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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. 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https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings	2. Lexical analysis — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.1.10. End marker 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Soft Keywords 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names 2.4. Literals 2.5. String and Bytes literals 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings 2.5.2. String prefixes 2.5.3. Formal grammar 2.5.4. Escape sequences 2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line 2.5.4.2. Escaped characters 2.5.4.3. Octal character 2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character 2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character 2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters 2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences 2.5.5. Bytes literals 2.5.6. Raw string literals 2.5.7. f-strings 2.5.8. t-strings 2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings 2.6. Numeric literals 2.6.1. Integer literals 2.6.2. Floating-point literals 2.6.3. Imaginary literals 2.7. Operators and delimiters Previous topic 1. Introduction Next topic 3. Data model This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Language Reference » 2. Lexical analysis \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| 2. Lexical analysis ¶ A Python program is read by a parser . Input to the parser is a stream of tokens , generated by the lexical analyzer (also known as the tokenizer ). This chapter describes how the lexical analyzer produces these tokens. The lexical analyzer determines the program text’s encoding (UTF-8 by default), and decodes the text into source characters . If the text cannot be decoded, a SyntaxError is raised. Next, the lexical analyzer uses the source characters to generate a stream of tokens. The type of a generated token generally depends on the next source character to be processed. Similarly, other special behavior of the analyzer depends on the first source character that hasn’t yet been processed. The following table gives a quick summary of these source characters, with links to sections that contain more information. Character Next token (or other relevant documentation) space tab formfeed Whitespace CR, LF New line Indentation backslash ( \ ) Explicit line joining (Also significant in string escape sequences ) hash ( # ) Comment quote ( ' , " ) String literal ASCII letter ( a - z , A - Z ) non-ASCII character Name Prefixed string or bytes literal underscore ( _ ) Name (Can also be part of numeric literals ) number ( 0 - 9 ) Numeric literal dot ( . ) Numeric literal Operator question mark ( ? ) dollar ( $ ) backquote ( ` ) control character Error (outside string literals and comments) other printing character Operator or delimiter end of file End marker 2.1. Line structure ¶ A Python program is divided into a number of logical lines . 2.1.1. Logical lines ¶ The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE . Statements cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is allowed by the syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements). A logical line is constructed from one or more physical lines by following the explicit or implicit line joining rules. 2.1.2. Physical lines ¶ A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by one the following end-of-line sequences: the Unix form using ASCII LF (linefeed), the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return followed by linefeed), the ‘ Classic Mac OS ’ form using the ASCII CR (return) character. Regardless of platform, each of these sequences is replaced by a single ASCII LF (linefeed) character. (This is done even inside string literals .) Each line can use any of the sequences; they do not need to be consistent within a file. The end of input also serves as an implicit terminator for the final physical line. Formally: newline : <ASCII LF> \| <ASCII CR> <ASCII LF> \| <ASCII CR> 2.1.3. Comments ¶ A comment starts with a hash character ( # ) that is not part of a string literal, and ends at the end of the physical line. A comment signifies the end of the logical line unless the implicit line joining rules are invoked. Comments are ignored by the syntax. 2.1.4. Encoding declarations ¶ If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches the regular expression coding[=:]\s([-\w.]+) , this comment is processed as an encoding declaration; the first group of this expression names the encoding of the source code file. The encoding declaration must appear on a line of its own. If it is the second line, the first line must also be a comment-only line. The recommended forms of an encoding expression are # -- coding: <encoding-name> -- which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name> which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar’s VIM. If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8. If the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8 byte-order mark ( b'\xef\xbb\xbf' ) is ignored rather than being a syntax error. If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by Python (see Standard Encodings ). The encoding is used for all lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and identifiers. All lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and identifiers, works on Unicode text decoded using the source encoding. Any Unicode code point, except the NUL control character, can appear in Python source. source_character : <any Unicode code point, except NUL> 2.1.5. Explicit line joining ¶ Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using backslash characters ( \ ), as follows: when a physical line ends in a backslash that is not part of a string literal or comment, it is joined with the following forming a single logical line, deleting the backslash and the following end-of-line character. For example: if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \ and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \ and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60 : # Looks like a valid date return 1 A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment. A backslash does not continue a comment. A backslash does not continue a token except for string literals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be split across physical lines using a backslash). A backslash is illegal elsewhere on a line outside a string literal. 2.1.6. Implicit line joining ¶ Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split over more than one physical line without using backslashes. For example: month_names = [ 'Januari' , 'Februari' , 'Maart' , # These are the 'April' , 'Mei' , 'Juni' , # Dutch names 'Juli' , 'Augustus' , 'September' , # for the months 'Oktober' , 'November' , 'December' ] # of the year Implicitly continued lines can carry comments. The indentation of the continuation lines is not important. Blank continuation lines are allowed. There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines. Implicitly continued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings (see below); in that case they cannot carry comments. 2.1.7. Blank lines ¶ A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated). During interactive input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ depending on the implementation of the read-eval-print loop. In the standard interactive interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (that is, one containing not even whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line statement. 2.1.8. Indentation ¶ Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line is used to compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is used to determine the grouping of statements. Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that the total number of characters up to and including the replacement is a multiple of eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by Unix). The total number of spaces preceding the first non-blank character then determines the line’s indentation. Indentation cannot be split over multiple physical lines using backslashes; the whitespace up to the first backslash determines the indentation. Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and spaces in a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab in spaces; a TabError is raised in that case. Cross-platform compatibility note: because of the nature of text editors on non-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces and tabs for the indentation in a single source file. It should also be noted that different platforms may explicitly limit the maximum indentation level. A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be ignored for the indentation calculations above. Formfeed characters occurring elsewhere in the leading whitespace have an undefined effect (for instance, they may reset the space count to zero). The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT and DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows. Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on the stack; this will never be popped off again. The numbers pushed on the stack will always be strictly increasing from bottom to top. At the beginning of each logical line, the line’s indentation level is compared to the top of the stack. If it is equal, nothing happens. If it is larger, it is pushed on the stack, and one INDENT token is generated. If it is smaller, it must be one of the numbers occurring on the stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are popped off, and for each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated. At the end of the file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the stack that is larger than zero. Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of Python code: def perm ( l ): # Compute the list of all permutations of l if len ( l ) <= 1 : return [ l ] r = [] for i in range ( len ( l )): s = l [: i ] + l [ i + 1 :] p = perm ( s ) for x in p : r . append ( l [ i : i + 1 ] + x ) return r The following example shows various indentation errors: def perm ( l ): # error: first line indented for i in range ( len ( l )): # error: not indented s = l [: i ] + l [ i + 1 :] p = perm ( l [: i ] + l [ i + 1 :]) # error: unexpected indent for x in p : r . append ( l [ i : i + 1 ] + x ) return r # error: inconsistent dedent (Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the last error is found by the lexical analyzer — the indentation of return r does not match a level popped off the stack.) 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens ¶ Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the whitespace characters space, tab and formfeed can be used interchangeably to separate tokens: whitespace : ' ' \| tab \| formfeed Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenation could otherwise be interpreted as a different token. For example, ab is one token, but a b is two tokens. However, +a and + a both produce two tokens, + and a , as +a is not a valid token. 2.1.10. End marker ¶ At the end of non-interactive input, the lexical analyzer generates an ENDMARKER token. 2.2. Other tokens ¶ Besides NEWLINE , INDENT and DEDENT , the following categories of tokens exist: identifiers and keywords ( NAME ), literals (such as NUMBER and STRING ), and other symbols ( operators and delimiters , OP ). Whitespace characters (other than logical line terminators, discussed earlier) are not tokens, but serve to delimit tokens. Where ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest possible string that forms a legal token, when read from left to right. 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) ¶ NAME tokens represent identifiers , keywords , and soft keywords . Names are composed of the following characters: uppercase and lowercase letters ( A-Z and a-z ), the underscore ( _ ), digits ( 0 through 9 ), which cannot appear as the first character, and non-ASCII characters. Valid names may only contain “letter-like” and “digit-like” characters; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details. Names must contain at least one character, but have no upper length limit. Case is significant. Formally, names are described by the following lexical definitions: NAME : name_start name_continue name_start : "a" ... "z" \| "A" ... "Z" \| "_" \| <non-ASCII character> name_continue : name_start \| "0" ... "9" identifier : < NAME , except keywords> Note that not all names matched by this grammar are valid; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details. 2.3.1. Keywords ¶ The following names are used as reserved words, or keywords of the language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers. They must be spelled exactly as written here: False await else import pass None break except in raise True class finally is return and continue for lambda try as def from nonlocal while assert del global not with async elif if or yield 2.3.2. Soft Keywords ¶ Added in version 3.10. Some names are only reserved under specific contexts. These are known as soft keywords : match , case , and _ , when used in the match statement. type , when used in the type statement. These syntactically act as keywords in their specific contexts, but this distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing. As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as identifier names. Changed in version 3.12: type is now a soft keyword. 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers ¶ Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings. These classes are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing underscore characters: _* Not imported by from module import * . _ In a case pattern within a match statement, _ is a soft keyword that denotes a wildcard . Separately, the interactive interpreter makes the result of the last evaluation available in the variable _ . (It is stored in the builtins module, alongside built-in functions like print .) Elsewhere, _ is a regular identifier. It is often used to name “special” items, but it is not special to Python itself. Note The name _ is often used in conjunction with internationalization; refer to the documentation for the gettext module for more information on this convention. It is also commonly used for unused variables. ____ System-defined names, informally known as “dunder” names. These names are defined by the interpreter and its implementation (including the standard library). Current system names are discussed in the Special method names section and elsewhere. More will likely be defined in future versions of Python. Any use of ____ names, in any context, that does not follow explicitly documented use, is subject to breakage without warning. __* Class-private names. Names in this category, when used within the context of a class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form to help avoid name clashes between “private” attributes of base and derived classes. See section Identifiers (Names) . 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names ¶ Names that contain non-ASCII characters need additional normalization and validation beyond the rules and grammar explained above . For example, ř_1 , 蛇 , or साँप are valid names, but r〰2 , € , or 🐍 are not. This section explains the exact rules. All names are converted into the normalization form NFKC while parsing. This means that, for example, some typographic variants of characters are converted to their “basic” form. For example, ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ normalizes to finalization , so Python treats them as the same name: >>> ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ = 3 >>> finalization 3 Note Normalization is done at the lexical level only. Run-time functions that take names as strings generally do not normalize their arguments. For example, the variable defined above is accessible at run time in the globals() dictionary as globals()["finalization"] but not globals()["ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ"] . Similarly to how ASCII-only names must contain only letters, digits and the underscore, and cannot start with a digit, a valid name must start with a character in the “letter-like” set xid_start , and the remaining characters must be in the “letter- and digit-like” set xid_continue . These sets based on the XID_Start and XID_Continue sets as defined by the Unicode standard annex UAX-31 . Python’s xid_start additionally includes the underscore ( _ ). Note that Python does not necessarily conform to UAX-31 . A non-normative listing of characters in the XID_Start and XID_Continue sets as defined by Unicode is available in the DerivedCoreProperties.txt file in the Unicode Character Database. For reference, the construction rules for the xid_* sets are given below. The set id_start is defined as the union of: Unicode category <Lu> - uppercase letters (includes A to Z ) Unicode category <Ll> - lowercase letters (includes a to z ) Unicode category <Lt> - titlecase letters Unicode category <Lm> - modifier letters Unicode category <Lo> - other letters Unicode category <Nl> - letter numbers { "_" } - the underscore <Other_ID_Start> - an explicit set of characters in PropList.txt to support backwards compatibility The set xid_start then closes this set under NFKC normalization, by removing all characters whose normalization is not of the form id_start id_continue* . The set id_continue is defined as the union of: id_start (see above) Unicode category <Nd> - decimal numbers (includes 0 to 9 ) Unicode category <Pc> - connector punctuations Unicode category <Mn> - nonspacing marks Unicode category <Mc> - spacing combining marks <Other_ID_Continue> - another explicit set of characters in PropList.txt to support backwards compatibility Again, xid_continue closes this set under NFKC normalization. Unicode categories use the version of the Unicode Character Database as included in the unicodedata module. See also PEP 3131 – Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers PEP 672 – Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python 2.4. Literals ¶ Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types. In terms of lexical analysis, Python has string, bytes and numeric literals. Other “literals” are lexically denoted using keywords ( None , True , False ) and the special ellipsis token ( ... ). 