6-libre. 58. Reported by the author on a 4 GHz i7-930 from ramdrive. 59. Reported by the author on a I7-2600, 4.6 GHz, 16 GB RAM, Ubuntu 13.04. 60. Tested by Ilia Muravyov on an Intel Core i7-3770K, 4.8 GHz, 16 GB Corsair Vengeance LP 1800 MHz CL9, Corsair Force GS 240 GB SSD, Windows 7 SP1. 61. Tested by Matt Mahoney on a dual Xeon E-2620, 2.0 GHz, 12+12 hyperthreads, 64 GB RAM (20 GB usable), Fedora Linux. 62. Tested by Valéry Croizier on a 2.5 GHz Core i5-2520M, 4 GB memory, Windows 7 64 bit. 63. Tested by Ilia Muravyov on an Intel i7-3770, 4.7 GHz, Corsair Vengenance LP 1600 MHz CL9 16 GB RAM, Samsung 840 Pro 512 GB SSD, Windows 7 SP1. 64. Tested by Kennon Conrad on a 3.2 GHz AMD A8-5500. 65. Tested by sportman on an Intel Core i7 4960X 3.6GHz OC at 4.5GHz - 6 core (12 threads) 22nm Ivy Bridge-E, Kingston 8 x 4GB (32GB) DDR3 2400MHz 11-14-14 under clocked at 2000MHz 10-11-11. Windows 8.1 Pro 64-bit, SoftPerfect RAM Disk 3.4.5 64-bit. 66. Tested by Byron Knoll on a Intel Core i7-3770, 31.4 GB memory, Linux Mint 14. 67. Tested by Kennon Conrad on a 4.0 GHz i4790K, 16 GB at 1866 MHz, 128 GB SSD Windows 8.1. 68. Tested by Ilia Muraviev on an Intel Core i7-3770K @ 4.8GHz, 8GB 2133 MHz CL11 DDR3, 512GB Samsung 840 Pro SSD, Windows 7 Ultimate SP1. 69. Tested by Nania Francesco Antonio on a Intel Core i7 920 2.67 ghz 6GB ram. 70. Tested by Richard Geldreich on a Core i7 Gulftown 3.3 Ghz, Win64. 71. Tested by Christoph Diegelmann on a Core i7-4770K, 8 GB DDR3, Samsung 840Pro 128 GB, Fedora 21 64 bit, gcc 4.9.2. 72. Tested by Skymmer on a i7-2770K, WinXP x64 SP2. 73. Tested by Andreas M. Nilsson on a 1.7 GHz Intel Core i7, 8 GB 1600 MHz DDR3, Mac OS X 10.10.3 (14D136). 74. Tested by Michael Crogan on a Core i7-3930K, 3.20 GHz, 6+HT, 64 MB, Linux64. 75. Tested by Mauro Vezzosi on a Core i7-4710HQ 2.50-3.50 GHz, 8 GB DDR3, Windows 8.1 64 bit. 76. Tested by Yann Collet on Core i7-3930K, 4.5 GHz, Linux 64, gcc 5.2.0-5.3.1. 77. Tested by Darek on a Core i7 4900 MQ, 2.8 GHz overclocked to 3.7 GHz, 16 GB, Win7Pro 64. 78. Tested by mpais on a Core i7 5820K 4.4 GHz, Windows 10. 79. Tested by Sportman on2 x Intel Xeon E5-2643 v3 6 cores (12 threads) 3.4GHz, 3.7GHz turbo, 20MB L3 cache, 8 x 32GB DDR4 2133MHz CAS 15, SoftPefect RAM Disk 3.4.7, Windows Server 2012 R2 64-bit. 80. Tested by kaitz on an Intel Celeron G1820 DDR3 8GB PC3-12800 (800 MHz). 81. Tested by Darek on Core i7 4900MQ 2.8GHz ovwerclocked to 3.8GHz, 32GB, Win7Pro 64. 82. Tested by Ilia Muraviev on an Intel Core i7-4790K @ 4.6GHz, 32GB @ 1866MHz DDR3 RAM, RAMDisk. 83. Tested by Byron Knoll on an Intel Core i7-7700K, 32 GB DDR4, Ubuntu 16.04-18.04. 84. Tested by Fabrice Bellard on 2 x Xeon E5-2640 v3 @ 2.6 GHz, 196 GB RAM, Linux. 85. Tested by Georgi Marinov on a Windows 10 Laptop: Lenovo Ideapad 310; i5-7200u @2.5GHz; 8GB DDR4 @1066MHz (2133MHz) CL15 CR2T; L2 cache: 2x256KB; L3 cache: 3MB; SSD: Crucial MX500 500GB 86. Tested by Byron Knoll on an Intel Xeon 2.30 GHz, 13 GB, Tesla P100 GPU. 87. Tested by Byron Knoll on an Intel Xeon 2.00 GHz, 13 GB, Tesla V100 GPU. 88. Tested by Fabrice Bellard on an Intel Xeon E3-1230 v6, 3.5 GHz, RTX 3090 GPU. 89. Tested by Matt Mahoney on a Lenovo Intel i7-1165G7 (4 core, 8 thread) 2.80 GHz, 16 GB, Windows 10/Ubuntu 20.04. 90. Tested by Artemiy Margaritov on an Intel Xeon Silver 4114, 2.20 GHz, Ubuntu 18. 91. Tested by Zoltán Gotthardt on an Intel Core i7-8700K @ 3.70GHz, HyperX Fury 32GB 2666MHz DDR4 CL16 (2x16GB kit), Windows 10 Pro 64 bit. The system was not completely idle during the tests. 92. Tested by Darek on a DELL Precision 7730, Intel Core i9-8950HK, 32GB RAM (2400MHz), Windows 10 Pro for Workstations (21H2). The system was not completely idle during the tests. 93. Tested by Sportman on an Intel Core i9 12900KS 16 cores (8 efficient cores disabled, hyper-threading disabled) 3,4GHz, 5.5GHz turbo, 30MB L3 cache, 14MB L2 cache, 2 x 16GB DDR5 6400MHz (PC5-51200) timings 32-39-39-102, Windows 10 Pro 64-bit. 94. Tested by Byron Knoll on an Intel Xeon 2.2 GHz, 83 GB, A100 GPU. 95. Tested by Gerald R. Tamayo on a Dell Inspiron 3881 Intel Core i3-10100 16GB RAM @ 3.60GHz (Windows 10). 96. Tested by Ilya Grebnov on an Intel 9700K CPU (5GHz all cores) with 2x8 GB DDR4 RAM (4133 MHz with 17-17-17-37-400-2T timings) running Microsoft Windows 10 Pro (64 Bit). 97. Tested by Matt Mahoney on a Lenovo Core i7-1165G7 2.80 GHz 16 GB, SSD, Windows 11 or Ubuntu. 98. Tested by Ilia Muraviev on an Intel Core i7-12700K (stock), 32 GB DDR5 5200 MHJz, 1 TB M.2 NVMe SSD. 99. Tested by James Bowery on an AMD Ryzon 7-3700x, 3.6 GHz, 8 cores, 16 threads, 64 GB. 100. Tested by Andrea Barbato on a AMD Ryzen 9 5950X 3.4 GHz 32core processor Patriot Viper Steel RAM DDR4 3600 Mhz 32GB (4x32GB) 101. Tested by James Bowery on Amazon AWS with --machine-type=c2-standard-4 (Geekbench 5 score 790). 102. Tested by kaitz on a Intel Core i5-4460, 3.20 GHz, 32 GB (4x8 GB) PC3-12800 (800 MHz) RAM, Windows. 103. Tested by HyperSoop on an AMD FX 4300 CPU with 6 (4+2) GB of DDR3 RAM, zram + zswap configured. OS is Arch Linux with kernel 6.15.0-rc3 104. Tested by Alexey Simbarsky on an Intel Core i7 9700K / 64 GB RAM / Windows 10 Pro. I have not verified results submitted by others. Timing information, when available, may vary widely depending on the test machine used. About the Compressors The numbers in the headings are the compression ratios on enwik9. .1072 nncp nncp is a free, experimental file compressor by Fabrice Bellard, released May 8, 2019. It uses a neural network model with dictionary preprocessing described in the paper Lossless Data Compression with Neural Networks . Compression of enwik9 uses the options: ./preprocess c out.words enwik9 out.pre 16384 512 ./nncp -n_layer 7 -hidden_size 384 -n_embed_out 5 -n_symb 16388 -full_connect 1 -lr 6e-3 c out.pre out.bin Version 2019-11-16 was released Nov. 16, 2019. It was run in 8 threads. Version 2 was released Jan. 3, 2021. It uses a transformer architecture, a recurrent neural network with attention mechanism to allow parallelism. The algorithm is described briefly here . It uses the same dictionary preprocessing as earlier versions. It was tested with an Intel Xeon E3-1230 v6 at 3.5 GHz and a Geforce RTX 3090 GPU with 10,496 Cuda cores and 24 GB RAM. nncp v2.1 was released Feb. 6, 2021. It is the same code as v2 except for a larger model and slightly different hyperparameters. nncp v3 was released Apr. 24, 2021. This new version is coded in C and supports recent NVIDIA GPUs. It is much faster (3x) due to algorithmic improvements and requires less memory. The Transformer model is similar (199M parameters) but the hyperparameters have been tuned. nncp v3.1 was released June 1, 2021. nncp v3.2 was released Oct. 23, 2023. Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Alg Notes ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ------ ------ ----- --- ----- nncp 2019-05-08 16,791,077 125,623,896 161,133 xd 125,785,029 420168 602409 2040 LSTM 84 nncp 2019-11-16 16,292,774 119,167,224 238,452 xd 119,405,676 826048 1156467 5360 LSTM 84 nncp v2 15,600,675 114,317,255 99,671 xd 114,317,255 308645 313468 17000 Transformer 88 nncp v2.1 15,020,691 112,219,309 100,046 xd 112,319,355 508332 515401 23000 Transformer 88 nncp v3 15,206,966 110,034,293 197,491 xd 110,231,784 161812 158982 6000 Transformer 88 nncp v3.1 14,969,569 108,378,032 201,620 xd 108,579,652 212766 210970 6000 Transformer 88 nncp v3.2 14,915,298 106,632,363 628,955 xd 107,261,318 241871 238670 7600 Transformer 88 .1082 cmix cmix v1 is a free, open source (GPL) file compressor by Byron Knoll, Apr. 16, 2014. It is a context mixing compressor with dictionary preprocessing based on code from paq8hp12any and paq8l but increasing the number of context models and mixer layers. It takes no compression options. cmix v2 was released May 29, 2014. cmix v3 was released June 27, 2014. cmix v4 was released July 22, 2014. It uses 28,976,428 KiB memory (29.7 GB). cmix v5 was released Aug. 13, 2014. The decompressor size is a zip archive containing the source code, makefile, and a dictionary compressed with cmix from 465211 to 90065 bytes. cmix v6 was released Sept. 3, 2014. The decompressor size includes the dictionary compressed with cmix from 465211 to 90207 bytes. cmix v7 was released Feb. 4, 2015. cmix v8 was released Nov. 10, 2015. cmix v9 was released Apr. 8, 2016. cmix v10 was released June 17, 2016. cmix v11 was released July 3, 2016. It incorporates a modification originally developed by Eugene Shelwien in which PPMd is included as a model. cmix v12 was released Nov. 7, 2016. It includes a LSTM model. cmix v13 was released Apr. 24, 2017. cmix v14 was released Nov. 22, 2017. cmix v15 was released May 19, 2018. cmix v16 was released Oct 6, 2018. cmix v17 was released Mar. 24, 2019. cmix v18 was released Aug. 2, 2019. cmix v19 was released Aug. 29, 2021. It has improvements based on the startlit (article reordering) and cmix-hp Hutter prize entries. It has a separate decompressor. cmix v20 was released Nov. 5, 2023. cmix v21 was released Sept. 17, 2024. Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Notes ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ------ ------ ----- ----- cmix v1 16,076,381 128,647,538 279,185 x 128,926,723 181924 179706 20785 66 cmix v2 15,863,623 126,323,656 310,068 x 126,633,724 580083 577626 28152 66 cmix v3 15,809,519 125,971,560 274,992 x 126,246,552 267978 266622 26681 66 cmix v4 15,784,946 125,621,620 278,375 x 125,899,995 284243 282390 28976 66 cmix v5 15,769,367 125,526,628 163,552 s 125,690,180 282056 282647 28865 66 cmix v6 15,738,922 124,172,611 161,908 s 124,334,519 280749 282137 30882 66 cmix v7 15,738,825 124,168,463 166,785 s 124,335,248 280416 280904 30600 66 cmix v8 15,709,216 123,930,173 164,882 s 124,095,055 344244 346641 30311 66 cmix v9 15,627,536 123,874,398 161,911 s 124,036,309 346436 345681 26929 66 cmix v10 15,587,868 123,257,156 164,263 s 123,421,419 355721 355850 29924 66 cmix v11 15,566,358 122,977,954 172,261 s 123,150,215 377529 374440 27745 66 cmix v12 15,440,186 121,718,424 175,953 s 121,894,377 571339 574522 27865 66 cmix v13 15,323,969 120,480,684 177,979 s 120,658,664 617346 615987 27803 66 cmix v14 15,210,458 119,017,492 203,717 s 119,221,209 631838 627802 28287 83 cmix v15 15,111,677 117,959,016 217,830 s 118,176,846 650055 651716 28365 83 cmix v16 14,955,482 116,912,035 226,121 s 117,138,156 613898 658679 27708 83 cmix v17 14,877,373 116,394,271 208,263 s 116,602,534 641189 645651 25258 83 cmix v18 14,838,332 115,714,367 208,961 s 115,923,328 602867 601569 25738 83 cmix v19 14,837,987 111,470,932 223,485 sd 111,694,417 605110 601825 25528 83 cmix v20 14,760,552 109,877,715 241,725 sd 110,119,440 621780 619024 31650 83 cmix v21 -t 14,623,723 107,963,380 281,387 sd 108,244,767 622949 638442 30950 83 .1103 fx2-cmix fx-cmix (discussion) (self extracting enwik9) is an open source Hutter prize submission by Kaitz, Dec. 4, 2023. It is an optimization of the previous submissions cmix-hp, fast-cmix, and starlit. I only tested the supplied Linux self extracting archive. The extraction time of 60 hours was at 74% CPU (one thread) due to SSD disk thrashing on the second day. User time was 152496 s and system time was 9425 s (45 hours total). fx2-cmix ( discussion ) is an update to fx-cmix and a Hutter Prize winner by Byron Knoll and Kaido Orav (Kaitz), submitted Aug. 11, 2024 and accepted Oct. 8, 2024. Changes from fx-cmix are described in the readme file. Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Alg Notes ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ------ ------ ----- --- ----- fx-cmix 112,142,259 0 xd 112,142,259 216836 8869 CM 97 fx2-cmix 110,351,665 0 xd 110,351,665 272072 8811 CM 97 110,351,665 0 xd 110,351,665 289079 9522 CM 101 .1135 tensorflow-compress tensorflow-compress v1 is a free, open source experimental file compressor by Byron Knoll, July 20, 2020. It uses a LSTM neural network accelerated by a GPU if available. It uses a dictionary and preprocessor from NNCP by default, or from cmix. The test results for v1 use the default settings and were tested by the author on an Intel Xeon 2.30 GHz, 13 GB RAM with a Tesla P100 GPU. It uses 10138 MiB CPU RAM and 15525 MiB GPU RAM. It is run as a Colab notebook. v2 was released Sept. 7, 2020. It runs on a V100 GPU using 2669 MB CPU RAM and 15621 MB GPU RAM. The decompressor contains a cohab notebook, NNCP preprocessor source code and makefile, and a dictionary created by the NNCP preprocessor. v3 was released Nov. 29, 2020. It uses 3252 MiB of CPU RAM on a 2.00 GHz Xeon and 15621 MiB of GPU RAM on a Tesla V100. v4 was released Aug. 10, 2022. It uses 5696 MiB of CPU RAM and 39664 GPU RAM on an Intel Xeon 2.2 GHz, 83 GB RAM, A100 GPU. Program enwik8 enwik9 Prog Total Comp Deco Mem Note --------- ---------- ----------- -------- --------- ---- ---- ---- ---- tensorflow-compress v1 20,119,747 159,716,240 88,870sd 159,805,110 72260 82259 25663 86 tensorflow-compress v2 16,828,585 127,146,379 175,047sd 127,321,426 157196 142820 18290 87 tensorflow-compress v3 16,128,954 118,938,744 54,597sd 118,993,341 300104 300408 18873 87 tensorflow-compress v4 15,905,037 113,542,413 55,283sd 113,597,696 291394 290803 45360 94 .1137 cmix-hp cmix-hp (mirror) is a Hutter prize submission by Byron Knoll, June 10, 2021. It is a simple modification to startlit (May 31 2021 submission) to enlarge the PPMD model and map it to 21.4 GB virtual memory. to meet the Hutter prize requirement of using at most 10 GB RAM and 100 GB disk. It uses 94% CPU on the SSD swapping 45 GB. cmix-hp v2 was released Aug. 1, 2021. cmix-hp v3 was released Aug. 9, 2021. Compression Compressed size Decompresser Total size Time (ns/byte) Program Options enwik8 enwik9 size (zip) enwik9+prog Comp Decomp Mem Alg Notes ------- ------- ---------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ------ ------ ----- --- ----- cmix-hp v1 15,957,339 113,712,798 0 xd 113,712,798 189420 194280 6873 CM 89 cmix-hp v2 15,221,487 113,816,319 0 xd 113,816,319 198900 6720 CM 89 cmix-hp v3 113,788,598 0 xd 113,788,598 188460 188040 6693 CM 89 .1137 fast-cmix fast-cmix-hp (source code) (Linux self extracting archive) is a free, open source Hutter prize entry by Saurabh Kumar, Apr. 20, 2023. It is a speed optimization of cmix-hp and starlit. It is a self extracting archive (archive9) for 64 bit Linux, size 113,746,218 bytes, that creates enwik9. Compression was not tested. Extraction time was 190,507 s at 88% CPU on a Lenovo 82HT Core i7-1165G7, 2.80 GHz, 4 cores, 8 threads, 16 GB under Ubuntu in Windows 11/WSL. Extraction time was 121,971 s at 99% CPU on an AMD Ryzon 7-3700x, 3.6 GHZ, 8 cores, 16 threads, 64 GB. In both cases, it runs in 1 thread. .1149 starlit starlit is a Hutter prize submission by Artemiy Margaritov on May 10, 2021, updated May 31, 2021. It is a free, open source, Linux compressor that produces a self extracting archive for enwik9 as a special case. It satisfies the Hutter prize rules of using less than 10 GiB of memory (the figure shown is in 1000 KiB), and 20 GB of disk space and compressing and decompressing in less than 50,000/(geekbench 5 score) hours each. I tested on a Lenovo Intel Core i7-1165G7, 2.80 GHz, 16 GB (geekbench 5 = 1427 single thread, 4667 multithreaded) in an Ubuntu 20.04 shell window under Windows 10 with the screen/sleep saver and WiFi turned off for 2 days each to compress and decompress. starlit compresses by first reordering the articles in enwik9 to maximize mutual information between consecutive articles, then uses the dictionary preprocessor from phda9 and compresses using a reduced version of cmix to decrease memory usage from 32 GB to 10 GB and increase speed. The compressor is built from the supplied bash scripts by compiling with clang++-12 in Linux with different parts optimized for size or speed. Then the dictionary and article order list (both text files) are compressed with the newly created cmix and appended to the executable. The size is 124,984 bytes before appending and 401,505 bytes afterward. (A precompiled cmix is supplied optimized for an AMD Zen 2 with size 114,012 bytes before appending, which I did not use). The new executable then compresses enwik9 by extracting the compressed article order and dictionary and an additional 17 GB of temporary files to produce an executable file named archive9. To decompress, archive9 is run, which extracts the dictionary, article order list, and 17 GB of temporary files, and 2 days later, the output as a file named enwik9_uncompressed. No other files are required to d | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/ | PEP 1 – PEP Purpose and Guidelines | peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEP 1 Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEP 1 – PEP Purpose and Guidelines Author : Barry Warsaw, Jeremy Hylton, David Goodger, Alyssa Coghlan Status : Active Type : Process Created : 13-Jun-2000 Post-History : 21-Mar-2001, 29-Jul-2002, 03-May-2003, 05-May-2012, 07-Apr-2013 Table of Contents What is a PEP? PEP Audience PEP Types PEP Workflow Python’s Steering Council Python’s Core Developers Python’s BDFL PEP Editors Start with an idea for Python Submitting a PEP Discussing a PEP PEP Review & Resolution PEP Maintenance What belongs in a successful PEP? PEP Formats and Templates PEP Header Preamble Auxiliary Files Changing Existing PEPs Transferring PEP Ownership PEP Editor Responsibilities & Workflow Copyright What is a PEP? PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python or its processes or environment. The PEP should provide a concise technical specification of the feature and a rationale for the feature. We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions. Because the PEPs are maintained as text files in a versioned repository, their revision history is the historical record of the feature proposal. This historical record is available by the normal git commands for retrieving older revisions, and can also be browsed on GitHub . PEP Audience The typical primary audience for PEPs are the core developers of the CPython reference interpreter and their elected Steering Council, as well as developers of other implementations of the Python language specification. However, other parts of the Python community may also choose to use the process (particularly for Informational PEPs) to document expected API conventions and to manage complex design coordination problems that require collaboration across multiple projects. PEP Types There are three kinds of PEP: A Standards Track PEP describes a new feature or implementation for Python. It may also describe an interoperability standard that will be supported outside the standard library for current Python versions before a subsequent PEP adds standard library support in a future version. An Informational PEP describes a Python design issue, or provides general guidelines or information to the Python community, but does not propose a new feature. Informational PEPs do not necessarily represent a Python community consensus or recommendation, so users and implementers are free to ignore Informational PEPs or follow their advice. A Process PEP describes a process surrounding Python, or proposes a change to (or an event in) a process. Process PEPs are like Standards Track PEPs but apply to areas other than the Python language itself. They may propose an implementation, but not to Python’s codebase; they often require community consensus; unlike Informational PEPs, they are more than recommendations, and users are typically not free to ignore them. Examples include procedures, guidelines, changes to the decision-making process, and changes to the tools or environment used in Python development. Any meta-PEP is also considered a Process PEP. PEP Workflow Python’s Steering Council There are several references in this PEP to the “Steering Council” or “Council”. This refers to the current members of the elected Steering Council described in PEP 13 , in their role as the final authorities on whether or not PEPs will be accepted or rejected. Python’s Core Developers There are several references in this PEP to “core developers”. This refers to the currently active Python core team members described in PEP 13 . Python’s BDFL Previous versions of this PEP used the title “BDFL-Delegate” for PEP decision makers. This was a historical reference to Python’s previous governance model, where all design authority ultimately derived from Guido van Rossum, the original creator of the Python programming language. By contrast, the Steering Council’s design authority derives from their election by the currently active core developers. Now, PEP-Delegate is used in place of BDFL-Delegate. PEP Editors The PEP editors are individuals responsible for managing the administrative and editorial aspects of the PEP workflow (e.g. assigning PEP numbers and changing their status). See PEP Editor Responsibilities & Workflow for details. PEP editorship is by invitation of the current editors, and they can be contacted by mentioning @python/pep-editors on GitHub. All of the PEP workflow can be conducted via the GitHub PEP repository issues and pull requests. Start with an idea for Python The PEP process begins with a new idea for Python. It is highly recommended that a single PEP contain a single key proposal or new idea; the more focused the PEP, the more successful it tends to be. Most enhancements and bug fixes don’t need a PEP and can be submitted directly to the Python issue tracker . The PEP editors reserve the right to reject PEP proposals if they appear too unfocused or too broad. If in doubt, split your PEP into several well-focused ones. Each PEP must have a champion – someone who writes the PEP using the style and format described below, shepherds the discussions in the appropriate forums, and attempts to build community consensus around the idea. The PEP champion (a.k.a. Author) should first attempt to ascertain whether the idea is PEP-able. Posting to the Ideas category of the Python Discourse is usually the best way to go about this, unless a more specialized venue is appropriate, such as the Typing category (for static typing ideas) or Packaging category (for packaging ideas) on the Python Discourse. Vetting an idea publicly before going as far as writing a PEP is meant to save the potential author time. Many ideas have been brought forward for changing Python that have been rejected for various reasons. Asking the Python community first if an idea is original helps prevent too much time being spent on something that is guaranteed to be rejected based on prior discussions (searching the internet does not always do the trick). It also helps to make sure the idea is applicable to the entire community and not just the author. Just because an idea sounds good to the author does not mean it will work for most people in most areas where Python is used. Once the champion has asked the Python community as to whether an idea has any chance of acceptance, a draft PEP should be presented to the appropriate venue mentioned above. This gives the author a chance to flesh out the draft PEP to make properly formatted, of high quality, and to address initial concerns about the proposal. Submitting a PEP Following the above initial discussion, the workflow varies based on whether any of the PEP’s co-authors are core developers. If one or more of the PEP’s co-authors are core developers, they are responsible for following the process outlined below. Otherwise (i.e. none of the co-authors are core developers), then the PEP author(s) will need to find a sponsor for the PEP. Ideally, a core developer sponsor is identified, but non-core sponsors may also be selected with the approval of the Steering Council. Members of the GitHub “PEP editors” team and members of the Typing Council ( PEP 729 ) are pre-approved to be sponsors. The sponsor’s job is to provide guidance to the PEP author to help them through the logistics of the PEP process (somewhat acting like a mentor). Being a sponsor does not disqualify that person from becoming a co-author or PEP-Delegate later on (but not both). The sponsor of a PEP is recorded in the “Sponsor:” field of the header. Once the sponsor or the core developer(s) co-authoring the PEP deem the PEP ready for submission, the proposal should be submitted as a draft PEP via a GitHub pull request . The draft must be written in PEP style as described below, else it will fail review immediately (although minor errors may be corrected by the editors). The standard PEP workflow is: You, the PEP author, fork the PEP repository , and create a file named pep- NNNN .rst that contains your new PEP. NNNN should be the next available PEP number not used by a published or in-PR PEP. In the “PEP:” header field, enter the PEP number that matches your filename as your draft PEP number. In the “Type:” header field, enter “Standards Track”, “Informational”, or “Process” as appropriate, and for the “Status:” field enter “Draft”. For full details, see PEP Header Preamble . Update .github/CODEOWNERS such that any co-author(s) or sponsors with write access to the PEP repository are listed for your new file. This ensures any future pull requests changing the file will be assigned to them. Push this to your GitHub fork and submit a pull request. The PEP editors review your PR for structure, formatting, and other errors. For a reST-formatted PEP, PEP 12 is provided as a template. It also provides a complete introduction to reST markup that is used in PEPs. Approval criteria are: It is sound and complete. The ideas must make technical sense. The editors do not consider whether they seem likely to be accepted. The title accurately describes the content. The PEP’s language (spelling, grammar, sentence structure, etc.) and code style (examples should match PEP 7 & PEP 8 ) should be correct and conformant. The PEP text will be automatically checked for correct reStructuredText formatting when the pull request is submitted. PEPs with invalid reST markup will not be approved. Editors are generally quite lenient about this initial review, expecting that problems will be corrected by the reviewing process. Note: Approval of the PEP is no guarantee that there are no embarrassing mistakes! Correctness is the responsibility of authors and reviewers, not the editors. If the PEP isn’t ready for approval, an editor will send it back to the author for revision, with specific instructions. Once approved, they will assign your PEP a number. Once the review process is complete, and the PEP editors approve it (note that this is not the same as accepting your PEP!), they will squash commit your pull request onto main. The PEP editors will not unreasonably deny publication of a PEP. Reasons for denying PEP status include duplication of effort, being technically unsound, not providing proper motivation or addressing backwards compatibility, or not in keeping with the Python philosophy. The Steering Council can be consulted during the approval phase, and are the final arbiter of a draft’s PEP-ability. Developers with write access to the PEP repository may claim PEP numbers directly by creating and committing a new PEP. When doing so, the developer must handle the tasks that would normally be taken care of by the PEP editors (see PEP Editor Responsibilities & Workflow ). This includes ensuring the initial version meets the expected standards for submitting a PEP. Alternately, even developers should submit PEPs via pull request. When doing so, you are generally expected to handle the process yourself; if you need assistance from PEP editors, mention @python/pep-editors on GitHub. As updates are necessary, the PEP author can check in new versions if they (or a collaborating developer) have write access to the PEP repository . Getting a PEP number assigned early can be useful for ease of reference, especially when multiple draft PEPs are being considered at the same time. Standards Track PEPs consist of two parts, a design document and a reference implementation. It is generally recommended that at least a prototype implementation be co-developed with the PEP, as ideas that sound good in principle sometimes turn out to be impractical when subjected to the test of implementation. Discussing a PEP As soon as a PEP number has been assigned and the draft PEP is committed to the PEP repository , a discussion thread for the PEP should be created to provide a central place to discuss and review its contents, and the PEP should be updated so that the Discussions-To header links to it. The PEP authors (or sponsor, if applicable) may select any reasonable venue for the discussion, so long as the the following criteria are met: The forum is appropriate to the PEP’s topic. The thread is publicly available on the web so that all interested parties can participate. The discussion is subject to the Python Community Code of Conduct . A direct link to the current discussion thread is provided in the PEP under the Discussions-To header. The PEPs category of the Python Discourse is the preferred choice for most new PEPs, whereas historically the Python-Dev mailing list was commonly used. Some specialized topics have specific venues, such as the Typing category and the Packaging category on the Python Discourse for typing and packaging PEPs, respectively. If the PEP authors are unsure of the best venue, the PEP Sponsor and PEP editors can advise them accordingly. If a PEP undergoes a significant re-write or other major, substantive changes to its proposed specification, a new thread should typically be created in the chosen venue to solicit additional feedback. If this occurs, the Discussions-To link must be updated and a new Post-History entry added pointing to this new thread. If it is not chosen as the discussion venue, a brief announcement post should be made to the PEPs category with at least a link to the rendered PEP and the Discussions-To thread when the draft PEP is committed to the repository and if a major-enough change is made to trigger a new thread. PEP authors are responsible for collecting community feedback on a PEP before submitting it for review. However, to avoid long-winded and open-ended discussions, strategies such as soliciting private or more narrowly-tailored feedback in the early design phase, collaborating with other community members with expertise in the PEP’s subject matter, and picking an appropriately-specialized discussion for the PEP’s topic (if applicable) should be considered. PEP authors should use their discretion here. Once the PEP is assigned a number and committed to the PEP repository, substantive issues should generally be discussed on the canonical public thread, as opposed to private channels, GitHub pull request reviews or unrelated venues. This ensures everyone can follow and contribute, avoids fragmenting the discussion, and makes sure it is fully considered as part of the PEP review process. Comments, support, concerns and other feedback on this designated thread are a critical part of what the Steering Council or PEP-Delegate will consider when reviewing the PEP. PEP Review & Resolution Once the authors have completed a PEP, they may request a review for style and consistency from the PEP editors. However, content review and acceptance of the PEP is ultimately the responsibility of the Steering Council, which is formally initiated by opening a Steering Council issue once the authors (and sponsor, if any) determine the PEP is ready for final review and resolution. To expedite the process in selected cases (e.g. when a change is clearly beneficial and ready to be accepted, but the PEP hasn’t been formally submitted for review yet), the Steering Council may also initiate a PEP review, first notifying the PEP author(s) and giving them a chance to make revisions. The final authority for PEP approval is the Steering Council. However, whenever a new PEP is put forward, any core developer who believes they are suitably experienced to make the final decision on that PEP may offer to serve as its PEP-Delegate by notifying the Steering Council of their intent. If the Steering Council approves their offer, the PEP-Delegate will then have the authority to approve or reject that PEP. For PEPs related to the Python type system, the Typing Council ( PEP 729 ) provides a recommendation to the Steering Council. To request such a recommendation, open an issue on the Typing Council issue tracker . The term “PEP-Delegate” is used under the Steering Council governance model for the PEP’s designated decision maker, who is recorded in the “PEP-Delegate” field in the PEP’s header. The term “BDFL-Delegate” is a deprecated alias for PEP-Delegate, a legacy of the time when when Python was led by a BDFL . Any legacy references to “BDFL-Delegate” should be treated as equivalent to “PEP-Delegate”. An individual offering to nominate themselves as a PEP-Delegate must notify the relevant authors and (when present) the sponsor for the PEP, and submit their request to the Steering Council (which can be done via a new issue ). Those taking on this responsibility are free to seek additional guidance from the Steering Council at any time, and are also expected to take the advice and perspectives of other core developers into account. The Steering Council will generally approve such self-nominations by default, but may choose to decline them. Possible reasons for the Steering Council declining a self-nomination as PEP-Delegate include, but are not limited to, perceptions of a potential conflict of interest (e.g. working for the same organisation as the PEP submitter), or simply considering another potential PEP-Delegate to be more appropriate. If core developers (or other community members) have concerns regarding the suitability of a PEP-Delegate for any given PEP, they may ask the Steering Council to review the delegation. If no volunteer steps forward, then the Steering Council will approach core developers (and potentially other Python community members) with relevant expertise, in an attempt to identify a candidate that is willing to serve as PEP-Delegate for that PEP. If no suitable candidate can be found, then the PEP will be marked as Deferred until one is available. Previously appointed PEP-Delegates may choose to step down, or be asked to step down by the Council, in which case a new PEP-Delegate will be appointed in the same manner as for a new PEP (including deferral of the PEP if no suitable replacement can be found). In the event that a PEP-Delegate is asked to step down, this will overrule any prior acceptance or rejection of the PEP, and it will revert to Draft status. When such standing delegations are put in place, the Steering Council will maintain sufficient public records to allow subsequent Councils, the core developers, and the wider Python community to understand the delegations that currently exist, why they were put in place, and the circumstances under which they may no longer be needed. For a PEP to be accepted it must meet certain minimum criteria. It must be a clear and complete description of the proposed enhancement. The enhancement must represent a net improvement. The proposed implementation, if applicable, must be solid and must not complicate the interpreter unduly. Finally, a proposed enhancement must be “pythonic” in order to be accepted by the Steering Council. (However, “pythonic” is an imprecise term; it may be defined as whatever is acceptable to the Steering Council. This logic is intentionally circular.) See PEP 2 for standard library module acceptance criteria. Except where otherwise approved by the Steering Council, pronouncements of PEP resolution will be posted to the PEPs category on the Python Discourse . Once a PEP has been accepted, the reference implementation must be completed. When the reference implementation is complete and incorporated into the main source code repository, the status will be changed to “Final”. To allow gathering of additional design and interface feedback before committing to long term stability for a language feature or standard library API, a PEP may also be marked as “Provisional”. This is short for “Provisionally Accepted”, and indicates that the proposal has been accepted for inclusion in the reference implementation, but additional user feedback is needed before the full design can be considered “Final”. Unlike regular accepted PEPs, provisionally accepted PEPs may still be Rejected or Withdrawn even after the related changes have been included in a Python release . Wherever possible, it is considered preferable to reduce the scope of a proposal to avoid the need to rely on the “Provisional” status (e.g. by deferring some features to later PEPs), as this status can lead to version compatibility challenges in the wider Python ecosystem. PEP 411 provides additional details on potential use cases for the Provisional status. A PEP can also be assigned the status “Deferred”. The PEP author or an editor can assign the PEP this status when no progress is being made on the PEP. Once a PEP is deferred, a PEP editor can reassign it to draft status. A PEP can also be “Rejected”. Perhaps after all is said and done it was not a good idea. It is still important to have a record of this fact. The “Withdrawn” status is similar - it means that the PEP author themselves has decided that the PEP is actually a bad idea, or has accepted that a competing proposal is a better alternative. When a PEP is Accepted, Rejected or Withdrawn, the PEP should be updated accordingly. In addition to updating the Status field, at the very least the Resolution header should be added with a direct link to the relevant post making a decision on the PEP. PEPs can also be superseded by a different PEP, rendering the original obsolete. This is intended for Informational PEPs, where version 2 of an API can replace version 1. The possible paths of the status of PEPs are as follows: While not shown in the diagram, “Accepted” PEPs may technically move to “Rejected” or “Withdrawn” even after acceptance. This will only occur if the implementation process reveals fundamental flaws in the design that were not noticed prior to acceptance of the PEP. Unlike Provisional PEPs, these transitions are only permitted if the accepted proposal has not been included in a Python release - released changes must instead go through the regular deprecation process (which may require a new PEP providing the rationale for the deprecation). Some Informational and Process PEPs may also have a status of “Active” if they are never meant to be completed. E.g. PEP 1 (this PEP). PEP Maintenance In general, PEPs are no longer substantially modified after they have reached the Accepted, Final, Rejected or Superseded state. Once resolution is reached, a PEP is considered a historical document rather than a living specification. Formal documentation of the expected behavior should be maintained elsewhere, such as the Language Reference for core features, the Library Reference for standard library modules or the PyPA Specifications for packaging. If changes based on implementation experience and user feedback are made to Standards track PEPs while in the Provisional or (with SC approval) Accepted state, they should be noted in the PEP, such that the PEP accurately describes the implementation at the point where it is marked Final. Active (Informational and Process) PEPs may be updated over time to reflect changes to development practices and other details. The precise process followed in these cases will depend on the nature and purpose of the PEP in question. Occasionally, a Deferred or even a Withdrawn PEP may be resurrected with major updates, but it is often better to just propose a new one. What belongs in a successful PEP? Each PEP should have the following parts/sections: Preamble – RFC 2822 style headers containing meta-data about the PEP, including the PEP number, a short descriptive title (limited to a maximum of 44 characters), the names, and optionally the contact info for each author, etc. Abstract – a short (~200 word) description of the technical issue being addressed. Motivation – The motivation is critical for PEPs that want to change the Python language, library, or ecosystem. It should clearly explain why the existing language specification is inadequate to address the problem that the PEP solves. This can include collecting documented support for the PEP from important projects in the Python ecosystem. PEP submissions without sufficient motivation may be rejected. Rationale – The rationale fleshes out the specification by describing why particular design decisions were made. It should describe alternate designs that were considered and related work, e.g. how the feature is supported in other languages. The rationale should provide evidence of consensus within the community and discuss important objections or concerns raised during discussion. Specification – The technical specification should describe the syntax and semantics of any new language feature. The specification should be detailed enough to allow competing, interoperable implementations for at least the current major Python platforms (CPython, Jython, IronPython, PyPy). Backwards Compatibility – All PEPs that introduce backwards incompatibilities must include a section describing these incompatibilities and their severity. The PEP must explain how the author proposes to deal with these incompatibilities. PEP submissions without a sufficient backwards compatibility treatise may be rejected outright. Security Implications – If there are security concerns in relation to the PEP, those concerns should be explicitly written out to make sure reviewers of the PEP are aware of them. How to Teach This – For a PEP that adds new functionality or changes language behavior, it is helpful to include a section on how to teach users, new and experienced, how to apply the PEP to their work. This section may include key points and recommended documentation changes that would help users adopt a new feature or migrate their code to use a language change. Reference Implementation – The reference implementation must be completed before any PEP is given status “Final”, but it need not be completed before the PEP is accepted. While there is merit to the approach of reaching consensus on the specification and rationale before writing code, the principle of “rough consensus and running code” is still useful when it comes to resolving many discussions of API details. The final implementation must include test code and documentation appropriate for either the Python language reference or the standard library reference. Rejected Ideas – Throughout the discussion of a PEP, various ideas will be proposed which are not accepted. Those rejected ideas should be recorded along with the reasoning as to why they were rejected. This both helps record the thought process behind the final version of the PEP as well as preventing people from bringing up the same rejected idea again in subsequent discussions. In a way this section can be thought of as a breakout section of the Rationale section that is focused specifically on why certain ideas were not ultimately pursued. Open Issues – While a PEP is in draft, ideas can come up which warrant further discussion. Those ideas should be recorded so people know that they are being thought about but do not have a concrete resolution. This helps make sure all issues required for the PEP to be ready for consideration are complete and reduces people duplicating prior discussion. Acknowledgements – Useful to thank and acknowledge people who have helped develop, discuss, or draft the PEP, or for any other purpose. The section can be used to recognise contributors to the work who are not co-authors. Footnotes – A collection of footnotes cited in the PEP, and a place to list non-inline hyperlink targets. Copyright/license – Each new PEP must be placed under a dual license of public domain and CC0-1.0-Universal (see this PEP for an example). PEP Formats and Templates PEPs are UTF-8 encoded text files using the reStructuredText format. reStructuredText allows for rich markup that is still quite easy to read, but also results in good-looking and functional HTML. PEP 12 contains instructions and a PEP template . The PEP text files are automatically converted to HTML (via a Sphinx -based build system ) for easier online reading . PEP Header Preamble Each PEP must begin with an RFC 2822 style header preamble. The headers must appear in the following order. Headers marked with “*” are optional and are described below. All other headers are required. PEP: <pep number> Title: <pep title> Author: <list of authors' names and optionally, email addrs> * Sponsor: <name of sponsor> * PEP-Delegate: <PEP delegate's name> Discussions-To: <URL of current canonical discussion thread> Status: <Draft | Active | Accepted | Provisional | Deferred | Rejected | Withdrawn | Final | Superseded> Type: <Standards Track | Informational | Process> * Topic: <Governance | Packaging | Release | Typing> * Requires: <pep numbers> Created: <date created on, in dd-mmm-yyyy format> * Python-Version: <version number> Post-History: <dates, in dd-mmm-yyyy format, inline-linked to PEP discussion threads> * Replaces: <pep number> * Superseded-By: <pep number> * Resolution: <date in dd-mmm-yyyy format, linked to the acceptance/rejection post> The Author header lists the names, and optionally the email addresses of all the authors/owners of the PEP. The format of the Author header values must be: Random J. User <random@example.com> if the email address is included, and just: Random J. User if the address is not given. Most PEP authors use their real name, but if you prefer a different name and use it consistently in discussions related to the PEP, feel free to use it here. If there are multiple authors, each should be on a separate line following RFC 2822 continuation line conventions. Note that personal email addresses in PEPs will be obscured as a defense against spam harvesters. The Sponsor field records which developer (core, or otherwise approved by the Steering Council) is sponsoring the PEP. If one of the authors of the PEP is a core developer then no sponsor is necessary and thus this field should be left out. The PEP-Delegate field is used to record the individual appointed by the Steering Council to make the final decision on whether or not to approve or reject a PEP. Note: The Resolution header is required for Standards Track PEPs only. It contains a URL that should point to an email message or other web resource where the pronouncement about (i.e. approval or rejection of) the PEP is made. The Discussions-To header provides the URL to the current canonical discussion thread for the PEP. For email lists, this should be a direct link to the thread in the list’s archives, rather than just a mailto: or hyperlink to the list itself. The Type header specifies the type of PEP: Standards Track, Informational, or Process. The optional Topic header lists the special topic, if any, the PEP belongs under. See the Topic Index for the existing topics. The Created header records the date that the PEP was assigned a number, while Post-History is used to record the dates of and corresponding URLs to the Discussions-To threads for the PEP, with the former as the linked text, and the latter as the link target. Both sets of dates should be in dd-mmm-yyyy format, e.g. 14-Aug-2001 . Standards Track PEPs will typically have a Python-Version header