2.5. String and Bytes literals ¶ String literals are text enclosed in single quotes ( ' ) or double quotes ( " ). For example: "spam" 'eggs' The quote used to start the literal also terminates it, so a string literal can only contain the other quote (except with escape sequences, see below). For example: 'Say "Hello", please.' "Don't do that!" Except for this limitation, the choice of quote character ( ' or " ) does not affect how the literal is parsed. Inside a string literal, the backslash ( \ ) character introduces an escape sequence , which has special meaning depending on the character after the backslash. For example, \" denotes the double quote character, and does not end the string: >>> print ( "Say \" Hello \" to everyone!" ) Say "Hello" to everyone! See escape sequences below for a full list of such sequences, and more details. 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings ¶ Strings can also be enclosed in matching groups of three single or double quotes. These are generally referred to as triple-quoted strings : """This is a triple-quoted string.""" In triple-quoted literals, unescaped quotes are allowed (and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the literal, if they are of the same kind ( ' or " ) used at the start: """This string has "quotes" inside.""" Unescaped newlines are also allowed and retained: '''This triple-quoted string continues on the next line.''' 2.5.2. String prefixes ¶ String literals can have an optional prefix that influences how the content of the literal is parsed, for example: b "data" f ' { result =} ' The allowed prefixes are: b : Bytes literal r : Raw string f : Formatted string literal (“f-string”) t : Template string literal (“t-string”) u : No effect (allowed for backwards compatibility) See the linked sections for details on each type. Prefixes are case-insensitive (for example, ‘ B ’ works the same as ‘ b ’). The ‘ r ’ prefix can be combined with ‘ f ’, ‘ t ’ or ‘ b ’, so ‘ fr ’, ‘ rf ’, ‘ tr ’, ‘ rt ’, ‘ br ’, and ‘ rb ’ are also valid prefixes. Added in version 3.3: The 'rb' prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonym of 'br' . Support for the unicode legacy literal ( u'value' ) was reintroduced to simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases. See PEP 414 for more information. 2.5.3. Formal grammar ¶ String literals, except “f-strings” and “t-strings” , are described by the following lexical definitions. These definitions use negative lookaheads ( ! ) to indicate that an ending quote ends the literal. STRING : [ stringprefix ] ( stringcontent ) stringprefix : <( "r" \| "u" \| "b" \| "br" \| "rb" ), case-insensitive> stringcontent : \| "'''" ( ! "'''" longstringitem )* "'''" \| '"""' ( ! '"""' longstringitem )* '"""' \| "'" ( ! "'" stringitem )* "'" \| '"' ( ! '"' stringitem )* '"' stringitem : stringchar \| stringescapeseq stringchar : <any source_character , except backslash and newline> longstringitem : stringitem \| newline stringescapeseq : "\" <any source_character > Note that as in all lexical definitions, whitespace is significant. In particular, the prefix (if any) must be immediately followed by the starting quote. 2.5.4. Escape sequences ¶ Unless an ‘ r ’ or ‘ R ’ prefix is present, escape sequences in string and bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are: Escape Sequence Meaning \ <newline> Ignored end of line \\ Backslash \' Single quote \" Double quote \a ASCII Bell (BEL) \b ASCII Backspace (BS) \f ASCII Formfeed (FF) \n ASCII Linefeed (LF) \r ASCII Carriage Return (CR) \t ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB) \v ASCII Vertical Tab (VT) \ ooo Octal character \x hh Hexadecimal character \N{ name } Named Unicode character \u xxxx Hexadecimal Unicode character \U xxxxxxxx Hexadecimal Unicode character 2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line ¶ A backslash can be added at the end of a line to ignore the newline: >>> 'This string will not include \ ... backslashes or newline characters.' 'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.' The same result can be achieved using triple-quoted strings , or parentheses and string literal concatenation . 2.5.4.2. Escaped characters ¶ To include a backslash in a non- raw Python string literal, it must be doubled. The \\ escape sequence denotes a single backslash character: >>> print ( 'C: \\ Program Files' ) C:\Program Files Similarly, the \' and \" sequences denote the single and double quote character, respectively: >>> print ( ' \' and \" ' ) ' and " 2.5.4.3. Octal character ¶ The sequence \ ooo denotes a character with the octal (base 8) value ooo : >>> ' \120 ' 'P' Up to three octal digits (0 through 7) are accepted. In a bytes literal, character means a byte with the given value. In a string literal, it means a Unicode character with the given value. Changed in version 3.11: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (255) produce a DeprecationWarning . Changed in version 3.12: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (255) produce a SyntaxWarning . In a future Python version they will raise a SyntaxError . 2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character ¶ The sequence \x hh denotes a character with the hex (base 16) value hh : >>> ' \x50 ' 'P' Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required. In a bytes literal, character means a byte with the given value. In a string literal, it means a Unicode character with the given value. 2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character ¶ The sequence \N{ name } denotes a Unicode character with the given name : >>> ' \N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P} ' 'P' >>> ' \N{SNAKE} ' '🐍' This sequence cannot appear in bytes literals . Changed in version 3.3: Support for name aliases has been added. 2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters ¶ These sequences \u xxxx and \U xxxxxxxx denote the Unicode character with the given hex (base 16) value. Exactly four digits are required for \u ; exactly eight digits are required for \U . The latter can encode any Unicode character. >>> ' \u1234 ' 'ሴ' >>> ' \U0001f40d ' '🐍' These sequences cannot appear in bytes literals . 2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences ¶ Unlike in Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the string unchanged, that is, the backslash is left in the result : >>> print ( '\q' ) \q >>> list ( '\q' ) ['\\', 'q'] Note that for bytes literals, the escape sequences only recognized in string literals ( \N... , \u... , \U... ) fall into the category of unrecognized escapes. Changed in version 3.6: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a DeprecationWarning . Changed in version 3.12: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a SyntaxWarning . In a future Python version they will raise a SyntaxError . 2.5.5. Bytes literals ¶ Bytes literals are always prefixed with ‘ b ’ or ‘ B ’; they produce an instance of the bytes type instead of the str type. They may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greater must be expressed with escape sequences (typically Hexadecimal character or Octal character ): >>> b ' \x89 PNG \r\n\x1a\n ' b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n' >>> list ( b ' \x89 PNG \r\n\x1a\n ' ) [137, 80, 78, 71, 13, 10, 26, 10] Similarly, a zero byte must be expressed using an escape sequence (typically \0 or \x00 ). 2.5.6. Raw string literals ¶ Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter ‘ r ’ or ‘ R ’; such constructs are called raw string literals and raw bytes literals respectively and treat backslashes as literal characters. As a result, in raw string literals, escape sequences are not treated specially: >>> r '\d {4} -\d {2} -\d {2} ' '\\d{4}-\\d{2}-\\d{2}' Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but the backslash remains in the result; for example, r"\"" is a valid string literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote; r"\" is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an odd number of backslashes). Specifically, a raw literal cannot end in a single backslash (since the backslash would escape the following quote character). Note also that a single backslash followed by a newline is interpreted as those two characters as part of the literal, not as a line continuation. 2.5.7. f-strings ¶ Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.7: The await and async for can be used in expressions within f-strings. Changed in version 3.8: Added the debug specifier ( = ) Changed in version 3.12: Many restrictions on expressions within f-strings have been removed. Notably, nested strings, comments, and backslashes are now permitted. A formatted string literal or f-string is a string literal that is prefixed with ‘ f ’ or ‘ F ’. Unlike other string literals, f-strings do not have a constant value. They may contain replacement fields delimited by curly braces {} . Replacement fields contain expressions which are evaluated at run time. For example: >>> who = 'nobody' >>> nationality = 'Spanish' >>> f ' { who . title () } expects the { nationality } Inquisition!' 'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!' Any doubled curly braces ( {{ or }} ) outside replacement fields are replaced with the corresponding single curly brace: >>> print ( f ' {{ ... }} ' ) {...} Other characters outside replacement fields are treated like in ordinary string literals. This means that escape sequences are decoded (except when a literal is also marked as a raw string), and newlines are possible in triple-quoted f-strings: >>> name = 'Galahad' >>> favorite_color = 'blue' >>> print ( f ' { name } : \t { favorite_color } ' ) Galahad: blue >>> print ( rf "C:\Users\ { name } " ) C:\Users\Galahad >>> print ( f '''Three shall be the number of the counting ... and the number of the counting shall be three.''' ) Three shall be the number of the counting and the number of the counting shall be three. Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python expressions. Each expression is evaluated in the context where the formatted string literal appears, in order from left to right. An empty expression is not allowed, and both lambda and assignment expressions := must be surrounded by explicit parentheses: >>> f ' { ( half := 1 / 2 ) } , { half * 42 } ' '0.5, 21.0' Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is permitted: >>> a = dict ( x = 2 ) >>> f "abc { a [ "x" ] } def" 'abc 2 def' Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the same way as in any other context: >>> a = [ "a" , "b" , "c" ] >>> print ( f "List a contains: \n { " \n " . join ( a ) } " ) List a contains: a b c It is possible to nest f-strings: >>> name = 'world' >>> f 'Repeated: { f ' hello { name } ' * 3 } ' 'Repeated: hello world hello world hello world' Portable Python programs should not use more than 5 levels of nesting. CPython implementation detail: CPython does not limit nesting of f-strings. Replacement expressions can contain newlines in both single-quoted and triple-quoted f-strings and they can contain comments. Everything that comes after a # inside a replacement field is a comment (even closing braces and quotes). This means that replacement fields with comments must be closed in a different line: >>> a = 2 >>> f"abc{a # This comment }" continues until the end of the line ... + 3}" 'abc5' After the expression, replacement fields may optionally contain: a debug specifier – an equal sign ( = ), optionally surrounded by whitespace on one or both sides; a conversion specifier – !s , !r or !a ; and/or a format specifier prefixed with a colon ( : ). See the Standard Library section on f-strings for details on how these fields are evaluated. As that section explains, format specifiers are passed as the second argument to the format() function to format a replacement field value. For example, they can be used to specify a field width and padding characters using the Format Specification Mini-Language : >>> number = 14.3 >>> f ' { number : 20.7f } ' ' 14.3000000' Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields: >>> field_size = 20 >>> precision = 7 >>> f ' { number :{ field_size } . { precision } f } ' ' 14.3000000' These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and format specifiers : >>> number = 3 >>> f ' { number :{ field_size }} ' ' 3' >>> f ' { number :{ field_size : 05 }} ' '00000000000000000003' However, these nested fields may not include more deeply nested replacement fields. Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings , even if they do not include expressions: >>> def foo (): ... f "Not a docstring" ... >>> print ( foo . __doc__ ) None See also PEP 498 – Literal String Interpolation PEP 701 – Syntactic formalization of f-strings str.format() , which uses a related format string mechanism. 2.5.8. t-strings ¶ Added in version 3.14. A template string literal or t-string is a string literal that is prefixed with ‘ t ’ or ‘ T ’. These strings follow the same syntax rules as formatted string literals . For differences in evaluation rules, see the Standard Library section on t-strings 2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings ¶ F-strings are handled partly by the lexical analyzer , which produces the tokens FSTRING_START , FSTRING_MIDDLE and FSTRING_END , and partly by the parser, which handles expressions in the replacement field. The exact way the work is split is a CPython implementation detail. Correspondingly, the f-string grammar is a mix of lexical and syntactic definitions . Whitespace is significant in these situations: There may be no whitespace in FSTRING_START (between the prefix and quote). Whitespace in FSTRING_MIDDLE is part of the literal string contents. In fstring_replacement_field , if f_debug_specifier is present, all whitespace after the opening brace until the f_debug_specifier , as well as whitespace immediately following f_debug_specifier , is retained as part of the expression. CPython implementation detail: The expression is not handled in the tokenization phase; it is retrieved from the source code using locations of the { token and the token after = . The FSTRING_MIDDLE definition uses negative lookaheads ( ! ) to indicate special characters (backslash, newline, { , } ) and sequences ( f_quote ). fstring : FSTRING_START fstring_middle * FSTRING_END FSTRING_START : fstringprefix ( "'" \| '"' \| "'''" \| '"""' ) FSTRING_END : f_quote fstringprefix : <( "f" \| "fr" \| "rf" ), case-insensitive> f_debug_specifier : '=' f_quote : <the quote character(s) used in FSTRING_START> fstring_middle : \| fstring_replacement_field \| FSTRING_MIDDLE FSTRING_MIDDLE : \| (! "\" ! newline ! '{' ! '}' ! f_quote ) source_character \| stringescapeseq \| "{{" \| "}}" \| <newline, in triple-quoted f-strings only> fstring_replacement_field : \| '{' f_expression [ f_debug_specifier ] [ fstring_conversion ] [ fstring_full_format_spec ] '}' fstring_conversion : \| "!" ( "s" \| "r" \| "a" ) fstring_full_format_spec : \| ':' fstring_format_spec * fstring_format_spec : \| FSTRING_MIDDLE \| fstring_replacement_field f_expression : \| ',' .( conditional_expression \| "" or_expr )+ [ "," ] \| yield_expression Note In the above grammar snippet, the f_quote and FSTRING_MIDDLE rules are context-sensitive – they depend on the contents of FSTRING_START of the nearest enclosing fstring . Constructing a more traditional formal grammar from this template is left as an exercise for the reader. The grammar for t-strings is identical to the one for f-strings, with t instead of f at the beginning of rule and token names and in the prefix. tstring : TSTRING_START tstring_middle TSTRING_END <rest of the t-string grammar is omitted; see above> 2.6. Numeric literals ¶ NUMBER tokens represent numeric literals, of which there are three types: integers, floating-point numbers, and imaginary numbers. NUMBER : integer \| floatnumber \| imagnumber The numeric value of a numeric literal is the same as if it were passed as a string to the int , float or complex class constructor, respectively. Note that not all valid inputs for those constructors are also valid literals. Numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like -1 is actually an expression composed of the unary operator ‘ - ’ and the literal 1 . 2.6.1. Integer literals ¶ Integer literals denote whole numbers. For example: 7 3 2147483647 There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can be stored in available memory: 7922816251426433759354395033679228162514264337593543950336 Underscores can be used to group digits for enhanced readability, and are ignored for determining the numeric value of the literal. For example, the following literals are equivalent: 100_000_000_000 100000000000 1_00_00_00_00_000 Underscores can only occur between digits. For example, _123 , 321_ , and 123__321 are not valid literals. Integers can be specified in binary (base 2), octal (base 8), or hexadecimal (base 16) using the prefixes 0b , 0o and 0x , respectively. Hexadecimal digits 10 through 15 are represented by letters A - F , case-insensitive. For example: 0b100110111 0b_1110_0101 0o177 0o377 0xdeadbeef 0xDead_Beef An underscore can follow the base specifier. For example, 0x_1f is a valid literal, but 0_x1f and 0x__1f are not. Leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed. For example, 0123 is not a valid literal. This is for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python used before version 3.0. Formally, integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions: integer : decinteger \| bininteger \| octinteger \| hexinteger \| zerointeger decinteger : nonzerodigit ([ "_" ] digit )* bininteger : "0" ( "b" \| "B" ) ([ "_" ] bindigit )+ octinteger : "0" ( "o" \| "O" ) ([ "_" ] octdigit )+ hexinteger : "0" ( "x" \| "X" ) ([ "_" ] hexdigit )+ zerointeger : "0" + ([ "_" ] "0" )* nonzerodigit : "1" ... "9" digit : "0" ... "9" bindigit : "0" \| "1" octdigit : "0" ... "7" hexdigit : digit \| "a" ... "f" \| "A" ... "F" Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals. 2.6.2. Floating-point literals ¶ Floating-point (float) literals, such as 3.14 or 1.5 , denote approximations of real numbers . They consist of integer and fraction parts, each composed of decimal digits. The parts are separated by a decimal point, . : 2.71828 4.0 Unlike in integer literals, leading zeros are allowed. For example, 077.010 is legal, and denotes the same number as 77.01 . As in integer literals, single underscores may occur between digits to help readability: 96_485.332_123 3.14_15_93 Either of these parts, but not both, can be empty. For example: 10. # (equivalent to 10.0) .001 # (equivalent to 0.001) Optionally, the integer and fraction may be followed by an exponent : the letter e or E , followed by an optional sign, + or - , and a number in the same format as the integer and fraction parts. The e or E represents “times ten raised to the power of”: 1.0e3 # (represents 1.0×10³, or 1000.0) 1.166e-5 # (represents 1.166×10⁻⁵, or 0.00001166) 6.02214076e+23 # (represents 6.02214076×10²³, or 602214076000000000000000.) In floats with only integer and exponent parts, the decimal point may be omitted: 1e3 # (equivalent to 1.e3 and 1.0e3) 0e0 # (equivalent to 0.) Formally, floating-point literals are described by the following lexical definitions: floatnumber : \| digitpart "." [ digitpart ] [ exponent ] \| "." digitpart [ exponent ] \| digitpart exponent digitpart : digit ([ "_" ] digit )* exponent : ( "e" \| "E" ) [ "+" \| "-" ] digitpart Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals. 2.6.3. Imaginary literals ¶ Python has complex number objects, but no complex literals. Instead, imaginary literals denote complex numbers with a zero real part. For example, in math, the complex number 3+4.2 i is written as the real number 3 added to the imaginary number 4.2 i . Python uses a similar syntax, except the imaginary unit is written as j rather than i : 3 + 4.2 j This is an expression composed of the integer literal 3 , the operator ‘ + ’, and the imaginary literal 4.2j . Since these are three separate tokens, whitespace is allowed between them: 3 + 4.2 j No whitespace is allowed within each token. In particular, the j suffix, may not be separated from the number before it. The number before the j has the same syntax as a floating-point literal. Thus, the following are valid imaginary literals: 4.2 j 3.14 j 10. j .001 j 1e100j 3.14e-10 j 3.14_15_93 j Unlike in a floating-point literal the decimal point can be omitted if the imaginary number only has an integer part. The number is still evaluated as a floating-point number, not an integer: 10 j 0 j 1000000000000000000000000 j # equivalent to 1e+24j The j suffix is case-insensitive. That means you can use J instead: 3.14 J # equivalent to 3.14j Formally, imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definition: imagnumber : ( floatnumber \| digitpart ) ( "j" \| "J" ) 2.7. Operators and delimiters ¶ The following grammar defines operator and delimiter tokens, that is, the generic OP token type. A list of these tokens and their names is also available in the token module documentation. OP : \| assignment_operator \| bitwise_operator \| comparison_operator \| enclosing_delimiter \| other_delimiter \| arithmetic_operator \| "..." \| other_op assignment_operator : "+=" \| "-=" \| "=" \| "=" \| "/=" \| "//=" \| "%=" \| "&=" \| "\|=" \| "^=" \| "<<=" \| ">>=" \| "@=" \| ":=" bitwise_operator : "&" \| "\|" \| "^" \| "~" \| "<<" \| ">>" comparison_operator : "<=" \| ">=" \| "<" \| ">" \| "==" \| "!=" enclosing_delimiter : "(" \| ")" \| "[" \| "]" \| "{" \| "}" other_delimiter : "," \| ":" \| "!" \| ";" \| "=" \| "->" arithmetic_operator : "+" \| "-" \| "" \| "" \| "//" \| "/" \| "%" other_op : "." \| "@" Note Generally, operators are used to combine expressions , while delimiters serve other purposes. However, there is no clear, formal distinction between the two categories. Some tokens can serve as either operators or delimiters, depending on usage. For example, * is both the multiplication operator and a delimiter used for sequence unpacking, and @ is both the matrix multiplication and a delimiter that introduces decorators. For some tokens, the distinction is unclear. For example, some people consider . , ( , and ) to be delimiters, while others see the getattr() operator and the function call operator(s). Some of Python’s operators, like and , or , and not in , use keyword tokens rather than “symbols” (operator tokens). A sequence of three consecutive periods ( ... ) has a special meaning as an Ellipsis literal. Table of Contents 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.1.10. End marker 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Soft Keywords 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names 2.4. Literals 2.5. String and Bytes literals 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings 2.5.2. String prefixes 2.5.3. Formal grammar 2.5.4. Escape sequences 2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line 2.5.4.2. Escaped characters 2.5.4.3. Octal character 2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character 2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character 2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters 2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences 2.5.5. Bytes literals 2.5.6. Raw string literals 2.5.7. f-strings 2.5.8. t-strings 2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings 2.6. Numeric literals 2.6.1. Integer literals 2.6.2. Floating-point literals 2.6.3. Imaginary literals 2.7. Operators and delimiters Previous topic 1. Introduction Next topic 3. Data model This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Language Reference » 2. Lexical analysis \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Last updated on Jan 13, 2026 (06:19 UTC). Found a bug ? Created using Sphinx 8.2.3.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#xml-remote-procedure-calls	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. 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By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. 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This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#asyncio	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. 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Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. "Licensor" shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by the copyright owner that is granting the License. "Legal Entity" shall mean the union of the acting entity and all other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition, "control" means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity. "You" (or "Your") shall mean an individual or Legal Entity exercising permissions granted by this License. "Source" form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications, including but not limited to software source code, documentation source, and configuration files. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Future Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Future — News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Future © 2025 - 2026. Stay on the cutting edge, and shape tomorrow Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://dev.to/jinali98/enhancing-privacy-with-stealth-addresses-on-public-blockchains-18h6#comments	Enhancing Privacy with Stealth Addresses on Public Blockchains - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Jinali Pabasara Posted on Jan 13           Enhancing Privacy with Stealth Addresses on Public Blockchains # blockchain # web3 # privacy Blockchains are distributed ledgers that record every transaction occurring within the network, including the sender’s address, the receiver’s address, and the transferred amount. These records are publicly accessible and can be inspected by anyone at any time. While blockchain addresses do not directly store personal information, they are pseudonymous rather than private. Once the real world identity behind a wallet address is uncovered through exchanges, payments, or social interactions, it becomes easy to trace all past and future transactions linked to that address. Also, the complete financial history of a wallet can be viewed without restriction, simply because blockchain data is designed to be public. What Are Stealth Addresses? The concept of stealth addresses was introduced to enhance privacy in blockchain transactions. A stealth address is a unique, one-time wallet address generated for each transaction. Instead of reusing a single public address, stealth addresses enable users to receive funds through different, unlinkable addresses every time. To an outside observer, it seems that funds sent using stealth addresses are transferred to completely new and unrelated wallet addresses for each transaction. This design makes it difficult to associate multiple payments with the same recipient, even though all transactions remain publicly visible on the blockchain. Let’s go through an example to understand how stealth addresses work in practice. Suppose Alice wants to send some funds to her friend Bob. Bob prefers to receive funds privately, and Alice wants to ensure that this payment cannot be easily traced back to either her wallet address or her previous transactions. This is where stealth addresses come into play. The Dual-Key Model In a typical blockchain wallet, a user controls a single private key, which is used to derive a public key or the wallet address. However, stealth addresses utilize a dual-key model known as the Dual-Key Stealth Address protocol. In this model, the receiver, Bob, generates two separate private keys. A viewing key and a spending key. Viewing Key: The viewing key allows Bob to scan the blockchain and identify payments that belong to him. Spending Key: The spending key is used to control and spend the funds once they are received. Once Bob has generated both keys, the next step is to derive their corresponding public keys. These two public keys, the viewing public key and the spending public key, are then combined into a single key known as a stealth meta address. The stealth meta address is not a wallet address that holds funds directly. Instead, it serves as a public identifier that Bob can safely share with others. Bob then sends this stealth meta address to Alice (the receiver). Sender’s Process: Generating the Stealth Address Once Alice has the stealth meta address of Bob, as the sender, Alice needs to follow a few steps to send the funds securely. First, She will generate a temporary key pair, which we will refer to as an ephemeral key pair. This key pair will only be used for this specific transaction and is essentially a throwaway key pair. The next step is to mix the viewing public key extracted from the stealth meta address (remember, the stealth meta address is generated by combining the viewing and spending public keys) with the ephemeral private key to generate a shared secret. We call this a shared secret because Bob will later be able to recreate the same secret using his viewing private key and the ephemeral public key. We can use the Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) protocol to generate this shared secret. _Note : ECDH is a cryptographic key exchange protocol enabling two parties to establish a shared secret key over an insecure channel securely. _ Next, Alice can use this shared secret to generate a unique address where she can send her funds. This is known as a stealth address. How the Recipient Detects and Claims Funds The question is, once I send money to this random wallet address, how does Bob know that I made a transaction? More importantly, how does he gain access to the funds in this random wallet address? After Alice transferred funds to a random wallet as the sender, she published something called an Announcement to the blockchain. This Announcement contains the ephemeral public key Alice generated and the view tag, which consists of the first few bytes of the shared secret sge generated previously, along with the actual stealth address Alice sent money to. Now comes the final part of the process. As the recipient, Bob needs to monitor the blockchain and check for the announcement that was published. Since there could be announcements from many different people, how can Bob find the specific announcement Alice made for this specific transaction? Bob is going to check each announcement. For each announcement, he will retrieve the ephemeral public key and combine it with his Viewing Private Key to generate the shared secret. If the announcement is intended for him (meaning a transaction has been made to him), the first few bytes of the shared secret that Bob generates should match the view tag value contained in the announcement. _Note : The initial view tag comparison check speeds up the announcement scanning process by avoiding the reconstruction of stealth addresses for every announcement. _ Once he found the correct announcement, he could follow the next step to access his funds. Bob can combine the spending public key he has with the shared secret to generate the stealth address where Alice has sent the funds. If the stealth address that Bob generates matches the stealth address in the announcement, he can confirm that the transaction was intended for him. Generating the Stealth Private Key Now let’s move on to the final step of the process Which is generating the private key for the stealth address so that Bob can transfer funds to any wallet he chooses. To create the stealth private key, Bob needs to mathematically combine the spending private key with the generated shared secret. This process will yield the stealth private key for the stealth address to which Alice sent the funds. Once Bob has this private key, he can transfer funds from the temporary stealth wallet to any other wallets he likes. From the point of view of someone watching my wallet address, it will look like Alice sent funds to a random wallet address, not directly to a wallet owned by Bob. In the same way, someone who is watching Bob’s wallet address will not clearly see that he received funds from my wallet, because the money was sent to a one-time stealth address instead. After receiving the funds, Bob can move the money from the stealth address to any other wallet he owns, or even send it directly to an exchange. This can be done without creating a clear, direct link between my wallet address and Bob’s main wallet address. One important thing to note is that stealth addresses do not hide transaction amounts. Anyone looking at the blockchain can still see how much money was sent to the one-time stealth address. Also, if someone carefully tracks the movement of funds over time, they might be able to guess a connection between my wallet and Bob’s wallet. However, this connection is indirect and much harder to make compared to sending funds directly to a regular wallet address. In this section, we concentrated on the overarching concepts and cryptographic processes related to stealth addresses. In the next part, we will explore a specific off-chain implementation, demonstrating how these concepts are translated into actual code and how both the sender and receiver can independently generate the same stealth address in practice. _Originally published at https://jinalipabasara.substack.com . _ Top comments (3) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Some comments may only be visible to logged-in visitors. Sign in to view all comments. Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Jinali Pabasara Follow Experienced Software Engineer with a passion for developing innovative programs Location Colombo, Sri Lanka Education London Metropolitan University Work Software Engineer at Maash Joined Jun 12, 2021 More from Jinali Pabasara Crafting a Stitch-Inspired Memecoin on Sui # smartcontract # blockchain # web3 # programming 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://zeroday.forem.com/amit_ambekar_c022e6732f8d/november-strengthening-identity-access-management-iam-for-smbs-3om2#comments	🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Amit Ambekar Posted on Nov 28, 2025 🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs # iam # cybersecurity # soc # education Identity is the new perimeter. In today’s cloud-first, remote-friendly environment, attackers don’t break in they log in. For SMBs, weak access controls remain one of the biggest cyber risks, yet also one of the easiest to improve with the right strategy. This November, the spotlight is on Identity & Access Management (IAM): How small and mid-sized businesses can secure user identities, reduce attack surfaces and prevent unauthorized access. 🔑 Why IAM Matters More Than Ever 🔑 A single compromised password can unleash serious damage account takeover, ransomware, financial loss or business disruption. According to real cases investigated by global CERT teams, more than 61% of breaches start with stolen credentials. For SMBs (often with limited security teams), IAM plays the role of an automated boundary guard, enforcing who gets access to what and under what conditions. 🧩 The Core Components of Strong IAM 🧩 Even without enterprise budgets, SMBs can build a solid IAM foundation: 1️⃣ Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) Everywhere Passwords alone are not enough attackers exploit reused or weak credentials daily. Enabling MFA on cloud apps, VPNs and admin accounts drastically cuts down unauthorized logins. 2️⃣ Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) Not every employee needs access to everything. RBAC ensures access aligns with job responsibilities, reducing accidental or malicious misuse. Create roles such as: Finance: Accounting platform access only HR: Employee management tools IT: Elevated access Sales: CRM and customer tools 3️⃣ Zero Trust for Practical SMB Use Zero Trust isn’t a buzzword it’s an approach: never trust, always verify. SMBs can adopt Zero Trust incrementally by: Enforcing device compliance Verifying user identity continuously Blocking unknown sign-in locations Restricting access from risky networks 4️⃣ Password Hygiene & Credential Monitoring Weak passwords fuel successful cyberattacks. Encourage: Password managers like Bitwarden Periodic forced resets No sharing of credentials Quick revocation when employees leave Implement leaked-password checks through tools such as Have I Been Pwned. 5️⃣ Privileged Access Security Admin access is gold to attackers. Strengthen it through: Separate admin and user accounts MFA for all privileged accounts Logging & monitoring for admin activities Just-in-time access (temporary elevated permissions) 🎯 Real-Life Example: Uber 2022 Breach 🎯 A real case that shook the industry: A teenage hacker gained access to Uber’s internal systems after tricking an employee into approving an MFA request. The attacker escalated privileges using stored passwords on a workstation and accessed internal dashboards, cloud accounts and even the company’s vulnerability reports. Lesson for SMBs: Even the biggest companies fall when IAM controls fail. MFA fatigue, stored passwords and weak privilege controls remain deadly. 🛠️ Quick Wins for SMBs This Month 🛠️ Turn on MFA for all accounts Enforce strong passwords using a password manager Review and tighten access rights Disable old or unused accounts Monitor login anomalies through SIEM tools Conduct a 20-minute IAM drill with your team 🧭 Final Thoughts 🧭 Strong identity security is no longer optional it’s foundational. As SMBs grow, managing access intelligently becomes the most powerful defense against modern cyber threats. Identity is your first line of defense and often, your last. Make it strong, make it consistent, make it Zero Trust. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Amit Ambekar Follow Joined Apr 30, 2025 More from Amit Ambekar ✉️ December: Email Security — Your Strongest Defense Against Everyday Cyber Threats ✉️ # email # cybersecurity # education # soc 🔐 Cyber Awareness Month Special: Why Security is Everyone’s Responsibility! Beyond Roles and Job Titles... # cybersecurity # awareness 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://piccalil.li/blog/date-is-out-and-temporal-is-in/#temporal-is-not-a-constructor-its-a-namespace-object	Date is out, Temporal is in - Piccalilli Front-end education for the real world. Since 2018. — From set.studio Articles Links Courses Newsletter Merch Login Switch to Dark Theme RSS Date is out, Temporal is in Mat “Wilto” Marquis , 07 January 2026 Topic: JavaScript Save 15% on all of our premium courses until the end of January! Check out the courses Advert Time makes fools of us all, and JavaScript is no slouch in that department either. Honestly, I’ve never minded the latter much — in fact, if you’ve taken JavaScript for Everyone or tuned into the newsletter , you already know that I largely enjoy JavaScript’s little quirks, believe it or not. I like when you can see the seams; I like how, for as formal and iron-clad as the ES-262 specification might seem, you can still see all the good and bad decisions made by the hundreds of people who’ve been building the language in mid-flight, if you know where to look. JavaScript has character . Sure, it doesn’t necessarily do everything exactly the way one might expect, but y’know, if you ask me, JavaScript has a real charm once you get to know it! There’s one part of the language where that immediately falls apart for me, though. Code language js Copy to clipboard // Numeric months are zero-indexed, but years and days are not: console . log ( new Date ( 2026 , 1 , 1 ) ) ; // Result: Date Sun Feb 01 2026 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) The Date constructor. Code language js Copy to clipboard // A numeric string between 32 and 49 is assumed to be in the 2000s: console . log ( new Date ( "49" ) ) ; // Result: Date Fri Jan 01 2049 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) // A numeric string between 33 and 99 is assumed to be in the 1900s: console . log ( new Date ( "99" ) ) ; // Result: Date Fri Jan 01 1999 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) // ...But 100 and up start from year zero: console . log ( new Date ( "100" ) ) ; // Result: Date Fri Jan 01 0100 00:00:00 GMT-0456 (Eastern Standard Time) I dislike Date immensely . Code language js Copy to clipboard // A string-based date works the way you might expect: console . log ( new Date ( "2026/1/2" ) ) ; // Result: Date Fri Jan 02 2026 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) // A leading zero on the month? No problem; one is one, right? console . log ( new Date ( "2026/02/2" ) ) ; // Result: Date Mon Feb 02 2026 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) // Slightly different formatting? Sure! console . log ( new Date ( "2026-02-2" ) ) ; // Result: Date Mon Feb 02 2026 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) // A leading zero on the day? Of course; why wouldn't it work? console . log ( new Date ( '2026/01/02' ) ) ; // Result: Date Fri Jan 02 2026 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) // Unless, of course, you separate the year, month, and date with hyphens. // Then it gets the _day_ wrong. console . log ( new Date ( '2026-01-02' ) ) ; // Result: Date Thu Jan 01 2026 19:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) Date sucks. It was hastily and shamelessly copied off of Java’s homework in the car on the way to school and it got all the same answers wrong, right down to the name at the top of the page: Date doesn’t represent a date , it represents a time . Internally, dates are stored as number values called time values : Unix timestamps, divided into 1,000 milliseconds — which, okay, yes, a Unix time does also necessarily imply a date, sure, but still : Date represents a time, from which you can infer a date. Gross. Code language js Copy to clipboard // Unix timestamp for Monday, December 4, 1995 12:00:00 AM GMT-05 (the day JavaScript was announced): const timestamp = 818053200 ; console . log ( new Date ( timestamp * 1000 ) ) ; // Result: Date Mon Dec 04 1995 00:00:00 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) Words like “date” and “time” mean things, but, sure — whatever, JavaScript . Java deprecated their Date way back in 1997, only a few years after JavaScript’s Date was turned loose on the unsuspecting world; meanwhile, we’ve been saddled with this mess ever since. It’s wildly inconsistent when it comes to parsing dates, as you’ve seen so far here. It has no sense of time zones beyond the local one and GMT, which is not ideal where “world-wide” is right there in the web’s name — and speaking-of, Date only respects the Gregorian calendar model. It wholesale does not understand the concept of daylight savings time, which— I mean, okay, yeah, samesies, but I’m not made of computers . All these shortcomings make it exceptionally common to use a third-party library dedicated to working around it all, some of which are absolutely massive ; a performance drain that has done real and measurable damage to the web. None of these are my major issue with Date . My complaint is about more than parsing or syntax or “developer ergonomics” or the web-wide performance impact of wholly necessary workarounds or even the definition of the word “date.” My issue with Date is soul-deep. My problem with Date is that using it means deviating from the fundamental nature of time itself . Advert All JavaScript’s primitives values are immutable , meaning that the values themselves cannot be changed. The number value 3 can never represent anything but the concept of “three” — you can’t make true mean anything other than “true.” These are values with concrete, iron-clad, real-world meanings. We know what three is. It can’t be some other non-three thing. These immutable data types are stored by value , meaning that a variable that represents the number value 3 effectively “contains” — and thus behaves as — the number value 3 . When an immutable value is assigned to a variable, the JavaScript engine creates a copy of that value and stores the copy in memory: Code language js Copy to clipboard const theNumber = 3 ; console . log ( theNumber ) ; // Result: 3 This fits the common mental model for “a variable” just fine: theNumber “contains” 3 . When we initialize theOtherNumber with the value bound to theNumber , that mental model holds: once again a 3 is created and stored in memory. theOtherNumber can now be thought of as containing its own discrete 3 . Code language js Copy to clipboard const theNumber = 3 ; const theOtherNumber = theNumber ; console . log ( theOtherNumber ) ; // Result: 3; The value of theNumber isn’t changed when we alter the value associated with theOtherNumber , of course — again, we’re working with two discrete instances of 3 . Code language js Copy to clipboard const theNumber = 3 ; let theOtherNumber = theNumber ; theOtherNumber = 5 ; console . log ( theOtherNumber ) ; // Result: 5; console . log ( theNumber ) ; // Result: 3 When you change the value bound to theOtherNumber , you’re not changing the 3 , you’re creating a new, immutable number value and binding that in its place. Hence an error when you try to tinker with a variable declared using const : Code language js Copy to clipboard const theNumber = 3 ; theNumber = 5 ; // Result: Uncaught TypeError: invalid assignment to const 'theNumber' You can’t change the binding of a const , and you definitely can’t alter the meaning of 3 . Data types that can be changed after they’re created are mutable , meaning that the data value itself can be altered. Object values — any non-primitive value, like an array, map, or set — are mutable. Variables (and object properties, function parameters, and elements in an array, set, or map) can’t “contain” an object, the way we might think of theNumber in the example above as “containing” 3 . A variable can contain either a primitive value or a reference value , the latter of which is a pointer to that object’s stored location in memory. When you assign an object to a variable, instead of creating a copy of that object, the identifier represents a reference to the object’s stored position in memory. That’s why an object bound to a variable declared with const can still be altered: the reference value can’t be changed, but the values of the object can: Code language js Copy to clipboard const theObject = { theValue : 3 } ; theObject . theValue ++ ; console . log ( theObject . theValue ) ; // Result: 4 You still can’t change the binding of a const , but you can alter the object that binding references. When a reference value is assigned from one variable to another, the JavaScript engine creates a copy of that reference value — not the object value itself, the way a discrete copy is made of a primitive value. Both identifiers point to the same object in memory — any changes made to that object by way of one reference will be reflected by the others, because they’re all referencing the same thing: Code language js Copy to clipboard const theObject = { theValue : 3 } ; const theOtherObj = theObject ; theOtherObj . theValue ++ ; console . log ( theOtherObj . theValue ) ; // Result: 4 console . log ( theObject . theValue ) ; // Result: 4 This is what gets me about JavaScript’s date handling. Despite representing “point to it on a calendar” values, JavaScript’s date values are mutable — Date is a constructor, invoking a constructor with new necessarily results in an object, and all objects are inherently mutable: Code language js Copy to clipboard const theDate = new Date ( ) ; console . log ( typeof theDate ) ; // Result: object Even though “January 1st, 2026” is as much an immutable real-world concept as “three” or “true,” the only way we have of representing that date is a with a mutable data structure. This also means that any variable initialized with an instance of the Date constructor contains a reference value, pointing to a data value in memory that can be changed by way of any reference to that value: Code language js Copy to clipboard const theDate = new Date ( ) ; console . log ( theDate . toDateString ( ) ) ; // Result: Tue Dec 30 2025 theDate . setMonth ( 10 ) ; console . log ( theDate . toDateString ( ) ) ; // Result: Sun Nov 30 2025 Again, we’re going to breeze right over the fact that month 10 is November . So despite real-world dates having set-in-stone meanings , the process of interacting with an instance of Date that represents that real-world value can mean altering that instance in ways we didn’t necessarily intend: Code language js Copy to clipboard const today = new Date ( ) ; const addDay = theDate => { theDate . setDate ( theDate . getDate ( ) + 1 ) ; return theDate ; } ; console . log ( ` Today is ${ today . toLocaleDateString ( ) } , tomorrow is ${ addDay ( today ) . toLocaleDateString ( ) } . ` ) ; // Result: Today is 12/31/2025. Tomorrow is 1/1/2026. Fine so far, right? Today is today, tomorrow is tomorrow; all is right in the world. You’d be forgiven for committing this to a codebase and moving on with your day. That is, unless we reordered the output slightly. Code language js Copy to clipboard const today = new Date ( ) ; const addDay = theDate => { theDate . setDate ( theDate . getDate ( ) + 1 ) ; return theDate ; } ; console . log ( ` Tomorrow will be ${ addDay ( today ) . toLocaleDateString ( ) } . Today is ${ today . toLocaleDateString ( ) } . ` ) ; // Result: Tomorrow will be 1/1/2026. Today is 1/1/2026. See what happened there? the variable today represents a reference to the object created by new Date() . When we provided today as an argument to the addDay function, the parameter theDate now represents a copy of the reference value — not a copy of the value, but a second reference to the object that represents today’s date. When we manipulate that value to determine the date of the following day, we’re manipulating the mutable object in memory, not an immutable copy — today becomes tomorrow, the falcon has a hard time hearing the falconer, the center starts to look a little iffy vis-a-vis “holding,” and so on. Now, by this point you can probably tell that I’m not here to praise Date , but what you might not expect is that I’m here to bury it. That’s right: Date is soon to be over, done, gone, as “deprecated” as any part of the web platform can be — which is to say, “around forever, but you shouldn’t use it anymore, if you can avoid it.” Soon we will — at long last — have an object that replaces Date wholesale: Temporal . Advert Temporal is not a constructor, it’s a namespace object The sharp-eyed among you may have noticed that I said “an object that replaces Date ,” not “a constructor.” Temporal is not a constructor, and your browser’s developer console will tell you the same if you attempt to invoke it as one: Code language js Copy to clipboard const today = new Temporal ( ) ; // Uncaught TypeError: Temporal is not a constructor Temporal is a way better name for something that pertains to time , if you ask me. Instead, Temporal is a namespace object — an ordinary object made up of static properties and methods, like the Math object: Code language js Copy to clipboard console . log ( Temporal ) ; /* Result (expanded): Temporal { … } Duration: function Duration() Instant: function Instant() Now: Temporal.Now { … } PlainDate: function PlainDate() PlainDateTime: function PlainDateTime() PlainMonthDay: function PlainMonthDay() PlainTime: function PlainTime() PlainYearMonth: function PlainYearMonth() ZonedDateTime: function ZonedDateTime() Symbol(Symbol.toStringTag): "Temporal" / I find this immediately understandable compared to Date . The classes and namespaces objects that Temporal contains allow you to calculate durations between two points in time, represent a point in time with or without time zone specificity , or access the current moment in time via the Now property. Temporal.Now references a namespace object containing properties and methods of its own: Code language js Copy to clipboard console . log ( Temporal . Now ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.Now { … } instant: function instant() plainDateISO: function plainDateISO() plainDateTimeISO: function plainDateTimeISO() plainTimeISO: function plainTimeISO() timeZoneId: function timeZoneId() zonedDateTimeISO: function zonedDateTimeISO() Symbol(Symbol.toStringTag): "Temporal.Now" <prototype>: Object { … } / Temporal gives us a sensible, plain-language way to grab today’s date, a la raggedy old Date : the Now property contains a plainDateISO() method. Since we’re not specifying anything in the way of time zones (a thing we can do now, thanks to Temporal) that method gives us back today’s date in the current one — EST, in my case: Code language js Copy to clipboard console . log ( Temporal . Now . plainDateISO ( ) ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.PlainDate 2025-12-31 <prototype>: Object { … } / Notice how plainDateISO results in an already-formatted, date-only value? Stay tuned; that’ll come up again later. —wait. That looks familiar: Code language js Copy to clipboard const nowTemporal = Temporal . Now . plainDateISO ( ) ; const nowDate = new Date ( ) ; console . log ( nowTemporal ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.PlainDate 2025-12-31 <prototype>: Object { … } / console . log ( nowDate ) ; / Result (expanded): Date Tue Dec 31 2025 11:05:52 GMT-0500 (Eastern Standard Time) <prototype>: Date.prototype { … } / Could it be that—… Code language js Copy to clipboard const rightNow = Temporal . Now . instant ( ) ; console . log ( typeof rightNow ) ; // object Yes, we’re still working with a mutable object that represents the current date , I say in my spookiest voice, flashlight squarely beneath my chin. At a glance, this might not seem like it addresses my big complaint with Date at all. Well, we’re kind of at the mercy of the nature of the language, here: dates represent complex real-world values, complex data necessitates complex data structures, and for JavaScript, that means objects. The difference is in how we interact with these Temporal objects, as compared to instances of Date , and — as is so often the case — the magic is in the prototype chain: Code language js Copy to clipboard const nowTemporal = Temporal . Now . plainDateISO ( ) ; console . log ( nowTemporal . __proto__ ) ; / Result (expanded): Object { … } add: function add() calendarId: >> constructor: function PlainDate() day: >> dayOfWeek: >> dayOfYear: >> daysInMonth: >> daysInWeek: >> daysInYear: >> equals: function equals() era: >> eraYear: >> inLeapYear: >> month: >> monthCode: >> monthsInYear: >> since: function since() subtract: function subtract() toJSON: function toJSON() toLocaleString: function toLocaleString() toPlainDateTime: function toPlainDateTime() toPlainMonthDay: function toPlainMonthDay() toPlainYearMonth: function toPlainYearMonth() toString: function toString() toZonedDateTime: function toZonedDateTime() until: function until() valueOf: function valueOf() weekOfYear: >> with: function with() withCalendar: function withCalendar() year: >> yearOfWeek: >> Symbol(Symbol.toStringTag): "Temporal.PlainDate" <get calendarId()>: function calendarId() <get day()>: function day() <get dayOfWeek()>: function dayOfWeek() <get dayOfYear()>: function dayOfYear() <get daysInMonth()>: function daysInMonth() <get daysInWeek()>: function daysInWeek() <get daysInYear()>: function daysInYear() <get era()>: function era() <get eraYear()>: function eraYear() <get inLeapYear()>: function inLeapYear() / Right away you’ll notice that there are a number of methods and properties devoted to accessing, formatting, and manipulating the details of the Temporal object we’re working with. No big surprises there — it means a little bit of a learning curve, sure, but nothing an occasional trip over to MDN couldn’t solve, and they all more-or-less do what they say on their respective tins. The big difference from working with Date is how they do so, at a fundamental level: Code language js Copy to clipboard const nowTemporal = Temporal . Now . plainDateISO ( ) ; // Current local date: console . log ( nowTemporal ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.PlainDate 2025-12-30 <prototype>: Object { … } / // Current local year: console . log ( nowTemporal . year ) ; // Result: 2025 // Current local date and time: console . log ( nowTemporal . toPlainDateTime ( ) ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.PlainDateTime 2025-12-30T00:00:00 <prototype>: Object { … } / // Specify that this date represents the Europe/London time zone: console . log ( nowTemporal . toZonedDateTime ( "Europe/London" ) ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.ZonedDateTime 2025-12-30T00:00:00+00:00[Europe/London] <prototype>: Object { … } / // Add a day to this date: console . log ( nowTemporal . add ( { days : 1 } ) ) ; / Temporal.PlainDate 2025-12-31 <prototype>: Object { … } / // Add one month and one day to this date, and subtract two years: console . log ( nowTemporal . add ( { months : 1 , days : 1 } ) . subtract ( { years : 2 } ) ) ; / Temporal.PlainDate 2024-01-31 <prototype>: Object { … } / console . log ( nowTemporal ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.PlainDate 2025-12-30 <prototype>: Object { … } / Notice how none of these transformations required us to manually spin up any new objects, and that the value of the object referenced by nowTemporal remains unchanged? Unlike Date , the methods we use to interact with a Temporal object result in new Temporal objects, rather than requiring us to use them in the context of a new instance or to modify the instance we’re working with — which is how we’re able to chain the add and subtract methods together in nowTemporal.add({ months: 1, days: 1 }).subtract({ years: 2 }) . Sure, we’re still working with objects, and that means we’re working with mutable data structures that represent real-world values: Code language js Copy to clipboard const nowTemporal = Temporal . Now . plainDateISO ( ) ; nowTemporal . someProperty = true ; console . log ( nowTemporal ) ; / Result (expanded): Temporal.PlainDate 2026-01-05 someProperty: true <prototype>: Object { … } …But the value represented by that Temporal object isn’t meant to be changed during the normal course of interacting with it — even though the object is still essentially mutable, we’re not stuck using that object in ways that could alter what it means in terms of real-world dates and times. I’ll take it. So, let’s revisit that janky little “today is X, tomorrow is Y” script we wrote using Date earlier. First, we’ll fix it by making sure we’re working with two discrete instances of Date rather than modifying the instance that represents today’s date: Code language js Copy to clipboard const today = new Date ( ) ; const addDay = theDate => { const tomorrow = new Date ( ) ; tomorrow . setDate ( theDate . getDate ( ) + 1 ) ; return tomorrow ; } ; console . log ( ` Tomorrow will be ${ addDay ( today ) . toLocaleDateString ( ) } . Today is ${ today . toLocaleDateString ( ) } . ` ) ; // Result: Tomorrow will be 1/1/2026. Today is 12/31/2025. Thanks, I hate it. Okay, fine. It gets the job done, just as it has since the day Date first bumbled its way onto the web. We’re not unwittingly altering the value of today since we’re spinning up a new instance of Date inside our addDay function — wordy, but it works, as it has for decades now. We add 1 to it, which we have to just kind of know means add one day. Then in our template literal we need to keep nudging JavaScript to give us the date in a format that doesn’t include the current time, as a string. It’s functional, but verbose. Now, let’s redo it using Temporal : Code language js Copy to clipboard const today = Temporal . Now . plainDateISO ( ) ; console . log ( ` Tomorrow will be ${ today . add ( { days : 1 } ) } . Today is ${ today } . ` ) ; // Result: Tomorrow will be 2026-01-01. Today is 2025-12-31. Now we’re talking. So much better . Leaner, meaner, and way less margin for error. We want today’s date without the time, and the object that results from invoking plainDateISO (and any new Temporal objects created from it) will retain that formatting without being coerced to a string. Formatting: check . We want to output a value that represents today’s date plus one day, and we want to do so in a way where we are unmistakably saying “add one day to it” with no parsing guesswork: check and check . Most importantly, we don’t want to run the risk of having our original today object altered unintentionally — because the result of calling the add method will always be a new Temporal object: check . Temporal is going to be a massive improvement over Date , and I only say “going to be” because it still isn’t quite ready for prime-time usage. The draft specification for the proposed Temporal object has reached stage three of the standardization process, meaning it is now officially “recommended for implementation” — not yet part of the standard that informs the ongoing development of JavaScript itself, but close enough that browsers can start tinkering with it. That means the results of that early experimentation may be used to further refine the specification, so nothing is set in stone just yet. Web standards are an iterative process, after all. That’s where you and I come in. Now that Temporal has landed in the latest versions of Chrome and Firefox — and others, soon — it’s time for us to get in there and kick the tires a little bit. We may not have had any say in Date , but we get to experiment with Temporal before the final implementations land. Soon, JavaScript will have sensible, modern date handling, and we’ll finally be able to cram Date way in the back of the junk drawer with the rubber bands, mismatched jar lids, mystery keys, and probably-half-empty AA batteries — still present, still an inexorable part of the web platform, but no longer our first, last, and only way of handling dates. And we only had to wait— well, hold on, let me just crunch the numbers real quick: Try it out const today = Temporal.Now.plainDateISO(); const jsShipped = Temporal.PlainDate.from( "1995-12-04" ); const sinceDate = today.since( jsShipped, { largestUnit: 'year' }); console.log( `${ sinceDate.years } years, ${ sinceDate.months } months, and ${ sinceDate.days } days.` ); Run Sure, the best time to replace Date would’ve been back in 1995, but hey: the second best time is Temporal.Now , right? Enjoyed this article? You can support us by leaving a tip via Open Collective Advert Author Mat “Wilto” Marquis Independent front-end developer, designer, author of Javascript For Web Designers, JavaScript for Everyone, and hobby collector. Check out Mat’s JavaScript Course More about Mat “Wilto” Marquis Newsletter Newsletter Join thousands of subscribers and discover our twice weekly newsletter, featuring high quality, curated design, dev and tech links. Short. ~5 links, twice weekly Digestible. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/trace.html#module-trace	trace — Trace or track Python statement execution — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents trace — Trace or track Python statement execution Command-Line Usage Main options Modifiers Filters Programmatic Interface Previous topic timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets Next topic tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Debugging and Profiling » trace — Trace or track Python statement execution \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| trace — Trace or track Python statement execution ¶ Source code: Lib/trace.py The trace module allows you to trace program execution, generate annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee relationships and list functions executed during a program run. It can be used in another program or from the command line. See also Coverage.py A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML output along with advanced features such as branch coverage. Command-Line Usage ¶ The trace module can be invoked from the command line. It can be as simple as python - m trace -- count - C . somefile . py ... The above will execute somefile.py and generate annotated listings of all Python modules imported during the execution into the current directory. --help ¶ Display usage and exit. --version ¶ Display the version of the module and exit. Added in version 3.8: Added --module option that allows to run an executable module. Main options ¶ At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking trace . The --listfuncs option is mutually exclusive with the --trace and --count options. When --listfuncs is provided, neither --count nor --trace are accepted, and vice versa. -c , --count ¶ Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion that shows how many times each statement was executed. See also --coverdir , --file and --no-report below. -t , --trace ¶ Display lines as they are executed. -l , --listfuncs ¶ Display the functions executed by running the program. -r , --report ¶ Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the --count and --file option. This does not execute any code. -T , --trackcalls ¶ Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program. Modifiers ¶ -f , --file =<file> ¶ Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs. Should be used with the --count option. -C , --coverdir =<dir> ¶ Directory where the report files go. The coverage report for package.module is written to file dir / package / module .cover . -m , --missing ¶ When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not executed with >>>>>> . -s , --summary ¶ When using --count or --report , write a brief summary to stdout for