which indicates the version of Python that the feature will be released with. Standards Track PEPs without a Python-Version header indicate interoperability standards that will initially be supported through external libraries and tools, and then potentially supplemented by a later PEP to add support to the standard library. Informational and Process PEPs do not need a Python-Version header. PEPs may have a Requires header, indicating the PEP numbers that this PEP depends on. PEPs may also have a Superseded-By header indicating that a PEP has been rendered obsolete by a later document; the value is the number of the PEP that replaces the current document. The newer PEP must have a Replaces header containing the number of the PEP that it rendered obsolete. Auxiliary Files PEPs may include auxiliary files such as diagrams. Such files should be named pep-XXXX-Y.ext , where “XXXX” is the PEP number, “Y” is a serial number (starting at 1), and “ext” is replaced by the actual file extension (e.g. “png”). Alternatively, all support files may be placed in a subdirectory called pep-XXXX , where “XXXX” is the PEP number. When using a subdirectory, there are no constraints on the names used in files. Changing Existing PEPs Draft PEPs are freely open for discussion and proposed modification, at the discretion of the authors, until submitted to the Steering Council or PEP-Delegate for review and resolution. Substantive content changes should generally be first proposed on the PEP’s discussion thread listed in its Discussions-To header, while copyedits and corrections can be submitted as a GitHub issue or GitHub pull request . PEP authors with write access to the PEP repository can update the PEPs themselves by using git push or a GitHub PR to submit their changes. For guidance on modifying other PEPs, consult the PEP Maintenance section. See the Contributing Guide for additional details, and when in doubt, please check first with the PEP author and/or a PEP editor. Transferring PEP Ownership It occasionally becomes necessary to transfer ownership of PEPs to a new champion. In general, it is preferable to retain the original author as a co-author of the transferred PEP, but that’s really up to the original author. A good reason to transfer ownership is because the original author no longer has the time or interest in updating it or following through with the PEP process, or has fallen off the face of the ‘net (i.e. is unreachable or not responding to email). A bad reason to transfer ownership is because the author doesn’t agree with the direction of the PEP. One aim of the PEP process is to try to build consensus around a PEP, but if that’s not possible, an author can always submit a competing PEP. If you are interested in assuming ownership of a PEP, you can also do this via pull request. Fork the PEP repository , make your ownership modification, and submit a pull request. You should mention both the original author and @python/pep-editors in a comment on the pull request. (If the original author’s GitHub username is unknown, use email.) If the original author doesn’t respond in a timely manner, the PEP editors will make a unilateral decision (it’s not like such decisions can’t be reversed :). PEP Editor Responsibilities & Workflow A PEP editor must be added to the @python/pep-editors group on GitHub and must watch the PEP repository . Note that developers with write access to the PEP repository may handle the tasks that would normally be taken care of by the PEP editors. Alternately, even developers may request assistance from PEP editors by mentioning @python/pep-editors on GitHub. For each new PEP that comes in an editor does the following: Make sure that the PEP is either co-authored by a core developer, has a core developer as a sponsor, or has a sponsor specifically approved for this PEP by the Steering Council. Read the PEP to check if it is ready: sound and complete. The ideas must make technical sense, even if they don’t seem likely to be accepted. The title should accurately describe the content. The file name extension is correct (i.e. .rst ). Ensure that everyone listed as a sponsor or co-author of the PEP who has write access to the PEP repository is added to .github/CODEOWNERS . Skim the PEP for obvious defects in language (spelling, grammar, sentence structure, etc.), and code style (examples should conform to PEP 7 & PEP 8 ). Editors may correct problems themselves, but are not required to do so (reStructuredText syntax is checked by the repo’s CI). If a project is portrayed as benefiting from or supporting the PEP, make sure there is some direct indication from the project included to make the support clear. This is to avoid a PEP accidentally portraying a project as supporting a PEP when in fact the support is based on conjecture. If the PEP isn’t ready, an editor will send it back to the author for revision, with specific instructions. If reST formatting is a problem, ask the author(s) to use PEP 12 as a template and resubmit. Once the PEP is ready for the repository, a PEP editor will: Check that the author has selected a valid PEP number or assign them a number if they have not (almost always just the next available number, but sometimes it’s a special/joke number, like 666 or 3141). Remember that numbers below 100 are meta-PEPs. Check that the author has correctly labeled the PEP’s type (“Standards Track”, “Informational”, or “Process”), and marked its status as “Draft”. Ensure all CI build and lint checks pass without errors, and there are no obvious issues in the rendered preview output. Merge the new (or updated) PEP. Inform the author of the next steps (open a discussion thread and update the PEP with it, post an announcement, etc). Updates to existing PEPs should be submitted as a GitHub pull request . Many PEPs are written and maintained by developers with write access to the Python codebase. The PEP editors monitor the PEP repository for changes, and correct any structure, grammar, spelling, or markup mistakes they see. PEP editors don’t pass judgment on PEPs. They merely do the administrative & editorial part (which is generally a low volume task). Resources: Index of Python Enhancement Proposals Following Python’s Development Python Developer’s Guide Copyright This document is placed in the public domain or under the CC0-1.0-Universal license, whichever is more permissive. Source: https://github.com/python/peps/blob/main/peps/pep-0001.rst Last modified: 2025-08-09 01:23:33 GMT Contents What is a PEP? PEP Audience PEP Types PEP Workflow Python’s Steering Council Python’s Core Developers Python’s BDFL PEP Editors Start with an idea for Python Submitting a PEP Discussing a PEP PEP Review & Resolution PEP Maintenance What belongs in a successful PEP? PEP Formats and Templates PEP Header Preamble Auxiliary Files Changing Existing PEPs Transferring PEP Ownership PEP Editor Responsibilities & Workflow Copyright Page Source (GitHub) | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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Right menu Zero Trust Agentic AI Architecture: Designing Autonomy Behind Guardrails Devdas Gupta Devdas Gupta Devdas Gupta Follow Jan 1 Zero Trust Agentic AI Architecture: Designing Autonomy Behind Guardrails # ai # agents # security # architecture Comments Add Comment 4 min read Simplify Remote Access with Azure Bastion: Zero Trust Made Easy sampath kumar sampath kumar sampath kumar Follow Dec 29 '25 Simplify Remote Access with Azure Bastion: Zero Trust Made Easy # azure # security # devops # networking Comments Add Comment 1 min read MULTI-CONTAINER SYSTEM + REVERSE PROXY (CONSOLIDATION) Bala Audu Musa Bala Audu Musa Bala Audu Musa Follow Dec 27 '25 MULTI-CONTAINER SYSTEM + REVERSE PROXY (CONSOLIDATION) # reverseproxy # nginx # dockercompose # security Comments Add Comment 4 min read Top 10 IaC Tools for DevOps in 2026: Which One Wins for Multi-Cloud? 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Anurag Bagri Anurag Bagri Anurag Bagri Follow Dec 26 '25 JWT vs Cookies in Next.js: What Should We Really Use for Authentication? # jwt # cookies # security # goodcodingpractice Comments Add Comment 3 min read How I Built an AI Password Automation Tool with browser-use Sourabh Katti Sourabh Katti Sourabh Katti Follow Dec 27 '25 How I Built an AI Password Automation Tool with browser-use # showdev # ai # security # automation Comments Add Comment 1 min read Kubernetes v1.35 Raises the Cost of Bad Certificate Hygiene Seaionl Seaionl Seaionl Follow Dec 26 '25 Kubernetes v1.35 Raises the Cost of Bad Certificate Hygiene # devops # kubernetes # security 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read The Silent Pandemic: How Viral File Spread Threatens Our Digital Safety and How to Fight Back Freedom Coder Freedom Coder Freedom Coder Follow Dec 27 '25 The Silent Pandemic: How Viral File Spread Threatens Our Digital Safety and How to Fight Back # cybersecurity # virus # security # websecurity Comments Add Comment 4 min read TempleOS: A Non-POSIX Operating System That Removed Protection on Purpose Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Follow Dec 30 '25 TempleOS: A Non-POSIX Operating System That Removed Protection on Purpose # architecture # computerscience # security 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Model‑First Reasoning Myth‑Tech: One Mechanism, Two Dialects Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Follow Dec 26 '25 Model‑First Reasoning Myth‑Tech: One Mechanism, Two Dialects # ai # machinelearning # security # philosophy Comments Add Comment 2 min read Protecting Sensitive Data Using Envelope Encryption İbrahim Gündüz İbrahim Gündüz İbrahim Gündüz Follow Dec 30 '25 Protecting Sensitive Data Using Envelope Encryption # security # cryptography # java Comments Add Comment 6 min read Why Your Honeypot Catches Humans (Not Bots) Alexis Alexis Alexis Follow Dec 30 '25 Why Your Honeypot Catches Humans (Not Bots) # security # webdev # html # tutorial 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Rust Weekly Log: Tracing, Observability & Cryptographic Hashes Vincent Eckert Sierota Vincent Eckert Sierota Vincent Eckert Sierota Follow Dec 26 '25 Rust Weekly Log: Tracing, Observability & Cryptographic Hashes # monitoring # rust # security Comments Add Comment 1 min read Self-Hosting Netbird: A Privacy-First Alternative to Managed Overlay Networks patrickbloem-it patrickbloem-it patrickbloem-it Follow Dec 30 '25 Self-Hosting Netbird: A Privacy-First Alternative to Managed Overlay Networks # networking # security # devops # opensource Comments Add Comment 5 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/http.cookies.html#module-http.cookies | http.cookies — HTTP state management — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents http.cookies — HTTP state management Cookie Objects Morsel Objects Example Previous topic http.server — HTTP servers Next topic http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Internet Protocols and Support » http.cookies — HTTP state management | Theme Auto Light Dark | http.cookies — HTTP state management ¶ Source code: Lib/http/cookies.py The http.cookies module defines classes for abstracting the concept of cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism. It supports both simple string-only cookies, and provides an abstraction for having any serializable data-type as cookie value. The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the RFC 2109 and RFC 2068 specifications. It has since been discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn’t follow the character rules outlined in those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling. As a result, this module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once were. The character set, string.ascii_letters , string.digits and !#$%&'*+-.^_`|~: denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as key ). Changed in version 3.3: Allowed ‘:’ as a valid cookie name character. Note On encountering an invalid cookie, CookieError is raised, so if your cookie data comes from a browser you should always prepare for invalid data and catch CookieError on parsing. exception http.cookies. CookieError ¶ Exception failing because of RFC 2109 invalidity: incorrect attributes, incorrect Set-Cookie header, etc. class http.cookies. BaseCookie ( [ input ] ) ¶ This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and whose values are Morsel instances. Note that upon setting a key to a value, the value is first converted to a Morsel containing the key and the value. If input is given, it is passed to the load() method. class http.cookies. SimpleCookie ( [ input ] ) ¶ This class derives from BaseCookie and overrides value_decode() and value_encode() . SimpleCookie supports strings as cookie values. When setting the value, SimpleCookie calls the builtin str() to convert the value to a string. Values received from HTTP are kept as strings. See also Module http.cookiejar HTTP cookie handling for web clients . The http.cookiejar and http.cookies modules do not depend on each other. RFC 2109 - HTTP State Management Mechanism This is the state management specification implemented by this module. Cookie Objects ¶ BaseCookie. value_decode ( val ) ¶ Return a tuple (real_value, coded_value) from a string representation. real_value can be any type. This method does no decoding in BaseCookie — it exists so it can be overridden. BaseCookie. value_encode ( val ) ¶ Return a tuple (real_value, coded_value) . val can be any type, but coded_value will always be converted to a string. This method does no encoding in BaseCookie — it exists so it can be overridden. In general, it should be the case that value_encode() and value_decode() are inverses on the range of value_decode . BaseCookie. output ( attrs = None , header = 'Set-Cookie:' , sep = '\r\n' ) ¶ Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers. attrs and header are sent to each Morsel ’s output() method. sep is used to join the headers together, and is by default the combination '\r\n' (CRLF). BaseCookie. js_output ( attrs = None ) ¶ Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers was sent. The meaning for attrs is the same as in output() . BaseCookie. load ( rawdata ) ¶ If rawdata is a string, parse it as an HTTP_COOKIE and add the values found there as Morsel s. If it is a dictionary, it is equivalent to: for k , v in rawdata . items (): cookie [ k ] = v Morsel Objects ¶ class http.cookies. Morsel ¶ Abstract a key/value pair, which has some RFC 2109 attributes. Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant — the valid RFC 2109 attributes, which are: expires ¶ path ¶ comment ¶ domain ¶ max-age secure ¶ version ¶ httponly ¶ samesite ¶ partitioned ¶ The attribute httponly specifies that the cookie is only transferred in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through JavaScript. This is intended to mitigate some forms of cross-site scripting. The attribute samesite controls when the browser sends the cookie with cross-site requests. This helps to mitigate CSRF attacks. Valid values are “Strict” (only sent with same-site requests), “Lax” (sent with same-site requests and top-level navigations), and “None” (sent with same-site and cross-site requests). When using “None”, the “secure” attribute must also be set, as required by modern browsers. The attribute partitioned indicates to user agents that these cross-site cookies should only be available in the same top-level context that the cookie was first set in. For this to be accepted by the user agent, you must also set Secure . In addition, it is recommended to use the __Host prefix when setting partitioned cookies to make them bound to the hostname and not the registrable domain. Read CHIPS (Cookies Having Independent Partitioned State) for full details and examples. The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is '' . Changed in version 3.5: __eq__() now takes key and value into account. Changed in version 3.7: Attributes key , value and coded_value are read-only. Use set() for setting them. Changed in version 3.8: Added support for the samesite attribute. Changed in version 3.14: Added support for the partitioned attribute. Morsel. value ¶ The value of the cookie. Morsel. coded_value ¶ The encoded value of the cookie — this is what should be sent. Morsel. key ¶ The name of the cookie. Morsel. set ( key , value , coded_value ) ¶ Set the key , value and coded_value attributes. Morsel. isReservedKey ( K ) ¶ Whether K is a member of the set of keys of a Morsel . Morsel. output ( attrs = None , header = 'Set-Cookie:' ) ¶ Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent as an HTTP header. By default, all the attributes are included, unless attrs is given, in which case it should be a list of attributes to use. header is by default "Set-Cookie:" . Morsel. js_output ( attrs = None ) ¶ Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header was sent. The meaning for attrs is the same as in output() . Morsel. OutputString ( attrs = None ) ¶ Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding HTTP or JavaScript. The meaning for attrs is the same as in output() . Morsel. update ( values ) ¶ Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the dictionary values . Raise an error if any of the keys in the values dict is not a valid RFC 2109 attribute. Changed in version 3.5: an error is raised for invalid keys. Morsel. copy ( value ) ¶ Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object. Changed in version 3.5: return a Morsel object instead of a dict. Morsel. setdefault ( key , value = None ) ¶ Raise an error if key is not a valid RFC 2109 attribute, otherwise behave the same as dict.setdefault() . Example ¶ The following example demonstrates how to use the http.cookies module. >>> from http import cookies >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C [ "fig" ] = "newton" >>> C [ "sugar" ] = "wafer" >>> print ( C ) # generate HTTP headers Set-Cookie: fig=newton Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer >>> print ( C . output ()) # same thing Set-Cookie: fig=newton Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C [ "rocky" ] = "road" >>> C [ "rocky" ][ "path" ] = "/cookie" >>> print ( C . output ( header = "Cookie:" )) Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie >>> print ( C . output ( attrs = [], header = "Cookie:" )) Cookie: rocky=road >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C . load ( "chips=ahoy; vienna=finger" ) # load from a string (HTTP header) >>> print ( C ) Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy Set-Cookie: vienna=finger >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C . load ( 'keebler="E=everybody; L= \\ "Loves \\ "; fudge= \\ 012;";' ) >>> print ( C ) Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;" >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C [ "oreo" ] = "doublestuff" >>> C [ "oreo" ][ "path" ] = "/" >>> print ( C ) Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/ >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C [ "twix" ] = "none for you" >>> C [ "twix" ] . value 'none for you' >>> C = cookies . SimpleCookie () >>> C [ "number" ] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7) >>> C [ "string" ] = "seven" >>> C [ "number" ] . value '7' >>> C [ "string" ] . value 'seven' >>> print ( C ) Set-Cookie: number=7 Set-Cookie: string=seven Table of Contents http.cookies — HTTP state management Cookie Objects Morsel Objects Example Previous topic http.server — HTTP servers Next topic http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Internet Protocols and Support » http.cookies — HTTP state management | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. 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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQQPAU21ZUw | Data Fetching with React Server Components - YouTube 정보 보도자료 저작권 문의하기 크리에이터 광고 개발자 약관 개인정보처리방침 정책 및 안전 YouTube 작동의 원리 새로운 기능 테스트하기 © 2026 Google LLC, Sundar Pichai, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View CA 94043, USA, 0807-882-594 (무료), yt-support-solutions-kr@google.com, 호스팅: Google LLC, 사업자정보 , 불법촬영물 신고 크리에이터들이 유튜브 상에 게시, 태그 또는 추천한 상품들은 판매자들의 약관에 따라 판매됩니다. 유튜브는 이러한 제품들을 판매하지 않으며, 그에 대한 책임을 지지 않습니다. var ytInitialData = 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| 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#otherlicenses | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#select-kqueue | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#libmpdec | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. 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IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#bsd0 | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#mimalloc | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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https://dev.to/shubham_verma_8f24ba13c9b/why-streaming-ai-responses-feels-faster-than-it-is-android-sse-2o6f | Why Streaming AI Responses Feels Faster Than It Is (Android + SSE) - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Shubham Verma Posted on Jan 12 Why Streaming AI Responses Feels Faster Than It Is (Android + SSE) # android # ai # ux # kotlin AI models have become incredibly fast. Network latency has improved. Yet many AI chat apps still feel slow. This isn’t a hardware problem or a model problem. It’s a user experience problem . The Real Problem: AI Chat Apps Feel Slow When a user sends a message and the UI stays blank even briefly the brain interprets that silence as delay. From the user’s perspective: Did my message go through? Is the app frozen? Is the model slow? In most cases, none of this is true. But perception matters more than reality. Latency in AI apps is psychological before it is technical. Why Waiting for the Full Response Breaks UX Many AI chat apps follow a simple pattern: Send the prompt Wait for the full response Render everything at once Technically, this works. From a UX standpoint, it fails. Humans are extremely sensitive to silence in interactive systems. Even a few hundred milliseconds without visible feedback creates uncertainty. Loading spinners help, but they still feel disconnected from the response itself. This is the difference between: Actual latency → how long the system takes Perceived latency → how long it feels like it takes Most AI apps optimize the former and ignore the latter. Streaming Is the Obvious Fix and Why It’s Not Enough Streaming responses token by token improves responsiveness immediately. As soon as text starts appearing, users know: The system is working Their input was received Progress is happening Technologies like Server-Sent Events (SSE) make this straightforward. However, naive streaming introduces a new problem. Modern models can generate text extremely fast. Rendering tokens as they arrive causes: Bursty text updates Jittery sentence formation Broken reading flow For example, entire words or clauses can appear at once, breaking natural reading rhythm. At that point, the interface is fast but exhausting. Streaming fixes speed , but can hurt readability if done carelessly. The Core Insight: Decoupling Network Speed from Visual Speed Network speed and human reading speed are fundamentally different. Servers operate in milliseconds Humans read in chunks, pauses, and patterns If the UI mirrors the network exactly, users are forced to adapt to machine behaviour. A better approach is the opposite: Make the UI adapt to humans, not servers. Instead of rendering text immediately: Incoming tokens are buffered The UI consumes them at a controlled pace The experience feels calm, intentional, and readable To do this, I introduced a StreamingTextController a small but critical layer that sits between the network and the UI. Streaming isn’t just about showing text earlier. It’s about showing it at the right pace . How the StreamingTextController Works (Conceptual) The StreamingTextController exists to separate arrival speed from rendering speed . Keeping this logic outside the ViewModel prevents timing concerns from leaking into state management. At a high level: Tokens arrive via SSE Tokens are buffered Controlled consumption at a steady, human-friendly rate Progressive UI rendering via state updates From the UI’s perspective: Text grows smoothly Sentences form naturally Network volatility is invisible This mirrors how humans process information: We read in bursts, not characters Predictable pacing improves comprehension Reduced jitter lowers cognitive load What this controller is not Not a typing animation Not an artificial delay Not a workaround for slow models It’s a UX boundary translating machine output into human interaction. Architecture Decisions: Making Streaming Production-Ready Streaming only works long-term if it remains stable and testable. Responsibilities are clearly separated: Network layer → emits raw tokens StreamingTextController → pacing & buffering ViewModel (MVVM) → lifecycle & immutable state UI (Jetpack Compose) → declarative rendering Technologies used intentionally: Kotlin Coroutines + Flow Jetpack Compose Hilt Clean Architecture The goal wasn’t novelty. It was predictable behaviour under load and across devices. Common Mistakes When Building Streaming UIs Some easy mistakes to make: Updating the UI on every token Binding rendering speed to model speed No buffering or back-pressure Timing logic inside UI code Treating streaming as an animation Streaming is not about visual flair. It’s about reducing cognitive load . Beyond Chat Apps The same principles apply to: Live transcription AI summaries Code assistants Search explainers Multimodal copilots As AI systems get faster, UX not model speed becomes the differentiator . Demo & Source Code This project is open source and meant as a reference implementation. 🔗 GitHub: https://github.com/sh7verma/AiChat It includes: SSE streaming setup StreamingTextController Jetpack Compose chat UI Clean, production-ready structure Final Takeaway Users don’t care how fast your model is. They care how fast your product feels . Streaming reduces uncertainty. Pacing restores clarity. Good AI UX sits at the intersection of both. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . 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https://dev.to/rsionnach | Rob Fox - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Rob Fox Sr Site Reliability Engineer. Building NthLayer, an open-source tool for shift-left reliability. Opinions are my own. github.com/rsionnach Location Dublin, Ireland Joined Joined on Jan 6, 2026 github website More info about @rsionnach GitHub Repositories nthlayer Generate the complete reliability stack from a service spec in 5 minutes. Dashboards, alerts, SLOs, PagerDuty - zero toil. Python • 13 stars Skills/Languages reliability, observability, incident management, python, pagerduty, cicd Currently hacking on Building NthLayer, an open-source tool for shift-left reliability. Opinions are my own. github.com/rsionnach Post 1 post published Comment 0 comments written Tag 0 tags followed Shift-Left Reliability Rob Fox Rob Fox Rob Fox Follow Jan 12 Shift-Left Reliability # sre # devops # cicd # platformengineering Comments Add Comment 4 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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https://dev.to/mahlongumbs/a-mnemonic-that-finally-makes-forin-vs-forof-stick-eoj#comments | A Mnemonic That Finally Makes for…in vs for…of Stick - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Mahlon Gumbs Posted on Jan 12 A Mnemonic That Finally Makes for…in vs for…of Stick # webdev # programming # javascript # beginners Intro There are many articles out there explaining the difference between for...in and for...of . I won't get into that here. Instead, this is a simple article that answers a simple question I keep getting asked...over...and over...and over. The question How do I remember when to use for...in vs for...of ? My answer 💡 for...in sounds like foreign (as in foreign keys ). So use 👉 for...in to iterate over the keys of an object and 👉 for...of to iterate over the elements of a collection. That's it. Nothing fancy. If you want more info on how this connects back to the official definitions, keep reading. Official definitions According to the docs... The for...in statement iterates over all enumerable string properties of an object. for...in - JavaScript | MDN, n.d. The for...of statement executes a loop that operates on a sequence of values sourced from an iterable object. for...of - JavaScript | MDN, n.d. Reasoning Based on the definition of for...in , it is used to iterate over the properties of an object. Object properties are also called keys. In fact, Object.keys() will return the properties of an object. So I simply think for...in sounds like "foreign"; as in "foreign keys". If you're familiar with databases, the term "foreign key" shouldn't be foreign to you (pun intended). Therefore, for...in is for iterating over "keys". This means the other one ( for...of ) must be for iterating over collection elements. To recap 📌 for...in : think "foreign keys" Did this make for...in vs for...of click for you? If not, how do you remember which is which? Let me know in the comments and share this if you've found it helpful. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Mahlon Gumbs Follow Joined May 20, 2018 More from Mahlon Gumbs if (!_if) what # javascript # bestpractices # refactor # coding 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem © 2016 - 2026. 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https://dev.to/t/odoo | Odoo - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # odoo Follow Hide Create Post Older #odoo posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Odoo Core and the Cost of Reinventing Everything Boga Boga Boga Follow Jan 12 Odoo Core and the Cost of Reinventing Everything # python # odoo # qweb # owl Comments Add Comment 3 min read How Odoo ERP Simplifies VAT Filing for UAE Businesses | Decision Intelligent DECISION INTELLIGENT DECISION INTELLIGENT DECISION INTELLIGENT Follow Jan 5 How Odoo ERP Simplifies VAT Filing for UAE Businesses | Decision Intelligent # ai # decisionintelligent # odoo # erp Comments Add Comment 4 min read Integration Failures and API Callout Issues in Odoo Aaron Jones Aaron Jones Aaron Jones Follow Dec 29 '25 Integration Failures and API Callout Issues in Odoo # odoo # integration # api # architecture Comments Add Comment 3 min read Odoo Cron Jobs Failing Silently: How I Debugged and Fixed Background Tasks in Production Aaron Jones Aaron Jones Aaron Jones Follow Dec 30 '25 Odoo Cron Jobs Failing Silently: How I Debugged and Fixed Background Tasks in Production # odoo # debugging # python # opensource 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Setup Odoo 19 and Postgres 15 with Docker Luong Xuan Trung Dung Luong Xuan Trung Dung Luong Xuan Trung Dung Follow Oct 30 '25 Setup Odoo 19 and Postgres 15 with Docker # odoo # docker # postgres 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Managing Users and Access Rights in Odoo (for New Admins) midlaj cybrosys midlaj cybrosys midlaj cybrosys Follow Sep 17 '25 Managing Users and Access Rights in Odoo (for New Admins) # odoo # odoopartner # odooerp # opensource Comments Add Comment 4 min read How to publish odoo apps on app store[updated] IT Giggs IT Giggs IT Giggs Follow Aug 30 '25 How to publish odoo apps on app store[updated] # odoo # python # erp # webdev Comments Add Comment 1 min read How to Connect Odoo.sh or Self-Hosted Odoo with Zapier Rootlevel Innovations Rootlevel Innovations Rootlevel Innovations Follow for Rootlevel Innovations Pvt Ltd Aug 13 '25 How to Connect Odoo.sh or Self-Hosted Odoo with Zapier # zapier # odoo # automation # ai Comments Add Comment 2 min read Odoo Docker fix print bug Abraham Abraham Abraham Follow Jul 19 '25 Odoo Docker fix print bug # odoo # bugfix # docker 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Odoo 19 Is Coming: Here’s What to Expect and How to Make the Most of It iProgrammer Solutions Pvt. Ltd. iProgrammer Solutions Pvt. Ltd. iProgrammer Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Follow Jul 18 '25 Odoo 19 Is Coming: Here’s What to Expect and How to Make the Most of It # odoo # odoo19 # odoopartner # odooimplementation 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Odoo CE: Automatic Inventory Valuation Abraham Abraham Abraham Follow Jun 14 '25 Odoo CE: Automatic Inventory Valuation # odoo # erp # accounting # webdev 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Odoo Developer 101: OOP Abraham Abraham Abraham Follow Jul 12 '25 Odoo Developer 101: OOP # odoo # oop # programming # webdev 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read How I Saved 2.7GB of Memory in Odoo by Skipping the ORM Alesis Manzano Alesis Manzano Alesis Manzano Follow Jul 11 '25 How I Saved 2.7GB of Memory in Odoo by Skipping the ORM # odoo # orm # cache # prefetch 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Odoo's Technical Ecosystem: Real-World Usage Data and Open Source Impact spread thoughts spread thoughts spread thoughts Follow Jul 9 '25 Odoo's Technical Ecosystem: Real-World Usage Data and Open Source Impact # odoo # opensource # python # erp Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why POS Features Matter: A Guide to Choosing the Right POS System Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Follow Jun 4 '25 Why POS Features Matter: A Guide to Choosing the Right POS System # possystem # odoo # erpsoftware # pos 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read How to find the current page template/view ID from the dev tools? Jeevachaithanyan Sivanandan Jeevachaithanyan Sivanandan Jeevachaithanyan Sivanandan Follow Jul 6 '25 How to find the current page template/view ID from the dev tools? # odoo 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Odoo 101: View Abraham Abraham Abraham Follow Jun 26 '25 Odoo 101: View # odoo # erp # programming # tutorial 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Odoo Method Keywords For Assista Cybrosys Assista Cybrosys Assista Cybrosys Assista Follow Jun 24 '25 Odoo Method Keywords For Assista # webdev # odoo # odoodevelopers # programming 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Odoo Fundamentals Ibrahim abo eita Ibrahim abo eita Ibrahim abo eita Follow May 19 '25 Odoo Fundamentals # odoo # python # postgres 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why Odoo Feels Slow in Large Enterprises (and How to Fix It) Hanzel Rodríguez López Hanzel Rodríguez López Hanzel Rodríguez López Follow Jun 20 '25 Why Odoo Feels Slow in Large Enterprises (and How to Fix It) # odoo # python # erp 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read What is Odoo Implementation? Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Follow May 14 '25 What is Odoo Implementation? # odoo # implemantation # erp # software 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read Odoo 18 redirect to external url after payment Nitin Solanky Nitin Solanky Nitin Solanky Follow May 11 '25 Odoo 18 redirect to external url after payment # odoo # odoo18 # nextjs Comments Add Comment 1 min read From Paperwork to Performance: Why HR Systems Matter More Than Ever Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Follow May 10 '25 From Paperwork to Performance: Why HR Systems Matter More Than Ever # erp # odoo # software # best 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 10 min read Top 10 Ways POS Retail Software Can Increase Sales and Improve Customer Experience Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Follow May 1 '25 Top 10 Ways POS Retail Software Can Increase Sales and Improve Customer Experience # possoftware # erp # odoo 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read How a Modern POS Solution Streamlines Inventory, Billing, and Reporting Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Bhavesh Gangani Follow May 1 '25 How a Modern POS Solution Streamlines Inventory, Billing, and Reporting # erp # odoo # possolutions 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read loading... trending guides/resources Setup Odoo 19 and Postgres 15 with Docker Odoo Cron Jobs Failing Silently: How I Debugged and Fixed Background Tasks in Production Integration Failures and API Callout Issues in Odoo 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#mersenne-twister | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#zero-clause-bsd-license-for-code-in-the-python-documentation | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. zlib ¶ The zlib extension is built using an included copy of the zlib sources if the zlib version found on the system is too old to be used for the build: Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of this software. Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to the following restrictions: 1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim that you wrote the original software. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. 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Right menu 🚀 Introducing ShirazGard: An Open-Source, Bilingual City Guide for Shiraz, Iran 🇮🇷 Kian mahmoudi Kian mahmoudi Kian mahmoudi Follow Aug 2 '25 🚀 Introducing ShirazGard: An Open-Source, Bilingual City Guide for Shiraz, Iran 🇮🇷 # android # kotlin # java # mobile Comments Add Comment 2 min read Build an OCR Action pipeline with Kotlin: ML Kit (Android) + Ktor (server) + KMP roadmap Qandil Tariq Qandil Tariq Qandil Tariq Follow Sep 4 '25 Build an OCR Action pipeline with Kotlin: ML Kit (Android) + Ktor (server) + KMP roadmap # android # kotlin # ios 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Building Real-Time Multiplayer Android Apps with AWS AppSync Events API Salih Guler Salih Guler Salih Guler Follow for AWS Sep 3 '25 Building Real-Time Multiplayer Android Apps with AWS AppSync Events API # android # aws # kotlin # gamedev 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 11 min read A Tiny KMP Connectivity Monitor (Android + iOS) — No Pods Required Qandil Tariq Qandil Tariq Qandil Tariq Follow Sep 2 '25 A Tiny KMP Connectivity Monitor (Android + iOS) — No Pods Required # kotlin # kotlinmultiplatform # composemultiplatform # android 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Centralized POM Configuration Management with Maven Central utility plugins for Gradle Yongjun Hong Yongjun Hong Yongjun Hong Follow for Gradle Community Aug 22 '25 Centralized POM Configuration Management with Maven Central utility plugins for Gradle # kotlin # gradle # gsoc # mavencentral 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read 📧 From Syntax to SMTP: The Ultimate Guide to Email Validation in Kotlin Maksym Balatsko Maksym Balatsko Maksym Balatsko Follow Jul 29 '25 📧 From Syntax to SMTP: The Ultimate Guide to Email Validation in Kotlin # kotlin # java # springboot # android Comments Add Comment 4 min read Cómo creé la UI de una app Android moderna con Jetpack Compose (Guía Completa) Tu codigo cotidiano Tu codigo cotidiano Tu codigo cotidiano Follow Jul 28 '25 Cómo creé la UI de una app Android moderna con Jetpack Compose (Guía Completa) # android # kotlin # jetpackcompose # mobiledev Comments Add Comment 2 min read Google Summer of Code 2025 Final Report (Kotlin Foundation) Victoria Chuks Victoria Chuks Victoria Chuks Follow Aug 29 '25 Google Summer of Code 2025 Final Report (Kotlin Foundation) # kotlin # opensource # gradle 3 reactions Comments 1 comment 5 min read Navegação Descomplicada no Android utilizando MVVM-C com NavigationManager Gustavo Alencar Gustavo Alencar Gustavo Alencar Follow Jul 26 '25 Navegação Descomplicada no Android utilizando MVVM-C com NavigationManager # android # mvvmc # kotlin # mobile Comments Add Comment 3 min read 🚀 [Open Source] SmoothMotion – Clean, Smooth Animations in Jetpack Compose Abdullah Al-Hakimi Abdullah Al-Hakimi Abdullah Al-Hakimi Follow Jul 24 '25 🚀 [Open Source] SmoothMotion – Clean, Smooth Animations in Jetpack Compose # kotlin # animation # jetpackcompose # opensource Comments Add Comment 1 min read Target SDK Updates Are Breaking Apps in 2025 — Here’s the Fix Google Won’t Tell You Vaibhav Shakya Vaibhav Shakya Vaibhav Shakya Follow Aug 26 '25 Target SDK Updates Are Breaking Apps in 2025 — Here’s the Fix Google Won’t Tell You # android # kotlin # mobile # playstore Comments Add Comment 2 min read Gradle Learning Day: Reinforcement Learning for Build Optimization Iñaki Villar Iñaki Villar Iñaki Villar Follow Aug 23 '25 Gradle Learning Day: Reinforcement Learning for Build Optimization # gradle # android # kotlin 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read 3 Smart Ways to Show Toast in Jetpack Compose – Plus a Bonus Hack! 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Keerthi Posted on Sep 22, 2021 • Edited on Sep 24, 2021 Create react app vs Vite # webdev # javascript # vite # react I have always relied on the npm command create-react-app to create the starter files for any React.js project. It does what it says on the tin, and creates all my starter template files, setups a local dev server and dev environment. Over the years I have become a little impatient because it takes around 3-4 minutes to setup a basic barebones app. Recently I have come to know about a faster way to setup React apps, which also gives you all the useful features that create-react-app gives you too. It is using a tool called Vite . Vite is another build tool like Webpack (create-react-app uses Webpack under the hood, read more here ). In this post I will take you through the steps on how to install React.js app using Vite and point out some differences too. You can also see a video on the comparison of the two installation methods. In the Video below, You will discover that the installation time, plus time to run local server is astonishingly fast for Vite. So how do we start the ball rolling You can refer to the Vite docs , From there, you can choose from a few methods to start off your installation. We are going to use the template method. In their docs, the listed methods are: #npm 6.x npm init vite@latest my-vue-app --template vue #npm 7+, extra double-dash is needed: npm init vite@latest my-vue-app -- --template vue #yarn yarn create vite my-vue-app --template vue Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode But these commands are for installing Vue.js, just as side note, Vite was originally developed for Vue.js but has been modified to use with other frameworks including React.js. For our case, all we need to do is replace the keyword after '--template', from vue to react. And dont forget to replace the app name to your choosing. So assuming that we are running npm version 6.x, we will run the following command: npm init vite@latest my-react-app --template react Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Then we will cd into our directory and install the remainder of the starter files and run the dev server: cd my-react-app npm install npm run dev Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode If you goto the browser. You should see a React logo with a counter and a button, as below. Directory structure of the our newly created app The thing to note here is that, main.js is the root file that imports/loads App.js. There is also a new file called vite.config.js, this is circled in the above image. This file is used to turn on and set new features for your build process. I will come to this file in the next section below. One last thing about importing files... I have noticed that out the box this setup does not allow for absolute paths. With create-react-app, you can do import x from 'components/x' . With Vite, you have to do the relative pathing, like ```import x from '../../../' To fix this we need to change the vite.config.js file, which looks like this: ```javascript import { defineConfig } from 'vite' import reactRefresh from '@vitejs/plugin-react-refresh' // https://vitejs.dev/config/ export default defineConfig({ plugins: [reactRefresh()] }) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode we need to add an extra setting to resolve the path, this change will go after the "plugins" settings. It will end up looking like this after the change: import { defineConfig } from ' vite ' import reactRefresh from ' @vitejs/plugin-react-refresh ' import path from ' path ' // https://vitejs.dev/config/ export default defineConfig ({ plugins : [ reactRefresh ()], resolve : { alias : { ' @ ' : path . resolve ( __dirname , ' ./src ' ), }, }, }) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode and this will allow us to refer to paths as import x from '@/component/x' !IMPORTATNT to prefix with '@' in path. conclusion I did find Vite impressingly fast. It took me 55 secs to install and run on local server. I have not done much heavy development using Vite but it looks promising. It is too early for me to say if I will use it on any bigger projects in the future. There are other methods of installing React.js using Vite, these methods are maintained by other communities. Check out other community maintained templates here , you can also find one with Tailwind. Please leave comments on your experiences too. Note: Vite has templates to build apps in the following frameworks vanilla vanilla-ts vue vue-ts react react-ts preact preact-ts lit-element lit-element-ts svelte svelte-ts Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode so to create a build in react typescript , just change the last bit to "react-ts" after the "--template" , so it becomes: npm init vite@latest my-react-app --template react-ts Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Top comments (20) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand R. Maulana Citra R. Maulana Citra R. Maulana Citra Follow I write about web dev stuff Location Serang, Indonesia Work Front End @Skyshi Digital Indonesia Joined Mar 3, 2021 • Sep 24 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Vite is cool, I love how things are fast on dev server. I also made boilerplate for daily projects with Tailwind, if you want to check it out, see it on my GitHub here Like comment: Like comment: 4 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Work ui developer Joined Aug 7, 2020 • Sep 24 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thats awesome, you should contribute to the community here github.com/vitejs/awesome-vite#tem... . They have one for react and tailwind already, maybe you can add yours as well. Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand R. Maulana Citra R. Maulana Citra R. Maulana Citra Follow I write about web dev stuff Location Serang, Indonesia Work Front End @Skyshi Digital Indonesia Joined Mar 3, 2021 • Oct 5 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide thank you bro, I have added mine too, and it was merged already! Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand James Thomson James Thomson James Thomson Follow Just another front-end web dev junkie Location Australia Work Senior Frontend Engineer at Complish Joined Feb 22, 2019 • Sep 22 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I've recently switched a Vue CLI project to Vite. It's impressive how fast things are - but makes complete sense when there's no build step needed when developing. One thing I've found less intuitive are images, especially dynamically referenced ones (e.g. in a loop). I've had to create a utility for this: export function getImageUrl (name) { return new URL(`../assets/${name}`, import.meta.url).href; } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Is this also the case in React? Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Work ui developer Joined Aug 7, 2020 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Yes , Similar in react Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Herberth Obregón Herberth Obregón Herberth Obregón Follow 🧩 Web Components 💻 Typescript First 🐳 ☸️ K8s Location GT Education Science and Systems Engineer Work CIO/CTO at HireX Joined Jan 1, 2020 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I moved to vitejs for lit-element (now only lit) and is amazing! 💯💯🚀 Web pack is very slow to spinup a dev server Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Work ui developer Joined Aug 7, 2020 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Firts tme I am hearing of lit-elemnt, Intresting, what apps are you building with it? Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Herberth Obregón Herberth Obregón Herberth Obregón Follow 🧩 Web Components 💻 Typescript First 🐳 ☸️ K8s Location GT Education Science and Systems Engineer Work CIO/CTO at HireX Joined Jan 1, 2020 • Sep 25 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide It is one of the main "frameworks" of modern development, vitejs.dev/guide/#scaffolding-your... Vite support the main popular frameworks vue, react, lit-element and svelte I choose Lit-element because is the closest thing to js vanilla with all the power of web components (the performance is amazing ⚡️). Eventually I consider that web components are going to be so robust that you won't need a framework. Lit-element is the framework for web components par excellence. Stencil I don't like like Lit I build all empleo.gt with Lit Which next will be migrated to hirex.app for worldwide version Like comment: Like comment: 4 likes Like Thread Thread Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Work ui developer Joined Aug 7, 2020 • Sep 26 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks, Nice to know that about Lit, will look at it. Also good luck with your app too Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Wagner Wagner Wagner Follow Joined Feb 25, 2021 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Why don't you use package.json inside each directory and refers to files like "@components/MyCompoment"?! You don't need do setup anything else. Just a package.json in each folder with content: { "name": "components" } Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Ivan Jeremic Ivan Jeremic Ivan Jeremic Follow Web/Software Developer Joined Dec 9, 2018 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is so dirty I can't believe people do this. Like comment: Like comment: 16 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand dragos dragos dragos Follow Indie app builder focused on simple, practical products. Currently building Vet Record, a pet health tracker for everyday owners. Location Beograd Education Completed an online course by Carnegie Mellon University Joined Oct 15, 2019 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Stiil too much bugs Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Daniel Tkach Daniel Tkach Daniel Tkach Follow Joined Sep 4, 2020 • Oct 4 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide On vite? I'm just researching if I should switch to vite. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Renan "Firehawk" Lazarotto Renan "Firehawk" Lazarotto Renan "Firehawk" Lazarotto Follow Hiya! I'm a fullstack developer, with experience with PHP, JavaScript and Go. I'm also an Android enthusiast and I like pretty much everything related to tech. Location Brazil Education Barchelor Degree in IT Pronouns he/him Work FullStack developer @ Hammer Consult Joined Dec 16, 2019 • Sep 22 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I have switched from CRA to Vite just because CRA is so slow! Vite is blazing fast even on my aging machine. Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Keerthi Keerthi Keerthi Follow I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Work ui developer Joined Aug 7, 2020 • Sep 22 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thats good to hear. CRA has always been so slow. But I had to put up with it. Other option was configuring webpack, which was way worse in terms of time to setup. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Rami Rami Rami Follow I am a self taught web developer and secondary school student ✌ Location مصر Education self-taught Work Captain Dev Joined Nov 14, 2019 • Sep 22 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Vite is really cool, I hope they support Angular in the near future. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Wagner Wagner Wagner Follow Joined Feb 25, 2021 • Sep 23 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Angular is a waste of time! A poor framework, too much verbose. Like comment: Like comment: 12 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Jerry Jerry Jerry Follow follow for dev, javascript/typescript react, aws and cloud tips and more. Location British Columbia Work Software Engineer Joined Aug 14, 2018 • Mar 4 '23 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is a great overview! If you want a deep dive understanding of Vite, I wrote about here - jerrychang.ca/writing/vite-how-it-... Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Audace Audace Audace Follow Programmer Joined Feb 23, 2024 • Feb 23 '24 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I have the problem with vite + react. When I run the localhost, see in the terminal [vite] hmr update. And after that in the browser nothing display on the screen. Screen is blank. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Audace Audace Audace Follow Programmer Joined Feb 23, 2024 • Feb 23 '24 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I have the problem Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply View full discussion (20 comments) Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Keerthi Follow I am UI developer, technologist, UI designer. Keen cook. Location london Work ui developer Joined Aug 7, 2020 More from Keerthi Crash course in interactive 3d animation with React-three-fiber and React-spring # react # webdev # threejs A crash course in React.js and D3 # react # javascript # d3js # webdev Scroll animation in Javascript using IntersectionObserver # javascript # webdev # css # html 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#siphash24 | History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License | Theme Auto Light Dark | History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#string-methods | Built-in Types — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents Built-in Types Truth Value Testing Boolean Operations — and , or , not Comparisons Numeric Types — int , float , complex Bitwise Operations on Integer Types Additional Methods on Integer Types Additional Methods on Float Additional Methods on Complex Hashing of numeric types Boolean Type - bool Iterator Types Generator Types Sequence Types — list , tuple , range Common Sequence Operations Immutable Sequence Types Mutable Sequence Types Lists Tuples Ranges Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary Text Sequence Type — str String Methods Formatted String Literals (f-strings) Debug specifier Conversion specifier Format specifier Template String Literals (t-strings) printf -style String Formatting Binary Sequence Types — bytes , bytearray , memoryview Bytes Objects Bytearray Objects Bytes and Bytearray Operations printf -style Bytes Formatting Memory Views Set Types — set , frozenset Mapping Types — dict Dictionary view objects Context Manager Types Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias , Union Generic Alias Type Standard Generic Classes Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects Union Type Other Built-in Types Modules Classes and Class Instances Functions Methods Code Objects Type Objects The Null Object The Ellipsis Object The NotImplemented Object Internal Objects Special Attributes Integer string conversion length limitation Affected APIs Configuring the limit Recommended configuration Previous topic Built-in Constants Next topic Built-in Exceptions This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Built-in Types | Theme Auto Light Dark | Built-in Types ¶ The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the interpreter. The principal built-in types are numerics, sequences, mappings, classes, instances and exceptions. Some collection classes are mutable. The methods that add, subtract, or rearrange their members in place, and don’t return a specific item, never return the collection instance itself but None . Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular, practically all objects can be compared for equality, tested for truth value, and converted to a string (with the repr() function or the slightly different str() function). The latter function is implicitly used when an object is written by the print() function. Truth Value Testing ¶ Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an if or while condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below. By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either a __bool__() method that returns False or a __len__() method that returns zero, when called with the object. [ 1 ] If one of the methods raises an exception when called, the exception is propagated and the object does not have a truth value (for example, NotImplemented ). Here are most of the built-in objects considered false: constants defined to be false: None and False zero of any numeric type: 0 , 0.0 , 0j , Decimal(0) , Fraction(0, 1) empty sequences and collections: '' , () , [] , {} , set() , range(0) Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return 0 or False for false and 1 or True for true, unless otherwise stated. (Important exception: the Boolean operations or and and always return one of their operands.) Boolean Operations — and , or , not ¶ These are the Boolean operations, ordered by ascending priority: Operation Result Notes x or y if x is true, then x , else y (1) x and y if x is false, then x , else y (2) not x if x is false, then True , else False (3) Notes: This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second argument if the first one is false. This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second argument if the first one is true. not has a lower priority than non-Boolean operators, so not a == b is interpreted as not (a == b) , and a == not b is a syntax error. Comparisons ¶ There are eight comparison operations in Python. They all have the same priority (which is higher than that of the Boolean operations). Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily; for example, x < y <= z is equivalent to x < y and y <= z , except that y is evaluated only once (but in both cases z is not evaluated at all when x < y is found to be false). This table summarizes the comparison operations: Operation Meaning < strictly less than <= less than or equal > strictly greater than >= greater than or equal == equal != not equal is object identity is not negated object identity Unless stated otherwise, objects of different types never compare equal. The == operator is always defined but for some object types (for example, class objects) is equivalent to is . The < , <= , > and >= operators are only defined where they make sense; for example, they raise a TypeError exception when one of the arguments is a complex number. Non-identical instances of a class normally compare as non-equal unless the class defines the __eq__() method. Instances of a class cannot be ordered with respect to other instances of the same class, or other types of object, unless the class defines enough of the methods __lt__() , __le__() , __gt__() , and __ge__() (in general, __lt__() and __eq__() are sufficient, if you want the conventional meanings of the comparison operators). The behavior of the is and is not operators cannot be customized; also they can be applied to any two objects and never raise an exception. Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, in and not in , are supported by types that are iterable or implement the __contains__() method. Numeric Types — int , float , complex ¶ There are three distinct numeric types: integers , floating-point numbers , and complex numbers . In addition, Booleans are a subtype of integers. Integers have unlimited precision. Floating-point numbers are usually implemented using double in C; information about the precision and internal representation of floating-point numbers for the machine on which your program is running is available in sys.float_info . Complex numbers have a real and imaginary part, which are each a floating-point number. To extract these parts from a complex number z , use z.real and z.imag . (The standard library includes the additional numeric types fractions.Fraction , for rationals, and decimal.Decimal , for floating-point numbers with user-definable precision.) Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions and operators. Unadorned integer literals (including hex, octal and binary numbers) yield integers. Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an exponent sign yield floating-point numbers. Appending 'j' or 'J' to a numeric literal yields an imaginary number (a complex number with a zero real part) which you can add to an integer or float to get a complex number with real and imaginary parts. The constructors int() , float() , and complex() can be used to produce numbers of a specific type. Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has operands of different numeric types, the operand with the “narrower” type is widened to that of the other, where integer is narrower than floating point. Arithmetic with complex and real operands is defined by the usual mathematical formula, for example: x + complex ( u , v ) = complex ( x + u , v ) x * complex ( u , v ) = complex ( x * u , x * v ) A comparison between numbers of different types behaves as though the exact values of those numbers were being compared. [ 2 ] All numeric types (except complex) support the following operations (for priorities of the operations, see Operator precedence ): Operation Result Notes Full documentation x + y sum of x and y x - y difference of x and y x * y product of x and y x / y quotient of x and y x // y floored quotient of x and y (1)(2) x % y remainder of x / y (2) -x x negated +x x unchanged abs(x) absolute value or magnitude of x abs() int(x) x converted to integer (3)(6) int() float(x) x converted to floating point (4)(6) float() complex(re, im) a complex number with real part re , imaginary part im . im defaults to zero. (6) complex() c.conjugate() conjugate of the complex number c divmod(x, y) the pair (x // y, x % y) (2) divmod() pow(x, y) x to the power y (5) pow() x ** y x to the power y (5) Notes: Also referred to as integer division. For operands of type int , the result has type int . For operands of type float , the result has type float . In general, the result is a whole integer, though the result’s type is not necessarily int . The result is always rounded towards minus infinity: 1//2 is 0 , (-1)//2 is -1 , 1//(-2) is -1 , and (-1)//(-2) is 0 . Not for complex numbers. Instead convert to floats using abs() if appropriate. Conversion from float to int truncates, discarding the fractional part. See functions math.floor() and math.ceil() for alternative conversions. float also accepts the strings “nan” and “inf” with an optional prefix “+” or “-” for Not a Number (NaN) and positive or negative infinity. Python defines pow(0, 0) and 0 ** 0 to be 1 , as is common for programming languages. The numeric literals accepted include the digits 0 to 9 or any Unicode equivalent (code points with the Nd property). See the Unicode Standard for a complete list of code points with the Nd property. All numbers.Real types ( int and float ) also include the following operations: Operation Result math.trunc(x) x truncated to Integral round(x[, n]) x rounded to n digits, rounding half to even. If n is omitted, it defaults to 0. math.floor(x) the greatest Integral <= x math.ceil(x) the least Integral >= x For additional numeric operations see the math and cmath modules. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types ¶ Bitwise operations only make sense for integers. The result of bitwise operations is calculated as though carried out in two’s complement with an infinite number of sign bits. The priorities of the binary bitwise operations are all lower than the numeric operations and higher than the comparisons; the unary operation ~ has the same priority as the other unary numeric operations ( + and - ). This table lists the bitwise operations sorted in ascending priority: Operation Result Notes x | y bitwise or of x and y (4) x ^ y bitwise exclusive or of x and y (4) x & y bitwise and of x and y (4) x << n x shifted left by n bits (1)(2) x >> n x shifted right by n bits (1)(3) ~x the bits of x inverted Notes: Negative shift counts are illegal and cause a ValueError to be raised. A left shift by n bits is equivalent to multiplication by pow(2, n) . A right shift by n bits is equivalent to floor division by pow(2, n) . Performing these calculations with at least one extra sign extension bit in a finite two’s complement representation (a working bit-width of 1 + max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length()) or more) is sufficient to get the same result as if there were an infinite number of sign bits. Additional Methods on Integer Types ¶ The int type implements the numbers.Integral abstract base class . In addition, it provides a few more methods: int. bit_length ( ) ¶ Return the number of bits necessary to represent an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading zeros: >>> n = - 37 >>> bin ( n ) '-0b100101' >>> n . bit_length () 6 More precisely, if x is nonzero, then x.bit_length() is the unique positive integer k such that 2**(k-1) <= abs(x) < 2**k . Equivalently, when abs(x) is small enough to have a correctly rounded logarithm, then k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2)) . If x is zero, then x.bit_length() returns 0 . Equivalent to: def bit_length ( self ): s = bin ( self ) # binary representation: bin(-37) --> '-0b100101' s = s . lstrip ( '-0b' ) # remove leading zeros and minus sign return len ( s ) # len('100101') --> 6 Added in version 3.1. int. bit_count ( ) ¶ Return the number of ones in the binary representation of the absolute value of the integer. This is also known as the population count. Example: >>> n = 19 >>> bin ( n ) '0b10011' >>> n . bit_count () 3 >>> ( - n ) . bit_count () 3 Equivalent to: def bit_count ( self ): return bin ( self ) . count ( "1" ) Added in version 3.10. int. to_bytes ( length = 1 , byteorder = 'big' , * , signed = False ) ¶ Return an array of bytes representing an integer. >>> ( 1024 ) . to_bytes ( 2 , byteorder = 'big' ) b'\x04\x00' >>> ( 1024 ) . to_bytes ( 10 , byteorder = 'big' ) b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00' >>> ( - 1024 ) . to_bytes ( 10 , byteorder = 'big' , signed = True ) b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00' >>> x = 1000 >>> x . to_bytes (( x . bit_length () + 7 ) // 8 , byteorder = 'little' ) b'\xe8\x03' The integer is represented using length bytes, and defaults to 1. An OverflowError is raised if the integer is not representable with the given number of bytes. The byteorder argument determines the byte order used to represent the integer, and defaults to "big" . If byteorder is "big" , the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte array. If byteorder is "little" , the most significant byte is at the end of the byte array. The signed argument determines whether two’s complement is used to represent the integer. If signed is False and a negative integer is given, an OverflowError is raised. The default value for signed is False . The default values can be used to conveniently turn an integer into a single byte object: >>> ( 65 ) . to_bytes () b'A' However, when using the default arguments, don’t try to convert a value greater than 255 or you’ll get an OverflowError . Equivalent to: def to_bytes ( n , length = 1 , byteorder = 'big' , signed = False ): if byteorder == 'little' : order = range ( length ) elif byteorder == 'big' : order = reversed ( range ( length )) else : raise ValueError ( "byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'" ) return bytes (( n >> i * 8 ) & 0xff for i in order ) Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.11: Added default argument values for length and byteorder . classmethod int. from_bytes ( bytes , byteorder = 'big' , * , signed = False ) ¶ Return the integer represented by the given array of bytes. >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \x00\x10 ' , byteorder = 'big' ) 16 >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \x00\x10 ' , byteorder = 'little' ) 4096 >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \xfc\x00 ' , byteorder = 'big' , signed = True ) -1024 >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \xfc\x00 ' , byteorder = 'big' , signed = False ) 64512 >>> int . from_bytes ([ 255 , 0 , 0 ], byteorder = 'big' ) 16711680 The argument bytes must either be a bytes-like object or an iterable producing bytes. The byteorder argument determines the byte order used to represent the integer, and defaults to "big" . If byteorder is "big" , the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte array. If byteorder is "little" , the most significant byte is at the end of the byte array. To request the native byte order of the host system, use sys.byteorder as the byte order value. The signed argument indicates whether two’s complement is used to represent the integer. Equivalent to: def from_bytes ( bytes , byteorder = 'big' , signed = False ): if byteorder == 'little' : little_ordered = list ( bytes ) elif byteorder == 'big' : little_ordered = list ( reversed ( bytes )) else : raise ValueError ( "byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'" ) n = sum ( b << i * 8 for i , b in enumerate ( little_ordered )) if signed and little_ordered and ( little_ordered [ - 1 ] & 0x80 ): n -= 1 << 8 * len ( little_ordered ) return n Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.11: Added default argument value for byteorder . int. as_integer_ratio ( ) ¶ Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original integer and has a positive denominator. The integer ratio of integers (whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and 1 as the denominator. Added in version 3.8. int. is_integer ( ) ¶ Returns True . Exists for duck type compatibility with float.is_integer() . Added in version 3.12. Additional Methods on Float ¶ The float type implements the numbers.Real abstract base class . float also has the following additional methods. classmethod float. from_number ( x ) ¶ Class method to return a floating-point number constructed from a number x . If the argument is an integer or a floating-point number, a floating-point number with the same value (within Python’s floating-point precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python float, an OverflowError will be raised. For a general Python object x , float.from_number(x) delegates to x.__float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__() . Added in version 3.14. float. as_integer_ratio ( ) ¶ Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the original float. The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive denominator. Raises OverflowError on infinities and a ValueError on NaNs. float. is_integer ( ) ¶ Return True if the float instance is finite with integral value, and False otherwise: >>> ( - 2.0 ) . is_integer () True >>> ( 3.2 ) . is_integer () False Two methods support conversion to and from hexadecimal strings. Since Python’s floats are stored internally as binary numbers, converting a float to or from a decimal string usually involves a small rounding error. In contrast, hexadecimal strings allow exact representation and specification of floating-point numbers. This can be useful when debugging, and in numerical work. float. hex ( ) ¶ Return a representation of a floating-point number as a hexadecimal string. For finite floating-point numbers, this representation will always include a leading 0x and a trailing p and exponent. classmethod float. fromhex ( s ) ¶ Class method to return the float represented by a hexadecimal string s . The string s may have leading and trailing whitespace. Note that float.hex() is an instance method, while float.fromhex() is a class method. A hexadecimal string takes the form: [ sign ] [ '0x' ] integer [ '.' fraction ] [ 'p' exponent ] where the optional sign may by either + or - , integer and fraction are strings of hexadecimal digits, and exponent is a decimal integer with an optional leading sign. Case is not significant, and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in either the integer or the fraction. This syntax is similar to the syntax specified in section 6.4.4.2 of the C99 standard, and also to the syntax used in Java 1.5 onwards. In particular, the output of float.hex() is usable as a hexadecimal floating-point literal in C or Java code, and hexadecimal strings produced by C’s %a format character or Java’s Double.toHexString are accepted by float.fromhex() . Note that the exponent is written in decimal rather than hexadecimal, and that it gives the power of 2 by which to multiply the coefficient. For example, the hexadecimal string 0x3.a7p10 represents the floating-point number (3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) * 2.0**10 , or 3740.0 : >>> float . fromhex ( '0x3.a7p10' ) 3740.0 Applying the reverse conversion to 3740.0 gives a different hexadecimal string representing the same number: >>> float . hex ( 3740.0 ) '0x1.d380000000000p+11' Additional Methods on Complex ¶ The complex type implements the numbers.Complex abstract base class . complex also has the following additional methods. classmethod complex. from_number ( x ) ¶ Class method to convert a number to a complex number. For a general Python object x , complex.from_number(x) delegates to x.__complex__() . If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to __float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__() . Added in version 3.14. Hashing of numeric types ¶ For numbers x and y , possibly of different types, it’s a requirement that hash(x) == hash(y) whenever x == y (see the __hash__() method documentation for more details). For ease of implementation and efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including int , float , decimal.Decimal and fractions.Fraction ) Python’s hash for numeric types is based on a single mathematical function that’s defined for any rational number, and hence applies to all instances of int and fractions.Fraction , and all finite instances of float and decimal.Decimal . Essentially, this function is given by reduction modulo P for a fixed prime P . The value of P is made available to Python as the modulus attribute of sys.hash_info . CPython implementation detail: Currently, the prime used is P = 2**31 - 1 on machines with 32-bit C longs and P = 2**61 - 1 on machines with 64-bit C longs. Here are the rules in detail: If x = m / n is a nonnegative rational number and n is not divisible by P , define hash(x) as m * invmod(n, P) % P , where invmod(n, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P . If x = m / n is a nonnegative rational number and n is divisible by P (but m is not) then n has no inverse modulo P and the rule above doesn’t apply; in this case define hash(x) to be the constant value sys.hash_info.inf . If x = m / n is a negative rational number define hash(x) as -hash(-x) . If the resulting hash is -1 , replace it with -2 . The particular values sys.hash_info.inf and -sys.hash_info.inf are used as hash values for positive infinity or negative infinity (respectively). For a complex number z , the hash values of the real and imaginary parts are combined by computing hash(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag) , reduced modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width so that it lies in range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)) . Again, if the result is -1 , it’s replaced with -2 . To clarify the above rules, here’s some example Python code, equivalent to the built-in hash, for computing the hash of a rational number, float , or complex : import sys , math def hash_fraction ( m , n ): """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n. Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive. Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)). """ P = sys . hash_info . modulus # Remove common factors of P. (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.) while m % P == n % P == 0 : m , n = m // P , n // P if n % P == 0 : hash_value = sys . hash_info . inf else : # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P. hash_value = ( abs ( m ) % P ) * pow ( n , P - 2 , P ) % P if m < 0 : hash_value = - hash_value if hash_value == - 1 : hash_value = - 2 return hash_value def hash_float ( x ): """Compute the hash of a float x.""" if math . isnan ( x ): return object . __hash__ ( x ) elif math . isinf ( x ): return sys . hash_info . inf if x > 0 else - sys . hash_info . inf else : return hash_fraction ( * x . as_integer_ratio ()) def hash_complex ( z ): """Compute the hash of a complex number z.""" hash_value = hash_float ( z . real ) + sys . hash_info . imag * hash_float ( z . imag ) # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width M = 2 ** ( sys . hash_info . width - 1 ) hash_value = ( hash_value & ( M - 1 )) - ( hash_value & M ) if hash_value == - 1 : hash_value = - 2 return hash_value Boolean Type - bool ¶ Booleans represent truth values. The bool type has exactly two constant instances: True and False . The built-in function bool() converts any value to a boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section Truth Value Testing above). For logical operations, use the boolean operators and , or and not . When applying the bitwise operators & , | , ^ to two booleans, they return a bool equivalent to the logical operations “and”, “or”, “xor”. However, the logical operators and , or and != should be preferred over & , | and ^ . Deprecated since version 3.12: The use of the bitwise inversion operator ~ is deprecated and will raise an error in Python 3.16. bool is a subclass of int (see Numeric Types — int, float, complex ). In many numeric contexts, False and True behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively. However, relying on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using int() instead. Iterator Types ¶ Python supports a concept of iteration over containers. This is implemented using two distinct methods; these are used to allow user-defined classes to support iteration. Sequences, described below in more detail, always support the iteration methods. One method needs to be defined for container objects to provide iterable support: container. __iter__ ( ) ¶ Return an iterator object. The object is required to support the iterator protocol described below. If a container supports different types of iteration, additional methods can be provided to specifically request iterators for those iteration types. (An example of an object supporting multiple forms of iteration would be a tree structure which supports both breadth-first and depth-first traversal.) This method corresponds to the tp_iter slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. The iterator objects themselves are required to support the following two methods, which together form the iterator protocol : iterator. __iter__ ( ) ¶ Return the iterator object itself. This is required to allow both containers and iterators to be used with the for and in statements. This method corresponds to the tp_iter slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. iterator. __next__ ( ) ¶ Return the next item from the iterator . If there are no further items, raise the StopIteration exception. This method corresponds to the tp_iternext slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. Python defines several iterator objects to support iteration over general and specific sequence types, dictionaries, and other more specialized forms. The specific types are not important beyond their implementation of the iterator protocol. Once an iterator’s __next__() method raises StopIteration , it must continue to do so on subsequent calls. Implementations that do not obey this property are deemed broken. Generator Types ¶ Python’s generator s provide a convenient way to implement the iterator protocol. If a container object’s __iter__() method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the __iter__() and __next__() methods. More information about generators can be found in the documentation for the yield expression . Sequence Types — list , tuple , range ¶ There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects. Additional sequence types tailored for processing of binary data and text strings are described in dedicated sections. Common Sequence Operations ¶ The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence types, both mutable and immutable. The collections.abc.Sequence ABC is provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types. This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority. In the table, s and t are sequences of the same type, n , i , j and k are integers and x is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value restrictions imposed by s . The in and not in operations have the same priorities as the comparison operations. The + (concatenation) and * (repetition) operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. [ 3 ] Operation Result Notes x in s True if an item of s is equal to x , else False (1) x not in s False if an item of s is equal to x , else True (1) s + t the concatenation of s and t (6)(7) s * n or n * s equivalent to adding s to itself n times (2)(7) s[i] i th item of s , origin 0 (3)(8) s[i:j] slice of s from i to j (3)(4) s[i:j:k] slice of s from i to j with step k (3)(5) len(s) length of s min(s) smallest item of s max(s) largest item of s Sequences of the same type also support comparisons. In particular, tuples and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements. This means that to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the two sequences must be of the same type and have the same length. (For full details see Comparisons in the language reference.) Forward and reversed iterators over mutable sequences access values using an index. That index will continue to march forward (or backward) even if the underlying sequence is mutated. The iterator terminates only when an IndexError or a StopIteration is encountered (or when the index drops below zero). Notes: While the in and not in operations are used only for simple containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences (such as str , bytes and bytearray ) also use them for subsequence testing: >>> "gg" in "eggs" True Values of n less than 0 are treated as 0 (which yields an empty sequence of the same type as s ). Note that items in the sequence s are not copied; they are referenced multiple times. This often haunts new Python programmers; consider: >>> lists = [[]] * 3 >>> lists [[], [], []] >>> lists [ 0 ] . append ( 3 ) >>> lists [[3], [3], [3]] What has happened is that [[]] is a one-element list containing an empty list, so all three elements of [[]] * 3 are references to this single empty list. Modifying any of the elements of lists modifies this single list. You can create a list of different lists this way: >>> lists = [[] for i in range ( 3 )] >>> lists [ 0 ] . append ( 3 ) >>> lists [ 1 ] . append ( 5 ) >>> lists [ 2 ] . append ( 7 ) >>> lists [[3], [5], [7]] Further explanation is available in the FAQ entry How do I create a multidimensional list? . If i or j is negative, the index is relative to the end of sequence s : len(s) + i or len(s) + j is substituted. But note that -0 is still 0 . The slice of s from i to j is defined as the sequence of items with index k such that i <= k < j . If i is omitted or None , use 0 . If j is omitted or None , use len(s) . If i or j is less than -len(s) , use 0 . If i or j is greater than len(s) , use len(s) . If i is greater than or equal to j , the slice is empty. The slice of s from i to j with step k is defined as the sequence of items with index x = i + n*k such that 0 <= n < (j-i)/k . In other words, the indices are i , i+k , i+2*k , i+3*k and so on, stopping when j is reached (but never including j ). When k is positive, i and j are reduced to len(s) if they are greater. When k is negative, i and j are reduced to len(s) - 1 if they are greater. If i or j are omitted or None , they become “end” values (which end depends on the sign of k ). Note, k cannot be zero. If k is None , it is treated like 1 . Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object. This means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation will have a quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length. To get a linear runtime cost, you must switch to one of the alternatives below: if concatenating str objects, you can build a list and use str.join() at the end or else write to an io.StringIO instance and retrieve its value when complete if concatenating bytes objects, you can similarly use bytes.join() or io.BytesIO , or you can do in-place concatenation with a bytearray object. bytearray objects are mutable and have an efficient overallocation mechanism if concatenating tuple objects, extend a list instead for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation Some sequence types (such as range ) only support item sequences that follow specific patterns, and hence don’t support sequence concatenation or repetition. An IndexError is raised if i is outside the sequence range. Sequence Methods Sequence types also support the following methods: sequence. count ( value , / ) ¶ Return the total number of occurrences of value in sequence . sequence. index ( value[, start[, stop] ) ¶ Return the index of the first occurrence of value in sequence . Raises ValueError if value is not found in sequence . The start or stop arguments allow for efficient searching of subsections of the sequence, beginning at start and ending at stop . This is roughly equivalent to start + sequence[start:stop].index(value) , only without copying any data. Caution Not all sequence types support passing the start and stop arguments. Immutable Sequence Types ¶ The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement that is not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for the hash() built-in. This support allows immutable sequences, such as tuple instances, to be used as dict keys and stored in set and frozenset instances. Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values will result in TypeError . Mutable Sequence Types ¶ The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence types. The collections.abc.MutableSequence ABC is provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types. In the table s is an instance of a mutable sequence type, t is any iterable object and x is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value restrictions imposed by s (for example, bytearray only accepts integers that meet the value restriction 0 <= x <= 255 ). Operation Result Notes s[i] = x item i of s is replaced by x del s[i] removes item i of s s[i:j] = t slice of s from i to j is replaced by the contents of the iterable t del s[i:j] removes the elements of s[i:j] from the list (same as s[i:j] = [] ) s[i:j:k] = t the elements of s[i:j:k] are replaced by those of t (1) del s[i:j:k] removes the elements of s[i:j:k] from the list s += t extends s with the contents of t (for the most part the same as s[len(s):len(s)] = t ) s *= n updates s with its contents repeated n times (2) Notes: If k is not equal to 1 , t must have the same length as the slice it is replacing. The value n is an integer, or an object implementing __index__() . Zero and negative values of n clear the sequence. Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced multiple times, as explained for s * n under Common Sequence Operations . Mutable Sequence Methods Mutable sequence types also support the following methods: sequence. append ( value , / ) ¶ Append value to the end of the sequence This is equivalent to writing seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = [value] . sequence. clear ( ) ¶ Added in version 3.3. Remove all items from sequence . This is equivalent to writing del sequence[:] . sequence. copy ( ) ¶ Added in version 3.3. Create a shallow copy of sequence . This is equivalent to writing sequence[:] . Hint The copy() method is not part of the MutableSequence ABC , but most concrete mutable sequence types provide it. sequence. extend ( iterable , / ) ¶ Extend sequence with the contents of iterable . For the most part, this is the same as writing seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = iterable . sequence. insert ( index , value , / ) ¶ Insert value into sequence at the given index . This is equivalent to writing sequence[index:index] = [value] . sequence. pop ( index = -1 , / ) ¶ Retrieve the item at index and also removes it from sequence . By default, the last item in sequence is removed and returned. sequence. remove ( value , / ) ¶ Remove the first item from sequence where sequence[i] == value . Raises ValueError if value is not found in sequence . sequence. reverse ( ) ¶ Reverse the items of sequence in place. This method maintains economy of space when reversing a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side-effect, it returns None . Lists ¶ Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by application). class list ( iterable = () , / ) ¶ Lists may be constructed in several ways: Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: [] Using square brackets, separating items with commas: [a] , [a, b, c] Using a list comprehension: [x for x in iterable] Using the type constructor: list() or list(iterable) The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable ’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar to iterable[:] . For example, list('abc') returns ['a', 'b', 'c'] and list( (1, 2, 3) ) returns [1, 2, 3] . If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty list, [] . Many other operations also produce lists, including the sorted() built-in. Lists implement all of the common and mutable sequence operations. Lists also provide the following additional method: sort ( * , key = None , reverse = False ) ¶ This method sorts the list in place, using only < comparisons between items. Exceptions are not suppressed - if any comparison operations fail, the entire sort operation will fail (and the list will likely be left in a partially modified state). sort() accepts two arguments that can only be passed by keyword ( keyword-only arguments ): key specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each list element (for example, key=str.lower ). The key corresponding to each item in the list is calculated once and then used for the entire sorting process. The default value of None means that list items are sorted directly without calculating a separate key value. The functools.cmp_to_key() utility is available to convert a 2.x style cmp function to a key function. reverse is a boolean value. If set to True , then the list elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed. This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of space when sorting a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side effect, it does not return the sorted sequence (use sorted() to explicitly request a new sorted list instance). The sort() method is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that compare equal — this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by department, then by salary grade). For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see Sorting Techniques . CPython implementation detail: While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation of Python makes the list appear empty for the duration, and raises ValueError if it can detect that the list has been mutated during a sort. Thread safety Reading a single element from a list is atomic : lst [ i ] # list.__getitem__ The following methods traverse the list and use atomic reads of each item to perform their function. That means that they may return results affected by concurrent modifications: item in lst lst . index ( item ) lst . count ( item ) All of the above methods/operations are also lock-free. They do not block concurrent modifications. Other operations that hold a lock will not block these from observing intermediate states. All other operations from here on block using the per-object lock. Writing a single item via lst[i] = x is safe to call from multiple threads and will not corrupt the list. The following operations return new objects and appear atomic to other threads: lst1 + lst2 # concatenates two lists into a new list x * lst # repeats lst x times into a new list lst . copy () # returns a shallow copy of the list Methods that only operate on a single elements with no shifting required are atomic : lst . append ( x ) # append to the end of the list, no shifting required lst . pop () # pop element from the end of the list, no shifting required The clear() method is also atomic . Other threads cannot observe elements being removed. The sort() method is not atomic . Other threads cannot observe intermediate states during sorting, but the list appears empty for the duration of the sort. The following operations may allow lock-free operations to observe intermediate states since they modify multiple elements in place: lst . insert ( idx , item ) # shifts elements lst . pop ( idx ) # idx not at the end of the list, shifts elements lst *= x # copies elements in place The remove() method may allow concurrent modifications since element comparison may execute arbitrary Python code (via __eq__() ). extend() is safe to call from multiple threads. However, its guarantees depend on the iterable passed to it. If it is a list , a tuple , a set , a frozenset , a dict or a dictionary view object (but not their subclasses), the extend operation is safe from concurrent modifications to the iterable. Otherwise, an iterator is created which can be concurrently modified by another thread. The same applies to inplace concatenation of a list with other iterables when using lst += iterable . Similarly, assigning to a list slice with lst[i:j] = iterable is safe to call from multiple threads, but iterable is only locked when it is also a list (but not its subclasses). Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are never atomic. For example: # NOT atomic: read-modify-write lst [ i ] = lst [ i ] + 1 # NOT atomic: check-then-act if lst : item = lst . pop () # NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying for item in lst : process ( item ) # another thread may modify lst Consider external synchronization when sharing list instances across threads. See Python support for free threading for more information. Tuples ¶ Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the enumerate() built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a set or dict instance). class tuple ( iterable = () , / ) ¶ Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways: Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: () Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: a, or (a,) Separating items with commas: a, b, c or (a, b, c) Using the tuple() built-in: tuple() or tuple(iterable) The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable ’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example, tuple('abc') returns ('a', 'b', 'c') and tuple( [1, 2, 3] ) returns (1, 2, 3) . If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, () . Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses. The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example, f(a, b, c) is a function call with three arguments, while f((a, b, c)) is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument. Tuples implement all of the common sequence operations. For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than access by index, collections.namedtuple() may be a more appropriate choice than a simple tuple object. Ranges ¶ The range type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is commonly used for looping a specific number of times in for loops. class range ( stop , / ) ¶ class range ( start , stop , step = 1 , / ) The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in int or any object that implements the __index__() special method). If the step argument is omitted, it defaults to 1 . If the start argument is omitted, it defaults to 0 . If step is zero, ValueError is raised. For a positive step , the contents of a range r are determined by the formula r[i] = start + step*i where i >= 0 and r[i] < stop . For a negative step , the contents of the range are still determined by the formula r[i] = start + step*i , but the constraints are i >= 0 and r[i] > stop . A range object will be empty if r[0] does not meet the value constraint. Ranges do support negative indices, but these are interpreted as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by the positive indices. Ranges containing absolute values larger than sys.maxsize are permitted but some features (such as len() ) may raise OverflowError . Range examples: >>> list ( range ( 10 )) [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] >>> list ( range ( 1 , 11 )) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] >>> list ( range ( 0 , 30 , 5 )) [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25] >>> list ( range ( 0 , 10 , 3 )) [0, 3, 6, 9] >>> list ( range ( 0 , - 10 , - 1 )) [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9] >>> list ( range ( 0 )) [] >>> list ( range ( 1 , 0 )) [] Ranges implement all of the common sequence operations except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range objects can only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern and repetition and concatenation will usually violate that pattern). start ¶ The value of the start parameter (or 0 if the parameter was not supplied) stop ¶ The value of the stop parameter step ¶ The value of the step parameter (or 1 if the parameter was not supplied) The advantage of the range type over a regular list or tuple is that a range object will always take the same (small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range it represents (as it only stores the start , stop and step values, calculating individual items and subranges as needed). Range objects implement the collections.abc.Sequence ABC, and provide features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and support for negative indices (see Sequence Types — list, tuple, range ): >>> r = range ( 0 , 20 , 2 ) >>> r range(0, 20, 2) >>> 11 in r False >>> 10 in r True >>> r . index ( 10 ) 5 >>> r [ 5 ] 10 >>> r [: 5 ] range(0, 10, 2) >>> r [ - 1 ] 18 Testing range objects for equality with == and != compares them as sequences. That is, two range objects are considered equal if they represent the same sequence of values. (Note that two range objects that compare equal might have different start , stop and step attributes, for example range(0) == range(2, 1, 3) or range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2) .) Changed in version 3.2: Implement the Sequence ABC. Support slicing and negative indices. Test int objects for membership in constant time instead of iterating through all items. Changed in version 3.3: Define ‘==’ and ‘!=’ to compare range objects based on the sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on object identity). Added the start , stop and step attributes. See also The linspace recipe shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating-point applications. Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary ¶ The following table summarizes the text and binary sequence types methods by category. Category str methods bytes and bytearray methods Formatting str.format() str.format_map() f-strings printf-style String Formatting printf-style Bytes Formatting Searching and Replacing str.find() str.rfind() bytes.find() bytes.rfind() str.index() str.rindex() bytes.index() bytes.rindex() str.startswith() bytes.startswith() str.endswith() bytes.endswith() str.count() bytes.count() str.replace() bytes.replace() Splitting and Joining str.split() str.rsplit() bytes.split() bytes.rsplit() str.splitlines() bytes.splitlines() str.partition() bytes.partition() str.rpartition() bytes.rpartition() str.join() bytes.join() String Classification str.isalpha() bytes.isalpha() str.isdecimal() str.isdigit() bytes.isdigit() str.isnumeric() str.isalnum() bytes.isalnum() str.isidentifier() str.islower() bytes.islower() str.isupper() bytes.isupper() str.istitle() bytes.istitle() str.isspace() bytes.isspace() str.isprintable() Case Manipulation str.lower() bytes.lower() str.upper() bytes.upper() str.casefold() str.capitalize() bytes.capitalize() str.title() bytes.title() str.swapcase() bytes.swapcase() Padding and Stripping str.ljust() str.rjust() bytes.ljust() bytes.rjust() str.center() bytes.center() str.expandtabs() bytes.expandtabs() str.strip() bytes.strip() str.lstrip() str.rstrip() bytes.lstrip() bytes.rstrip() Translation and Encoding str.translate() bytes.translate() str.maketrans() bytes.maketrans() str.encode() bytes.decode() Text Sequence Type — str ¶ Textual data in Python is handled with str objects, or strings . Strings are immutable sequences of Unicode code points. String literals are written in a variety of ways: Single quotes: 'allows embedded "double" quotes' Double quotes: "allows embedded 'single' quotes" Triple quoted: '''Three single quotes''' , """Three double quotes""" Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated whitespace will be included in the string literal. String literals that are part of a single expression and have only whitespace between them will be implicitly converted to a single string literal. That is, ("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs" . See String and Bytes literals for more about the various forms of string literal | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Rob Fox Posted on Jan 12 Shift-Left Reliability # sre # devops # cicd # platformengineering We've become exceptionally good at incident response. Modern teams restore service quickly, run thoughtful postmortems, and hold themselves accountable through corrective actions. And yet… A team ships a change that passes every test, gets all the required approvals, and still brings down checkout for 47 minutes. The postmortem conclusion? "We should have known our latency SLO was already at 94% before deploying." Many postmortems point to the same root cause: changes we introduced ourselves. Not hardware failures. Not random outages. Just software behaving exactly as we told it to. We continue to treat reliability as something to evaluate once those changes are already live. This isn't a failure of tooling or process. It's a question of when we decide whether a system is ready. The paradox We've invested heavily in observing and responding to failure - better alerting, faster incident response, thorough postmortems. Teams care deeply about reliability and spend significant time optimizing how they respond to incidents. But when in a service's lifecycle are they supposed to define reliability? Where's the innovation that happens before deployment? Where reliability decisions actually happen today I've seen multiple teams running identical technology stacks with completely different SLOs, metrics, and alerts. Nobody told them what to implement, what's best-practice or how to tune their alerts. They want to be good reliability citizens, but getting from the theory in the handbook to putting that theory into practice is not straightforward. Services regularly move into production with SLOs being created months later - or never. Dashboards are missing, insufficient, or inconsistent. "Looks fine to me" during PR reviews. Tribal knowledge. Varying levels of understanding across teams. Reliability is fundamentally bespoke and ungoverned. That's the core issue. The missing layer GitHub gave us version control for code. Terraform gave us version control for infrastructure. Security has transformed with shift-left - finding flaws as code is written, not after deployment. We're still missing version control for reliability. We need a specification that defines requirements, validates them against reality, and generates the artifacts: dashboards, SLOs, alerts, escalation policies. If the specification is validated and the artifacts created, the same tool can check in real-time whether a service is in breach - and block high-risk deployments in CI/CD. What shift-left reliability actually means Shift-left reliability doesn't mean more alerts and dashboards, more postmortems or more people in the room. It means: Spec - Define reliability requirements as code before production deployment Validate - Test those requirements against reality Enforce - Gate deployments through CI/CD Engineers don't write PromQL or Grafana JSON - they declare intent, and reliability becomes deterministic. Outcomes are predictable, consistent, transparent, and follow best practice. An executable reliability contract Keep it simple. A team creates a service.yaml file with their reliability intent: name: payment-api tier: critical type: api team: payments dependencies: - postgresql - redis Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Here is a complete service.yaml example . Tooling validates metrics, SLOs, and error budgets then generates these artifacts automatically. This is the approach I am exploring with an open-source project called NthLayer. NthLayer runs in any CI/CD pipeline - GitHub Actions, ArgoCD, Jenkins, Tekton, GitLab CI. The goal isn't to be an inflexible blocker; it's visible risk and explicit decisions. Overrides are fine when they're intentional, logged, and owned. When a deployment is attempted, the specification is evaluated against reality: $ nthlayer check-deploy - service payment-api ERROR: Deployment blocked - availability SLO at 99.2% (target: 99.95%) - error budget exhausted: -47 minutes remaining - 3 P1 incidents in last 7 days Exit code: 2 (BLOCKED) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Why now? SLOs have had 8+ years to mature and move from the Google SRE Handbook into mainstream practice. GitOps has normalized declarative configuration. Platform Engineering has matured as a discipline. The concepts are ready but the tooling has lagged behind. This is a deliberate shift in approach. Reliability is no longer up for debate during incidents. Services have defined owners with deterministic standards. We can stop reinventing the reliability wheel every time a new service is onboarded. If requirements change, update the service.yaml , run NthLayer and every service benefits from adopting the new standard. What this does not replace NthLayer doesn't replace service catalogs, developer portals, observability platforms, or incident management. It doesn't predict failures or eliminate human judgment. It's upstream of all these systems. The goal: a reliability specification, automated deployment gates and to reduce cognitive load to implement best practices. Open questions I don't have all the answers but two questions I keep returning to are: Contract Drift: What happens when the spec says 99.95% but reality has been 99.5% for months? Is the contract wrong, or is the service broken? Emergency Overrides: How should they work? Who approves? How do you prevent them from becoming the default? The timing problem Where do reliability decisions actually happen in your organization? What would it look like to decide readiness before deployment? What reliability rules do you wish you could enforce automatically? The timing problem isn't going away. The only question is whether you address it before deployment - or learn about it in the postmortem. NthLayer is open source and looking for early adopters. If you're tired of reliability being an afterthought: pip install nthlayer nthlayer init nthlayer check-deploy --service your-service Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode → github.com/rsionnach/nthlayer Star the repo, open an issue, or tell me I'm wrong. I want to hear how reliability decisions happen in your organization. Rob Fox is a Senior Site Reliability Engineer focused on platform and reliability tooling. He's exploring how reliability engineering can move earlier in the software delivery lifecycle. Find him on GitHub . Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Rob Fox Follow Sr Site Reliability Engineer. Building NthLayer, an open-source tool for shift-left reliability. 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https://emailselfdefense.fsf.org?pk_campaign=fsfhome | Email Self-Defense - a guide to fighting surveillance with GnuPG encryption Due to Enigmail's PGP functionality being migrated into Icedove and Thunderbird, steps 2 and 3 of the guide are currently out of date. Thank you for your patience while we're working on a new round of updates. --> ​ Push freedom ahead! The free software community has always thwarted the toughest challenges facing freedom in technology. This winter season, we want to thank the many individuals and projects that have helped us get where we are today: a world where a growing number of users are able to do their computing in full freedom. Our work isn't over. We have so much more to do. Help us reach our stretch New Year's membership goal of 100 new associate members by January 16, 2026, and keep the FSF strong and independent. Join | Read more Join Renew Donate Email Self-Defense English - v5.0 čeština - v5.0 Deutsch - v4.0 ελληνικά - v3.0 --> español - v5.0 فارسی - v4.0 --> français - v5.0 italiano - v5.0 日本語 - v4.0 --> polski - v5.0 português do Brasil - v3.0 română - v3.0 --> русский - v5.0 Shqip - v5.0 svenska - v4.0 --> Türkçe - v5.0 简体中文 - v5.0 Translate! Set up guide Mac OS --> Windows --> Teach your friends This site's tor onion service Share We fight for computer users' rights, and promote the development of free (as in freedom) software. Resisting bulk surveillance is very important to us. Please donate to support Email Self-Defense. We need to keep improving it, and making more materials, for the benefit of people around the world taking the first step towards protecting their privacy. Sign up Enter your email address to receive our monthly newsletter, the Free Software Supporter Bulk surveillance violates our fundamental rights and makes free speech risky. This guide will teach you a basic surveillance self-defense skill: email encryption. Once you've finished, you'll be able to send and receive emails that are scrambled to make sure a surveillance agent or thief intercepting your email can't read them. All you need is a computer with an Internet connection, an email account, and about forty minutes. Even if you have nothing to hide, using encryption helps protect the privacy of people you communicate with, and makes life difficult for bulk surveillance systems. If you do have something important to hide, you're in good company; these are the same tools that whistleblowers use to protect their identities while shining light on human rights abuses, corruption, and other crimes. In addition to using encryption, standing up to surveillance requires fighting politically for a reduction in the amount of data collected on us , but the essential first step is to protect yourself and make surveillance of your communication as difficult as possible. This guide helps you do that. It is designed for beginners, but if you already know the basics of GnuPG or are an experienced free software user, you'll enjoy the advanced tips and the guide to teaching your friends . #1 Get the pieces This guide relies on software which is freely licensed ; it's completely transparent and anyone can copy it or make their own version. This makes it safer from surveillance than proprietary software (like Windows or macOS). Learn more about free software at fsf.org . Most GNU/Linux operating systems come with GnuPG installed on them, so if you're running one of these systems, you don't have to download it. If you're running macOS or Windows, steps to download GnuPG are below. Before configuring your encryption setup with this guide, though, you'll need a desktop email program installed on your computer. Many GNU/Linux distributions have one installed already, such as Icedove, which may be under the alternate name "Thunderbird." Programs like these are another way to access the same email accounts you can access in a browser (like Gmail), but provide extra features. Step 1.a Set up your email program with your email account Open your email program and follow the wizard (step-by-step walkthrough) that sets it up with your email account. This usually starts from "Account Settings" → "Add Mail Account". You should get the email server settings from your systems administrator or the help section of your email account. Troubleshooting The wizard doesn't launch You can launch the wizard yourself, but the menu option for doing so is named differently in each email program. The button to launch it will be in the program's main menu, under "New" or something similar, titled something like "Add account" or "New/Existing email account." The wizard can't find my account or isn't downloading my mail Before searching the Web, we recommend you start by asking other people who use your email system, to figure out the correct settings. I can't find the menu In many new email programs, the main menu is represented by an image of three stacked horizontal bars. Don't see a solution to your problem? Please let us know on the feedback page . Step 1.b Install GnuPG If you are using a GNU/Linux machine, you should already have GnuPG installed, and you can skip to Section 2 . If you are using a macOS or Windows machine, however, you need to first install the GnuPG program. Select your operating system below and follow the instructions. For the rest of this guide, the steps are the same for all operating systems. macOS Use a third-party package manager to install GnuPG The default macOS package manager makes it difficult to install GnuPG and other pieces of free software (like Emacs, GIMP, or Inkscape). To make things easier, we recommend setting up the third-party package manager "Homebrew" to install GnuPG. For this, we will use a program called "Terminal," which is pre-installed on macOS. # Copy the first command on the home page of Homebrew by clicking on the clipboard icon, and paste it in Terminal. Click "Enter" and wait for the installation to finalize. # Then install GnuPG by entering the following code in Terminal: brew install gnupg gnupg2 Windows Get GnuPG by downloading GPG4Win GPG4Win is an email and file encryption software package that includes GnuPG. Download and install the latest version, choosing default options whenever asked. After it's installed, you can close any windows that it creates. GnuPG, OpenPGP, what? In general, the terms GnuPG, GPG, GNU Privacy Guard, OpenPGP and PGP are used interchangeably. Technically, OpenPGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is the encryption standard, and GNU Privacy Guard (often shortened to GPG or GnuPG) is the program that implements the standard. Most email programs provide an interface for GnuPG. There is also a newer version of GnuPG, called GnuPG2. #2 Make your keys To use the GnuPG system, you'll need a public key and a private key (known together as a keypair). Each is a long string of randomly generated numbers and letters that are unique to you. Your public and private keys are linked together by a special mathematical function. Your public key isn't like a physical key, because it's stored in the open in an online directory called a keyserver. People download it and use it, along with GnuPG, to encrypt emails they send to you. You can think of the keyserver as a phonebook; people who want to send you encrypted email can look up your public key. Your private key is more like a physical key, because you keep it to yourself (on your computer). You use GnuPG and your private key together to descramble encrypted emails other people send to you. You should never share your private key with anyone, under any circumstances. In addition to encryption and decryption, you can also use these keys to sign messages and check the authenticity of other people's signatures. We'll discuss this more in the next section. Step 2.a Make a keypair Make your keypair We will use the command line in a terminal to create a keypair using the GnuPG program. Whether on GNU/Linux, macOS or Windows, you can launch your terminal ("Terminal" in macOS, "PowerShell" in Windows) from the Applications menu (some GNU/Linux systems respond to the Ctrl + Alt + T shortcut). # Enter gpg --full-generate-key to start the process. # To answer what kind of key you would like to create, select the default option: 1 RSA and RSA . # Enter the following keysize: 4096 for a strong key. # Choose the expiration date; we suggest 2y (2 years). Follow the prompts to continue setting up with your personal details. Depending on your version of GPG, you may need to use --gen-key instead of --full-generate-key . You can set further options by running gpg --edit-key [your@email] in a terminal window. Set your passphrase On the screen titled "Passphrase," pick a strong passphrase! You can do it manually, or you can use the Diceware method. Doing it manually is faster but not as secure. Using Diceware takes longer and requires dice, but creates a passphrase that is much harder for attackers to figure out. To use it, read the section "Make a secure passphrase with Diceware" in this article by Micah Lee. If you'd like to pick a passphrase manually, come up with something you can remember which is at least twelve characters long, and includes at least one lower case and upper case letter and at least one number or punctuation symbol. Never pick a passphrase you've used elsewhere. Don't use any recognizable patterns, such as birthdays, telephone numbers, pets' names, song lyrics, quotes from books, and so on. Troubleshooting GnuPG is not installed You can check if this is the case with the command gpg --version . If GnuPG is not installed, it will bring up the following result on most GNU/Linux operating systems, or something like it: Command 'gpg' not found, but can be installed with: sudo apt install gnupg . Follow that command and install the program. gpg --full-generate-key command not working Some distributions use a different version of GPG. When you receive an error code that is something along the lines of: gpg: Invalid option "--full-generate-key" , you can try the following commands: sudo apt update sudo apt install gnupg2 gpg2 --full-generate-key If this resolved the issue, you need to continue to use the gpg2 identifier instead of gpg throughout the following steps of the guide. Depending on your version of GPG, you may need to use --gen-key instead of --full-generate-key . I took too long to create my passphrase That's okay. It's important to think about your passphrase. When you're ready, just follow the steps from the beginning again to create your key. How can I see my key? Use the following command to see all keys: gpg --list-keys . Yours should be listed in there, and later, so will Edward's ( Section 3 ). If you want to see only your key, you can use gpg --list-key [your@email] . You can also use gpg --list-secret-key to see your own private key. More resources For more information about this process, you can also refer to The GNU Privacy Handbook . Make sure you stick with "RSA and RSA" (the default), because it's newer and more secure than the algorithms the documentation recommends. Also make sure your key is at least 4096 bits if you want to be secure. Don't see a solution to your problem? Please let us know on the feedback page . Advanced Advanced key pairs When GnuPG creates a new keypair, it compartmentalizes the encryption function from the signing function through subkeys . If you use subkeys carefully, you can keep your GnuPG identity more secure and recover from a compromised key much more quickly. Alex Cabal and the Debian wiki provide good guides for setting up a secure subkey configuration. Step 2.b Some important steps following creation Upload your key to a keyserver We will upload your key to a keyserver, so if someone wants to send you an encrypted message, they can download your public key from the Internet. There are multiple keyservers that you can select from the menu when you upload, but they are mostly all copies of each other. Any server will work, but it's good to remember which one you uploaded your key to originally. Also keep in mind, sometimes takes a few hours for them to match each other when a new key is uploaded. # Copy your keyID: gpg --list-key [your@email] will list your public ("pub") key information, including your keyID, which is a unique list of numbers and letters. Copy this keyID, so you can use it in the following command. # Upload your key to a server: gpg --send-key [keyID] Export your key to a file Use the following command to export your secret key so you can import it into your email client at the next step . To avoid getting your key compromised, store this in a safe place, and make sure that if it is transferred, it is done so in a trusted way. Exporting your keys can be done with the following commands: $ gpg --export-secret-keys -a [keyID] > my_secret_key.asc $ gpg --export -a [keyID] > my_public_key.asc Generate a revocation certificate Just in case you lose your key, or it gets compromised, you want to generate a certificate and choose to save it in a safe place on your computer for now (please refer to Step 6.C for how to best store your revocation cerficate safely). This step is essential for your email self-defense, as you'll learn more about in Section 5 . # Copy your keyID: gpg --list-key [your@email] will list your public ("pub") key information, including your keyID, which is a unique list of numbers and letters. Copy this keyID, so you can use it in the following command. # Generate a revocation certificate: gpg --gen-revoke --output revoke.asc [keyID] # It will prompt you to give a reason for revocation, we recommend to use 1 = key has been compromised . # You don't have to fill in a reason, but you can; then press "Enter" for an empty line, and confirm your selection. Troubleshooting Sending my key to the keyserver is not working Instead of using the general command to upload your key to the keyserver, you can use a more specific command and add the keyserver to your command gpg --keyserver keys.openpgp.org --send-key [keyID] . My key doesn't seem to be working or I get a "permission denied." Like every other file or folder, gpg keys are subject to permissions. If these are not set correctly, your system may not be accepting your keys. You can follow the next steps to check, and update to the right permissions. # Check your permissions: ls -l ~/.gnupg/* # Set permissions to read, write, execute for only yourself, no others. These are the recommended permissions for your folder. You can use the command: chmod 700 ~/.gnupg # Set permissions to read and write for yourself only, no others. These are the recommended permissions for the keys inside your folder. You can use the code: chmod 600 ~/.gnupg/* If you have (for any reason) created your own folders inside ~/.gnupg, you must also additionally apply execute permissions to that folder. Folders require execution privileges to be opened. For more information on permissions, you can check out this detailed information guide . Don't see a solution to your problem? Please let us know on the feedback page . Advanced More about keyservers You can find some more keyserver information in this manual . You can also directly export your key as a file on your computer. Transferring your keys Use the following commands to transfer your keys. To avoid getting your key compromised, store it in a safe place, and make sure that if it is transferred, it is done so in a trusted way. Importing and exporting a key can be done with the following commands: $ gpg --export-secret-keys -a [keyID] > my_private_key.asc $ gpg --export -a [keyID] > my_public_key.asc $ gpg --import my_private_key.asc $ gpg --import my_public_key.asc Ensure that the keyID printed is the correct one, and if so, then go ahead and add ultimate trust for it: $ gpg --edit-key [your@email] Because this is your key, you should choose ultimate . You shouldn't trust anyone else's key ultimately. Refer to Troubleshooting in Step 2.B for more information on permissions. When transferring keys, your permissions may get mixed, and errors may be prompted. These are easily avoided when your folders and files have the right permissions #3 Set up email encryption The Icedove (or Thunderbird) email program has PGP functionality integrated, which makes it pretty easy to work with. We'll take you through the steps of integrating and using your key in these email clients. Step 3.a Set up your email with encryption Once you have set up your email with encryption, you can start contributing to encrypted traffic on the Internet. First we'll get your email client to import your secret key, and we will also learn how to get other people's public keys from servers so you can send and receive encrypted email. # Open your email client and use "Tools" → OpenPGP Key Manager # Under "File" → Import Secret Key(s) From File # Select the file you saved under the name [my_secret_key.asc] in Step 2.B when you exported your key # Unlock with your passphrase # You will receive a "OpenPGP keys successfully imported" window to confirm success # Go to "Account settings" → "End-To-End Encryption," and make sure your key is imported and select Treat this key as a Personal Key . Troubleshooting I'm not sure the import worked correctly Look for "Account settings" → "End-To-End Encryption." Here you can see if your personal key associated with this email is found. If it is not, you can try again via the Add key option. Make sure you have the correct, active, secret key file. Don't see a solution to your problem? Please let us know on the feedback page . #4 Try it out! Now you'll try a test correspondence with an FSF computer program named Edward, who knows how to use encryption. Except where noted, these are the same steps you'd follow when corresponding with a real, live person. NOTE: Edward is currently having some technical difficulties, so he may take a long time to respond, or not respond at all. We're sorry about this and we're working hard to fix it. Your key will still work even without testing with Edward. --> Step 4.a Send Edward your public key This is a special step that you won't have to do when corresponding with real people. In your email program's menu, go to "Tools" → "OpenPGP Key Manager." You should see your key in the list that pops up. Right click on your key and select Send Public Keys by Email . This will create a new draft message, as if you had just hit the "Write" button, but in the attachment you will find your public keyfile. Address the message to edward-en@fsf.org . Put at least one word (whatever you want) in the subject and body of the email. Don't send yet. We want Edward to be able to open the email with your keyfile, so we want this first special message to be unencrypted. Make sure encryption is turned off by using the dropdown menu "Security" and select Do Not Encrypt . Once encryption is off, hit Send. It may take two or three minutes for Edward to respond. In the meantime, you might want to skip ahead and check out the Use it Well section of this guide. Once you have received a response, head to the next step. From here on, you'll be doing just the same thing as when corresponding with a real person. When you open Edward's reply, GnuPG may prompt you for your passphrase before using your private key to decrypt it. Step 4.b Send a test encrypted email Get Edward's key To encrypt an email to Edward, you need its public key, so now you'll have to download it from a keyserver. You can do this in two different ways: Option 1. In the email answer you received from Edward as a response to your first email, Edward's public key was included. On the right of the email, just above the writing area, you will find an "OpenPGP" button that has a lock and a little wheel next to it. Click that, and select Discover next to the text: "This message was signed with a key that you don't yet have." A popup with Edward's key details will follow. Option 2. Open your OpenPGP Key manager, and under "Keyserver" choose Discover Keys Online . Here, fill in Edward's email address, and import Edward's key. The option Accepted (unverified) will add this key to your key manager, and now it can be used to send encrypted emails and to verify digital signatures from Edward. In the popup window confirming if you want to import Edward's key, you'll see many different emails that are all associated with its key. This is correct; you can safely import the key. Since you encrypted this email with Edward's public key, Edward's private key is required to decrypt it. Edward is the only one with its private key, so no one except Edward can decrypt it. Send Edward an encrypted email Write a new email in your email program, addressed to edward-en@fsf.org . Make the subject "Encryption test" or something similar and write something in the body. This time, make sure encryption is turned on by using the dropdown menu "Security" and select Require Encryption . Once encryption is on, hit Send. Troubleshooting "Recipients not valid, not trusted or not found" You could get the above error message, or something along these lines: "Unable to send this message with end-to-end encryption, because there are problems with the keys of the following recipients: ..." In these cases, you may be trying to send an encrypted email to someone when you do not have their public key yet. Make sure you follow the steps above to import the key to your key manager. Open the OpenPGP Key Manager to make sure the recipient is listed there. Unable to send message You could get the following message when trying to send your encrypted email: "Unable to send this message with end-to-end encryption, because there are problems with the keys of the following recipients: edward-en@fsf.org." This usually means you imported the key with the "Not accepted (undecided)" option. Go to the "key properties" of this key by right clicking on the key in the OpenPGP Key Manager, and select the option Yes, but I have not verified that this is the correct key in the "Acceptance" option at the bottom of this window. Resend the email. I can't find Edward's key Close the pop-ups that have appeared since you clicked Send. Make sure you are connected to the Internet and try again. If that doesn't work, you can download the key manually from the keyserver , and import it by using the Import Public Key(s) from File option in the OpenPGP Key Manager. Unscrambled messages in the Sent folder Even though you can't decrypt messages encrypted to someone else's key, your email program will automatically save a copy encrypted to your public key, which you'll be able to view from the Sent folder like a normal email. This is normal, and it doesn't mean that your email was not sent encrypted. Don't see a solution to your problem? Please let us know on the feedback page . Advanced Encrypt messages from the command line You can also encrypt and decrypt messages and files from the command line , if that's your preference. The option --armor makes the encrypted output appear in the regular character set. Important: Security tips Even if you encrypt your email, the subject line is not encrypted, so don't put private information there. The sending and receiving addresses aren't encrypted either, so a surveillance system can still figure out who you're communicating with. Also, surveillance agents will know that you're using GnuPG, even if they can't figure out what you're saying. When you send attachments, you can choose to encrypt them or not, independent of the actual email. For greater security against potential attacks, you can turn off HTML. Instead, you can render the message body as plain text. In order to do this in Icedove or Thunderbird, go to "View" → "Message Body As" → Plain Text . Step 4.c Receive a response When Edward receives your email, it will use its private key to decrypt it, then reply to you. It may take two or three minutes for Edward to respond. In the meantime, you might want to skip ahead and check out the Use it Well section of this guide. Edward will send you an encrypted email back saying your email was received and decrypted. Your email client will automatically decrypt Edward's message. The OpenPGP button in the email will show a little green checkmark over the lock symbol to show the message is encrypted, and a little orange warning sign which means that you have accepted the key, but not verified it. When you have not yet accepted the key, you will see a little question mark there. Clicking the prompts in this button will lead you to key properties as well. Step 4.d Send a signed test email GnuPG includes a way for you to sign messages and files, verifying that they came from you and that they weren't tampered with along the way. These signatures are stronger than their pen-and-paper cousins -- they're impossible to forge, because they're impossible to create without your private key (another reason to keep your private key safe). You can sign messages to anyone, so it's a great way to make people aware that you use GnuPG and that they can communicate with you securely. If they don't have GnuPG, they will be able to read your message and see your signature. If they do have GnuPG, they'll also be able to verify that your signature is authentic. To sign an email to Edward, compose any message to the email address and click the pencil icon next to the lock icon so that it turns gold. If you sign a message, GnuPG may ask you for your passphrase before it sends the message, because it needs to unlock your private key for signing. In "Account Settings" → "End-To-End-Encryption" you can opt to add digital signature by default . Step 4.e Receive a response When Edward receives your email, he will use your public key (which you sent him in Step 3.A ) to verify the message you sent has not been tampered with and to encrypt a reply to you. It may take two or three minutes for Edward to respond. In the meantime, you might want to skip ahead and check out the Use it Well section of this guide. Edward's reply will arrive encrypted, because he prefers to use encryption whenever possible. If everything goes according to plan, it should say "Your signature was verified." If your test signed email was also encrypted, he will mention that first. When you receive Edward's email and open it, your email client will automatically detect that it is encrypted with your public key, and then it will use your private key to decrypt it. #5 Learn about the Web of Trust Email encryption is a powerful technology, but it has a weakness: it requires a way to verify that a person's public key is actually theirs. Otherwise, there would be no way to stop an attacker from making an email address with your friend's name, creating keys to go with it, and impersonating your friend. That's why the free software programmers that developed email encryption created keysigning and the Web of Trust. When you sign someone's key, you are publicly saying that you've verified that it belongs to them and not someone else. Signing keys and signing messages use the same type of mathematical operation, but they carry very different implications. It's a good practice to generally sign your email, but if you casually sign people's keys, you may accidentally end up vouching for the identity of an imposter. People who use your public key can see who has signed it. Once you've used GnuPG for a long time, your key may have hundreds of signatures. You can consider a key to be more trustworthy if it has many signatures from people that you trust. The Web of Trust is a constellation of GnuPG users, connected to each other by chains of trust expressed through signatures. Step 5.a Sign a key In your email program's menu, go to OpenPGP Key Manager and select Key properties by right clicking on Edward's key. Under "Your Acceptance," you can select Yes, I've verified in person this key has the correct fingerprint . You've just effectively said "I trust that Edward's public key actually belongs to Edward." This doesn't mean much because Edward isn't a real person, but it's good practice, and for real people it is important. You can read more about signing a person's key in the check IDs before signing section. From: To: End #pgp-pathfinder --> Identifying keys: Fingerprints and IDs People's public keys are usually identified by their key fingerprint, which is a string of digits like F357AA1A5B1FA42CFD9FE52A9FF2194CC09A61E8 (for Edward's key). You can see the fingerprint for your public key, and other public keys saved on your computer, by going to OpenPGP Key Management in your email program's menu, then right clicking on the key and choosing Key Properties. It's good practice to share your fingerprint wherever you share your email address, so that people can double-check that they have the correct public key when they download yours from a keyserver. You may also see public keys referred to by a shorter keyID. This keyID is visible directly from the Key Management window. These eight character keyIDs were previously used for identification, which used to be safe, but is no longer reliable. You need to check the full fingerprint as part of verifying you have the correct key for the person you are trying to contact. Spoofing, in which someone intentionally generates a key with a fingerprint whose final eight characters are the same as another, is unfortunately common. Important: What to consider when signing keys Before signing a person's key, you need to be confident that it actually belongs to them, and that they are who they say they are. Ideally, this confidence comes from having interactions and conversations with them over time, and witnessing interactions between them and others. Whenever signing a key, ask to see the full public key fingerprint, and not just the shorter keyID. If you feel it's important to sign the key of someone you've just met, also ask them to show you their government identification, and make sure the name on the ID matches the name on the public key. Advanced Master the Web of Trust Unfortunately, trust does not spread between users the way many people think . One of the best ways to strengthen the GnuPG community is to deeply understand the Web of Trust and to carefully sign as many people's keys as circumstances permit. #6 Use it well Everyone uses GnuPG a little differently, but it's important to follow some basic practices to keep your email secure. Not following them, you risk the privacy of the people you communicate with, as well as your own, and damage the Web of Trust. When should I encrypt? When should I sign? The more you can encrypt your messages, the better. If you only encrypt emails occasionally, each encrypted message could raise a red flag for surveillance systems. If all or most of your email is encrypted, people doing surveillance won't know where to start. That's not to say that only encrypting some of your email isn't helpful -- it's a great start and it makes bulk surveillance more difficult. Unless you don't want to reveal your own identity (which requires other protective measures), there's no reason not to sign every message, whether or not you are encrypting. In addition to allowing those with GnuPG to verify that the message came from you, signing is a non-intrusive way to remind everyone that you use GnuPG and show support for secure communication. If you often send signed messages to people that aren't familiar with GnuPG, it's nice to also include a link to this guide in your standard email signature (the text kind, not the cryptographic kind). Be wary of invalid keys GnuPG makes email safer, but it's still important to watch out for invalid keys, which might have fallen into the wrong hands. Email encrypted with invalid keys might be readable by surveillance programs. In your email program, go back to the first encrypted email that Edward sent you. Because Edward encrypted it with your public key, it will have a green checkmark on the "OpenPGP" button. When using GnuPG, make a habit of glancing at that button. The program will warn you there if you get an email signed with a key that can't be trusted. Copy your revocation certificate to somewhere safe Remember when you created your keys and saved the revocation certificate that GnuPG made? It's time to copy that certificate onto the safest storage that you have -- a flash drive, disk, or hard drive stored in a safe place in your home could work, not on a device you carry with you regularly. The safest way we know is actually to print the revocation certificate and store it in a safe place. If your private key ever gets lost or stolen, you'll need this certificate file to let people know that you are no longer using that keypair. IMPORTANT: ACT SWIFTLY if someone gets your private key If you lose your private key or someone else gets a hold of it (say, by stealing or cracking your computer), it's important to revoke it immediately before someone else uses it to read your encrypted email or forge your signature. This guide doesn't cover how to revoke a key, but you can follow these instructions . After you're done revoking, make a new key and send an email to everyone with whom you usually use your key to make sure they know, including a copy of your new key. Webmail and GnuPG When you use a web browser to access your email, you're using webmail, an email program stored on a distant website. Unlike webmail, your desktop email program runs on your own computer. Although webmail can't decrypt encrypted email, it will still display it in its encrypted form. If you primarily use webmail, you'll know to open your email client when you receive a scrambled email. Make your public key part of your online identity First add your public key fingerprint to your email signature, then compose an email to at least five of your friends, telling them you just set up GnuPG and mentioning your public key fingerprint. Link to this guide and ask them to join you. Don't forget that there's also an awesome infographic to share. Start writing your public key fingerprint anywhere someone would see your email address: your social media profiles, blog, Website, or business card. (At the Free Software Foundation, we put ours on our staff page .) We need to get our culture to the point that we feel like something is missing when we see an email address without a public key fingerprint. Great job! Check out the next steps. FAQ My key expired Answer coming soon. Who can read encrypted messages? Who can read signed ones? Answer coming soon. My email program is opening at times I don't want it to open/is now my default program and I don't want it to be. Answer coming soon. --> Copyright © 2014-2023 Free Software Foundation , Inc. Privacy Policy . Please support our work by joining us as an associate member. The images on this page are under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license (or later version) , and the rest of it is under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 license (or later version) . Download the source code of Edward reply bot by Andrew Engelbrecht <andrew@engelbrecht.io> and Josh Drake <zamnedix@gnu.org>, available under the GNU Affero General Public License. Why these licenses? Fonts used in the guide & infographic: Dosis by Pablo Impallari, Signika by Anna Giedryś, Archivo Narrow by Omnibus-Type, PXL-2000 by Florian Cramer. Download the source package for this guide, including fonts, image source files and the text of Edward's messages. This site uses the Weblabels standard for labeling free JavaScript . View the JavaScript source code and license information . Infographic and guide design by Journalism++ --> | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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https://docs.python.org/3/library/pyexpat.html#module-xml.parsers.expat | xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat XMLParser Objects ExpatError Exceptions Example Content Model Descriptions Expat error constants Previous topic xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers Next topic Internet Protocols and Support This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Structured Markup Processing Tools » xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat | Theme Auto Light Dark | xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat ¶ Note If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security . The xml.parsers.expat module is a Python interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser. The module provides a single extension type, xmlparser , that represents the current state of an XML parser. After an xmlparser object has been created, various attributes of the object can be set to handler functions. When an XML document is then fed to the parser, the handler functions are called for the character data and markup in the XML document. This module uses the pyexpat module to provide access to the Expat parser. Direct use of the pyexpat module is deprecated. This module provides one exception and one type object: exception xml.parsers.expat. ExpatError ¶ The exception raised when Expat reports an error. See section ExpatError Exceptions for more information on interpreting Expat errors. exception xml.parsers.expat. error ¶ Alias for ExpatError . xml.parsers.expat. XMLParserType ¶ The type of the return values from the ParserCreate() function. The xml.parsers.expat module contains two functions: xml.parsers.expat. ErrorString ( errno ) ¶ Returns an explanatory string for a given error number errno . xml.parsers.expat. ParserCreate ( encoding = None , namespace_separator = None ) ¶ Creates and returns a new xmlparser object. encoding , if specified, must be a string naming the encoding used by the XML data. Expat doesn’t support as many encodings as Python does, and its repertoire of encodings can’t be extended; it supports UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII. If encoding [ 1 ] is given it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the document. Parsers created through ParserCreate() are called “root” parsers, in the sense that they do not have any parent parser attached. Non-root parsers are created by parser.ExternalEntityParserCreate . Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled by providing a value for namespace_separator . The value must be a one-character string; a ValueError will be raised if the string has an illegal length ( None is considered the same as omission). When namespace processing is enabled, element type names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be expanded. The element name passed to the element handlers StartElementHandler and EndElementHandler will be the concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator character, and the local part of the name. If the namespace separator is a zero byte ( chr(0) ) then the namespace URI and the local part will be concatenated without any separator. For example, if namespace_separator is set to a space character ( ' ' ) and the following document is parsed: <?xml version="1.0"?> <root xmlns = "http://default-namespace.org/" xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/" > <py:elem1 /> <elem2 xmlns= "" /> </root> StartElementHandler will receive the following strings for each element: http : // default - namespace . org / root http : // www . python . org / ns / elem1 elem2 Due to limitations in the Expat library used by pyexpat , the xmlparser instance returned can only be used to parse a single XML document. Call ParserCreate for each document to provide unique parser instances. See also The Expat XML Parser Home page of the Expat project. XMLParser Objects ¶ xmlparser objects have the following methods: xmlparser. Parse ( data [ , isfinal ] ) ¶ Parses the contents of the string data , calling the appropriate handler functions to process the parsed data. isfinal must be true on the final call to this method; it allows the parsing of a single file in fragments, not the submission of multiple files. data can be the empty string at any time. xmlparser. ParseFile ( file ) ¶ Parse XML data reading from the object file . file only needs to provide the read(nbytes) method, returning the empty string when there’s no more data. xmlparser. SetBase ( base ) ¶ Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system identifiers in declarations. Resolving relative identifiers is left to the application: this value will be passed through as the base argument to the ExternalEntityRefHandler() , NotationDeclHandler() , and UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() functions. xmlparser. GetBase ( ) ¶ Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to SetBase() , or None if SetBase() hasn’t been called. xmlparser. GetInputContext ( ) ¶ Returns the input data that generated the current event as a string. The data is in the encoding of the entity which contains the text. When called while an event handler is not active, the return value is None . xmlparser. ExternalEntityParserCreate ( context [ , encoding ] ) ¶ Create a “child” parser which can be used to parse an external parsed entity referred to by content parsed by the parent parser. The context parameter should be the string passed to the ExternalEntityRefHandler() handler function, described below. The child parser is created with the ordered_attributes and specified_attributes set to the values of this parser. xmlparser. SetParamEntityParsing ( flag ) ¶ Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD subset). Possible flag values are XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER , XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE and XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS . Return true if setting the flag was successful. xmlparser. UseForeignDTD ( [ flag ] ) ¶ Calling this with a true value for flag (the default) will cause Expat to call the ExternalEntityRefHandler with None for all arguments to allow an alternate DTD to be loaded. If the document does not contain a document type declaration, the ExternalEntityRefHandler will still be called, but the StartDoctypeDeclHandler and EndDoctypeDeclHandler will not be called. Passing a false value for flag will cancel a previous call that passed a true value, but otherwise has no effect. This method can only be called before the Parse() or ParseFile() methods are called; calling it after either of those have been called causes ExpatError to be raised with the code attribute set to errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING] . xmlparser. SetReparseDeferralEnabled ( enabled ) ¶ Warning Calling SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False) has security implications, as detailed below; please make sure to understand these consequences prior to using the SetReparseDeferralEnabled method. Expat 2.6.0 introduced a security mechanism called “reparse deferral” where instead of causing denial of service through quadratic runtime from reparsing large tokens, reparsing of unfinished tokens is now delayed by default until a sufficient amount of input is reached. Due to this delay, registered handlers may — depending of the sizing of input chunks pushed to Expat — no longer be called right after pushing new input to the parser. Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility of protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both wanted, calling SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False) disables reparse deferral for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or altogether. Calling SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True) allows re-enabling reparse deferral. Note that SetReparseDeferralEnabled() has been backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix. Check for availability of SetReparseDeferralEnabled() using hasattr() if used in code running across a variety of Python versions. Added in version 3.13. xmlparser. GetReparseDeferralEnabled ( ) ¶ Returns whether reparse deferral is currently enabled for the given Expat parser instance. Added in version 3.13. xmlparser objects have the following methods to mitigate some common XML vulnerabilities. xmlparser. SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold ( threshold , / ) ¶ Sets the number of allocated bytes of dynamic memory needed to activate protection against disproportionate use of RAM. By default, parser objects have an allocation activation threshold of 64 MiB, or equivalently 67,108,864 bytes. An ExpatError is raised if this method is called on a non-root parser. The corresponding lineno and offset should not be used as they may have no special meaning. Added in version 3.14.1. xmlparser. SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification ( max_factor , / ) ¶ Sets the maximum amplification factor between direct input and bytes of dynamic memory allocated. The amplification factor is calculated as allocated / direct while parsing, where direct is the number of bytes read from the primary document in parsing and allocated is the number of bytes of dynamic memory allocated in the parser hierarchy. The max_factor value must be a non-NaN float value greater than or equal to 1.0. Amplification factors greater than 100.0 can be observed near the start of parsing even with benign files in practice. In particular, the activation threshold should be carefully chosen to avoid false positives. By default, parser objects have a maximum amplification factor of 100.0. An ExpatError is raised if this method is called on a non-root parser or if max_factor is outside the valid range. The corresponding lineno and offset should not be used as they may have no special meaning. Note The maximum amplification factor is only considered if the threshold that can be adjusted by SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold() is exceeded. Added in version 3.14.1. xmlparser objects have the following attributes: xmlparser. buffer_size ¶ The size of the buffer used when buffer_text is true. A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value to this attribute. When the size is changed, the buffer will be flushed. xmlparser. buffer_text ¶ Setting this to true causes the xmlparser object to buffer textual content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the CharacterDataHandler() callback whenever possible. This can improve performance substantially since Expat normally breaks character data into chunks at every line ending. This attribute is false by default, and may be changed at any time. Note that when it is false, data that does not contain newlines may be chunked too. xmlparser. buffer_used ¶ If buffer_text is enabled, the number of bytes stored in the buffer. These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text. This attribute has no meaningful interpretation when buffer_text is false. xmlparser. ordered_attributes ¶ Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes to be reported as a list rather than a dictionary. The attributes are presented in the order found in the document text. For each attribute, two list entries are presented: the attribute name and the attribute value. (Older versions of this module also used this format.) By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time. xmlparser. specified_attributes ¶ If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those attributes which were specified in the document instance and not those which were derived from attribute declarations. Applications which set this need to be especially careful to use what additional information is available from the declarations as needed to comply with the standards for the behavior of XML processors. By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time. The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent error encountered by an xmlparser object, and will only have correct values once a call to Parse() or ParseFile() has raised an xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError exception. xmlparser. ErrorByteIndex ¶ Byte index at which an error occurred. xmlparser. ErrorCode ¶ Numeric code specifying the problem. This value can be passed to the ErrorString() function, or compared to one of the constants defined in the errors object. xmlparser. ErrorColumnNumber ¶ Column number at which an error occurred. xmlparser. ErrorLineNumber ¶ Line number at which an error occurred. The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse location in an xmlparser object. During a callback reporting a parse event they indicate the location of the first of the sequence of characters that generated the event. When called outside of a callback, the position indicated will be just past the last parse event (regardless of whether there was an associated callback). xmlparser. CurrentByteIndex ¶ Current byte index in the parser input. xmlparser. CurrentColumnNumber ¶ Current column number in the parser input. xmlparser. CurrentLineNumber ¶ Current line number in the parser input. Here is the list of handlers that can be set. To set a handler on an xmlparser object o , use o.handlername = func . handlername must be taken from the following list, and func must be a callable object accepting the correct number of arguments. The arguments are all strings, unless otherwise stated. xmlparser. XmlDeclHandler ( version , encoding , standalone ) ¶ Called when the XML declaration is parsed. The XML declaration is the (optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML recommendation, the encoding of the document text, and an optional “standalone” declaration. version and encoding will be strings, and standalone will be 1 if the document is declared standalone, 0 if it is declared not to be standalone, or -1 if the standalone clause was omitted. This is only available with Expat version 1.95.0 or newer. xmlparser. StartDoctypeDeclHandler ( doctypeName , systemId , publicId , has_internal_subset ) ¶ Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration ( <!DOCTYPE ... ). The doctypeName is provided exactly as presented. The systemId and publicId parameters give the system and public identifiers if specified, or None if omitted. has_internal_subset will be true if the document contains and internal document declaration subset. This requires Expat version 1.2 or newer. xmlparser. EndDoctypeDeclHandler ( ) ¶ Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration. This requires Expat version 1.2 or newer. xmlparser. ElementDeclHandler ( name , model ) ¶ Called once for each element type declaration. name is the name of the element type, and model is a representation of the content model. xmlparser. AttlistDeclHandler ( elname , attname , type , default , required ) ¶ Called for each declared attribute for an element type. If an attribute list declaration declares three attributes, this handler is called three times, once for each attribute. elname is the name of the element to which the declaration applies and attname is the name of the attribute declared. The attribute type is a string passed as type ; the possible values are 'CDATA' , 'ID' , 'IDREF' , … default gives the default value for the attribute used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance, or None if there is no default value ( #IMPLIED values). If the attribute is required to be given in the document instance, required will be true. This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or newer. xmlparser. StartElementHandler ( name , attributes ) ¶ Called for the start of every element. name is a string containing the element name, and attributes is the element attributes. If ordered_attributes is true, this is a list (see ordered_attributes for a full description). Otherwise it’s a dictionary mapping names to values. xmlparser. EndElementHandler ( name ) ¶ Called for the end of every element. xmlparser. ProcessingInstructionHandler ( target , data ) ¶ Called for every processing instruction. xmlparser. CharacterDataHandler ( data ) ¶ Called for character data. This will be called for normal character data, CDATA marked content, and ignorable whitespace. Applications which must distinguish these cases can use the StartCdataSectionHandler , EndCdataSectionHandler , and ElementDeclHandler callbacks to collect the required information. Note that the character data may be chunked even if it is short and so you may receive more than one call to CharacterDataHandler() . Set the buffer_text instance attribute to True to avoid that. xmlparser. UnparsedEntityDeclHandler ( entityName , base , systemId , publicId , notationName ) ¶ Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations. This is only present for version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent versions, use EntityDeclHandler instead. (The underlying function in the Expat library has been declared obsolete.) xmlparser. EntityDeclHandler ( entityName , is_parameter_entity , value , base , systemId , publicId , notationName ) ¶ Called for all entity declarations. For parameter and internal entities, value will be a string giving the declared contents of the entity; this will be None for external entities. The notationName parameter will be None for parsed entities, and the name of the notation for unparsed entities. is_parameter_entity will be true if the entity is a parameter entity or false for general entities (most applications only need to be concerned with general entities). This is only available starting with version 1.95.0 of the Expat library. xmlparser. NotationDeclHandler ( notationName , base , systemId , publicId ) ¶ Called for notation declarations. notationName , base , and systemId , and publicId are strings if given. If the public identifier is omitted, publicId will be None . xmlparser. StartNamespaceDeclHandler ( prefix , uri ) ¶ Called when an element contains a namespace declaration. Namespace declarations are processed before the StartElementHandler is called for the element on which declarations are placed. xmlparser. EndNamespaceDeclHandler ( prefix ) ¶ Called when the closing tag is reached for an element that contained a namespace declaration. This is called once for each namespace declaration on the element in the reverse of the order for which the StartNamespaceDeclHandler was called to indicate the start of each namespace declaration’s scope. Calls to this handler are made after the corresponding EndElementHandler for the end of the element. xmlparser. CommentHandler ( data ) ¶ Called for comments. data is the text of the comment, excluding the leading '<!- -' and trailing '- ->' . xmlparser. StartCdataSectionHandler ( ) ¶ Called at the start of a CDATA section. This and EndCdataSectionHandler are needed to be able to identify the syntactical start and end for CDATA sections. xmlparser. EndCdataSectionHandler ( ) ¶ Called at the end of a CDATA section. xmlparser. DefaultHandler ( data ) ¶ Called for any characters in the XML document for which no applicable handler has been specified. This means characters that are part of a construct which could be reported, but for which no handler has been supplied. xmlparser. DefaultHandlerExpand ( data ) ¶ This is the same as the DefaultHandler() , but doesn’t inhibit expansion of internal entities. The entity reference will not be passed to the default handler. xmlparser. NotStandaloneHandler ( ) ¶ Called if the XML document hasn’t been declared as being a standalone document. This happens when there is an external subset or a reference to a parameter entity, but the XML declaration does not set standalone to yes in an XML declaration. If this handler returns 0 , then the parser will raise an XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE error. If this handler is not set, no exception is raised by the parser for this condition. xmlparser. ExternalEntityRefHandler ( context , base , systemId , publicId ) ¶ Warning Implementing a handler that accesses local files and/or the network may create a vulnerability to external entity attacks if xmlparser is used with user-provided XML content. Please reflect on your threat model before implementing this handler. Called for references to external entities. base is the current base, as set by a previous call to SetBase() . The public and system identifiers, systemId and publicId , are strings if given; if the public identifier is not given, publicId will be None . The context value is opaque and should only be used as described below. For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be implemented. It is responsible for creating the sub-parser using ExternalEntityParserCreate(context) , initializing it with the appropriate callbacks, and parsing the entity. This handler should return an integer; if it returns 0 , the parser will raise an XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING error, otherwise parsing will continue. If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by the DefaultHandler callback, if provided. ExpatError Exceptions ¶ ExpatError exceptions have a number of interesting attributes: ExpatError. code ¶ Expat’s internal error number for the specific error. The errors.messages dictionary maps these error numbers to Expat’s error messages. For example: from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate , ExpatError , errors p = ParserCreate () try : p . Parse ( some_xml_document ) except ExpatError as err : print ( "Error:" , errors . messages [ err . code ]) The errors module also provides error message constants and a dictionary codes mapping these messages back to the error codes, see below. ExpatError. lineno ¶ Line number on which the error was detected. The first line is numbered 1 . ExpatError. offset ¶ Character offset into the line where the error occurred. The first column is numbered 0 . Example ¶ The following program defines three handlers that just print out their arguments. import xml.parsers.expat # 3 handler functions def start_element ( name , attrs ): print ( 'Start element:' , name , attrs ) def end_element ( name ): print ( 'End element:' , name ) def char_data ( data ): print ( 'Character data:' , repr ( data )) p = xml . parsers . expat . ParserCreate () p . StartElementHandler = start_element p . EndElementHandler = end_element p . CharacterDataHandler = char_data p . Parse ( """<?xml version="1.0"?> <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1> <child2 name="fred">More text</child2> </parent>""" , 1 ) The output from this program is: Start element : parent { 'id' : 'top' } Start element : child1 { 'name' : 'paul' } Character data : 'Text goes here' End element : child1 Character data : ' \n ' Start element : child2 { 'name' : 'fred' } Character data : 'More text' End element : child2 Character data : ' \n ' End element : parent Content Model Descriptions ¶ Content models are described using nested tuples. Each tuple contains four values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of children. Children are simply additional content model descriptions. The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the xml.parsers.expat.model module. These constants can be collected in two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group. The constants in the model type group are: xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CTYPE_ANY The element named by the model name was declared to have a content model of ANY . xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CTYPE_CHOICE The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is used for content models such as (A | B | C) . xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CTYPE_EMPTY Elements which are declared to be EMPTY have this model type. xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CTYPE_MIXED xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CTYPE_NAME xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CTYPE_SEQ Models which represent a series of models which follow one after the other are indicated with this model type. This is used for models such as (A, B, C) . The constants in the quantifier group are: xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CQUANT_NONE No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for A . xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CQUANT_OPT The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for A? . xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CQUANT_PLUS The model must occur one or more times (like A+ ). xml.parsers.expat.model. XML_CQUANT_REP The model must occur zero or more times, as for A* . Expat error constants ¶ The following constants are provided in the xml.parsers.expat.errors module. These constants are useful in interpreting some of the attributes of the ExpatError exception objects raised when an error has occurred. Since for backwards compatibility reasons, the constants’ value is the error message and not the numeric error code , you do this by comparing its code attribute with errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_ CONSTANT_NAME ] . The errors module has the following attributes: xml.parsers.expat.errors. codes ¶ A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes. Added in version 3.2. xml.parsers.expat.errors. messages ¶ A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string descriptions. Added in version 3.2. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY ¶ xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF ¶ An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external entity instead of an internal entity. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF ¶ A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in XML (for example, character 0 , or ‘ &#0; ’). xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF ¶ An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a notation, so cannot be parsed. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE ¶ An attribute was used more than once in a start tag. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING ¶ xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN ¶ Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a character; for example, a NUL byte (value 0 ) in a UTF-8 input stream. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT ¶ Something other than whitespace occurred after the document element. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI ¶ An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the input data. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS ¶ The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to contain exactly one top-level element).. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY ¶ Expat was not able to allocate memory internally. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF ¶ A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR ¶ An incomplete character was found in the input. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF ¶ An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity; possibly via a different name, and possibly indirectly. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_SYNTAX ¶ Some unspecified syntax error was encountered. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH ¶ An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN ¶ Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of the stream or the next token was encountered. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY ¶ A reference was made to an entity which was not defined. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING ¶ The document encoding is not supported by Expat. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION ¶ A CDATA marked section was not closed. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING ¶ xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE ¶ The parser determined that the document was not “standalone” though it declared itself to be in the XML declaration, and the NotStandaloneHandler was set and returned 0 . xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE ¶ xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE ¶ xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD ¶ An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled in, but Expat was configured without DTD support. This should never be reported by a standard build of the xml.parsers.expat module. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING ¶ A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can only be changed before parsing has started. This is (currently) only raised by UseForeignDTD() . xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX ¶ An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was enabled. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX ¶ The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration associated with a prefix. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE ¶ A parameter entity contained incomplete markup. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_XML_DECL ¶ The document contained no document element at all. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL ¶ There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external entity. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_PUBLICID ¶ Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED ¶ The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn’t allowed. This includes attempts to provide additional input or to stop the parser. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED ¶ An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not been suspended. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_ABORTED ¶ This should not be reported to Python applications. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_FINISHED ¶ The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished parsing input, but isn’t allowed. This includes attempts to provide additional input or to stop the parser. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE ¶ xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML ¶ An attempt was made to undeclare reserved namespace prefix xml or to bind it to another namespace URI. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS ¶ An attempt was made to declare or undeclare reserved namespace prefix xmlns . xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI ¶ An attempt was made to bind the URI of one the reserved namespace prefixes xml and xmlns to another namespace prefix. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT ¶ This should not be reported to Python applications. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER ¶ This should not be reported to Python applications. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH ¶ The limit on input amplification factor (from DTD and entities) has been breached. xml.parsers.expat.errors. XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED ¶ The parser was tried to be stopped or suspended before it started. Added in version 3.14. Footnotes [ 1 ] The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not. See https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl and https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml . Table of Contents xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat XMLParser Objects ExpatError Exceptions Example Content Model Descriptions Expat error constants Previous topic xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers Next topic Internet Protocols and Support This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Structured Markup Processing Tools » xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Rohit Gavali Posted on Dec 23, 2025 Lessons from running the same debugging prompt through different AI systems # webdev # programming # ai Last Tuesday, I spent three hours chasing a memory leak in a Next.js application that was crashing our staging environment every six hours. The pattern was clear—memory usage would climb steadily until the process died—but the cause was invisible. No obvious infinite loops, no massive data structures, nothing in the profiler that screamed "this is your problem." Out of frustration, I did something I'd never done before: I took the exact same debugging prompt—code snippet, error logs, system metrics, everything—and ran it through four different AI systems back-to-back. Claude, GPT-4, Gemini, and Grok. Same problem, same context, four completely different approaches. What I learned in those twenty minutes changed how I think about AI-assisted debugging entirely. The Prompt That Started Everything Here's what I fed each system: Next.js app, memory usage climbing from 150MB to 2GB over 6 hours then crashes. No obvious leaks in heap snapshots. Using React Server Components, streaming SSR, and edge runtime. Event listeners properly cleaned up. What am I missing? Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Simple, direct, frustrating. The kind of problem where you've already tried the obvious solutions and you're starting to question your career choices. Four Systems, Four Personalities Claude came back like a senior engineer doing a code review. It asked clarifying questions first. "Are you caching API responses? How are you handling streaming cleanup? Have you checked for dangling promises in your server components?" It didn't rush to conclusions. It wanted to understand the full system before offering theories. When it finally suggested causes, they were architectural—focusing on how Next.js handles server component lifecycle and where streaming responses might not be properly closed. It pointed me toward the after() hook and suggested auditing my middleware chain for response streams that might not be terminating. GPT-4 behaved like a textbook come to life. It gave me a structured, methodical breakdown: "Here are the seven most common causes of memory leaks in Next.js applications with streaming SSR." Each point had an explanation, example code, and specific things to check. Comprehensive, organized, slightly generic. It suggested checking my database connection pooling, verifying that fetch requests in server components weren't being cached indefinitely, and looking for event emitters that might not be garbage collected. Solid advice, but it felt like it was working from first principles rather than debugging instinct. Gemini went for breadth over depth. It immediately started pattern matching across similar issues it had "seen" before. "This sounds like the Next.js 14.2 streaming bug that was patched in 14.2.3. Also possibly related to Vercel's edge runtime memory management. Have you tried..." It threw out five different possibilities rapid-fire, each one plausible, none of them developed deeply. Useful if you want to brainstorm many angles quickly, less useful if you want to methodically work through a single theory. Grok surprised me by being the most opinionated. It basically said "This is almost certainly your middleware chain. Next.js middleware runs on every request in the edge runtime and if you're not properly cleaning up, memory accumulates. Check your logging middleware first." Bold, direct, and—as it turned out—partially right. My logging middleware was indeed holding references longer than it should have been, though that wasn't the whole story. The Pattern That Emerged After working through all four responses, something clicked. Each AI wasn't better or worse—each one was optimized for a different debugging strategy. Claude excels at architectural debugging. When your problem is systemic, when the bug emerges from how different parts of your system interact, Claude's tendency to ask questions and think holistically is invaluable. It's the AI you want when you need to step back and reconsider your entire approach. GPT-4 is your methodical checklist generator. When you need comprehensive coverage of all possibilities, when you want to make sure you haven't missed something obvious, GPT-4's structured, textbook approach prevents blind spots. It's the AI you want when you need discipline, not intuition. Gemini shines at pattern recognition across domains. When you're debugging something that might be a known issue, or when you want to quickly explore many possible causes, Gemini's breadth helps you cast a wider net. It's the AI you want when you're still in the hypothesis generation phase. Grok cuts through ambiguity with confident theories. When you're paralyzed by too many possibilities, when you need someone to just pick the most likely cause and run with it, Grok's directness can be clarifying. It's the AI you want when you need momentum over completeness. The Real Discovery Here's what those twenty minutes taught me: using a single AI for debugging is like using only a hammer because it's the best tool you own. The most effective debugging session I've had in months happened because I stopped treating AI as "an assistant" and started treating different AIs as different modes of thought. When I needed systematic analysis, I consulted GPT-4. When I needed architectural insight, I asked Claude. When I got stuck on a hunch, I bounced it off Grok. This isn't about playing them against each other. It's about understanding that different cognitive approaches reveal different aspects of the same problem. The memory leak wasn't just one thing—it was a confluence of middleware behavior, streaming lifecycle issues, and subtle edge runtime quirks. No single AI caught all of it because no single debugging approach would have either. The Practical Protocol After this experience, I developed a new debugging workflow that leverages these differences deliberately: Start with breadth using Gemini to generate hypotheses. Let it throw out five or six possible causes without committing to any single theory. This prevents premature narrowing of your investigation. Move to structure with GPT-4o to systematically work through each hypothesis. Use its love of comprehensive checklists to ensure you're testing each theory properly and not missing obvious checks. Go architectural with Claude when structural issues emerge. If the problem seems to stem from how components interact rather than a single buggy function, Claude's systems-thinking approach becomes invaluable. Get decisive with Grok when you're drowning in possibilities. Sometimes you just need someone to say "it's probably this, check here first" to break analysis paralysis. The key is treating this not as consensus-building but as perspective-gathering . You're not looking for three AIs to agree on the answer. You're collecting different lenses through which to view the same problem. What This Means for How We Debug The traditional debugging narrative is linear: identify the problem, form a hypothesis, test it, repeat until solved. But modern systems are too complex for purely linear thinking. You need multiple angles of attack simultaneously. Different AI systems naturally provide those angles. Using Crompt AI to access multiple models in one interface means you're not just getting different answers—you're developing different ways of thinking about the problem in real-time. This isn't about outsourcing debugging to AI. It's about expanding your cognitive toolkit by borrowing different reasoning styles as needed. The AIs aren't solving the problem for you. They're helping you think about it from angles your default mental model might miss. The Debugging Blind Spot Here's what's interesting: after running this experiment several more times with different bugs, I noticed a pattern in my own thinking. I was gravitating toward certain AIs based on my cognitive comfort zone, not based on what the problem actually needed. When debugging frontend issues, I defaulted to Claude because I naturally think architecturally about UI systems. When debugging backend performance, I reached for GPT-4 because I prefer methodical profiling. But some of my biggest breakthroughs came when I forced myself to consult the AI whose approach felt least natural to me. The memory leak? Grok's aggressive "it's probably your middleware" hunch was right, but I initially dismissed it because it felt too simple. Claude's architectural perspective helped me understand why the middleware was leaking. GPT-4's systematic approach ensured I tested the fix properly. Gemini pointed me to similar issues in the Next.js GitHub issues that confirmed my theory. The bug wasn't solved by one AI. It was solved by thinking through the problem from four different angles. The Synthesis Problem The hardest part of this approach isn't accessing different AIs—it's synthesizing their perspectives into actionable insight. Each system gives you a piece of the puzzle, but you're still responsible for seeing the complete picture. This is where tools like the Research Assistant become valuable. Not for the initial debugging, but for organizing and connecting the different theories you've collected. When you've got four different explanations of the same bug, you need a way to map their relationships and contradictions. The Data Extractor helps when you're comparing system metrics across different debugging sessions. The Document Summarizer becomes useful when you're trying to distill lessons from multiple debugging attempts into principles you can apply next time. But the synthesis itself? That's still on you. The AIs can't do that part—and they shouldn't. That synthesis is where the learning happens. The Meta-Lesson Running the same debugging prompt through different AI systems taught me something bigger than debugging strategy. It revealed how much our choice of thinking tool shapes what we're able to see. If you only use one AI, you'll only develop one mode of problem-solving. If you only use Claude, you'll become great at architectural thinking but potentially weak at systematic elimination. If you only use GPT-4, you'll be thorough but potentially miss bold hunches. If you only use Gemini, you'll be great at generating possibilities but struggle to go deep on any single theory. The real skill isn't learning to use AI for debugging. It's learning to think like different AIs do, using them to expand your own cognitive range rather than narrow it. The Practice Next time you hit a truly stubborn bug, try this: don't ask just one AI for help. Ask three or four, deliberately choosing systems with different approaches. Don't look for consensus—look for complementary insights. Notice which perspectives you naturally gravitate toward and which ones feel uncomfortable. The uncomfortable ones are probably expanding your thinking the most. Use platforms like Crompt that let you switch between models seamlessly, so you're not managing multiple interfaces while trying to debug. The tool should facilitate perspective-gathering, not add cognitive overhead. The goal isn't to crowdsource debugging. It's to develop the kind of multi-perspective thinking that the best senior engineers have naturally—the ability to look at the same problem from architectural, systematic, intuitive, and pattern-matching angles simultaneously. The AIs just make that kind of cognitive flexibility more accessible to the rest of us. That memory leak taught me more than how to debug Next.js. It taught me that the limitation isn't the AI's intelligence—it's our tendency to use AI as an extension of our existing thinking rather than a way to think differently. Want to experiment with multi-perspective debugging? Try Crompt AI free and see how different models approach the same problem differently—because sometimes the bug isn't in your code, it's in how you're thinking about it. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Rohit Gavali Follow Joined Aug 11, 2025 More from Rohit Gavali Why AI Breaks Down in Long-Lived Systems (And What Devs Miss) # webdev # programming # ai What Happened When I Let AI Handle My Debugging Sessions # webdev # programming # ai How AI Explains Code Correctly but Misses Architectural Context # webdev # programming # ai 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://zeroday.forem.com/terminaltools/what-is-a-denial-of-service-dos-attack-a-comprehensive-guide-4oh6#comments | What is a Denial of Service (DoS) Attack? A Comprehensive Guide - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Stephano Kambeta Posted on Dec 16, 2025 What is a Denial of Service (DoS) Attack? A Comprehensive Guide # dos # networksec # iot # security Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are a major threat in the world of cybersecurity . These attacks aim to overwhelm a network or system, making it unavailable to users. Understanding how DoS attacks work and their potential impact is crucial for anyone interested in protecting their digital assets. In this post, we will explore what Denial of Service attacks are, how they operate, and the various types that exist. We will also discuss the signs of an attack, prevention strategies, and how to respond if you find yourself under attack. This guide is designed to be easy to understand, whether you're new to cybersecurity or looking to refresh your knowledge. Denial of Service attacks can disrupt your online activities and affect your business operations. It's important to be aware of these threats and take steps to safeguard your systems. What is a Denial of Service (DoS) Attack? A Denial of Service (DoS) attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal functioning of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming it with a flood of traffic. The goal of a DoS attack is to make the targeted system or service unavailable to its intended users, causing inconvenience and potential financial loss. How DoS Attacks Work DoS attacks typically work by sending an excessive amount of requests or data to a target system. This flood of traffic can consume the system's resources, such as bandwidth, memory, or processing power, causing it to slow down or crash. Common Types of DoS Attacks Volume-Based Attacks: These attacks flood the target with a massive volume of traffic, overwhelming its bandwidth. Examples include UDP floods and ICMP floods. Protocol-Based Attacks: These attacks exploit weaknesses in network protocols to consume server resources. Examples include SYN floods and Ping of Death. Application Layer Attacks: These attacks target specific applications or services to exhaust server resources. Examples include HTTP floods and Slowloris attacks. Understanding the different types of DoS attacks is essential for implementing effective defense strategies. Examples of Denial of Service Attacks Denial of Service (DoS) attacks have been used in various high-profile cases to disrupt services and cause damage. Here are a few notable examples: Famous Historical Examples Estonian Cyberattacks (2007): Estonia experienced a large-scale DoS attack that targeted government websites, banks, and media outlets. The attack was attributed to political tensions with Russia and caused widespread disruption. Dyn DNS Attack (2016): A massive DoS attack on Dyn, a DNS provider, led to outages for major websites such as Twitter, Reddit, and Netflix. The attack used a botnet of IoT devices to flood Dyn's servers with traffic. Impact on Businesses and Individuals DoS attacks can have severe consequences, including: Financial Loss: Downtime and service interruptions can lead to significant financial losses for businesses due to lost revenue and decreased customer trust. Reputation Damage: Frequent or prolonged outages can damage a company’s reputation, leading to a loss of customer confidence and long-term harm to brand value. Operational Disruption: For organizations dependent on online services, a DoS attack can disrupt operations, affecting productivity and the ability to conduct business effectively. Understanding these examples highlights the importance of protecting against DoS attacks to avoid similar impacts on your own systems. How DoS Attacks Affect Systems and Networks? Denial of Service (DoS) attacks can have a range of detrimental effects on systems and networks, impacting their performance and availability. Understanding these effects can help in better preparation and response. Effects on Server Performance During a DoS attack, servers may become overwhelmed by excessive requests or data. This overload can lead to: Slowed Performance: The server struggles to process legitimate requests efficiently due to the high volume of attack traffic. Crashes or Freezes: In severe cases, the server may crash or freeze, making it completely unresponsive to users. Impact on Website Availability and User Experience For websites, DoS attacks can cause: Downtime: Users may be unable to access the website or specific services, leading to a loss of accessibility. Decreased User Experience: Slow load times or errors can frustrate users and drive them away, affecting overall satisfaction. Consequences for Businesses Businesses can face serious consequences from DoS attacks, including: Revenue Loss: Interruptions in service can lead to lost sales and decreased revenue. Customer Trust Issues: Frequent disruptions can erode customer trust and loyalty. Increased Costs: Businesses may incur additional costs for mitigation and recovery efforts. DoS attacks can significantly impact the performance and availability of systems and networks, leading to financial and reputational damage. Signs of a Denial of Service Attack Recognizing the signs of a Denial of Service (DoS) attack early can help in mitigating its impact and taking appropriate action. Here are some common symptoms that may indicate an ongoing DoS attack: Common Symptoms of an Ongoing DoS Attack Unusual Network Traffic: A sudden spike in incoming traffic or unusual patterns in network traffic can signal a DoS attack. Slow System Performance: Significant slowdowns in server or network performance, such as delayed response times or lag, may be a sign of an attack. Frequent Server Crashes: Regular crashes or reboots of servers and services can indicate that they are being overwhelmed by malicious traffic. How to Detect Unusual Network Behavior To detect unusual network behavior, consider: Monitoring Tools: Use network monitoring tools to track traffic patterns and identify anomalies. Logging and Analysis: Regularly review server and network logs for signs of abnormal activity or high traffic volumes. Alert Systems: Implement alert systems to notify you of unusual spikes in traffic or other signs of potential attacks. Early detection of DoS attack signs is crucial for timely response and mitigation efforts. Preventing and Mitigating DoS Attacks Preventing and mitigating Denial of Service (DoS) attacks is essential to maintaining the availability and performance of your systems and networks. Here are some effective strategies and best practices: Basic Prevention Strategies Firewalls: Use firewalls to filter out malicious traffic and block unwanted requests before they reach your servers. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Deploy IDS to monitor network traffic for suspicious activity and detect potential threats early. Advanced Techniques Rate Limiting: Implement rate limiting to control the number of requests a server will accept from a single IP address over a specified period. Load Balancing: Distribute incoming traffic across multiple servers to prevent any single server from becoming overwhelmed. Best Practices for Ongoing Protection Regular Updates: Keep your software, hardware, and security systems up-to-date to protect against known vulnerabilities. Traffic Analysis: Continuously analyze traffic patterns to identify and address potential threats before they become major issues. Backup Systems: Maintain regular backups of your data and systems to ensure you can recover quickly in case of an attack. Implementing a combination of basic and advanced strategies, along with best practices, is key to effectively preventing and mitigating DoS attacks. Response Strategies During a DoS Attack When a Denial of Service (DoS) attack occurs, having a clear response strategy is crucial to minimize damage and restore normal operations. Here are some essential steps to take if you find yourself under attack: Immediate Steps to Take Activate DDoS Protection: If you have DDoS protection services in place, activate them immediately to help filter out malicious traffic. Contact Your ISP: Inform your Internet Service Provider (ISP) about the attack. They may be able to provide additional support and help mitigate the attack at their end. Assess the Situation: Quickly evaluate the scope of the attack to understand its impact on your systems and prioritize response actions. Communication with Stakeholders and Customers Effective communication during an attack is important to maintain trust and manage expectations: Inform Internal Teams: Keep your internal teams informed about the attack status and response actions to ensure coordinated efforts. Notify Affected Users: Update your users and customers about the issue, provide information on the steps being taken, and offer estimated timelines for resolution. Provide Regular Updates: Keep stakeholders informed with regular updates throughout the attack and recovery process. Having a well-defined response strategy and maintaining clear communication are critical for effectively managing a DoS attack and minimizing its impact. Tools and Services for DoS Protection Using specialized tools and services can significantly enhance your defense against Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. These solutions help in detecting, mitigating, and managing attacks effectively. Here’s an overview of popular tools and services for DoS protection: Overview of Popular DoS Protection Tools and Services Cloud-Based DDoS Protection Services: Providers like Cloudflare, Akamai, and AWS Shield offer cloud-based solutions that can absorb and mitigate large-scale attacks by filtering traffic through their global network. Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS): Tools such as Snort and Suricata can detect and block suspicious traffic patterns and provide real-time protection against known attack vectors. Network Security Appliances: Hardware devices from vendors like Arbor Networks and Radware are designed to provide on-premises protection and can be integrated with existing security infrastructure. How They Help in Mitigating Attacks These tools and services offer various benefits: Traffic Filtering: They can filter out malicious traffic, allowing only legitimate requests to reach your servers. Traffic Scrubbing: Cloud-based services can "scrub" incoming traffic to remove malicious data before it reaches your network. Real-Time Monitoring: They provide real-time monitoring and alerts to detect and respond to attacks as they occur. Utilizing a combination of these tools and services can enhance your ability to protect against and respond to DoS attacks, ensuring better security for your systems and networks. Conclusion Denial of Service (DoS) attacks pose a significant threat to the availability and performance of systems and networks. Understanding what DoS attacks are, recognizing their signs, and implementing effective prevention and response strategies are crucial for safeguarding your digital assets. By employing a combination of basic and advanced protection measures, monitoring for unusual behavior, and using specialized tools and services, you can better defend against these attacks and minimize their impact. Staying informed and prepared helps ensure that your systems remain resilient in the face of potential threats. Effective DoS protection requires a proactive approach, combining preventive measures with swift response actions to maintain security and operational stability. Additional Resources For further reading and tools related to Denial of Service (DoS) protection, consider exploring the following resources: Cloudflare's DDoS Protection Guide - A comprehensive guide on understanding and mitigating DDoS attacks. Akamai DDoS Protection Solutions - Overview of Akamai's services for DDoS protection. AWS Shield - Amazon Web Services' DDoS protection service information. Snort - Open-source Intrusion Prevention System for network security. Suricata - High-performance Network IDS, IPS, and Network Security Monitoring engine. These resources provide valuable information and tools to help enhance your defense against DoS attacks and improve overall network security. FQAs What is a Denial of Service (DoS) attack? A Denial of Service (DoS) attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal functioning of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming it with a flood of traffic. The goal is to make the system or service unavailable to its intended users. How can I tell if my system is under a DoS attack? Signs of a DoS attack include unusual spikes in network traffic, slow system performance, and frequent server crashes. Monitoring tools and network logs can help detect these symptoms. What are some basic strategies to prevent DoS attacks? Basic prevention strategies include using firewalls to filter out malicious traffic and deploying intrusion detection systems (IDS) to monitor for suspicious activity. What should I do if my system is under a DoS attack? Immediately activate any DDoS protection services, contact your ISP for support, and assess the scope of the attack. Communicate with internal teams and affected users to manage the situation. What tools can help protect against DoS attacks? Popular tools for DoS protection include cloud-based DDoS protection services like Cloudflare and AWS Shield, intrusion prevention systems (IPS) like Snort and Suricata, and network security appliances from vendors like Arbor Networks. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Stephano Kambeta Follow Cyber security and Ethical hacking teacher Joined Mar 12, 2025 More from Stephano Kambeta Understanding SQL Injection: What It Is and How to Protect Your Website # sql # sqlinjection # networksec # cybersecurity Understanding Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): How to Detect and Prevent Attacks # networksec # xss # cybersecurity # websecurity How to Stop Man-in-the-Middle Attacks and Secure Your Online Data # cybersecurity # security # mitm # tutorial 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. 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https://dev.to/t/kotlin/page/75 | Kotlin Page 75 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Kotlin Follow Hide a cross-platform, statically typed, general-purpose programming language with type inference Create Post Older #kotlin posts 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Kotlin and FaaS, an impossible union? Nicolas Fränkel Nicolas Fränkel Nicolas Fränkel Follow Oct 17 '21 Kotlin and FaaS, an impossible union? # kotlin # serverless # faas # jvm 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Complete C# to Kotlin Syntax Comparisons Vincent Tsen Vincent Tsen Vincent Tsen Follow Oct 16 '21 Complete C# to Kotlin Syntax Comparisons # csharp # kotlin # android # beginners 16 reactions Comments 3 comments 7 min read Jetpack Compose: Drag-and-drop reorder for lists RockAndNull RockAndNull RockAndNull Follow Oct 16 '21 Jetpack Compose: Drag-and-drop reorder for lists # android # jetpackcompose # kotlin 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Jetpack Compose API Data to List View Paul Allies Paul Allies Paul Allies Follow Oct 14 '21 Jetpack Compose API Data to List View # android # programming # kotlin 19 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Clean Architecture in the flavour of Jetpack Compose Paul Allies Paul Allies Paul Allies Follow Oct 14 '21 Clean Architecture in the flavour of Jetpack Compose # android # programming # kotlin 24 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Android Jetpack Compose MVVM Paul Allies Paul Allies Paul Allies Follow Oct 14 '21 Android Jetpack Compose MVVM # android # programming # kotlin # mvvm 9 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Doodle 0.6.0 Supports Desktop Nicholas Eddy Nicholas Eddy Nicholas Eddy Follow Sep 10 '21 Doodle 0.6.0 Supports Desktop # showdev # kotlin # webdev # javascript 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Kotlin Tutorial - 9 Polymorphism nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah Follow Oct 14 '21 Kotlin Tutorial - 9 Polymorphism # kotlin # beginners # tutorial 10 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read MicroServices Live #1 🌍 Hello World! Roger Viñas Alcon Roger Viñas Alcon Roger Viñas Alcon Follow for Adevinta Spain Oct 13 '21 MicroServices Live #1 🌍 Hello World! # showdev # microservices # kotlin 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Deploying a Kotlin App to Heroku Michael Bogan Michael Bogan Michael Bogan Follow for Heroku Oct 13 '21 Deploying a Kotlin App to Heroku # java # kotlin # architecture 16 reactions Comments Add Comment 9 min read Kotlin Tutorial - 8 Inheritance nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah Follow Oct 13 '21 Kotlin Tutorial - 8 Inheritance # kotlin # beginners # tutorial 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Hacktoberfest: Contribute to our temporal database system Johannes Lichtenberger Johannes Lichtenberger Johannes Lichtenberger Follow Oct 1 '21 Hacktoberfest: Contribute to our temporal database system # hacktoberfest # database # java # kotlin 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Fine control over execution in kotlin Amol Amol Amol Follow Oct 13 '21 Fine control over execution in kotlin # kotlin # coroutine 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read SIM Card Based Mobile Authentication with Android Greg Holmes Greg Holmes Greg Holmes Follow for tru.ID Oct 14 '21 SIM Card Based Mobile Authentication with Android # android # kotlin # tutorial # security 27 reactions Comments 6 comments 14 min read Phone Number Verification via SMS in Android Using Firebase Younes Charfaoui Younes Charfaoui Younes Charfaoui Follow Oct 22 '21 Phone Number Verification via SMS in Android Using Firebase # androidappdevelopement # kotlin # firebase # userauthentification 7 reactions Comments 4 comments 6 min read EasyAnalytics is up for Open source contributions Sachin Rajput Sachin Rajput Sachin Rajput Follow Sep 29 '21 EasyAnalytics is up for Open source contributions # android # kotlin # hacktoberfest # opensource 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Folding composables 😀 Thomas Künneth Thomas Künneth Thomas Künneth Follow Oct 9 '21 Folding composables 😀 # jetpackcompose # android # kotlin # foldables 16 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read Recommended Ways To Create ViewModel or AndroidViewModel Vincent Tsen Vincent Tsen Vincent Tsen Follow Oct 8 '21 Recommended Ways To Create ViewModel or AndroidViewModel # android # kotlin # beginners 21 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Criando um curso na EduTools Lissa Ferreira Lissa Ferreira Lissa Ferreira Follow for Kotlinautas Oct 7 '21 Criando um curso na EduTools # kotlin # edutools # jetbrains # braziliandevs 7 reactions Comments 1 comment 7 min read Type Aliases in Kotlin Sanjay Prajapat Sanjay Prajapat Sanjay Prajapat Follow Oct 7 '21 Type Aliases in Kotlin # kotlin # typealias # programming 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Kotlin Tutorial - 7 Class and Object nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah Follow Oct 7 '21 Kotlin Tutorial - 7 Class and Object # kotlin # beginners # tutorial 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read Building Kotlin Multiplatform projects in a CI/CD pipeline Zan Markan Zan Markan Zan Markan Follow for CircleCI Oct 6 '21 Building Kotlin Multiplatform projects in a CI/CD pipeline # cicd # kotlin # mobile # circleci 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 10 min read Kotlin Tutorial - 6 Exception Handling nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah Follow Oct 6 '21 Kotlin Tutorial - 6 Exception Handling # kotlin # beginners # tutorial 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Kotlin Tutorial - 5 Function nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah nadirbasalamah Follow Oct 5 '21 Kotlin Tutorial - 5 Function # kotlin # tutorial # beginners 8 reactions Comments 4 comments 6 min read Fazendo um curso na EduTools Lissa Ferreira Lissa Ferreira Lissa Ferreira Follow for Kotlinautas Oct 3 '21 Fazendo um curso na EduTools # kotlin # jetbrains 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://piccalil.li/category/javascript | JavaScript - Topic Archive - Piccalilli Front-end education for the real world. Since 2018. — From set.studio Articles Links Courses Newsletter Merch Login Switch to Dark Theme RSS JavaScript Topic Archive Subscribe via RSS Date is out, Temporal is in Temporal is the Date system we always wanted in JavaScript. It's extremely close to being available so Mat Marquis thought it would be a good idea to explain exactly what is better about this new JavaScript date system. By Mat “Wilto” Marquis 07 January 2026 NaN, the not-a-number number that isn’t NaN We're pretty aware, generally that JavaScript is weird, but did you know Not-A-Number (NaN) is a type of number? Mat Marquis walks us through why that is and how to deal with NaN well in your codebases. By Mat “Wilto” Marquis 23 October 2025 Functional custom elements the easy way Function-based JavaScript is really common in frameworks like React and Vue, but what about Web Components? Ginger is here to show you how to build a reusable function to do just that. By Ginger 04 September 2025 JavaScript, what is this? In the second part of his series, Mat Marquis explains what “this” actually is and helps you to understand what it equates to, based on various contexts. By Mat “Wilto” Marquis 08 May 2025 JavaScript, when is this? JavaScript’s “this” keyword trips up all developers — junior and senior. In the first of two parts, Mat Marquis goes deep on the groundwork you need to better understand “this” and how it works. By Mat “Wilto” Marquis 30 April 2025 Simplify sharing with built-in APIs and progressive enhancement Instead of leaning into heavy social sharing widgets, you can create a truly user-friendly social sharing component that works for everyone, using built-in APIs and progressive enhancement. Written by Andy Bell 03 April 2025 What I learned from migrating a Vue project from Vuex to Pinia Big refactors and migrations for key infrastructure like global state are not to be taken lightly. Michelle Barker is here to show us how she did exactly that — migrating from Vuex to Pinia for global state in a huge, single page app — using a pragmatic, considered approach. By Michelle Barker 06 February 2025 A guide to destructuring in JavaScript Mat “Wilto” Marquis walks us through JavaScript destructuring, the rest syntax and spread syntax in a jam-packed guide. By Mat “Wilto” Marquis 25 September 2024 A handful of reasons JavaScript won’t be available It’s always safe to assume JavaScript will not be available, so here’s a quick list of very realistic reasons it won’t be. Written by Andy Bell 31 July 2024 Event currentTarget to the rescue A really quick tip to hopefully save you from throwing your computer out of the window due to JavaScript events. Written by Andy Bell 23 February 2024 A CSS project boilerplate For the many folks who ask how I write CSS since removing Sass, this is how I and the Set Studio team do it in 2024. Written by Andy Bell 12 February 2024 It feels like React is getting a bit of a kicking recently I talk about an apparent attitude shift in attitude towards React in the community and also make some recommendations about decision-making for your projects. Written by Andy Bell 31 January 2024 Low-tech Eleventy Categories Eleventy has built-in tagging and collections capabilities that I’m riffing on to show you how to build a super simple category system with RSS feeds for each one. Written by Andy Bell 26 January 2024 Convert a 2D array into a flat, 1D array of unique items Convert a messy multidimensional array into a nice single dimension array of unique items. Written by Andy Bell 20 January 2021 Build a fully-responsive, progressively enhanced burger menu In this premium tutorial, we’re going to build a burger menu from the ground up, using progressive enhancement, ResizeObserver, Proxy state and of course, super-solid HTML and CSS that pull from the CUBE CSS principles. Written by Andy Bell 15 January 2021 Load all focusable elements with JavaScript A handy helper function that will load all user-focusable elements inside a parent element for you. Written by Andy Bell 13 January 2021 Use a set to remove array duplicates Written by Andy Bell 03 July 2020 Build a light and global state system Using Proxies and subscriber functions, we can create an observable, reactive state system with a tiny footprint. Written by Andy Bell 10 March 2020 Create a user controlled dark or light mode Automatic dark and light themes, based on system user-preferences, are handy but in this tutorial, we take that one step further and give our users control. Written by Andy Bell 31 May 2019 A progressive disclosure component Written by Andy Bell 03 April 2019 Bypass service worker on localhost Written by Andy Bell 04 September 2018 From set.studio About Code of Conduct Privacy and cookie policy Terms and conditions Contact Advertise Support us RSS | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
https://dev.to/zaquwa | Quinn - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Quinn 404 bio not found Joined Joined on Jun 28, 2021 twitter website More info about @zaquwa Badges Four Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least four years. Got it Close Three Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least three years. Got it Close Two Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least two years. Got it Close One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close Post 0 posts published Comment 1 comment written Tag 0 tags followed Want to connect with Quinn? Create an account to connect with Quinn. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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Skip to content ▼ Close Python PSF Docs PyPI Jobs Community ▲ The Python Network Donate ≡ Menu Search This Site GO A A Smaller Larger Reset Socialize LinkedIn Mastodon Chat on IRC Twitter About Applications Quotes Getting Started Help Python Brochure Downloads All releases Source code Windows macOS Android Other Platforms License Alternative Implementations Documentation Docs Audio/Visual Talks Beginner's Guide FAQ Non-English Docs PEP Index Python Books Python Essays Community Diversity Mailing Lists IRC Forums PSF Annual Impact Report Python Conferences Special Interest Groups Python Logo Python Wiki Code of Conduct Community Awards Get Involved Shared Stories Success Stories Arts Business Education Engineering Government Scientific Software Development News Python News PSF Newsletter PSF News PyCon US News News from the Community Events Python Events User Group Events Python Events Archive User Group Events Archive Submit an Event Python >>> Downloads >>> Other Platforms Download Python for other platforms Python has been ported to a number of specialized and/or older platforms, listed below in alphabetical order. Note that these ports often lag well behind the latest Python release. Python for AIX AIX binary packages for Python are available from IBM AIX Toolbox in RPM format. They can be installed using dnf package manager. Visit the Get Started page for more details. `_ is a port to the `Amiga Research OS `_. Tim Ocock maintains `AmigaPython `_. Older versions of Python for the Amiga can be found at `Aminet `_. --> `_. For all Python-related stuff on BeOS, `search here `_. --> Python for HP-UX You can purchase ActivePython (commercial and community versions, including scientific computing modules, not open source) Python for IBM i (formerly AS/400, iSeries) Both Python 2 and Python 3 are available from IBM in RPM form. They can be installed with the yum package manager or with the IBM i Access Client Solutions product. To get started with RPM-based open source packages for IBM i, visit http://ibm.biz/ibmi-rpms . These RPM packages require a version of IBM i in active (not extended) support. Python for iOS and iPadOS Briefcase (from the BeeWare project) and Buildozer (from the Kivy project) are two tools that can be used to deploy Python code as an iOS app. Python-Apple-support is a project that provides pre-compiled Python frameworks that can be embedded into an Xcode project. PythonKit can be used to provide Swift integration with Python. Pythonista is a complete development environment for writing Python scripts including third-party libraries and system integration on your iPad or iPhone. Pyto also provides a complete development environment for running Python 3 including many third-party libraries and system integration on an iPad or iPhone. Alternate Python packages for Linux You can purchase ActivePython (commercial and community versions, including scientific computing modules, not open source) `_. --> `_, built on the DJGPP platform, is also available. --> `_. --> `_. --> `__ once completed a port of Python to the Sony PlayStation 2. Contact him for more info. --> `__. It has most modules running and can even use the PSP's built in wifi, albeit awkwardly. --> `_. --> `_ --> Python for RISC OS Python is available for RISC OS, and can be obtained using the PackMan package manager. `__ can be found at archive.org. This page also includes some pre-ported external libraries as well as RISC OS specific extensions and documentation, written by Dietmar Schwertberger. --> `_. There are downloads available at ` `_. --> Python for Solaris You can purchase ActivePython (commercial and community versions, including scientific computing modules, not open source), or build from source if you have a C compiler. UNIX Packages has a variety of Python versions for a variety of Solaris versions. These use the standard Sun pkgadd. Python for UEFI Environment Standard CPython version 3.6.8 port for the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) shell environment is available through the Tianocore open source project. This provides the standard Python scripting capabilities on UEFI environment, helping the UEFI based firmware and platform developer community to use it for platform, firmware validation, debug and the like. Python for UEFI source code and build instructions are available here . Currently build support is enabled using VS2019 and GCC5 tool chains for x86 and x64 bit platforms. `_ is available. --> `__. --> `_ page. --> Python for z/OS `_ has a ported version of Python 2.4.1. --> Rocket Software provides a port of Python for z/OS . Python for z/OS is available from IBM for no license charge. It is available in PAX format from Early Programs Web Tool or SMP/E format from Shopz . Optional no-cost Subscription and Support (S&S) is available in the Shopz ordering process. Please visit the IBM Open Enterprise SDK for Python product page for more information. The PSF The Python Software Foundation is the organization behind Python. Become a member of the PSF and help advance the software and our mission. ▲ Back to Top About Applications Quotes Getting Started Help Python Brochure Downloads All releases Source code Windows macOS Android Other Platforms License Alternative Implementations Documentation Docs Audio/Visual Talks Beginner's Guide FAQ Non-English Docs PEP Index Python Books Python Essays Community Diversity Mailing Lists IRC Forums PSF Annual Impact Report Python Conferences Special Interest Groups Python Logo Python Wiki Code of Conduct Community Awards Get Involved Shared Stories Success Stories Arts Business Education Engineering Government Scientific Software Development News Python News PSF Newsletter PSF News PyCon US News News from the Community Events Python Events User Group Events Python Events Archive User Group Events Archive Submit an Event Contributing Developer's Guide Issue Tracker python-dev list Core Mentorship Report a Security Issue ▲ Back to Top Help & General Contact Diversity Initiatives Submit Website Bug Status Copyright ©2001-2026. 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https://dev.to/t/kotlin/page/7 | Kotlin Page 7 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Kotlin Follow Hide a cross-platform, statically typed, general-purpose programming language with type inference Create Post Older #kotlin posts 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Wednesday Links - Edition 2025-10-15 Chris Kocel Chris Kocel Chris Kocel Follow Oct 15 '25 Wednesday Links - Edition 2025-10-15 # java # jvm # mongodb # kotlin 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Demystifying Android Context: The Gateway Between Your App and the System Elamparithi Ezhilarasi Murugan (Elam) Elamparithi Ezhilarasi Murugan (Elam) Elamparithi Ezhilarasi Murugan (Elam) Follow Sep 11 '25 Demystifying Android Context: The Gateway Between Your App and the System # android # androiddev # mobile # kotlin Comments Add Comment 4 min read Open-source app for booking meeting rooms Matthew Avgul Matthew Avgul Matthew Avgul Follow Sep 11 '25 Open-source app for booking meeting rooms # opensource # kmp # kotlin # automation 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Volunteer Developer – Palettea (Remote, US/Canada) Lisa Ramos Lisa Ramos Lisa Ramos Follow Oct 13 '25 Volunteer Developer – Palettea (Remote, US/Canada) # kotlin # javascript # python # unity3d 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Въведение в Kotlin (за Java програмисти) Димитър Трифонов (dvt32) Димитър Трифонов (dvt32) Димитър Трифонов (dvt32) Follow Sep 8 '25 Въведение в Kotlin (за Java програмисти) # dvt32 # techskills # kotlin # java Comments Add Comment 4 min read Flutter, React Native, or Kotlin Multiplatform — Choosing the Right Stack in 2025 Titto@Stackobea Titto@Stackobea Titto@Stackobea Follow for Stackobea Forge Oct 8 '25 Flutter, React Native, or Kotlin Multiplatform — Choosing the Right Stack in 2025 # reactnative # flutter # mobile # kotlin Comments Add Comment 3 min read How to Find, Prevent And Solve Java.lang.NullPointerException in Mobile Apps Shubham Joshi Shubham Joshi Shubham Joshi Follow Oct 8 '25 How to Find, Prevent And Solve Java.lang.NullPointerException in Mobile Apps # java # tutorial # kotlin # android Comments Add Comment 5 min read Kotlin Interview Puzzle: Who Wins the Tie? 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/xmlrpc.client.html#module-xmlrpc.client | xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access ServerProxy Objects DateTime Objects Binary Objects Fault Objects ProtocolError Objects MultiCall Objects Convenience Functions Example of Client Usage Example of Client and Server Usage Previous topic xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules Next topic xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Internet Protocols and Support » xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access | Theme Auto Light Dark | xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access ¶ Source code: Lib/xmlrpc/client.py XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP(S) as a transport. With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data. This module supports writing XML-RPC client code; it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire. Warning The xmlrpc.client module is not secure against maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security . Changed in version 3.5: For HTTPS URIs, xmlrpc.client now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default. Availability : not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See WebAssembly platforms for more information. class xmlrpc.client. ServerProxy ( uri , transport = None , encoding = None , verbose = False , allow_none = False , use_datetime = False , use_builtin_types = False , * , headers = () , context = None ) ¶ A ServerProxy instance is an object that manages communication with a remote XML-RPC server. The required first argument is a URI (Uniform Resource Indicator), and will normally be the URL of the server. The optional second argument is a transport factory instance; by default it is an internal SafeTransport instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP Transport instance otherwise. The optional third argument is an encoding, by default UTF-8. The optional fourth argument is a debugging flag. The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy instance. If allow_none is true, the Python constant None will be translated into XML; the default behaviour is for None to raise a TypeError . This is a commonly used extension to the XML-RPC specification, but isn’t supported by all clients and servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php for a description. The use_builtin_types flag can be used to cause date/time values to be presented as datetime.datetime objects and binary data to be presented as bytes objects; this flag is false by default. datetime.datetime , bytes and bytearray objects may be passed to calls. The headers parameter is an optional sequence of HTTP headers to send with each request, expressed as a sequence of 2-tuples representing the header name and value. (e.g. [('Header-Name', 'value')] ). If an HTTPS URL is provided, context may be ssl.SSLContext and configures the SSL settings of the underlying HTTPS connection. The obsolete use_datetime flag is similar to use_builtin_types but it applies only to date/time values. Changed in version 3.3: The use_builtin_types flag was added. Changed in version 3.8: The headers parameter was added. Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for HTTP Basic Authentication: http://user:pass@host:port/path . The user:pass portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP ‘Authorization’ header, and sent to the remote server as part of the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC method. You only need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic Authentication user and password. The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be used to invoke corresponding RPC calls on the remote server. If the remote server supports the introspection API, the proxy can also be used to query the remote server for the methods it supports (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated metadata. Types that are conformable (e.g. that can be marshalled through XML), include the following (and except where noted, they are unmarshalled as the same Python type): XML-RPC type Python type boolean bool int , i1 , i2 , i4 , i8 or biginteger int in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647. Values get the <int> tag. double or float float . Values get the <double> tag. string str array list or tuple containing conformable elements. Arrays are returned as lists . struct dict . Keys must be strings, values may be any conformable type. Objects of user-defined classes can be passed in; only their __dict__ attribute is transmitted. dateTime.iso8601 DateTime or datetime.datetime . Returned type depends on values of use_builtin_types and use_datetime flags. base64 Binary , bytes or bytearray . Returned type depends on the value of the use_builtin_types flag. nil The None constant. Passing is allowed only if allow_none is true. bigdecimal decimal.Decimal . Returned type only. This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method calls may also raise a special Fault instance, used to signal XML-RPC server errors, or ProtocolError used to signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer. Both Fault and ProtocolError derive from a base class called Error . Note that the xmlrpc client module currently does not marshal instances of subclasses of built-in types. When passing strings, characters special to XML such as < , > , and & will be automatically escaped. However, it’s the caller’s responsibility to ensure that the string is free of characters that aren’t allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII values between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC request that isn’t well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary bytes via XML-RPC, use bytes or bytearray classes or the Binary wrapper class described below. Server is retained as an alias for ServerProxy for backwards compatibility. New code should use ServerProxy . Changed in version 3.5: Added the context argument. Changed in version 3.6: Added support of type tags with prefixes (e.g. ex:nil ). Added support of unmarshalling additional types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics: i1 , i2 , i8 , biginteger , float and bigdecimal . See https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html for a description. See also XML-RPC HOWTO A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in several languages. Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC client developer needs to know. XML-RPC Introspection Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection. XML-RPC Specification The official specification. ServerProxy Objects ¶ A ServerProxy instance has a method corresponding to each remote procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server. Calling the method performs an RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature (e.g. the same method name can be overloaded with multiple argument signatures). The RPC finishes by returning a value, which may be either returned data in a conformant type or a Fault or ProtocolError object indicating an error. Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common methods grouped under the reserved system attribute: ServerProxy.system. listMethods ( ) ¶ This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system) method supported by the XML-RPC server. ServerProxy.system. methodSignature ( name ) ¶ This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC server. It returns an array of possible signatures for this method. A signature is an array of types. The first of these types is the return type of the method, the rest are parameters. Because multiple signatures (ie. overloading) is permitted, this method returns a list of signatures rather than a singleton. Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters expected by a method. For instance if a method expects one array of structs as a parameter, and it returns a string, its signature is simply “string, array”. If it expects three integers and returns a string, its signature is “string, int, int, int”. If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is returned. In Python this means that the type of the returned value will be something other than list. ServerProxy.system. methodHelp ( name ) ¶ This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC server. It returns a documentation string describing the use of that method. If no such string is available, an empty string is returned. The documentation string may contain HTML markup. Changed in version 3.5: Instances of ServerProxy support the context manager protocol for closing the underlying transport. A working example follows. The server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer def is_even ( n ): return n % 2 == 0 server = SimpleXMLRPCServer (( "localhost" , 8000 )) print ( "Listening on port 8000..." ) server . register_function ( is_even , "is_even" ) server . serve_forever () The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client with xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( "http://localhost:8000/" ) as proxy : print ( "3 is even: %s " % str ( proxy . is_even ( 3 ))) print ( "100 is even: %s " % str ( proxy . is_even ( 100 ))) DateTime Objects ¶ class xmlrpc.client. DateTime ¶ This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a datetime.datetime instance. It has the following methods, supported mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code: decode ( string ) ¶ Accept a string as the instance’s new time value. encode ( out ) ¶ Write the XML-RPC encoding of this DateTime item to the out stream object. It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through rich comparison and __repr__() methods. A working example follows. The server code: import datetime from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer import xmlrpc.client def today (): today = datetime . datetime . today () return xmlrpc . client . DateTime ( today ) server = SimpleXMLRPCServer (( "localhost" , 8000 )) print ( "Listening on port 8000..." ) server . register_function ( today , "today" ) server . serve_forever () The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client import datetime proxy = xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( "http://localhost:8000/" ) today = proxy . today () # convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object converted = datetime . datetime . strptime ( today . value , "%Y%m %d T%H:%M:%S" ) print ( "Today: %s " % converted . strftime ( " %d .%m.%Y, %H:%M" )) Binary Objects ¶ class xmlrpc.client. Binary ¶ This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include NULs). The primary access to the content of a Binary object is provided by an attribute: data ¶ The binary data encapsulated by the Binary instance. The data is provided as a bytes object. Binary objects have the following methods, supported mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code: decode ( bytes ) ¶ Accept a base64 bytes object and decode it as the instance’s new data. encode ( out ) ¶ Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the out stream object. The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per RFC 2045 section 6.8 , which was the de facto standard base64 specification when the XML-RPC spec was written. It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through __eq__() and __ne__() methods. Example usage of the binary objects. We’re going to transfer an image over XMLRPC: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer import xmlrpc.client def python_logo (): with open ( "python_logo.jpg" , "rb" ) as handle : return xmlrpc . client . Binary ( handle . read ()) server = SimpleXMLRPCServer (( "localhost" , 8000 )) print ( "Listening on port 8000..." ) server . register_function ( python_logo , 'python_logo' ) server . serve_forever () The client gets the image and saves it to a file: import xmlrpc.client proxy = xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( "http://localhost:8000/" ) with open ( "fetched_python_logo.jpg" , "wb" ) as handle : handle . write ( proxy . python_logo () . data ) Fault Objects ¶ class xmlrpc.client. Fault ¶ A Fault object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC fault tag. Fault objects have the following attributes: faultCode ¶ An int indicating the fault type. faultString ¶ A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the fault. In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a Fault by returning a complex type object. The server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a # complex number def add ( x , y ): return x + y + 0 j server = SimpleXMLRPCServer (( "localhost" , 8000 )) print ( "Listening on port 8000..." ) server . register_function ( add , 'add' ) server . serve_forever () The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client proxy = xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( "http://localhost:8000/" ) try : proxy . add ( 2 , 5 ) except xmlrpc . client . Fault as err : print ( "A fault occurred" ) print ( "Fault code: %d " % err . faultCode ) print ( "Fault string: %s " % err . faultString ) ProtocolError Objects ¶ class xmlrpc.client. ProtocolError ¶ A ProtocolError object describes a protocol error in the underlying transport layer (such as a 404 ‘not found’ error if the server named by the URI does not exist). It has the following attributes: url ¶ The URI or URL that triggered the error. errcode ¶ The error code. errmsg ¶ The error message or diagnostic string. headers ¶ A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that triggered the error. In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a ProtocolError by providing an invalid URI: import xmlrpc.client # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests proxy = xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( "http://google.com/" ) try : proxy . some_method () except xmlrpc . client . ProtocolError as err : print ( "A protocol error occurred" ) print ( "URL: %s " % err . url ) print ( "HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s " % err . headers ) print ( "Error code: %d " % err . errcode ) print ( "Error message: %s " % err . errmsg ) MultiCall Objects ¶ The MultiCall object provides a way to encapsulate multiple calls to a remote server into a single request [ 1 ] . class xmlrpc.client. MultiCall ( server ) ¶ Create an object used to boxcar method calls. server is the eventual target of the call. Calls can be made to the result object, but they will immediately return None , and only store the call name and parameters in the MultiCall object. Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to be transmitted as a single system.multicall request. The result of this call is a generator ; iterating over this generator yields the individual results. A usage example of this class follows. The server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer def add ( x , y ): return x + y def subtract ( x , y ): return x - y def multiply ( x , y ): return x * y def divide ( x , y ): return x // y # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions server = SimpleXMLRPCServer (( "localhost" , 8000 )) print ( "Listening on port 8000..." ) server . register_multicall_functions () server . register_function ( add , 'add' ) server . register_function ( subtract , 'subtract' ) server . register_function ( multiply , 'multiply' ) server . register_function ( divide , 'divide' ) server . serve_forever () The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client proxy = xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( "http://localhost:8000/" ) multicall = xmlrpc . client . MultiCall ( proxy ) multicall . add ( 7 , 3 ) multicall . subtract ( 7 , 3 ) multicall . multiply ( 7 , 3 ) multicall . divide ( 7 , 3 ) result = multicall () print ( "7+3= %d , 7-3= %d , 7*3= %d , 7//3= %d " % tuple ( result )) Convenience Functions ¶ xmlrpc.client. dumps ( params , methodname = None , methodresponse = None , encoding = None , allow_none = False ) ¶ Convert params into an XML-RPC request, or into a response if methodresponse is true. params can be either a tuple of arguments or an instance of the Fault exception class. If methodresponse is true, only a single value can be returned, meaning that params must be of length 1. encoding , if supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default is UTF-8. Python’s None value cannot be used in standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a true value for allow_none . xmlrpc.client. loads ( data , use_datetime = False , use_builtin_types = False ) ¶ Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a (params, methodname) . params is a tuple of argument; methodname is a string, or None if no method name is present in the packet. If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition, this function will raise a Fault exception. The use_builtin_types flag can be used to cause date/time values to be presented as datetime.datetime objects and binary data to be presented as bytes objects; this flag is false by default. The obsolete use_datetime flag is similar to use_builtin_types but it applies only to date/time values. Changed in version 3.3: The use_builtin_types flag was added. Example of Client Usage ¶ # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification) from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy , Error # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server with ServerProxy ( "http://betty.userland.com" ) as proxy : print ( proxy ) try : print ( proxy . examples . getStateName ( 41 )) except Error as v : print ( "ERROR" , v ) To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a custom transport. The following example shows how: import http.client import xmlrpc.client class ProxiedTransport ( xmlrpc . client . Transport ): def set_proxy ( self , host , port = None , headers = None ): self . proxy = host , port self . proxy_headers = headers def make_connection ( self , host ): connection = http . client . HTTPConnection ( * self . proxy ) connection . set_tunnel ( host , headers = self . proxy_headers ) self . _connection = host , connection return connection transport = ProxiedTransport () transport . set_proxy ( 'proxy-server' , 8080 ) server = xmlrpc . client . ServerProxy ( 'http://betty.userland.com' , transport = transport ) print ( server . examples . getStateName ( 41 )) Example of Client and Server Usage ¶ See SimpleXMLRPCServer Example . Footnotes [ 1 ] This approach has been first presented in a discussion on xmlrpc.com . Table of Contents xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access ServerProxy Objects DateTime Objects Binary Objects Fault Objects ProtocolError Objects MultiCall Objects Convenience Functions Example of Client Usage Example of Client and Server Usage Previous topic xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules Next topic xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Internet Protocols and Support » xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Last updated on Jan 13, 2026 (06:19 UTC). 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https://dev.to/t/claudecode | Claudecode - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # claudecode Follow Hide Create Post Older #claudecode posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu I Built a Desktop App to Supercharge My TMUX + Claude Code Workflow joe-re joe-re joe-re Follow Jan 12 I Built a Desktop App to Supercharge My TMUX + Claude Code Workflow # claudecode # tauri # productivity # tmux 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read How I Built a Zero-Dependency Technical Research Blog with Just HTML, CSS, and Markdown Huy Pham Huy Pham Huy Pham Follow Jan 13 How I Built a Zero-Dependency Technical Research Blog with Just HTML, CSS, and Markdown # news # research # technical # claudecode Comments Add Comment 2 min read 🔓 Unlock "Infinite" Claude: The Open Source Hack for Bypassing Rate Limits Siddhesh Surve Siddhesh Surve Siddhesh Surve Follow Jan 13 🔓 Unlock "Infinite" Claude: The Open Source Hack for Bypassing Rate Limits # ai # claudecode # opensource # devops Comments Add Comment 3 min read The `/context` Command: X-Ray Vision for Your Tokens Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 12 The `/context` Command: X-Ray Vision for Your Tokens # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners Comments Add Comment 4 min read Run `gh` Command in Claude Code on the Web Oikon Oikon Oikon Follow Jan 12 Run `gh` Command in Claude Code on the Web # claudecode # claude # ai # coding Comments Add Comment 4 min read Agile for Agents Mike Lady Mike Lady Mike Lady Follow Jan 11 Agile for Agents # ai # vibecoding # claudecode Comments Add Comment 13 min read Automating Performance Engineering with Claude Code and New Relic MCP Arshdeep Singh Arshdeep Singh Arshdeep Singh Follow Jan 11 Automating Performance Engineering with Claude Code and New Relic MCP # newrelic # mcp # drupal # claudecode 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 6 min read How I stopped Claude Code from hallucinating on Day 4 (The "Spec-Driven" Workflow) Samarth Hathwar Samarth Hathwar Samarth Hathwar Follow Jan 12 How I stopped Claude Code from hallucinating on Day 4 (The "Spec-Driven" Workflow) # productivity # ai # claudecode # testing Comments Add Comment 3 min read Why Claude Code Excels at Legacy System Modernization Juha Pellotsalo Juha Pellotsalo Juha Pellotsalo Follow Jan 11 Why Claude Code Excels at Legacy System Modernization # ai # claudecode # legacycode # softwaredevelopment Comments Add Comment 2 min read Vim Mode: Edit Prompts at the Speed of Thought Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 10 Vim Mode: Edit Prompts at the Speed of Thought # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners Comments Add Comment 4 min read Complete Guide to Setting Up Claude Code Router with Qwen on macOS Hamza Khan Hamza Khan Hamza Khan Follow Jan 10 Complete Guide to Setting Up Claude Code Router with Qwen on macOS # claude # coding # ai # claudecode Comments Add Comment 3 min read How I Built an Orchestrator-Worker System for Claude Code Mohamed Aly Amin Mohamed Aly Amin Mohamed Aly Amin Follow Jan 10 How I Built an Orchestrator-Worker System for Claude Code # claudecode # ai # devtools # opensource Comments Add Comment 2 min read AI 코딩이 자꾸 내 아키텍처를 망가뜨린다면? (feat. CodeSyncer) @kiwibreaksme @kiwibreaksme @kiwibreaksme Follow Jan 10 AI 코딩이 자꾸 내 아키텍처를 망가뜨린다면? (feat. CodeSyncer) # ai # claudecode # devops # programming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Headless Mode: Unleash AI in Your CI/CD Pipeline Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 11 Headless Mode: Unleash AI in Your CI/CD Pipeline # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Extended Thinking: How to Make Claude Actually Think Before It Answers Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 7 Extended Thinking: How to Make Claude Actually Think Before It Answers # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read 10 hours with Gas Town (out of a possible 48) Mike Lady Mike Lady Mike Lady Follow Jan 4 10 hours with Gas Town (out of a possible 48) # claudecode # ai # programming # devops Comments Add Comment 7 min read Anthropic: From Pandemic-Era Safety Concerns to a $350B AI Company Prakash Pawar Prakash Pawar Prakash Pawar Follow Jan 4 Anthropic: From Pandemic-Era Safety Concerns to a $350B AI Company # ai # claudecode # anthtropic # llm Comments Add Comment 5 min read Scaling Development with Parallel AI Agents JaviMaligno JaviMaligno JaviMaligno Follow Jan 8 Scaling Development with Parallel AI Agents # ai # claudecode # automation # git Comments Add Comment 3 min read Universal Knowledge Base for AI Alfredo Perez Alfredo Perez Alfredo Perez Follow Jan 3 Universal Knowledge Base for AI # ai # angular # claudecode # cursoride Comments Add Comment 8 min read Supercharge Your AI Coding Workflow: A Complete Guide to Git Worktrees with Claude Code Bilal Haidar Bilal Haidar Bilal Haidar Follow Jan 8 Supercharge Your AI Coding Workflow: A Complete Guide to Git Worktrees with Claude Code # ai # claudecode # git # worktrees 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 13 min read Using the VSCode Claude Code Extension with Bedrock and Claude Sonnet 4.5 Matt Bacchi Matt Bacchi Matt Bacchi Follow for AWS Community Builders Jan 2 Using the VSCode Claude Code Extension with Bedrock and Claude Sonnet 4.5 # aws # claudecode # vscode # bedrock 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read Debugging Random Reboots with Claude Code: A PSU Power Limit Story Eugene Oleinik Eugene Oleinik Eugene Oleinik Follow Jan 1 Debugging Random Reboots with Claude Code: A PSU Power Limit Story # linux # hardware # debugging # claudecode Comments Add Comment 3 min read Fixing Claude Code's SIGINT Problem: How I Built MCP Session Manager pepk pepk pepk Follow Jan 1 Fixing Claude Code's SIGINT Problem: How I Built MCP Session Manager # claudecode # mcp # node # typescript Comments Add Comment 7 min read Vibe factory: insanity, scaled Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Follow Jan 5 Vibe factory: insanity, scaled # vibecoding # ai # claudecode # programming 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read Reverse-engineering undocumented APIs with Claude Kalil Kalil Kalil Follow Dec 31 '25 Reverse-engineering undocumented APIs with Claude # ai # claudecode # api # python Comments Add Comment 2 min read loading... trending guides/resources How the Creator of Claude Code Actually Uses It The Ultimate Claude Code Tips Collection (Advent of Claude 2025) 24 Claude Code Tips: #claude_code_advent_calendar Cursor vs GitHub Copilot vs Claude Code The Reality of AI Coding in Production (and My Poor Man’s Setup) How Boris Cherny, Builder of Claude Code, Uses It — And Why That Should Change How You Think Abou... 🎰 Stop Gambling with Vibe Coding: Meet Quint Claude Code in Production: 40% Productivity Increase on a Large Project Supercharge Your AI Coding Workflow: A Complete Guide to Git Worktrees with Claude Code I spent 400 hours working with AI agents and found the best one - here it is. Stop Wasting Tokens: The `!` Prefix That Every Claude Code User Needs to Know Extended Thinking: How to Make Claude Actually Think Before It Answers Using the VSCode Claude Code Extension with Bedrock and Claude Sonnet 4.5 Create Reliable Unit Tests with Claude Code How I 10x'd My Development Speed with Claude Code Vim Mode: Edit Prompts at the Speed of Thought Building AI-Powered Projects: My Complete Claude Development Stack Anthropic: From Pandemic-Era Safety Concerns to a $350B AI Company Your Time Machine for Code: Double Esc to Rewind When Things Go Wrong Fixing Claude Code's Amnesia 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#main-content | Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib | hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests Hash algorithms Usage Constructors Attributes Hash Objects SHAKE variable length digests File hashing Key derivation BLAKE2 Creating hash objects Constants Examples Simple hashing Using different digest sizes Keyed hashing Randomized hashing Personalization Tree mode Credits Previous topic Cryptographic Services Next topic hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Cryptographic Services » hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests | Theme Auto Light Dark | hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests ¶ Source code: Lib/hashlib.py This module implements a common interface to many different hash algorithms. Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in the FIPS 180-4 standard ), the SHA-3 series (defined in the FIPS 202 standard ) as well as the legacy algorithms SHA1 ( formerly part of FIPS ) and the MD5 algorithm (defined in internet RFC 1321 ). Note If you want the adler32 or crc32 hash functions, they are available in the zlib module. Hash algorithms ¶ There is one constructor method named for each type of hash . All return a hash object with the same simple interface. For example: use sha256() to create a SHA-256 hash object. You can now feed this object with bytes-like objects (normally bytes ) using the update method. At any point you can ask it for the digest of the concatenation of the data fed to it so far using the digest() or hexdigest() methods. To allow multithreading, the Python GIL is released while computing a hash supplied more than 2047 bytes of data at once in its constructor or .update method. Constructors for hash algorithms that are always present in this module are sha1() , sha224() , sha256() , sha384() , sha512() , sha3_224() , sha3_256() , sha3_384() , sha3_512() , shake_128() , shake_256() , blake2b() , and blake2s() . md5() is normally available as well, though it may be missing or blocked if you are using a rare “FIPS compliant” build of Python. These correspond to algorithms_guaranteed . Additional algorithms may also be available if your Python distribution’s hashlib was linked against a build of OpenSSL that provides others. Others are not guaranteed available on all installations and will only be accessible by name via new() . See algorithms_available . Warning Some algorithms have known hash collision weaknesses (including MD5 and SHA1). Refer to Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms and the hashlib-seealso section at the end of this document. Added in version 3.6: SHA3 (Keccak) and SHAKE constructors sha3_224() , sha3_256() , sha3_384() , sha3_512() , shake_128() , shake_256() were added. blake2b() and blake2s() were added. Changed in version 3.9: All hashlib constructors take a keyword-only argument usedforsecurity with default value True . A false value allows the use of insecure and blocked hashing algorithms in restricted environments. False indicates that the hashing algorithm is not used in a security context, e.g. as a non-cryptographic one-way compression function. Changed in version 3.9: Hashlib now uses SHA3 and SHAKE from OpenSSL if it provides it. Changed in version 3.12: For any of the MD5, SHA1, SHA2, or SHA3 algorithms that the linked OpenSSL does not provide we fall back to a verified implementation from the HACL* project . Usage ¶ To obtain the digest of the byte string b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition" : >>> import hashlib >>> m = hashlib . sha256 () >>> m . update ( b "Nobody inspects" ) >>> m . update ( b " the spammish repetition" ) >>> m . digest () b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06' >>> m . hexdigest () '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406' More condensed: >>> hashlib . sha256 ( b "Nobody inspects the spammish repetition" ) . hexdigest () '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406' Constructors ¶ hashlib. new ( name , [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ Is a generic constructor that takes the string name of the desired algorithm as its first parameter. It also exists to allow access to the above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms that your OpenSSL library may offer. Using new() with an algorithm name: >>> h = hashlib . new ( 'sha256' ) >>> h . update ( b "Nobody inspects the spammish repetition" ) >>> h . hexdigest () '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406' hashlib. md5 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha1 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha224 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha256 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha384 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha512 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha3_224 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha3_256 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha3_384 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. sha3_512 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ Named constructors such as these are faster than passing an algorithm name to new() . Attributes ¶ Hashlib provides the following constant module attributes: hashlib. algorithms_guaranteed ¶ A set containing the names of the hash algorithms guaranteed to be supported by this module on all platforms. Note that ‘md5’ is in this list despite some upstream vendors offering an odd “FIPS compliant” Python build that excludes it. Added in version 3.2. hashlib. algorithms_available ¶ A set containing the names of the hash algorithms that are available in the running Python interpreter. These names will be recognized when passed to new() . algorithms_guaranteed will always be a subset. The same algorithm may appear multiple times in this set under different names (thanks to OpenSSL). Added in version 3.2. Hash Objects ¶ The following values are provided as constant attributes of the hash objects returned by the constructors: hash. digest_size ¶ The size of the resulting hash in bytes. hash. block_size ¶ The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes. A hash object has the following attributes: hash. name ¶ The canonical name of this hash, always lowercase and always suitable as a parameter to new() to create another hash of this type. Changed in version 3.4: The name attribute has been present in CPython since its inception, but until Python 3.4 was not formally specified, so may not exist on some platforms. A hash object has the following methods: hash. update ( data ) ¶ Update the hash object with the bytes-like object . Repeated calls are equivalent to a single call with the concatenation of all the arguments: m.update(a); m.update(b) is equivalent to m.update(a+b) . hash. digest ( ) ¶ Return the digest of the data passed to the update() method so far. This is a bytes object of size digest_size which may contain bytes in the whole range from 0 to 255. hash. hexdigest ( ) ¶ Like digest() except the digest is returned as a string object of double length, containing only hexadecimal digits. This may be used to exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary environments. hash. copy ( ) ¶ Return a copy (“clone”) of the hash object. This can be used to efficiently compute the digests of data sharing a common initial substring. SHAKE variable length digests ¶ hashlib. shake_128 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ hashlib. shake_256 ( [ data , ] * , usedforsecurity=True ) ¶ The shake_128() and shake_256() algorithms provide variable length digests with length_in_bits//2 up to 128 or 256 bits of security. As such, their digest methods require a length. Maximum length is not limited by the SHAKE algorithm. shake. digest ( length ) ¶ Return the digest of the data passed to the update() method so far. This is a bytes object of size length which may contain bytes in the whole range from 0 to 255. shake. hexdigest ( length ) ¶ Like digest() except the digest is returned as a string object of double length, containing only hexadecimal digits. This may be used to exchange the value in email or other non-binary environments. Example use: >>> h = hashlib . shake_256 ( b 'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition' ) >>> h . hexdigest ( 20 ) '44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7' File hashing ¶ The hashlib module provides a helper function for efficient hashing of a file or file-like object. hashlib. file_digest ( fileobj , digest , / ) ¶ Return a digest object that has been updated with contents of file object. fileobj must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary mode. It accepts file objects from builtin open() , BytesIO instances, SocketIO objects from socket.socket.makefile() , and similar. fileobj must be opened in blocking mode, otherwise a BlockingIOError may be raised. The function may bypass Python’s I/O and use the file descriptor from fileno() directly. fileobj must be assumed to be in an unknown state after this function returns or raises. It is up to the caller to close fileobj . digest must either be a hash algorithm name as a str , a hash constructor, or a callable that returns a hash object. Example: >>> import io , hashlib , hmac >>> with open ( "library/hashlib.rst" , "rb" ) as f : ... digest = hashlib . file_digest ( f , "sha256" ) ... >>> digest . hexdigest () '...' >>> buf = io . BytesIO ( b "somedata" ) >>> mac1 = hmac . HMAC ( b "key" , digestmod = hashlib . sha512 ) >>> digest = hashlib . file_digest ( buf , lambda : mac1 ) >>> digest is mac1 True >>> mac2 = hmac . HMAC ( b "key" , b "somedata" , digestmod = hashlib . sha512 ) >>> mac1 . digest () == mac2 . digest () True Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.14: Now raises a BlockingIOError if the file is opened in non-blocking mode. Previously, spurious null bytes were added to the digest. Key derivation ¶ Key derivation and key stretching algorithms are designed for secure password hashing. Naive algorithms such as sha1(password) are not resistant against brute-force attacks. A good password hashing function must be tunable, slow, and include a salt . hashlib. pbkdf2_hmac ( hash_name , password , salt , iterations , dklen = None ) ¶ The function provides PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2. It uses HMAC as pseudorandom function. The string hash_name is the desired name of the hash digest algorithm for HMAC, e.g. ‘sha1’ or ‘sha256’. password and salt are interpreted as buffers of bytes. Applications and libraries should limit password to a sensible length (e.g. 1024). salt should be about 16 or more bytes from a proper source, e.g. os.urandom() . The number of iterations should be chosen based on the hash algorithm and computing power. As of 2022, hundreds of thousands of iterations of SHA-256 are suggested. For rationale as to why and how to choose what is best for your application, read Appendix A.2.2 of NIST-SP-800-132 . The answers on the stackexchange pbkdf2 iterations question explain in detail. dklen is the length of the derived key in bytes. If dklen is None then the digest size of the hash algorithm hash_name is used, e.g. 64 for SHA-512. >>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac >>> our_app_iters = 500_000 # Application specific, read above. >>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac ( 'sha256' , b 'password' , b 'bad salt' * 2 , our_app_iters ) >>> dk . hex () '15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9' Function only available when Python is compiled with OpenSSL. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.12: Function now only available when Python is built with OpenSSL. The slow pure Python implementation has been removed. hashlib. scrypt ( password , * , salt , n , r , p , maxmem = 0 , dklen = 64 ) ¶ The function provides scrypt password-based key derivation function as defined in RFC 7914 . password and salt must be bytes-like objects . Applications and libraries should limit password to a sensible length (e.g. 1024). salt should be about 16 or more bytes from a proper source, e.g. os.urandom() . n is the CPU/Memory cost factor, r the block size, p parallelization factor and maxmem limits memory (OpenSSL 1.1.0 defaults to 32 MiB). dklen is the length of the derived key in bytes. Added in version 3.6. BLAKE2 ¶ BLAKE2 is a cryptographic hash function defined in RFC 7693 that comes in two flavors: BLAKE2b , optimized for 64-bit platforms and produces digests of any size between 1 and 64 bytes, BLAKE2s , optimized for 8- to 32-bit platforms and produces digests of any size between 1 and 32 bytes. BLAKE2 supports keyed mode (a faster and simpler replacement for HMAC ), salted hashing , personalization , and tree hashing . Hash objects from this module follow the API of standard library’s hashlib objects. Creating hash objects ¶ New hash objects are created by calling constructor functions: hashlib. blake2b ( data = b'' , * , digest_size = 64 , key = b'' , salt = b'' , person = b'' , fanout = 1 , depth = 1 , leaf_size = 0 , node_offset = 0 , node_depth = 0 , inner_size = 0 , last_node = False , usedforsecurity = True ) ¶ hashlib. blake2s ( data = b'' , * , digest_size = 32 , key = b'' , salt = b'' , person = b'' , fanout = 1 , depth = 1 , leaf_size = 0 , node_offset = 0 , node_depth = 0 , inner_size = 0 , last_node = False , usedforsecurity = True ) ¶ These functions return the corresponding hash objects for calculating BLAKE2b or BLAKE2s. They optionally take these general parameters: data : initial chunk of data to hash, which must be bytes-like object . It can be passed only as positional argument. digest_size : size of output digest in bytes. key : key for keyed hashing (up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 32 bytes for BLAKE2s). salt : salt for randomized hashing (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 8 bytes for BLAKE2s). person : personalization string (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 8 bytes for BLAKE2s). The following table shows limits for general parameters (in bytes): Hash digest_size len(key) len(salt) len(person) BLAKE2b 64 64 16 16 BLAKE2s 32 32 8 8 Note BLAKE2 specification defines constant lengths for salt and personalization parameters, however, for convenience, this implementation accepts byte strings of any size up to the specified length. If the length of the parameter is less than specified, it is padded with zeros, thus, for example, b'salt' and b'salt\x00' is the same value. (This is not the case for key .) These sizes are available as module constants described below. Constructor functions also accept the following tree hashing parameters: fanout : fanout (0 to 255, 0 if unlimited, 1 in sequential mode). depth : maximal depth of tree (1 to 255, 255 if unlimited, 1 in sequential mode). leaf_size : maximal byte length of leaf (0 to 2**32-1 , 0 if unlimited or in sequential mode). node_offset : node offset (0 to 2**64-1 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 2**48-1 for BLAKE2s, 0 for the first, leftmost, leaf, or in sequential mode). node_depth : node depth (0 to 255, 0 for leaves, or in sequential mode). inner_size : inner digest size (0 to 64 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 32 for BLAKE2s, 0 in sequential mode). last_node : boolean indicating whether the processed node is the last one ( False for sequential mode). See section 2.10 in BLAKE2 specification for comprehensive review of tree hashing. Constants ¶ blake2b. SALT_SIZE ¶ blake2s. SALT_SIZE ¶ Salt length (maximum length accepted by constructors). blake2b. PERSON_SIZE ¶ blake2s. PERSON_SIZE ¶ Personalization string length (maximum length accepted by constructors). blake2b. MAX_KEY_SIZE ¶ blake2s. MAX_KEY_SIZE ¶ Maximum key size. blake2b. MAX_DIGEST_SIZE ¶ blake2s. MAX_DIGEST_SIZE ¶ Maximum digest size that the hash function can output. Examples ¶ Simple hashing ¶ To calculate hash of some data, you should first construct a hash object by calling the appropriate constructor function ( blake2b() or blake2s() ), then update it with the data by calling update() on the object, and, finally, get the digest out of the object by calling digest() (or hexdigest() for hex-encoded string). >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> h = blake2b () >>> h . update ( b 'Hello world' ) >>> h . hexdigest () '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183' As a shortcut, you can pass the first chunk of data to update directly to the constructor as the positional argument: >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> blake2b ( b 'Hello world' ) . hexdigest () '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183' You can call hash.update() as many times as you need to iteratively update the hash: >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> items = [ b 'Hello' , b ' ' , b 'world' ] >>> h = blake2b () >>> for item in items : ... h . update ( item ) ... >>> h . hexdigest () '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183' Using different digest sizes ¶ BLAKE2 has configurable size of digests up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b and up to 32 bytes for BLAKE2s. For example, to replace SHA-1 with BLAKE2b without changing the size of output, we can tell BLAKE2b to produce 20-byte digests: >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> h = blake2b ( digest_size = 20 ) >>> h . update ( b 'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function' ) >>> h . hexdigest () 'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c' >>> h . digest_size 20 >>> len ( h . digest ()) 20 Hash objects with different digest sizes have completely different outputs (shorter hashes are not prefixes of longer hashes); BLAKE2b and BLAKE2s produce different outputs even if the output length is the same: >>> from hashlib import blake2b , blake2s >>> blake2b ( digest_size = 10 ) . hexdigest () '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762' >>> blake2b ( digest_size = 11 ) . hexdigest () 'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809' >>> blake2s ( digest_size = 10 ) . hexdigest () '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9' >>> blake2s ( digest_size = 11 ) . hexdigest () '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4' Keyed hashing ¶ Keyed hashing can be used for authentication as a faster and simpler replacement for Hash-based message authentication code (HMAC). BLAKE2 can be securely used in prefix-MAC mode thanks to the indifferentiability property inherited from BLAKE. This example shows how to get a (hex-encoded) 128-bit authentication code for message b'message data' with key b'pseudorandom key' : >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> h = blake2b ( key = b 'pseudorandom key' , digest_size = 16 ) >>> h . update ( b 'message data' ) >>> h . hexdigest () '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced' As a practical example, a web application can symmetrically sign cookies sent to users and later verify them to make sure they weren’t tampered with: >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> from hmac import compare_digest >>> >>> SECRET_KEY = b 'pseudorandomly generated server secret key' >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16 >>> >>> def sign ( cookie ): ... h = blake2b ( digest_size = AUTH_SIZE , key = SECRET_KEY ) ... h . update ( cookie ) ... return h . hexdigest () . encode ( 'utf-8' ) >>> >>> def verify ( cookie , sig ): ... good_sig = sign ( cookie ) ... return compare_digest ( good_sig , sig ) >>> >>> cookie = b 'user-alice' >>> sig = sign ( cookie ) >>> print ( " {0} , {1} " . format ( cookie . decode ( 'utf-8' ), sig )) user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421' >>> verify ( cookie , sig ) True >>> verify ( b 'user-bob' , sig ) False >>> verify ( cookie , b '0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00' ) False Even though there’s a native keyed hashing mode, BLAKE2 can, of course, be used in HMAC construction with hmac module: >>> import hmac , hashlib >>> m = hmac . new ( b 'secret key' , digestmod = hashlib . blake2s ) >>> m . update ( b 'message' ) >>> m . hexdigest () 'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142' Randomized hashing ¶ By setting salt parameter users can introduce randomization to the hash function. Randomized hashing is useful for protecting against collision attacks on the hash function used in digital signatures. Randomized hashing is designed for situations where one party, the message preparer, generates all or part of a message to be signed by a second party, the message signer. If the message preparer is able to find cryptographic hash function collisions (i.e., two messages producing the same hash value), then they might prepare meaningful versions of the message that would produce the same hash value and digital signature, but with different results (e.g., transferring $1,000,000 to an account, rather than $10). Cryptographic hash functions have been designed with collision resistance as a major goal, but the current concentration on attacking cryptographic hash functions may result in a given cryptographic hash function providing less collision resistance than expected. Randomized hashing offers the signer additional protection by reducing the likelihood that a preparer can generate two or more messages that ultimately yield the same hash value during the digital signature generation process — even if it is practical to find collisions for the hash function. However, the use of randomized hashing may reduce the amount of security provided by a digital signature when all portions of the message are prepared by the signer. ( NIST SP-800-106 “Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures” ) In BLAKE2 the salt is processed as a one-time input to the hash function during initialization, rather than as an input to each compression function. Warning Salted hashing (or just hashing) with BLAKE2 or any other general-purpose cryptographic hash function, such as SHA-256, is not suitable for hashing passwords. See BLAKE2 FAQ for more information. >>> import os >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> msg = b 'some message' >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt. >>> salt1 = os . urandom ( blake2b . SALT_SIZE ) >>> h1 = blake2b ( salt = salt1 ) >>> h1 . update ( msg ) >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt. >>> salt2 = os . urandom ( blake2b . SALT_SIZE ) >>> h2 = blake2b ( salt = salt2 ) >>> h2 . update ( msg ) >>> # The digests are different. >>> h1 . digest () != h2 . digest () True Personalization ¶ Sometimes it is useful to force hash function to produce different digests for the same input for different purposes. Quoting the authors of the Skein hash function: We recommend that all application designers seriously consider doing this; we have seen many protocols where a hash that is computed in one part of the protocol can be used in an entirely different part because two hash computations were done on similar or related data, and the attacker can force the application to make the hash inputs the same. Personalizing each hash function used in the protocol summarily stops this type of attack. ( The Skein Hash Function Family , p. 21) BLAKE2 can be personalized by passing bytes to the person argument: >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b 'MyApp Files Hash' >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b 'MyApp Block Hash' >>> h = blake2b ( digest_size = 32 , person = FILES_HASH_PERSON ) >>> h . update ( b 'the same content' ) >>> h . hexdigest () '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4' >>> h = blake2b ( digest_size = 32 , person = BLOCK_HASH_PERSON ) >>> h . update ( b 'the same content' ) >>> h . hexdigest () 'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3' Personalization together with the keyed mode can also be used to derive different keys from a single one. >>> from hashlib import blake2s >>> from base64 import b64decode , b64encode >>> orig_key = b64decode ( b 'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=' ) >>> enc_key = blake2s ( key = orig_key , person = b 'kEncrypt' ) . digest () >>> mac_key = blake2s ( key = orig_key , person = b 'kMAC' ) . digest () >>> print ( b64encode ( enc_key ) . decode ( 'utf-8' )) rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw= >>> print ( b64encode ( mac_key ) . decode ( 'utf-8' )) G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o= Tree mode ¶ Here’s an example of hashing a minimal tree with two leaf nodes: 10 / \ 00 01 This example uses 64-byte internal digests, and returns the 32-byte final digest: >>> from hashlib import blake2b >>> >>> FANOUT = 2 >>> DEPTH = 2 >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096 >>> INNER_SIZE = 64 >>> >>> buf = bytearray ( 6000 ) >>> >>> # Left leaf ... h00 = blake2b ( buf [ 0 : LEAF_SIZE ], fanout = FANOUT , depth = DEPTH , ... leaf_size = LEAF_SIZE , inner_size = INNER_SIZE , ... node_offset = 0 , node_depth = 0 , last_node = False ) >>> # Right leaf ... h01 = blake2b ( buf [ LEAF_SIZE :], fanout = FANOUT , depth = DEPTH , ... leaf_size = LEAF_SIZE , inner_size = INNER_SIZE , ... node_offset = 1 , node_depth = 0 , last_node = True ) >>> # Root node ... h10 = blake2b ( digest_size = 32 , fanout = FANOUT , depth = DEPTH , ... leaf_size = LEAF_SIZE , inner_size = INNER_SIZE , ... node_offset = 0 , node_depth = 1 , last_node = True ) >>> h10 . update ( h00 . digest ()) >>> h10 . update ( h01 . digest ()) >>> h10 . hexdigest () '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa' Credits ¶ BLAKE2 was designed by Jean-Philippe Aumasson , Samuel Neves , Zooko Wilcox-O’Hearn , and Christian Winnerlein based on SHA-3 finalist BLAKE created by Jean-Philippe Aumasson , Luca Henzen , Willi Meier , and Raphael C.-W. Phan . It uses core algorithm from ChaCha cipher designed by Daniel J. Bernstein . The stdlib implementation is based on pyblake2 module. It was written by Dmitry Chestnykh based on C implementation written by Samuel Neves . The documentation was copied from pyblake2 and written by Dmitry Chestnykh . The C code was partly rewritten for Python by Christian Heimes . The following public domain dedication applies for both C hash function implementation, extension code, and this documentation: To the extent possible under law, the author(s) have dedicated all copyright and related and neighboring rights to this software to the public domain worldwide. This software is distributed without any warranty. You should have received a copy of the CC0 Public Domain Dedication along with this software. If not, see https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ . The following people have helped with development or contributed their changes to the project and the public domain according to the Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal: Alexandr Sokolovskiy See also Module hmac A module to generate message authentication codes using hashes. Module base64 Another way to encode binary hashes for non-binary environments. https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf The FIPS 180-4 publication on Secure Hash Algorithms. https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final The FIPS 202 publication on the SHA-3 Standard. https://www.blake2.net/ Official BLAKE2 website. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function Wikipedia article with information on which algorithms have known issues and what that means regarding their use. https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt PKCS #5: Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.1 https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf NIST Recommendation for Password-Based Key Derivation. Table of Contents hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests Hash algorithms Usage Constructors Attributes Hash Objects SHAKE variable length digests File hashing Key derivation BLAKE2 Creating hash objects Constants Examples Simple hashing Using different digest sizes Keyed hashing Randomized hashing Personalization Tree mode Credits Previous topic Cryptographic Services Next topic hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules | next | previous | Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Cryptographic Services » hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests | Theme Auto Light Dark | © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. 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https://peps.python.org#numerical-index | PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) | peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEP 0 Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) Author : The PEP Editors Status : Active Type : Informational Created : 13-Jul-2000 Table of Contents Introduction Topics API Numerical Index Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs Other Informational PEPs Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) Open PEPs (under consideration) Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs Reserved PEP Numbers PEP Types Key PEP Status Key Authors/Owners Introduction This PEP contains the index of all Python Enhancement Proposals, known as PEPs. PEP numbers are assigned by the PEP editors, and once assigned are never changed. The version control history of the PEP texts represent their historical record. Topics PEPs for specialist subjects are indexed by topic . Governance PEPs Packaging PEPs Release PEPs Typing PEPs API The PEPS API is a JSON file of metadata about all the published PEPs. Read more here . Numerical Index The numerical index contains a table of all PEPs, ordered by number. Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs PEP Title Authors PA 1 PEP Purpose and Guidelines Barry Warsaw, Jeremy Hylton, David Goodger, Alyssa Coghlan PA 2 Procedure for Adding New Modules Brett Cannon, Martijn Faassen PA 4 Deprecation of Standard Modules Brett Cannon, Martin von Löwis PA 7 Style Guide for C Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw PA 8 Style Guide for Python Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw, Alyssa Coghlan PA 10 Voting Guidelines Barry Warsaw PA 11 CPython platform support Martin von Löwis, Brett Cannon PA 12 Sample reStructuredText PEP Template David Goodger, Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon PA 13 Python Language Governance The Python core team and community PA 387 Backwards Compatibility Policy Benjamin Peterson PA 545 Python Documentation Translations Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, Victor Stinner PA 602 Annual Release Cycle for Python Łukasz Langa 3.9 PA 609 Python Packaging Authority (PyPA) Governance Dustin Ingram, Pradyun Gedam, Sumana Harihareswara PA 676 PEP Infrastructure Process Adam Turner PA 729 Typing governance process Jelle Zijlstra, Shantanu Jain PA 731 C API Working Group Charter Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Victor Stinner, Steve Dower, Irit Katriel PA 732 The Python Documentation Editorial Board Joanna Jablonski PA 761 Deprecating PGP signatures for CPython artifacts Seth Michael Larson 3.14 PA 811 Defining Python Security Response Team membership and responsibilities Seth Michael Larson Other Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors IA 20 The Zen of Python Tim Peters IA 101 Doing Python Releases 101 Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IF 247 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions A.M. Kuchling IF 248 Python Database API Specification v1.0 Greg Stein, Marc-André Lemburg IF 249 Python Database API Specification v2.0 Marc-André Lemburg IA 257 Docstring Conventions David Goodger, Guido van Rossum IF 272 API for Block Encryption Algorithms v1.0 A.M. Kuchling IA 287 reStructuredText Docstring Format David Goodger IA 290 Code Migration and Modernization Raymond Hettinger IF 333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0 Phillip J. Eby IA 394 The “python” Command on Unix-Like Systems Kerrick Staley, Alyssa Coghlan, Barry Warsaw, Petr Viktorin, Miro Hrončok, Carol Willing IF 399 Pure Python/C Accelerator Module Compatibility Requirements Brett Cannon 3.3 IF 430 Migrating to Python 3 as the default online documentation Alyssa Coghlan IA 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches Todd Rovito, Terry Reedy IF 452 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions v2.0 A.M. Kuchling, Christian Heimes IF 457 Notation For Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings IF 482 Literature Overview for Type Hints Łukasz Langa IF 483 The Theory of Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Ivan Levkivskyi IA 514 Python registration in the Windows registry Steve Dower IF 579 Refactoring C functions and methods Jeroen Demeyer IF 588 GitHub Issues Migration Plan Mariatta IF 607 Reducing CPython’s Feature Delivery Latency Łukasz Langa, Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IA 619 Python 3.10 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.10 IF 630 Isolating Extension Modules Petr Viktorin IF 635 Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale Tobias Kohn, Guido van Rossum 3.10 IF 636 Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial Daniel F Moisset 3.10 IF 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter Mark Shannon IA 664 Python 3.11 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.11 IA 672 Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python Petr Viktorin IA 693 Python 3.12 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.12 IA 719 Python 3.13 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.13 IF 733 An Evaluation of Python’s Public C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Domenico Andreoli, Stefan Behnel, Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick, Simon Cross, Steve Dower, Tim Felgentreff, David Hewitt, Shantanu Jain, Wenzel Jakob, Irit Katriel, Marc-Andre Lemburg, Donghee Na, Karl Nelson, Ronald Oussoren, Antoine Pitrou, Neil Schemenauer, Mark Shannon, Stepan Sindelar, Gregory P. Smith, Eric Snow, Victor Stinner, Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Carol Willing, William Woodruff, David Woods, Jelle Zijlstra IA 745 Python 3.14 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.14 IF 762 REPL-acing the default REPL Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, Lysandros Nikolaou, Emily Morehouse-Valcarcel 3.13 IA 790 Python 3.15 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.15 IA 801 Reserved Barry Warsaw IF 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Phillip J. Eby IF 8000 Python Language Governance Proposal Overview Barry Warsaw IF 8002 Open Source Governance Survey Barry Warsaw, Łukasz Langa, Antoine Pitrou, Doug Hellmann, Carol Willing IA 8016 The Steering Council Model Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft IF 8100 January 2019 Steering Council election Nathaniel J. Smith, Ee Durbin IF 8101 2020 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin IF 8102 2021 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8103 2022 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8104 2023 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8105 2024 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8106 2025 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8107 2026 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) PEP Title Authors SP 708 Extending the Repository API to Mitigate Dependency Confusion Attacks Donald Stufft Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) PEP Title Authors SA 458 Secure PyPI downloads with signed repository metadata Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Marina Moore, Lukas Puehringer, Joshua Lock, Lois Anne DeLong, Justin Cappos SA 658 Serve Distribution Metadata in the Simple Repository API Tzu-ping Chung SA 668 Marking Python base environments as “externally managed” Geoffrey Thomas, Matthias Klose, Filipe Laíns, Donald Stufft, Tzu-ping Chung, Stefano Rivera, Elana Hashman, Pradyun Gedam SA 686 Make UTF-8 mode default Inada Naoki 3.15 SA 687 Isolating modules in the standard library Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Petr Viktorin 3.12 SA 691 JSON-based Simple API for Python Package Indexes Donald Stufft, Pradyun Gedam, Cooper Lees, Dustin Ingram SA 699 Remove private dict version field added in PEP 509 Ken Jin 3.12 SA 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou, Marta Gómez Macías 3.12 SA 703 Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython Sam Gross 3.13 SA 714 Rename dist-info-metadata in the Simple API Donald Stufft SA 728 TypedDict with Typed Extra Items Zixuan James Li 3.15 SA 739 build-details.json 1.0 — a static description file for Python build details Filipe Laíns 3.14 SA 753 Uniform project URLs in core metadata William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SA 770 Improving measurability of Python packages with Software Bill-of-Materials Seth Larson SA 773 A Python Installation Manager for Windows Steve Dower SA 793 PyModExport: A new entry point for C extension modules Petr Viktorin 3.15 SA 794 Import Name Metadata Brett Cannon SA 798 Unpacking in Comprehensions Adam Hartz, Erik Demaine 3.15 SA 799 A dedicated profiling package for organizing Python profiling tools Pablo Galindo Salgado, László Kiss Kollár 3.15 SA 810 Explicit lazy imports Pablo Galindo Salgado, Germán Méndez Bravo, Thomas Wouters, Dino Viehland, Brittany Reynoso, Noah Kim, Tim Stumbaugh 3.15 Open PEPs (under consideration) PEP Title Authors S 467 Minor API improvements for binary sequences Alyssa Coghlan, Ethan Furman 3.15 S 480 Surviving a Compromise of PyPI: End-to-end signing of packages Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Justin Cappos, Marina Moore S 603 Adding a frozenmap type to collections Yury Selivanov S 638 Syntactic Macros Mark Shannon S 653 Precise Semantics for Pattern Matching Mark Shannon S 671 Syntax for late-bound function argument defaults Chris Angelico 3.12 S 694 Upload 2.0 API for Python Package Indexes Barry Warsaw, Donald Stufft, Ee Durbin S 710 Recording the provenance of installed packages Fridolín Pokorný S 711 PyBI: a standard format for distributing Python Binaries Nathaniel J. Smith S 718 Subscriptable functions James Hilton-Balfe 3.15 I 720 Cross-compiling Python packages Filipe Laíns 3.12 S 725 Specifying external dependencies in pyproject.toml Pradyun Gedam, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Ralf Gommers S 743 Add Py_OMIT_LEGACY_API to the Python C API Victor Stinner, Petr Viktorin 3.15 I 744 JIT Compilation Brandt Bucher, Savannah Ostrowski 3.13 S 746 Type checking Annotated metadata Adrian Garcia Badaracco 3.15 S 747 Annotating Type Forms David Foster, Eric Traut 3.15 S 748 A Unified TLS API for Python Joop van de Pol, William Woodruff 3.14 S 752 Implicit namespaces for package repositories Ofek Lev, Jarek Potiuk P 755 Implicit namespace policy for PyPI Ofek Lev S 764 Inline typed dictionaries Victorien Plot 3.15 I 766 Explicit Priority Choices Among Multiple Indexes Michael Sarahan S 767 Annotating Read-Only Attributes Eneg 3.15 S 771 Default Extras for Python Software Packages Thomas Robitaille, Jonathan Dekhtiar P 772 Packaging Council governance process Barry Warsaw, Deb Nicholson, Pradyun Gedam I 776 Emscripten Support Hood Chatham 3.14 S 777 How to Re-invent the Wheel Emma Harper Smith S 780 ABI features as environment markers Klaus Zimmermann, Ralf Gommers 3.14 S 781 Make TYPE_CHECKING a built-in constant Inada Naoki 3.15 S 783 Emscripten Packaging Hood Chatham S 785 New methods for easier handling of ExceptionGroups Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.14 S 788 Protecting the C API from Interpreter Finalization Peter Bierma 3.15 S 789 Preventing task-cancellation bugs by limiting yield in async generators Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.14 S 800 Disjoint bases in the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.15 S 802 Display Syntax for the Empty Set Adam Turner 3.15 S 803 Stable ABI for Free-Threaded Builds Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 804 An external dependency registry and name mapping mechanism Pradyun Gedam, Ralf Gommers, Michał Górny, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Michael Sarahan S 806 Mixed sync/async context managers with precise async marking Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.15 S 807 Index support for Trusted Publishing William Woodruff S 808 Including static values in dynamic project metadata Henry Schreiner, Cristian Le S 809 Stable ABI for the Future Steve Dower 3.15 S 814 Add frozendict built-in type Victor Stinner, Donghee Na 3.15 S 815 Deprecate RECORD.jws and RECORD.p7s Konstantin Schütze, William Woodruff I 816 WASI Support Brett Cannon S 819 JSON Package Metadata Emma Harper Smith S 820 PySlot: Unified slot system for the C API Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 822 Dedented Multiline String (d-string) Inada Naoki 3.15 Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) PEP Title Authors SF 100 Python Unicode Integration Marc-André Lemburg 2.0 SF 201 Lockstep Iteration Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 202 List Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 203 Augmented Assignments Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 205 Weak References Fred L. Drake, Jr. 2.1 SF 207 Rich Comparisons Guido van Rossum, David Ascher 2.1 SF 208 Reworking the Coercion Model Neil Schemenauer, Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SF 214 Extended Print Statement Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 217 Display Hook for Interactive Use Moshe Zadka 2.1 SF 218 Adding a Built-In Set Object Type Greg Wilson, Raymond Hettinger 2.2 SF 221 Import As Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 223 Change the Meaning of x Escapes Tim Peters 2.0 SF 227 Statically Nested Scopes Jeremy Hylton 2.1 SF 229 Using Distutils to Build Python A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SF 230 Warning Framework Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 232 Function Attributes Barry Warsaw 2.1 SF 234 Iterators Ka-Ping Yee, Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 235 Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms Tim Peters 2.1 SF 236 Back to the __future__ Tim Peters 2.1 SF 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 238 Changing the Division Operator Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 250 Using site-packages on Windows Paul Moore 2.2 SF 252 Making Types Look More Like Classes Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 253 Subtyping Built-in Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 255 Simple Generators Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland 2.2 SF 260 Simplify xrange() Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 261 Support for “wide” Unicode characters Paul Prescod 2.2 SF 263 Defining Python Source Code Encodings Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis 2.3 SF 264 Future statements in simulated shells Michael Hudson 2.2 SF 273 Import Modules from Zip Archives James C. Ahlstrom 2.3 SF 274 Dict Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.7, 3.0 SF 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT Neil Hodgson 2.3 SF 278 Universal Newline Support Jack Jansen 2.3 SF 279 The enumerate() built-in function Raymond Hettinger 2.3 SF 282 A Logging System Vinay Sajip, Trent Mick 2.3 SF 285 Adding a bool type Guido van Rossum 2.3 SF 289 Generator Expressions Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 292 Simpler String Substitutions Barry Warsaw 2.4 SF 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks Walter Dörwald 2.3 SF 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils Richard Jones 2.3 SF 302 New Import Hooks Just van Rossum, Paul Moore 2.3 SF 305 CSV File API Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells 2.3 SF 307 Extensions to the pickle protocol Guido van Rossum, Tim Peters 2.3 SF 308 Conditional Expressions Guido van Rossum, Raymond Hettinger 2.5 SF 309 Partial Function Application Peter Harris 2.5 SF 311 Simplified Global Interpreter Lock Acquisition for Extensions Mark Hammond 2.3 SF 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods Kevin D. Smith, Jim J. Jewett, Skip Montanaro, Anthony Baxter 2.4 SF 322 Reverse Iteration Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 324 subprocess - New process module Peter Astrand 2.4 SF 327 Decimal Data Type Facundo Batista 2.4 SF 328 Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative Aahz 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 SF 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Christian R. Reis 2.4 SF 338 Executing modules as scripts Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 341 Unifying try-except and try-finally Georg Brandl 2.5 SF 342 Coroutines via Enhanced Generators Guido van Rossum, Phillip J. Eby 2.5 SF 343 The “with” Statement Guido van Rossum, Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 352 Required Superclass for Exceptions Brett Cannon, Guido van Rossum 2.5 SF 353 Using ssize_t as the index type Martin von Löwis 2.5 SF 357 Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing Travis Oliphant 2.5 SF 358 The “bytes” Object Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum 2.6, 3.0 SF 362 Function Signature Object Brett Cannon, Jiwon Seo, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings 3.3 SF 366 Main module explicit relative imports Alyssa Coghlan 2.6, 3.0 SF 370 Per user site-packages directory Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SF 371 Addition of the multiprocessing package to the standard library Jesse Noller, Richard Oudkerk 2.6, 3.0 SF 372 Adding an ordered dictionary to collections Armin Ronacher, Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 376 Database of Installed Python Distributions Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SF 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator Gregory Ewing 3.3 SF 383 Non-decodable Bytes in System Character Interfaces Martin von Löwis 3.1 SF 384 Defining a Stable ABI Martin von Löwis 3.2 SF 389 argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module Steven Bethard 2.7, 3.2 SF 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging Vinay Sajip 2.7, 3.2 SF 393 Flexible String Representation Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 397 Python launcher for Windows Mark Hammond, Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 405 Python Virtual Environments Carl Meyer 3.3 SF 409 Suppressing exception context Ethan Furman 3.3 SF 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary Mark Shannon 3.3 SF 414 Explicit Unicode Literal for Python 3.3 Armin Ronacher, Alyssa Coghlan 3.3 SF 415 Implement context suppression with exception attributes Benjamin Peterson 3.3 SF 417 Including mock in the Standard Library Michael Foord 3.3 SF 418 Add monotonic time, performance counter, and process time functions Cameron Simpson, Jim J. Jewett, Stephen J. Turnbull, Victor Stinner 3.3 SF 420 Implicit Namespace Packages Eric V. Smith 3.3 SF 421 Adding sys.implementation Eric Snow 3.3 SF 424 A method for exposing a length hint Alex Gaynor 3.4 SF 425 Compatibility Tags for Built Distributions Daniel Holth 3.4 SF 427 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.0 Daniel Holth SF 428 The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 435 Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky, Ethan Furman 3.4 SF 436 The Argument Clinic DSL Larry Hastings 3.4 SF 440 Version Identification and Dependency Specification Alyssa Coghlan, Donald Stufft SF 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support Daniel Holth, Paul Moore 3.5 SF 442 Safe object finalization Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 443 Single-dispatch generic functions Łukasz Langa 3.4 SF 445 Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 446 Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 448 Additional Unpacking Generalizations Joshua Landau 3.5 SF 450 Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.4 SF 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Eric Snow 3.4 SF 453 Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 454 Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 456 Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm Christian Heimes 3.4 SF 461 Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray Ethan Furman 3.5 SF 465 A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication Nathaniel J. Smith 3.5 SF 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7.x Alyssa Coghlan 2.7.9 SF 468 Preserving the order of **kwargs in a function. Eric Snow 3.6 SF 471 os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator Ben Hoyt 3.5 SF 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR Charles-François Natali, Victor Stinner 3.5 SF 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients Alex Gaynor 2.7.9, 3.4.3, 3.5 SF 477 Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators Chris Angelico, Guido van Rossum 3.5 SF 484 Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.5 SF 485 A Function for testing approximate equality Christopher Barker 3.5 SF 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments Paul Moore 3.5 SF 487 Simpler customisation of class creation Martin Teichmann 3.6 SF 488 Elimination of PYO files Brett Cannon 3.5 SF 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SF 492 Coroutines with async and await syntax Yury Selivanov 3.5 SF 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7 Alyssa Coghlan, Robert Kuska, Marc-André Lemburg 2.7.12 SF 495 Local Time Disambiguation Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters 3.6 SF 498 Literal String Interpolation Eric V. Smith 3.6 SF 503 Simple Repository API Donald Stufft SF 506 Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.6 SF 508 Dependency specification for Python Software Packages Robert Collins SF 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals Georg Brandl, Serhiy Storchaka 3.6 SF 517 A build-system independent format for source trees Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 518 Specifying Minimum Build System Requirements for Python Projects Brett Cannon, Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft SF 519 Adding a file system path protocol Brett Cannon, Koos Zevenhoven 3.6 SF 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order Eric Snow 3.6 SF 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython Brett Cannon, Dino Viehland 3.6 SF 524 Make os.urandom() blocking on Linux Victor Stinner 3.6 SF 525 Asynchronous Generators Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 526 Syntax for Variable Annotations Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, Guido van Rossum 3.6 SF 527 Removing Un(der)used file types/extensions on PyPI Donald Stufft SF 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 538 Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 539 A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython Erik M. Bray, Masayuki Yamamoto 3.7 SF 540 Add a new UTF-8 Mode Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 544 Protocols: Structural subtyping (static duck typing) Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.8 SF 552 Deterministic pycs Benjamin Peterson 3.7 SF 553 Built-in breakpoint() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SF 557 Data Classes Eric V. Smith 3.7 SF 560 Core support for typing module and generic types Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 561 Distributing and Packaging Type Information Emma Harper Smith 3.7 SF 562 Module __getattr__ and __dir__ Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 564 Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 566 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.1 Dustin Ingram 3.x SF 567 Context Variables Yury Selivanov 3.7 SF 570 Python Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Mario Corchero, Eric N. Vander Weele 3.8 SF 572 Assignment Expressions Chris Angelico, Tim Peters, Guido van Rossum 3.8 SF 573 Module State Access from C Extension Methods Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan, Eric Snow, Marcel Plch 3.9 SF 574 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data Antoine Pitrou 3.8 SF 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks Steve Dower 3.8 SF 584 Add Union Operators To dict Steven D’Aprano, Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 585 Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections Łukasz Langa 3.9 SF 586 Literal Types Michael Lee, Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 587 Python Initialization Configuration Victor Stinner, Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SF 589 TypedDict: Type Hints for Dictionaries with a Fixed Set of Keys Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 590 Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SF 591 Adding a final qualifier to typing Michael J. Sullivan, Ivan Levkivskyi 3.8 SF 592 Adding “Yank” Support to the Simple API Donald Stufft SF 593 Flexible function and variable annotations Till Varoquaux, Konstantin Kashin 3.9 SF 594 Removing dead batteries from the standard library Christian Heimes, Brett Cannon 3.11 SF 597 Add optional EncodingWarning Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 600 Future ‘manylinux’ Platform Tags for Portable Linux Built Distributions Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 604 Allow writing union types as X | Y Philippe PRADOS, Maggie Moss 3.10 SF 610 Recording the Direct URL Origin of installed distributions Stéphane Bidoul, Chris Jerdonek SF 612 Parameter Specification Variables Mark Mendoza 3.10 SF 613 Explicit Type Aliases Shannon Zhu 3.10 SF 614 Relaxing Grammar Restrictions On Decorators Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 615 Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library Paul Ganssle 3.9 SF 616 String methods to remove prefixes and suffixes Dennis Sweeney 3.9 SF 617 New PEG parser for CPython Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou 3.9 SF 618 Add Optional Length-Checking To zip Brandt Bucher 3.10 SF 621 Storing project metadata in pyproject.toml Brett Cannon, Dustin Ingram, Paul Ganssle, Pradyun Gedam, Sébastien Eustace, Thomas Kluyver, Tzu-ping Chung SF 623 Remove wstr from Unicode Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 624 Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs Inada Naoki 3.11 SF 625 Filename of a Source Distribution Tzu-ping Chung, Paul Moore SF 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. Mark Shannon 3.10 SF 627 Recording installed projects Petr Viktorin SF 628 Add math.tau Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 SF 629 Versioning PyPI’s Simple API Donald Stufft SF 632 Deprecate distutils module Steve Dower 3.10 SF 634 Structural Pattern Matching: Specification Brandt Bucher, Guido van Rossum 3.10 SF 639 Improving License Clarity with Better Package Metadata Philippe Ombredanne, C.A.M. Gerlach, Karolina Surma SF 643 Metadata for Package Source Distributions Paul Moore SF 644 Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer Christian Heimes 3.10 SF 646 Variadic Generics Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Vincent Siles 3.11 SF 647 User-Defined Type Guards Eric Traut 3.10 SF 649 Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.14 SF 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI Petr Viktorin 3.10 SF 654 Exception Groups and except* Irit Katriel, Yury Selivanov, Guido van Rossum 3.11 SF 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or potentially-missing David Foster 3.11 SF 656 Platform Tag for Linux Distributions Using Musl Tzu-ping Chung SF 657 Include Fine Grained Error Locations in Tracebacks Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Ammar Askar 3.11 SF 660 Editable installs for pyproject.toml based builds (wheel based) Daniel Holth, Stéphane Bidoul SF 667 Consistent views of namespaces Mark Shannon, Tian Gao 3.13 SF 669 Low Impact Monitoring for CPython Mark Shannon 3.12 SF 670 Convert macros to functions in the Python C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Victor Stinner 3.11 SF 673 Self Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, James Hilton-Balfe 3.11 SF 675 Arbitrary Literal String Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Graham Bleaney 3.11 SF 678 Enriching Exceptions with Notes Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.11 SF 680 tomllib: Support for Parsing TOML in the Standard Library Taneli Hukkinen, Shantanu Jain 3.11 SF 681 Data Class Transforms Erik De Bonte, Eric Traut 3.11 SF 682 Format Specifier for Signed Zero John Belmonte 3.11 SF 683 Immortal Objects, Using a Fixed Refcount Eric Snow, Eddie Elizondo 3.12 SF 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL Eric Snow 3.12 SF 685 Comparison of extra names for optional distribution dependencies Brett Cannon SF 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python Jelle Zijlstra 3.12 SF 689 Unstable C API tier Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing Franek Magiera 3.12 SF 695 Type Parameter Syntax Eric Traut 3.12 SF 696 Type Defaults for Type Parameters James Hilton-Balfe 3.13 SF 697 Limited C API for Extending Opaque Types Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing Steven Troxler, Joshua Xu, Shannon Zhu 3.12 SF 700 Additional Fields for the Simple API for Package Indexes Paul Moore SF 702 Marking deprecations using the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 705 TypedDict: Read-only items Alice Purcell 3.13 SF 706 Filter for tarfile.extractall Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 709 Inlined comprehensions Carl Meyer 3.12 SF 715 Disabling bdist_egg distribution uploads on PyPI William Woodruff SF 721 Using tarfile.data_filter for source distribution extraction Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 723 Inline script metadata Ofek Lev SF 730 Adding iOS as a supported platform Russell Keith-Magee 3.13 SF 734 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.14 SF 735 Dependency Groups in pyproject.toml Stephen Rosen SF 737 C API to format a type fully qualified name Victor Stinner 3.13 SF 738 Adding Android as a supported platform Malcolm Smith 3.13 SF 740 Index support for digital attestations William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca, Dustin Ingram SF 741 Python Configuration C API Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 742 Narrowing types with TypeIs Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 749 Implementing PEP 649 Jelle Zijlstra 3.14 SF 750 Template Strings Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck 3.14 SF 751 A file format to record Python dependencies for installation reproducibility Brett Cannon SF 757 C API to import-export Python integers Sergey B Kirpichev, Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 758 Allow except and except* expressions without parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett Cannon 3.14 SF 765 Disallow return/break/continue that exit a finally block Irit Katriel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.14 SF 768 Safe external debugger interface for CPython Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, Ivona Stojanovic 3.14 SF 779 Criteria for supported status for free-threaded Python Thomas Wouters, Matt Page, Sam Gross 3.14 SF 782 Add PyBytesWriter C API Victor Stinner 3.15 SF 784 Adding Zstandard to the standard library Emma Harper Smith 3.14 SF 791 math.integer — submodule for integer-specific mathematics functions Neil Girdhar, Sergey B Kirpichev, Tim Peters, Serhiy Storchaka 3.15 SF 792 Project status markers in the simple index William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SF 3101 Advanced String Formatting Talin 3.0 SF 3102 Keyword-Only Arguments Talin 3.0 SF 3104 Access to Names in Outer Scopes Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3105 Make print a function Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3106 Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items() Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3107 Function Annotations Collin Winter, Tony Lownds 3.0 SF 3108 Standard Library Reorganization Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3109 Raising Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3110 Catching Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3111 Simple input built-in in Python 3000 Andre Roberge 3.0 SF 3112 Bytes literals in Python 3000 Jason Orendorff 3.0 SF 3113 Removal of Tuple Parameter Unpacking Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3114 Renaming iterator.next() to iterator.__next__() Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3115 Metaclasses in Python 3000 Talin 3.0 SF 3116 New I/O Daniel Stutzbach, Guido van Rossum, Mike Verdone 3.0 SF 3118 Revising the buffer protocol Travis Oliphant, Carl Banks 3.0 SF 3119 Introducing Abstract Base Classes Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.0 SF 3120 Using UTF-8 as the default source encoding Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3121 Extension Module Initialization and Finalization Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3123 Making PyObject_HEAD conform to standard C Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax Patrick Maupin 3.0 SF 3129 Class Decorators Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3131 Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3132 Extended Iterable Unpacking Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3134 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3135 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney, Lie Ryan 3.0 SF 3137 Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3138 String representation in Python 3000 Atsuo Ishimoto 3.0 SF 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers Jeffrey Yasskin 3.0 SF 3144 IP Address Manipulation Library for the Python Standard Library Peter Moody 3.3 SF 3147 PYC Repository Directories Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3148 futures - execute computations asynchronously Brian Quinlan 3.2 SF 3149 ABI version tagged .so files Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3154 Pickle protocol version 4 Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3156 Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module Guido van Rossum 3.3 Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors PS 5 Guidelines for Language Evolution Paul Prescod PS 6 Bug Fix Releases Aahz, Anthony Baxter IF 160 Python 1.6 Release Schedule Fred L. Drake, Jr. 1.6 IF 200 Python 2.0 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.0 IF 226 Python 2.1 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.1 IF 251 Python 2.2 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum 2.2 IF 283 Python 2.3 Release Schedule Guido van Rossum 2.3 IF 320 Python 2.4 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Raymond Hettinger, Anthony Baxter 2.4 PF 347 Migrating the Python CVS to Subversion Martin von Löwis IF 356 Python 2.5 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Guido van Rossum, Anthony Baxter 2.5 PF 360 Externally Maintained Packages Brett Cannon IF 361 Python 2.6 and 3.0 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Barry Warsaw 2.6, 3.0 IF 373 Python 2.7 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 2.7 PF 374 Choosing a distributed VCS for the Python project Brett Cannon, Stephen J. Turnbull, Alexandre Vassalotti, Barry Warsaw, Dirkjan Ochtman IF 375 Python 3.1 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 3.1 PF 385 Migrating from Subversion to Mercurial Dirkjan Ochtman, Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl IF 392 Python 3.2 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.2 IF 398 Python 3.3 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.3 IF 404 Python 2.8 Un-release Schedule Barry Warsaw 2.8 IF 429 Python 3.4 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.4 PS 438 Transitioning to release-file hosting on PyPI Holger Krekel, Carl Meyer PF 449 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Auto Discovery and Naming Scheme Donald Stufft PF 464 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Authenticity API Donald Stufft PF 470 Removing External Hosting Support on PyPI Donald Stufft IF 478 Python 3.5 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.5 IF 494 Python 3.6 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.6 PF 512 Migrating from hg.python.org to GitHub Brett Cannon IF 537 Python 3.7 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.7 PF 541 Package Index Name Retention Łukasz Langa IF 569 Python 3.8 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.8 PF 581 Using GitHub Issues for CPython Mariatta IF 596 Python 3.9 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.9 PF 3000 Python 3000 Guido van Rossum PF 3002 Procedure for Backwards-Incompatible Changes Steven Bethard PF 3003 Python Language Moratorium Brett Cannon, Jesse Noller, Guido van Rossum PF 3099 Things that will Not Change in Python 3000 Georg Brandl PF 3100 Miscellaneous Python 3.0 Plans Brett Cannon PF 8001 Python Governance Voting Process Brett Cannon, Christian Heimes, Donald Stufft, Eric Snow, Gregory P. Smith, Łukasz Langa, Mariatta, Nathaniel J. Smith, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond Hettinger, Tal Einat, Tim Peters, Zachary Ware Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) PEP Title Authors SD 213 Attribute Access Handlers Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 219 Stackless Python Gordon McMillan 2.1 SD 222 Web Library Enhancements A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SD 233 Python Online Help Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 267 Optimized Access to Module Namespaces Jeremy Hylton 2.2 SD 269 Pgen Module for Python Jonathan Riehl 2.2 SD 280 Optimizing access to globals Guido van Rossum 2.3 SD 286 Enhanced Argument Tuples Martin von Löwis 2.3 SD 312 Simple Implicit Lambda Roman Suzi, Alex Martelli 2.4 SD 316 Programming by Contract for Python Terence Way SD 323 Copyable Iterators Alex Martelli 2.5 SD 337 Logging Usage in the Standard Library Michael P. Dubner 2.5 SD 368 Standard image protocol and class Lino Mastrodomenico 2.6, 3.0 SD 400 Deprecate codecs.StreamReader and codecs.StreamWriter Victor Stinner 3.3 SD 403 General purpose decorator clause (aka “@in” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 PD 407 New release cycle and introducing long-term support versions Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl, Barry Warsaw SD 419 Protecting cleanup statements from interruptions Paul Colomiets 3.3 ID 423 Naming conventions and recipes related to packaging Benoit Bryon ID 444 Python Web3 Interface Chris McDonough, Armin Ronacher SD 447 Add __getdescriptor__ method to metaclass Ronald Oussoren SD 491 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.9 Daniel Holth SD 499 python -m foo should also bind ‘foo’ in sys.modules Cameron Simpson, Chris Angelico, Joseph Jevnik 3.10 SD 505 None-aware operators Mark E. Haase, Steve Dower 3.8 SD 532 A circuit breaking protocol and binary operators Alyssa Coghlan, Mark E. Haase 3.8 SD 533 Deterministic cleanup for iterators Nathaniel J. Smith SD 534 Improved Errors for Missing Standard Library Modules Tomáš Orsava, Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan SD 535 Rich comparison chaining Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SD 547 Running extension modules using the -m option Marcel Plch, Petr Viktorin 3.7 SD 556 Threaded garbage collection Antoine Pitrou 3.7 SD 568 Generator-sensitivity for Context Variables Nathaniel J. Smith 3.8 SD 661 Sentinel Values Tal Einat SD 674 Disallow using macros as l-values Victor Stinner 3.12 SD 774 Removing the LLVM requirement for JIT builds Savannah Ostrowski 3.14 SD 778 Supporting Symlinks in Wheels Emma Harper Smith SD 787 Safer subprocess usage using t-strings Nick Humrich, Alyssa Coghlan 3.15 SD 3124 Overloading, Generic Functions, Interfaces, and Adaptation Phillip J. Eby SD 3143 Standard daemon process library Ben Finney 3.x SD 3150 Statement local namespaces (aka “given” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs PEP Title Authors PW 3 Guidelines for Handling Bug Reports Jeremy Hylton PW 9 Sample Plaintext PEP Template Barry Warsaw PW 42 Feature Requests Jeremy Hylton IS 102 Doing Python Micro Releases Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IW 103 Collecting information about git Oleg Broytman SR 204 Range Literals Thomas Wouters 2.0 IW 206 Python Advanced Library A.M. Kuchling SW 209 Multi-dimensional Arrays Paul Barrett, Travis Oliphant 2.2 SR 210 Decoupling the Interpreter Loop David Ascher 2.1 SR 211 Adding A New Outer Product Operator Greg Wilson 2.1 SR 212 Loop Counter Iteration Peter Schneider-Kamp 2.1 SS 215 String Interpolation Ka-Ping Yee 2.1 IW 216 Docstring Format Moshe Zadka IR 220 Coroutines, Generators, Continuations Gordon McMillan SR 224 Attribute Docstrings Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SR 225 Elementwise/Objectwise Operators Huaiyu Zhu, Gregory Lielens 2.1 SW 228 Reworking Python’s Numeric Model Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum SR 231 __findattr__() Barry Warsaw 2.1 SR 239 Adding a Rational Type to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SR 240 Adding a Rational Literal to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SS 241 Metadata for Python Software Packages A.M. Kuchling SW 242 Numeric Kinds Paul F. Dubois 2.2 SW 243 Module Repository Upload Mechanism Sean Reifschneider 2.1 SR 244 The directive statement Martin von Löwis 2.1 SR 245 Python Interface Syntax Michel Pelletier 2.2 SR 246 Object Adaptation Alex Martelli, Clark C. Evans 2.5 SR 254 Making Classes Look More Like Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 256 Docstring Processing System Framework David Goodger SR 258 Docutils Design Specification David Goodger SR 259 Omit printing newline after newline Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 262 A Database of Installed Python Packages A.M. Kuchling SR 265 Sorting Dictionaries by Value Grant Griffin 2.2 SW 266 Optimizing Global Variable/Attribute Access Skip Montanaro 2.3 SR 268 Extended HTTP functionality and WebDAV Greg Stein 2.x SR 270 uniq method for list objects Jason Petrone 2.2 SR 271 Prefixing sys.path by command line option Frédéric B. Giacometti 2.2 SR 275 Switching on Multiple Values Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SR 276 Simple Iterator for ints Jim Althoff 2.3 SR 281 Loop Counter Iteration with range and xrange Magnus Lie Hetland 2.3 SR 284 Integer for-loops David Eppstein, Gregory Ewing 2.3 SW 288 Generators Attributes and Exceptions Raymond Hettinger 2.5 IS 291 Backward Compatibility for the Python 2 Standard Library Neal Norwitz 2.3 SR 294 Type Names in the types Module Oren Tirosh 2.5 SR 295 Interpretation of multiline string constants Stepan Koltsov 3.0 SW 296 Adding a bytes Object Type Scott Gilbert 2.3 SR 297 Support for System Upgrades Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SW 298 The Locked Buffer Interface Thomas Heller 2.3 SR 299 Special __main__() function in modules Jeff Epler 2.3 SR 303 Extend divmod() for Multiple Divisors Thomas Bellman 2.3 SW 304 Controlling Generation of Bytecode Files Skip Montanaro IW 306 How to Change Python’s Grammar Michael Hudson, Jack Diederich, Alyssa Coghlan, Benjamin Peterson SR 310 Reliable Acquisition/Release Pairs Michael Hudson, Paul Moore 2.4 SR 313 Adding Roman Numeral Literals to Python Mike Meyer 2.4 SS 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.1 A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones 2.5 SR 315 Enhanced While Loop Raymond Hettinger, W Isaac Carroll 2.5 SR 317 Eliminate Implicit Exception Instantiation Steven Taschuk 2.4 SR 319 Python Synchronize/Asynchronize Block Michel Pelletier 2.4 SW 321 Date/Time Parsing and Formatting A.M. Kuchling 2.4 SR 325 Resource-Release Support for Generators Samuele Pedroni 2.4 SR 326 A Case for Top and Bottom Values Josiah Carlson, Terry Reedy 2.4 SR 329 Treating Builtins as Constants in the Standard Library Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SR 330 Python Bytecode Verification Michel Pelletier 2.6 SR 332 Byte vectors and String/Unicode Unification Skip Montanaro 2.5 SW 334 Simple Coroutines via SuspendIteration Clark C. Evans 3.0 SR 335 Overloadable Boolean Operators Gregory Ewing 3.3 SR 336 Make None Callable Andrew McClelland IW 339 Design of the CPython Compiler Brett Cannon SR 340 Anonymous Block Statements Guido van Rossum SS 344 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 2.5 SS 345 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.2 Richard Jones 2.7 SW 346 User Defined (“with”) Statements Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SR 348 Exception Reorganization for Python 3.0 Brett Cannon SR 349 Allow str() to return unicode strings Neil Schemenauer 2.5 IR 350 Codetags Micah Elliott SR 351 The freeze protocol Barry Warsaw 2.5 SS 354 Enumerations in Python Ben Finney 2.6 SR 355 Path - Object oriented filesystem paths Björn Lindqvist 2.5 SW 359 The “make” Statement Steven Bethard 2.6 SR 363 Syntax For Dynamic Attribute Access Ben North SW 364 Transitioning to the Py3K Standard Library Barry Warsaw 2.6 SR 365 Adding the pkg_resources module Phillip J. Eby SS 367 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney 2.6 SW 369 Post import hooks Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SR 377 Allow __enter__() methods to skip the statement body Alyssa Coghlan 2.7, 3.1 SW 379 Adding an Assignment Expression Jervis Whitley 2.7, 3.2 SW 381 Mirroring infrastructure for PyPI Tarek Ziadé, Martin von Löwis SR 382 Namespace Packages Martin von Löwis 3.2 SS 386 Changing the version comparison module in Distutils Tarek Ziadé SR 390 Static metadata for Distutils Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SW 395 Qualified Names for Modules Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 IW 396 Module Version Numbers Barry Warsaw PR 401 BDFL Retirement Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon SR 402 Simplified Package Layout and Partitioning Phillip J. Eby 3.3 SW 406 Improved Encapsulation of Import State Alyssa Coghlan, Greg Slodkowicz 3.4 SR 408 Standard library __preview__ package Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 SR 410 Use decimal.Decimal type for timestamps Victor Stinner 3.3 IS 411 Provisional packages in the Python standard library Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 PW 413 Faster evolution of the Python Standard Library Alyssa Coghlan SR 416 Add a frozendict builtin type Victor Stinner 3.3 SW 422 Simpler customisation of class creation Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Urban 3.5 IW 426 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.0 Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Holth, Donald Stufft SS 431 Time zone support improvements Lennart Regebro SW 432 Restructuring the CPython startup sequence Alyssa Coghlan, Victor Stinner, Eric Snow SS 433 Easier suppression of file descriptor inheritance Victor Stinner 3.4 SR 437 A DSL for specifying signatures, annotations and argument converters Stefan Krah 3.4 SR 439 Inclusion of implicit pip bootstrap in Python installation Richard Jones 3.4 SR 455 Adding a key-transforming dictionary to collections Antoine Pitrou 3.5 SW 459 Standard Metadata Extensions for Python Software Packages Alyssa Coghlan SW 460 Add binary interpolation and formatting Antoine Pitrou 3.5 PW 462 Core development workflow automation for CPython Alyssa Coghlan SR 463 Exception-catching expressions Chris Angelico 3.5 SW 469 Migration of dict iteration code to Python 3 Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SR 472 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini, Joseph Martinot-Lagarde 3.6 SR 473 Adding structured data to built-in exceptions Sebastian Kreft PW 474 Creating forge.python.org Alyssa Coghlan PW 481 Migrate CPython to Git, Github, and Phabricator Donald Stufft SR 490 Chain exceptions at C level Victor Stinner 3.6 IR 496 Environment Markers James Polley PR 497 A standard mechanism for backward compatibility Ed Schofield SR 500 A protocol for delegating datetime methods to their tzinfo implementations Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters SW 501 General purpose template literal strings Alyssa Coghlan, Nick Humrich 3.12 IR 502 String Interpolation - Extended Discussion Mike G. Miller 3.6 SW 504 Using the System RNG by default Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 PR 507 Migrate CPython to Git and GitLab Barry Warsaw SS 509 Add a private version to dict Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 510 Specialize functions with guards Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 511 API for code transformers Victor Stinner 3.6 IS 513 A Platform Tag for Portable Linux Built Distributions Robert T. McGibbon, Nathaniel J. Smith SR 516 Build system abstraction for pip/conda etc Robert Collins, Nathaniel J. Smith SW 521 Managing global context via ‘with’ blocks in generators and coroutines Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SR 522 Allow BlockingIOError in security sensitive APIs Alyssa Coghlan, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SW 531 Existence checking operators Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SW 536 Final Grammar for Literal String Interpolation Philipp Angerer 3.7 SR 542 Dot Notation Assignment In Function Header Markus Meskanen SW 543 A Unified TLS API for Python Cory Benfield, Christian Heimes 3.7 SR 546 Backport ssl.MemoryBIO and ssl.SSLObject to Python 2.7 Victor Stinner, Cory Benfield 2.7 SR 548 More Flexible Loop Control R David Murray 3.7 SR 549 Instance Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.7 SW 550 Execution Context Yury Selivanov, Elvis Pranskevichus 3.7 IW 551 Security transparency in the Python runtime Steve Dower 3.7 SS 554 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.13 SW 555 Context-local variables (contextvars) Koos Zevenhoven 3.7 SW 558 Defined semantics for locals() Alyssa Coghlan 3.13 SR 559 Built-in noop() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SS 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations Łukasz Langa 3.7 IS 571 The manylinux2010 Platform Tag Mark Williams, Geoffrey Thomas, Thomas Kluyver SW 575 Unifying function/method classes Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SW 576 Rationalize Built-in function classes Mark Shannon 3.8 SW 577 Augmented Assignment Expressions Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SR 580 The C call protocol Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SR 582 Python local packages directory Kushal Das, Steve Dower, Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan 3.12 IW 583 A Concurrency Memory Model for Python Jeffrey Yasskin IW 595 Improving bugs.python.org Ezio Melotti, Berker Peksag IW 598 Introducing incremental feature releases Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IS 599 The manylinux2014 Platform Tag Dustin Ingram SR 601 Forbid return/break/continue breaking out of finally Damien George, Batuhan Taskaya 3.8 IR 605 A rolling feature release stream for CPython Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 SR 606 Python Compatibility Version Victor Stinner 3.9 SR 608 Coordinated Python release Miro Hrončok, Victor Stinner 3.9 SW 611 The one million limit Mark Shannon SW 620 Hide implementation details from the C API Victor Stinner 3.12 SS 622 Structural Pattern Matching Brandt Bucher, Daniel F Moisset, Tobias Kohn, Ivan Levkivskyi, Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.10 SS 631 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml based on PEP 508 Ofek Lev SR 633 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml using an exploded TOML table Laurie Opperman, Arun Babu Neelicattu SR 637 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini 3.10 SR 640 Unused variable syntax Thomas Wouters 3.10 SR 641 Using an underscore in the version portion of Python 3.10 compatibility tags Brett Cannon, Steve Dower, Barry Warsaw 3.10 SR 642 Explicit Pattern Syntax for Structural Pattern Matching Alyssa Coghlan 3.10 SW 645 Allow writing optional types as x? Maggie Moss SR 648 Extensible customizations of the interpreter at startup Mario Corchero 3.11 SW 650 Specifying Installer Requirements for Python Projects Vikram Jayanthi, Dustin Ingram, Brett Cannon SR 651 Robust Stack Overflow Handling Mark Shannon SR 662 Editable installs via virtual wheels Bernát Gábor IR 663 Standardizing Enum str(), repr(), and format() behaviors Ethan Furman 3.11 SR 665 A file format to list Python dependencies for reproducibility of an application Brett Cannon, Pradyun Gedam, Tzu-ping Chung SR 666 Reject Foolish Indentation Laura Creighton 2.2 SR 677 Callable Type Syntax Steven Troxler, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan 3.11 SR 679 New assert statement syntax with parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Stan Ulbrych 3.15 SR 690 Lazy Imports Germán Méndez Bravo, Carl Meyer 3.12 SW 704 Require virtual environments by default for package installers Pradyun Gedam SR 707 A simplified signature for __exit__ and __aexit__ Irit Katriel 3.12 SR 712 Adding a “converter” parameter to dataclasses.field Joshua Cannon 3.13 SR 713 Callable Modules Amethyst Reese 3.12 SR 722 Dependency specification for single-file scripts Paul Moore SW 724 Stricter Type Guards Rich Chiodo, Eric Traut, Erik De Bonte 3.13 SR 726 Module __setattr__ and __delattr__ Sergey B Kirpichev 3.13 SW 727 Documentation in Annotated Metadata Sebastián Ramírez 3.13 SR 736 Shorthand syntax for keyword arguments at invocation Joshua Bambrick, Chris Angelico 3.14 SR 754 IEEE 754 Floating Point Special Values Gregory R. Warnes 2.3 SW 756 Add PyUnicode_Export() and PyUnicode_Import() C functions Victor Stinner 3.14 SW 759 External Wheel Hosting Barry Warsaw, Emma Harper Smith SW 760 No More Bare Excepts Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. 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Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:49:03 |
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