each file processed. -R , --no-report ¶ Do not generate annotated listings. This is useful if you intend to make several runs with --count , and then produce a single set of annotated listings at the end. -g , --timing ¶ Prefix each line with the time since the program started. Only used while tracing. Filters ¶ These options may be repeated multiple times. --ignore-module =<mod> ¶ Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is a package). The argument can be a list of names separated by a comma. --ignore-dir =<dir> ¶ Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and subdirectories. The argument can be a list of directories separated by os.pathsep . Programmatic Interface ¶ class trace. Trace ( count = 1 , trace = 1 , countfuncs = 0 , countcallers = 0 , ignoremods = () , ignoredirs = () , infile = None , outfile = None , timing = False ) ¶ Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or expression. All parameters are optional. count enables counting of line numbers. trace enables line execution tracing. countfuncs enables listing of the functions called during the run. countcallers enables call relationship tracking. ignoremods is a list of modules or packages to ignore. ignoredirs is a list of directories whose modules or packages should be ignored. infile is the name of the file from which to read stored count information. outfile is the name of the file in which to write updated count information. timing enables a timestamp relative to when tracing was started to be displayed. run ( cmd ) ¶ Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the current tracing parameters. cmd must be a string or code object, suitable for passing into exec() . runctx ( cmd , globals = None , locals = None ) ¶ Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the current tracing parameters, in the defined global and local environments. If not defined, globals and locals default to empty dictionaries. runfunc ( func , / , * args , ** kwds ) ¶ Call func with the given arguments under control of the Trace object with the current tracing parameters. results ( ) ¶ Return a CoverageResults object that contains the cumulative results of all previous calls to run , runctx and runfunc for the given Trace instance. Does not reset the accumulated trace results. class trace. CoverageResults ¶ A container for coverage results, created by Trace.results() . Should not be created directly by the user. update ( other ) ¶ Merge in data from another CoverageResults object. write_results ( show_missing = True , summary = False , coverdir = None , * , ignore_missing_files = False ) ¶ Write coverage results. Set show_missing to show lines that had no hits. Set summary to include in the output the coverage summary per module. coverdir specifies the directory into which the coverage result files will be output. If None , the results for each source file are placed in its directory. If ignore_missing_files is True , coverage counts for files that no longer exist are silently ignored. Otherwise, a missing file will raise a FileNotFoundError . Changed in version 3.13: Added ignore_missing_files parameter. A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface: import sys import trace # create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to # do tracing or line-counting or both. tracer = trace . Trace ( ignoredirs = [ sys . prefix , sys . exec_prefix ], trace = 0 , count = 1 ) # run the new command using the given tracer tracer . run ( 'main()' ) # make a report, placing output in the current directory r = tracer . results () r . write_results ( show_missing = True , coverdir = "." ) Table of Contents trace — Trace or track Python statement execution Command-Line Usage Main options Modifiers Filters Programmatic Interface Previous topic timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets Next topic tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Debugging and Profiling » trace — Trace or track Python statement execution \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Last updated on Jan 13, 2026 (06:19 UTC). Found a bug ? Created using Sphinx 8.2.3.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. 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If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://dev.to/t/promises	Promises - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # promises Follow Hide Create Post Older #promises posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Mastering Asynchronous Operations in Node.js: Practical Strategies and Examples Jeferson Eiji Jeferson Eiji Jeferson Eiji Follow Dec 8 '25 Mastering Asynchronous Operations in Node.js: Practical Strategies and Examples # node # asynchronous # promises # callbacks 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read How Do I Return the Response from an Asynchronous Call? Prashant Sharma Prashant Sharma Prashant Sharma Follow Nov 28 '25 How Do I Return the Response from an Asynchronous Call? # javascript # async # promises # webdev Comments Add Comment 1 min read JavaScript's Event Loop Mohsen Fallahnejad Mohsen Fallahnejad Mohsen Fallahnejad Follow Sep 20 '25 JavaScript's Event Loop # javascript # eventloop # async # promises Comments Add Comment 1 min read Understanding Promises in JavaScript Rowland Rowland Rowland Follow Oct 2 '25 Understanding Promises in JavaScript # webdev # programming # javascript # promises 6 reactions Comments 5 comments 7 min read Mastering Promise Error Handling: What Every Developer Gets Wrong in Interviews Bhoomika Chauhan Bhoomika Chauhan Bhoomika Chauhan Follow Aug 6 '25 Mastering Promise Error Handling: What Every Developer Gets Wrong in Interviews # frontend # javascript # interview # promises 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read JavaScript Labs: Sequential Promises, Data Sizing & Cookie Serialization Explained Labby Labby Labby Follow for LabEx Jul 5 '25 JavaScript Labs: Sequential Promises, Data Sizing & Cookie Serialization Explained # javascript # promises # cloning # webdev Comments Add Comment 3 min read Working with Promises in JavaScript Mateen Kiani Mateen Kiani Mateen Kiani Follow Jun 27 '25 Working with Promises in JavaScript # javascript # promises # async 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Demystify asynchronous JavaScript: Callbacks, Promises, and Async/Await Sandesh S Sandesh S Sandesh S Follow Mar 15 '25 Demystify asynchronous JavaScript: Callbacks, Promises, and Async/Await # javascript # callbacks # promises # asyncawait Comments Add Comment 3 min read Asynchronous Programming in JavaScript: A Beginner’s Guide Beatris Ilieva Beatris Ilieva Beatris Ilieva Follow Mar 17 '25 Asynchronous Programming in JavaScript: A Beginner’s Guide # ajax # promises # asynchronousprogramming Comments Add Comment 9 min read Understanding Queues in Node.js (The Easy Way!) Abdullah Yasir Abdullah Yasir Abdullah Yasir Follow Jan 18 '25 Understanding Queues in Node.js (The Easy Way!) # node # eventloop # queues # promises 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Everything You Need to Know About JavaScript Promises and How They Work Manash Jyoti Baruah Manash Jyoti Baruah Manash Jyoti Baruah Follow Dec 7 '24 Everything You Need to Know About JavaScript Promises and How They Work # javascript # webdev # promises # async 4 reactions Comments 2 comments 9 min read Types of Promises in JavaScript Bhat Aasim Bhat Aasim Bhat Aasim Follow Sep 19 '24 Types of Promises in JavaScript # javascript # typescript # promises # webdev 15 reactions Comments 3 comments 4 min read Mastering JavaScript Async Patterns: From Callbacks to Async/Await Rahul Sharma Rahul Sharma Rahul Sharma Follow Sep 13 '24 Mastering JavaScript Async Patterns: From Callbacks to Async/Await # javascript # asyncprogramming # promises # asyncawait 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read Chain some Math with Promises Tufail Shah Tufail Shah Tufail Shah Follow May 22 '24 Chain some Math with Promises # javascript # promises # es6 # codepen Comments Add Comment 1 min read Demystifying Promises: A Beginner's Guide to Asynchronous JavaScript Operations Ankit22 Ankit22 Ankit22 Follow Apr 28 '24 Demystifying Promises: A Beginner's Guide to Asynchronous JavaScript Operations # webdev # javascript # beginners # promises 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read How the `.then()` method interacts with the JavaScript event loop. Vasil Vasilev Vasil Vasilev Vasil Vasilev Follow Mar 30 '24 How the `.then()` method interacts with the JavaScript event loop. # promises # javascript # then # resolve Comments Add Comment 2 min read Entendendo o uso de async/await com Promises no Javascript. João Gabriel João Gabriel João Gabriel Follow Mar 3 '24 Entendendo o uso de async/await com Promises no Javascript. # javascript # node # learning # promises Comments Add Comment 2 min read Understanding JavaScript Promises and Callbacks Jenish Dabhi Jenish Dabhi Jenish Dabhi Follow Mar 19 '24 Understanding JavaScript Promises and Callbacks # javascript # promises # callback # asynchronous Comments Add Comment 2 min read Understanding Async/Await and Promises in JavaScript and TypeScript Geoffrey Kim Geoffrey Kim Geoffrey Kim Follow Feb 27 '24 Understanding Async/Await and Promises in JavaScript and TypeScript # javascript # typescript # asyncawait # promises 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Simplify Error Handling with "Try": A JavaScript Library Inspired by Rust and Golang Bruno Bernard Bruno Bernard Bruno Bernard Follow Jan 16 '24 Simplify Error Handling with "Try": A JavaScript Library Inspired by Rust and Golang # rust # errors # promises # go Comments Add Comment 3 min read Promises in JavaScript for Beginners Shubh Sharma Shubh Sharma Shubh Sharma Follow Jan 21 '24 Promises in JavaScript for Beginners # javascript # promises # webdev # beginners 12 reactions Comments 5 comments 3 min read Navigating Asynchronous JavaScript: A Journey Through the Coffee Shop ☕🚀 Devang Tomar Devang Tomar Devang Tomar Follow Jan 1 '24 Navigating Asynchronous JavaScript: A Journey Through the Coffee Shop ☕🚀 # javascript # asynchronous # asyncawait # promises Comments Add Comment 4 min read Mastering Asynchronous Programming in JavaScript: Unraveling the Magic of async/await, Promises, and More Oluwatobi Adedeji Oluwatobi Adedeji Oluwatobi Adedeji Follow Sep 23 '23 Mastering Asynchronous Programming in JavaScript: Unraveling the Magic of async/await, Promises, and More # javascript # asynchrousprogramming # usingasyncawaitinmap # promises 58 reactions Comments 10 comments 8 min read Understanding error handling in Promise chains Joe Attardi Joe Attardi Joe Attardi Follow Sep 13 '23 Understanding error handling in Promise chains # javascript # async # promises # programming Comments Add Comment 3 min read Are You Using JavaScript Right? Know When to Go Asynchronous Mainul Hasan Mainul Hasan Mainul Hasan Follow Sep 4 '23 Are You Using JavaScript Right? Know When to Go Asynchronous # javascript # promises # callback # asyncawait 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read loading... trending guides/resources How Do I Return the Response from an Asynchronous Call? Mastering Asynchronous Operations in Node.js: Practical Strategies and Examples 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://dev.to/t/security/page/11	Security Page 11 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Security Follow Hide Hopefully not just an afterthought! Create Post submission guidelines Write as you are pleased, be mindful and keep it civil. Older #security posts 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Security Challenges & Best Practices for Industrial Edge Analytics Eknath shinde Eknath shinde Eknath shinde Follow Dec 30 '25 Security Challenges & Best Practices for Industrial Edge Analytics # security # practices # industrial Comments Add Comment 7 min read AI Systems That Can’t Say “No” Are Not Production-Ready yuer yuer yuer Follow Dec 30 '25 AI Systems That Can’t Say “No” Are Not Production-Ready # ai # security # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 2 min read Binary Sovereignty: Stop Uploading Your Unreleased App to Strangers Om Narayan Om Narayan Om Narayan Follow Dec 28 '25 Binary Sovereignty: Stop Uploading Your Unreleased App to Strangers # security # mobile # testing # devops Comments Add Comment 6 min read DevRealityOps Manifesto Yuji Marutani Yuji Marutani Yuji Marutani Follow Dec 28 '25 DevRealityOps Manifesto # discuss # security # devops # ai Comments Add Comment 2 min read Azure - Managed Identities - Complete Tutorial Hemanath Kumar J Hemanath Kumar J Hemanath Kumar J Follow Dec 29 '25 Azure - Managed Identities - Complete Tutorial # tutorial # azure # security # cloud Comments Add Comment 2 min read Trademarks Are a Security Problem, Not Just a Legal One Seaionl Seaionl Seaionl Follow Dec 30 '25 Trademarks Are a Security Problem, Not Just a Legal One # cybersecurity # security # startup Comments Add Comment 3 min read Building a Secure Bastion Host Architecture in AWS: A Complete Step-by-Step Guide Sagnik Ghosh Sagnik Ghosh Sagnik Ghosh Follow Dec 28 '25 Building a Secure Bastion Host Architecture in AWS: A Complete Step-by-Step Guide # architecture # security # aws # devops Comments Add Comment 11 min read SSL Certificate Management for SaaS: Cert Lifecycle, Uptime, and Brand Protection Seaionl Seaionl Seaionl Follow Dec 29 '25 SSL Certificate Management for SaaS: Cert Lifecycle, Uptime, and Brand Protection # kubernetes # security # cloud # devops Comments Add Comment 3 min read Unveiling the Threat of Clickjacking in Web Security Visakh Vijayan Visakh Vijayan Visakh Vijayan Follow Dec 29 '25 Unveiling the Threat of Clickjacking in Web Security # html # ui # security # webdev Comments Add Comment 2 min read 5 Best Practices for Securing Amazon Bedrock Agents from Prompt Injections. Pablo Salas Pablo Salas Pablo Salas Follow for AWS Community Builders Jan 2 5 Best Practices for Securing Amazon Bedrock Agents from Prompt Injections. # awscommunitybuilders # security 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read We built a Windows app that blocks trackers and encrypts your traffic automatically Nyx Systems Nyx Systems Nyx Systems Follow Jan 2 We built a Windows app that blocks trackers and encrypts your traffic automatically # security # privacy # rust # opensource Comments Add Comment 1 min read 🚀 Terraform Day 22: Secure Two-Tier Architecture on AWS (EC2 + RDS) Jeeva Jeeva Jeeva Follow Dec 28 '25 🚀 Terraform Day 22: Secure Two-Tier Architecture on AWS (EC2 + RDS) # architecture # security # aws # terraform Comments Add Comment 2 min read The Complete WordPress Security Guide for Small Business Owners (2026) Amir Hussain Amir Hussain Amir Hussain Follow Dec 28 '25 The Complete WordPress Security Guide for Small Business Owners (2026) # webdev # wordpress # security # tutorial Comments Add Comment 9 min read The Top 10 Most Critical Mobile Phone Security Threats in 2025 Peyman Mohamadpour Peyman Mohamadpour Peyman Mohamadpour Follow Dec 29 '25 The Top 10 Most Critical Mobile Phone Security Threats in 2025 # cybercrime # filefox # security # mobile Comments Add Comment 5 min read The Developer's Guide to Actually Private Apps: No Cloud, No Analytics, No Tracking Karol Burdziński Karol Burdziński Karol Burdziński Follow Dec 28 '25 The Developer's Guide to Actually Private Apps: No Cloud, No Analytics, No Tracking # security # privacy # mobile # flutter 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 19 min read 7 Urgent Fixes: Fortinet SAML Auth Bypass Pentest Testing Corp Pentest Testing Corp Pentest Testing Corp Follow Dec 28 '25 7 Urgent Fixes: Fortinet SAML Auth Bypass # devops # fortinet # security # cybersecurity 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read Proxy routing implementation playbook: building two lanes for identity and coverage gabriele wayner gabriele wayner gabriele wayner Follow Dec 28 '25 Proxy routing implementation playbook: building two lanes for identity and coverage # python # playwright # webscraping # security Comments Add Comment 6 min read EP 13: SQL Injection Isn't Dead - It Just Evolved Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Follow Dec 29 '25 EP 13: SQL Injection Isn't Dead - It Just Evolved # database # security # backend # sql Comments Add Comment 3 min read Stop Rewriting Auth Logic: My Production-Ready Node.js + MySQL Boilerplate 🚀 Dark \| Backend Developer Dark \| Backend Developer Dark \| Backend Developer Follow Jan 10 Stop Rewriting Auth Logic: My Production-Ready Node.js + MySQL Boilerplate 🚀 # node # javascript # webdev # security 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 1 min read Zero Trust Made Simple: A Developer’s Take OutworkTech OutworkTech OutworkTech Follow Jan 1 Zero Trust Made Simple: A Developer’s Take # webdev # ai # programming # security Comments Add Comment 3 min read How I discovered 16.7% of my Stripe revenue was bypassing fraud checks (and built a fix) fitz kk fitz kk fitz kk Follow Dec 28 '25 How I discovered 16.7% of my Stripe revenue was bypassing fraud checks (and built a fix) # stripe # security # saas # webdev Comments Add Comment 2 min read EP 12: Stop Storing JWTs in LocalStorage Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Follow Dec 29 '25 EP 12: Stop Storing JWTs in LocalStorage # webdev # frontend # backend # security Comments Add Comment 3 min read Auth Sessions Should Never Be Transient Across Boundaries Steven Stuart Steven Stuart Steven Stuart Follow Dec 27 '25 Auth Sessions Should Never Be Transient Across Boundaries # architecture # api # security Comments Add Comment 5 min read Reliable Shopify Webhooks: Idempotency, Retries, and Signature Verification Sumeet Shroff Freelancer Sumeet Shroff Freelancer Sumeet Shroff Freelancer Follow Jan 1 Reliable Shopify Webhooks: Idempotency, Retries, and Signature Verification # architecture # backend # security # api Comments Add Comment 5 min read How should AI actions be authorized before execution? Built a small GPT to explore this Chandan Galani Chandan Galani Chandan Galani Follow Dec 28 '25 How should AI actions be authorized before execution? Built a small GPT to explore this # discuss # ai # agents # security Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#2-personal-information-we-collect	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. 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https://peps.python.org#svg-sun-half	PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) \| peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEP 0 Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) Author : The PEP Editors Status : Active Type : Informational Created : 13-Jul-2000 Table of Contents Introduction Topics API Numerical Index Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs Other Informational PEPs Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) Open PEPs (under consideration) Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs Reserved PEP Numbers PEP Types Key PEP Status Key Authors/Owners Introduction This PEP contains the index of all Python Enhancement Proposals, known as PEPs. PEP numbers are assigned by the PEP editors, and once assigned are never changed. The version control history of the PEP texts represent their historical record. Topics PEPs for specialist subjects are indexed by topic . Governance PEPs Packaging PEPs Release PEPs Typing PEPs API The PEPS API is a JSON file of metadata about all the published PEPs. Read more here . Numerical Index The numerical index contains a table of all PEPs, ordered by number. Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs PEP Title Authors PA 1 PEP Purpose and Guidelines Barry Warsaw, Jeremy Hylton, David Goodger, Alyssa Coghlan PA 2 Procedure for Adding New Modules Brett Cannon, Martijn Faassen PA 4 Deprecation of Standard Modules Brett Cannon, Martin von Löwis PA 7 Style Guide for C Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw PA 8 Style Guide for Python Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw, Alyssa Coghlan PA 10 Voting Guidelines Barry Warsaw PA 11 CPython platform support Martin von Löwis, Brett Cannon PA 12 Sample reStructuredText PEP Template David Goodger, Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon PA 13 Python Language Governance The Python core team and community PA 387 Backwards Compatibility Policy Benjamin Peterson PA 545 Python Documentation Translations Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, Victor Stinner PA 602 Annual Release Cycle for Python Łukasz Langa 3.9 PA 609 Python Packaging Authority (PyPA) Governance Dustin Ingram, Pradyun Gedam, Sumana Harihareswara PA 676 PEP Infrastructure Process Adam Turner PA 729 Typing governance process Jelle Zijlstra, Shantanu Jain PA 731 C API Working Group Charter Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Victor Stinner, Steve Dower, Irit Katriel PA 732 The Python Documentation Editorial Board Joanna Jablonski PA 761 Deprecating PGP signatures for CPython artifacts Seth Michael Larson 3.14 PA 811 Defining Python Security Response Team membership and responsibilities Seth Michael Larson Other Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors IA 20 The Zen of Python Tim Peters IA 101 Doing Python Releases 101 Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IF 247 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions A.M. Kuchling IF 248 Python Database API Specification v1.0 Greg Stein, Marc-André Lemburg IF 249 Python Database API Specification v2.0 Marc-André Lemburg IA 257 Docstring Conventions David Goodger, Guido van Rossum IF 272 API for Block Encryption Algorithms v1.0 A.M. Kuchling IA 287 reStructuredText Docstring Format David Goodger IA 290 Code Migration and Modernization Raymond Hettinger IF 333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0 Phillip J. Eby IA 394 The “python” Command on Unix-Like Systems Kerrick Staley, Alyssa Coghlan, Barry Warsaw, Petr Viktorin, Miro Hrončok, Carol Willing IF 399 Pure Python/C Accelerator Module Compatibility Requirements Brett Cannon 3.3 IF 430 Migrating to Python 3 as the default online documentation Alyssa Coghlan IA 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches Todd Rovito, Terry Reedy IF 452 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions v2.0 A.M. Kuchling, Christian Heimes IF 457 Notation For Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings IF 482 Literature Overview for Type Hints Łukasz Langa IF 483 The Theory of Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Ivan Levkivskyi IA 514 Python registration in the Windows registry Steve Dower IF 579 Refactoring C functions and methods Jeroen Demeyer IF 588 GitHub Issues Migration Plan Mariatta IF 607 Reducing CPython’s Feature Delivery Latency Łukasz Langa, Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IA 619 Python 3.10 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.10 IF 630 Isolating Extension Modules Petr Viktorin IF 635 Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale Tobias Kohn, Guido van Rossum 3.10 IF 636 Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial Daniel F Moisset 3.10 IF 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter Mark Shannon IA 664 Python 3.11 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.11 IA 672 Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python Petr Viktorin IA 693 Python 3.12 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.12 IA 719 Python 3.13 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.13 IF 733 An Evaluation of Python’s Public C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Domenico Andreoli, Stefan Behnel, Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick, Simon Cross, Steve Dower, Tim Felgentreff, David Hewitt, Shantanu Jain, Wenzel Jakob, Irit Katriel, Marc-Andre Lemburg, Donghee Na, Karl Nelson, Ronald Oussoren, Antoine Pitrou, Neil Schemenauer, Mark Shannon, Stepan Sindelar, Gregory P. Smith, Eric Snow, Victor Stinner, Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Carol Willing, William Woodruff, David Woods, Jelle Zijlstra IA 745 Python 3.14 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.14 IF 762 REPL-acing the default REPL Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, Lysandros Nikolaou, Emily Morehouse-Valcarcel 3.13 IA 790 Python 3.15 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.15 IA 801 Reserved Barry Warsaw IF 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Phillip J. Eby IF 8000 Python Language Governance Proposal Overview Barry Warsaw IF 8002 Open Source Governance Survey Barry Warsaw, Łukasz Langa, Antoine Pitrou, Doug Hellmann, Carol Willing IA 8016 The Steering Council Model Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft IF 8100 January 2019 Steering Council election Nathaniel J. Smith, Ee Durbin IF 8101 2020 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin IF 8102 2021 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8103 2022 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8104 2023 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8105 2024 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8106 2025 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8107 2026 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) PEP Title Authors SP 708 Extending the Repository API to Mitigate Dependency Confusion Attacks Donald Stufft Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) PEP Title Authors SA 458 Secure PyPI downloads with signed repository metadata Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Marina Moore, Lukas Puehringer, Joshua Lock, Lois Anne DeLong, Justin Cappos SA 658 Serve Distribution Metadata in the Simple Repository API Tzu-ping Chung SA 668 Marking Python base environments as “externally managed” Geoffrey Thomas, Matthias Klose, Filipe Laíns, Donald Stufft, Tzu-ping Chung, Stefano Rivera, Elana Hashman, Pradyun Gedam SA 686 Make UTF-8 mode default Inada Naoki 3.15 SA 687 Isolating modules in the standard library Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Petr Viktorin 3.12 SA 691 JSON-based Simple API for Python Package Indexes Donald Stufft, Pradyun Gedam, Cooper Lees, Dustin Ingram SA 699 Remove private dict version field added in PEP 509 Ken Jin 3.12 SA 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou, Marta Gómez Macías 3.12 SA 703 Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython Sam Gross 3.13 SA 714 Rename dist-info-metadata in the Simple API Donald Stufft SA 728 TypedDict with Typed Extra Items Zixuan James Li 3.15 SA 739 build-details.json 1.0 — a static description file for Python build details Filipe Laíns 3.14 SA 753 Uniform project URLs in core metadata William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SA 770 Improving measurability of Python packages with Software Bill-of-Materials Seth Larson SA 773 A Python Installation Manager for Windows Steve Dower SA 793 PyModExport: A new entry point for C extension modules Petr Viktorin 3.15 SA 794 Import Name Metadata Brett Cannon SA 798 Unpacking in Comprehensions Adam Hartz, Erik Demaine 3.15 SA 799 A dedicated profiling package for organizing Python profiling tools Pablo Galindo Salgado, László Kiss Kollár 3.15 SA 810 Explicit lazy imports Pablo Galindo Salgado, Germán Méndez Bravo, Thomas Wouters, Dino Viehland, Brittany Reynoso, Noah Kim, Tim Stumbaugh 3.15 Open PEPs (under consideration) PEP Title Authors S 467 Minor API improvements for binary sequences Alyssa Coghlan, Ethan Furman 3.15 S 480 Surviving a Compromise of PyPI: End-to-end signing of packages Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Justin Cappos, Marina Moore S 603 Adding a frozenmap type to collections Yury Selivanov S 638 Syntactic Macros Mark Shannon S 653 Precise Semantics for Pattern Matching Mark Shannon S 671 Syntax for late-bound function argument defaults Chris Angelico 3.12 S 694 Upload 2.0 API for Python Package Indexes Barry Warsaw, Donald Stufft, Ee Durbin S 710 Recording the provenance of installed packages Fridolín Pokorný S 711 PyBI: a standard format for distributing Python Binaries Nathaniel J. Smith S 718 Subscriptable functions James Hilton-Balfe 3.15 I 720 Cross-compiling Python packages Filipe Laíns 3.12 S 725 Specifying external dependencies in pyproject.toml Pradyun Gedam, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Ralf Gommers S 743 Add Py_OMIT_LEGACY_API to the Python C API Victor Stinner, Petr Viktorin 3.15 I 744 JIT Compilation Brandt Bucher, Savannah Ostrowski 3.13 S 746 Type checking Annotated metadata Adrian Garcia Badaracco 3.15 S 747 Annotating Type Forms David Foster, Eric Traut 3.15 S 748 A Unified TLS API for Python Joop van de Pol, William Woodruff 3.14 S 752 Implicit namespaces for package repositories Ofek Lev, Jarek Potiuk P 755 Implicit namespace policy for PyPI Ofek Lev S 764 Inline typed dictionaries Victorien Plot 3.15 I 766 Explicit Priority Choices Among Multiple Indexes Michael Sarahan S 767 Annotating Read-Only Attributes Eneg 3.15 S 771 Default Extras for Python Software Packages Thomas Robitaille, Jonathan Dekhtiar P 772 Packaging Council governance process Barry Warsaw, Deb Nicholson, Pradyun Gedam I 776 Emscripten Support Hood Chatham 3.14 S 777 How to Re-invent the Wheel Emma Harper Smith S 780 ABI features as environment markers Klaus Zimmermann, Ralf Gommers 3.14 S 781 Make TYPE_CHECKING a built-in constant Inada Naoki 3.15 S 783 Emscripten Packaging Hood Chatham S 785 New methods for easier handling of ExceptionGroups Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.14 S 788 Protecting the C API from Interpreter Finalization Peter Bierma 3.15 S 789 Preventing task-cancellation bugs by limiting yield in async generators Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.14 S 800 Disjoint bases in the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.15 S 802 Display Syntax for the Empty Set Adam Turner 3.15 S 803 Stable ABI for Free-Threaded Builds Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 804 An external dependency registry and name mapping mechanism Pradyun Gedam, Ralf Gommers, Michał Górny, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Michael Sarahan S 806 Mixed sync/async context managers with precise async marking Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.15 S 807 Index support for Trusted Publishing William Woodruff S 808 Including static values in dynamic project metadata Henry Schreiner, Cristian Le S 809 Stable ABI for the Future Steve Dower 3.15 S 814 Add frozendict built-in type Victor Stinner, Donghee Na 3.15 S 815 Deprecate RECORD.jws and RECORD.p7s Konstantin Schütze, William Woodruff I 816 WASI Support Brett Cannon S 819 JSON Package Metadata Emma Harper Smith S 820 PySlot: Unified slot system for the C API Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 822 Dedented Multiline String (d-string) Inada Naoki 3.15 Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) PEP Title Authors SF 100 Python Unicode Integration Marc-André Lemburg 2.0 SF 201 Lockstep Iteration Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 202 List Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 203 Augmented Assignments Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 205 Weak References Fred L. Drake, Jr. 2.1 SF 207 Rich Comparisons Guido van Rossum, David Ascher 2.1 SF 208 Reworking the Coercion Model Neil Schemenauer, Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SF 214 Extended Print Statement Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 217 Display Hook for Interactive Use Moshe Zadka 2.1 SF 218 Adding a Built-In Set Object Type Greg Wilson, Raymond Hettinger 2.2 SF 221 Import As Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 223 Change the Meaning of x Escapes Tim Peters 2.0 SF 227 Statically Nested Scopes Jeremy Hylton 2.1 SF 229 Using Distutils to Build Python A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SF 230 Warning Framework Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 232 Function Attributes Barry Warsaw 2.1 SF 234 Iterators Ka-Ping Yee, Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 235 Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms Tim Peters 2.1 SF 236 Back to the __future__ Tim Peters 2.1 SF 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 238 Changing the Division Operator Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 250 Using site-packages on Windows Paul Moore 2.2 SF 252 Making Types Look More Like Classes Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 253 Subtyping Built-in Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 255 Simple Generators Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland 2.2 SF 260 Simplify xrange() Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 261 Support for “wide” Unicode characters Paul Prescod 2.2 SF 263 Defining Python Source Code Encodings Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis 2.3 SF 264 Future statements in simulated shells Michael Hudson 2.2 SF 273 Import Modules from Zip Archives James C. Ahlstrom 2.3 SF 274 Dict Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.7, 3.0 SF 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT Neil Hodgson 2.3 SF 278 Universal Newline Support Jack Jansen 2.3 SF 279 The enumerate() built-in function Raymond Hettinger 2.3 SF 282 A Logging System Vinay Sajip, Trent Mick 2.3 SF 285 Adding a bool type Guido van Rossum 2.3 SF 289 Generator Expressions Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 292 Simpler String Substitutions Barry Warsaw 2.4 SF 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks Walter Dörwald 2.3 SF 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils Richard Jones 2.3 SF 302 New Import Hooks Just van Rossum, Paul Moore 2.3 SF 305 CSV File API Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells 2.3 SF 307 Extensions to the pickle protocol Guido van Rossum, Tim Peters 2.3 SF 308 Conditional Expressions Guido van Rossum, Raymond Hettinger 2.5 SF 309 Partial Function Application Peter Harris 2.5 SF 311 Simplified Global Interpreter Lock Acquisition for Extensions Mark Hammond 2.3 SF 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods Kevin D. Smith, Jim J. Jewett, Skip Montanaro, Anthony Baxter 2.4 SF 322 Reverse Iteration Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 324 subprocess - New process module Peter Astrand 2.4 SF 327 Decimal Data Type Facundo Batista 2.4 SF 328 Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative Aahz 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 SF 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Christian R. Reis 2.4 SF 338 Executing modules as scripts Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 341 Unifying try-except and try-finally Georg Brandl 2.5 SF 342 Coroutines via Enhanced Generators Guido van Rossum, Phillip J. Eby 2.5 SF 343 The “with” Statement Guido van Rossum, Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 352 Required Superclass for Exceptions Brett Cannon, Guido van Rossum 2.5 SF 353 Using ssize_t as the index type Martin von Löwis 2.5 SF 357 Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing Travis Oliphant 2.5 SF 358 The “bytes” Object Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum 2.6, 3.0 SF 362 Function Signature Object Brett Cannon, Jiwon Seo, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings 3.3 SF 366 Main module explicit relative imports Alyssa Coghlan 2.6, 3.0 SF 370 Per user site-packages directory Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SF 371 Addition of the multiprocessing package to the standard library Jesse Noller, Richard Oudkerk 2.6, 3.0 SF 372 Adding an ordered dictionary to collections Armin Ronacher, Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 376 Database of Installed Python Distributions Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SF 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator Gregory Ewing 3.3 SF 383 Non-decodable Bytes in System Character Interfaces Martin von Löwis 3.1 SF 384 Defining a Stable ABI Martin von Löwis 3.2 SF 389 argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module Steven Bethard 2.7, 3.2 SF 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging Vinay Sajip 2.7, 3.2 SF 393 Flexible String Representation Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 397 Python launcher for Windows Mark Hammond, Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 405 Python Virtual Environments Carl Meyer 3.3 SF 409 Suppressing exception context Ethan Furman 3.3 SF 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary Mark Shannon 3.3 SF 414 Explicit Unicode Literal for Python 3.3 Armin Ronacher, Alyssa Coghlan 3.3 SF 415 Implement context suppression with exception attributes Benjamin Peterson 3.3 SF 417 Including mock in the Standard Library Michael Foord 3.3 SF 418 Add monotonic time, performance counter, and process time functions Cameron Simpson, Jim J. Jewett, Stephen J. Turnbull, Victor Stinner 3.3 SF 420 Implicit Namespace Packages Eric V. Smith 3.3 SF 421 Adding sys.implementation Eric Snow 3.3 SF 424 A method for exposing a length hint Alex Gaynor 3.4 SF 425 Compatibility Tags for Built Distributions Daniel Holth 3.4 SF 427 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.0 Daniel Holth SF 428 The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 435 Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky, Ethan Furman 3.4 SF 436 The Argument Clinic DSL Larry Hastings 3.4 SF 440 Version Identification and Dependency Specification Alyssa Coghlan, Donald Stufft SF 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support Daniel Holth, Paul Moore 3.5 SF 442 Safe object finalization Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 443 Single-dispatch generic functions Łukasz Langa 3.4 SF 445 Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 446 Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 448 Additional Unpacking Generalizations Joshua Landau 3.5 SF 450 Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.4 SF 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Eric Snow 3.4 SF 453 Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 454 Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 456 Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm Christian Heimes 3.4 SF 461 Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray Ethan Furman 3.5 SF 465 A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication Nathaniel J. Smith 3.5 SF 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7.x Alyssa Coghlan 2.7.9 SF 468 Preserving the order of *kwargs in a function. Eric Snow 3.6 SF 471 os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator Ben Hoyt 3.5 SF 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR Charles-François Natali, Victor Stinner 3.5 SF 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients Alex Gaynor 2.7.9, 3.4.3, 3.5 SF 477 Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators Chris Angelico, Guido van Rossum 3.5 SF 484 Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.5 SF 485 A Function for testing approximate equality Christopher Barker 3.5 SF 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments Paul Moore 3.5 SF 487 Simpler customisation of class creation Martin Teichmann 3.6 SF 488 Elimination of PYO files Brett Cannon 3.5 SF 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SF 492 Coroutines with async and await syntax Yury Selivanov 3.5 SF 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7 Alyssa Coghlan, Robert Kuska, Marc-André Lemburg 2.7.12 SF 495 Local Time Disambiguation Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters 3.6 SF 498 Literal String Interpolation Eric V. Smith 3.6 SF 503 Simple Repository API Donald Stufft SF 506 Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.6 SF 508 Dependency specification for Python Software Packages Robert Collins SF 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals Georg Brandl, Serhiy Storchaka 3.6 SF 517 A build-system independent format for source trees Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 518 Specifying Minimum Build System Requirements for Python Projects Brett Cannon, Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft SF 519 Adding a file system path protocol Brett Cannon, Koos Zevenhoven 3.6 SF 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order Eric Snow 3.6 SF 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython Brett Cannon, Dino Viehland 3.6 SF 524 Make os.urandom() blocking on Linux Victor Stinner 3.6 SF 525 Asynchronous Generators Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 526 Syntax for Variable Annotations Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, Guido van Rossum 3.6 SF 527 Removing Un(der)used file types/extensions on PyPI Donald Stufft SF 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 538 Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 539 A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython Erik M. Bray, Masayuki Yamamoto 3.7 SF 540 Add a new UTF-8 Mode Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 544 Protocols: Structural subtyping (static duck typing) Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.8 SF 552 Deterministic pycs Benjamin Peterson 3.7 SF 553 Built-in breakpoint() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SF 557 Data Classes Eric V. Smith 3.7 SF 560 Core support for typing module and generic types Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 561 Distributing and Packaging Type Information Emma Harper Smith 3.7 SF 562 Module __getattr__ and __dir__ Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 564 Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 566 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.1 Dustin Ingram 3.x SF 567 Context Variables Yury Selivanov 3.7 SF 570 Python Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Mario Corchero, Eric N. Vander Weele 3.8 SF 572 Assignment Expressions Chris Angelico, Tim Peters, Guido van Rossum 3.8 SF 573 Module State Access from C Extension Methods Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan, Eric Snow, Marcel Plch 3.9 SF 574 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data Antoine Pitrou 3.8 SF 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks Steve Dower 3.8 SF 584 Add Union Operators To dict Steven D’Aprano, Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 585 Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections Łukasz Langa 3.9 SF 586 Literal Types Michael Lee, Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 587 Python Initialization Configuration Victor Stinner, Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SF 589 TypedDict: Type Hints for Dictionaries with a Fixed Set of Keys Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 590 Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SF 591 Adding a final qualifier to typing Michael J. Sullivan, Ivan Levkivskyi 3.8 SF 592 Adding “Yank” Support to the Simple API Donald Stufft SF 593 Flexible function and variable annotations Till Varoquaux, Konstantin Kashin 3.9 SF 594 Removing dead batteries from the standard library Christian Heimes, Brett Cannon 3.11 SF 597 Add optional EncodingWarning Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 600 Future ‘manylinux’ Platform Tags for Portable Linux Built Distributions Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 604 Allow writing union types as X \| Y Philippe PRADOS, Maggie Moss 3.10 SF 610 Recording the Direct URL Origin of installed distributions Stéphane Bidoul, Chris Jerdonek SF 612 Parameter Specification Variables Mark Mendoza 3.10 SF 613 Explicit Type Aliases Shannon Zhu 3.10 SF 614 Relaxing Grammar Restrictions On Decorators Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 615 Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library Paul Ganssle 3.9 SF 616 String methods to remove prefixes and suffixes Dennis Sweeney 3.9 SF 617 New PEG parser for CPython Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou 3.9 SF 618 Add Optional Length-Checking To zip Brandt Bucher 3.10 SF 621 Storing project metadata in pyproject.toml Brett Cannon, Dustin Ingram, Paul Ganssle, Pradyun Gedam, Sébastien Eustace, Thomas Kluyver, Tzu-ping Chung SF 623 Remove wstr from Unicode Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 624 Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs Inada Naoki 3.11 SF 625 Filename of a Source Distribution Tzu-ping Chung, Paul Moore SF 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. Mark Shannon 3.10 SF 627 Recording installed projects Petr Viktorin SF 628 Add math.tau Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 SF 629 Versioning PyPI’s Simple API Donald Stufft SF 632 Deprecate distutils module Steve Dower 3.10 SF 634 Structural Pattern Matching: Specification Brandt Bucher, Guido van Rossum 3.10 SF 639 Improving License Clarity with Better Package Metadata Philippe Ombredanne, C.A.M. Gerlach, Karolina Surma SF 643 Metadata for Package Source Distributions Paul Moore SF 644 Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer Christian Heimes 3.10 SF 646 Variadic Generics Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Vincent Siles 3.11 SF 647 User-Defined Type Guards Eric Traut 3.10 SF 649 Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.14 SF 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI Petr Viktorin 3.10 SF 654 Exception Groups and except Irit Katriel, Yury Selivanov, Guido van Rossum 3.11 SF 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or potentially-missing David Foster 3.11 SF 656 Platform Tag for Linux Distributions Using Musl Tzu-ping Chung SF 657 Include Fine Grained Error Locations in Tracebacks Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Ammar Askar 3.11 SF 660 Editable installs for pyproject.toml based builds (wheel based) Daniel Holth, Stéphane Bidoul SF 667 Consistent views of namespaces Mark Shannon, Tian Gao 3.13 SF 669 Low Impact Monitoring for CPython Mark Shannon 3.12 SF 670 Convert macros to functions in the Python C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Victor Stinner 3.11 SF 673 Self Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, James Hilton-Balfe 3.11 SF 675 Arbitrary Literal String Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Graham Bleaney 3.11 SF 678 Enriching Exceptions with Notes Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.11 SF 680 tomllib: Support for Parsing TOML in the Standard Library Taneli Hukkinen, Shantanu Jain 3.11 SF 681 Data Class Transforms Erik De Bonte, Eric Traut 3.11 SF 682 Format Specifier for Signed Zero John Belmonte 3.11 SF 683 Immortal Objects, Using a Fixed Refcount Eric Snow, Eddie Elizondo 3.12 SF 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL Eric Snow 3.12 SF 685 Comparison of extra names for optional distribution dependencies Brett Cannon SF 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python Jelle Zijlstra 3.12 SF 689 Unstable C API tier Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 692 Using TypedDict for more precise *kwargs typing Franek Magiera 3.12 SF 695 Type Parameter Syntax Eric Traut 3.12 SF 696 Type Defaults for Type Parameters James Hilton-Balfe 3.13 SF 697 Limited C API for Extending Opaque Types Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing Steven Troxler, Joshua Xu, Shannon Zhu 3.12 SF 700 Additional Fields for the Simple API for Package Indexes Paul Moore SF 702 Marking deprecations using the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 705 TypedDict: Read-only items Alice Purcell 3.13 SF 706 Filter for tarfile.extractall Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 709 Inlined comprehensions Carl Meyer 3.12 SF 715 Disabling bdist_egg distribution uploads on PyPI William Woodruff SF 721 Using tarfile.data_filter for source distribution extraction Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 723 Inline script metadata Ofek Lev SF 730 Adding iOS as a supported platform Russell Keith-Magee 3.13 SF 734 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.14 SF 735 Dependency Groups in pyproject.toml Stephen Rosen SF 737 C API to format a type fully qualified name Victor Stinner 3.13 SF 738 Adding Android as a supported platform Malcolm Smith 3.13 SF 740 Index support for digital attestations William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca, Dustin Ingram SF 741 Python Configuration C API Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 742 Narrowing types with TypeIs Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 749 Implementing PEP 649 Jelle Zijlstra 3.14 SF 750 Template Strings Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck 3.14 SF 751 A file format to record Python dependencies for installation reproducibility Brett Cannon SF 757 C API to import-export Python integers Sergey B Kirpichev, Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 758 Allow except and except expressions without parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett Cannon 3.14 SF 765 Disallow return/break/continue that exit a finally block Irit Katriel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.14 SF 768 Safe external debugger interface for CPython Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, Ivona Stojanovic 3.14 SF 779 Criteria for supported status for free-threaded Python Thomas Wouters, Matt Page, Sam Gross 3.14 SF 782 Add PyBytesWriter C API Victor Stinner 3.15 SF 784 Adding Zstandard to the standard library Emma Harper Smith 3.14 SF 791 math.integer — submodule for integer-specific mathematics functions Neil Girdhar, Sergey B Kirpichev, Tim Peters, Serhiy Storchaka 3.15 SF 792 Project status markers in the simple index William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SF 3101 Advanced String Formatting Talin 3.0 SF 3102 Keyword-Only Arguments Talin 3.0 SF 3104 Access to Names in Outer Scopes Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3105 Make print a function Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3106 Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items() Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3107 Function Annotations Collin Winter, Tony Lownds 3.0 SF 3108 Standard Library Reorganization Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3109 Raising Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3110 Catching Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3111 Simple input built-in in Python 3000 Andre Roberge 3.0 SF 3112 Bytes literals in Python 3000 Jason Orendorff 3.0 SF 3113 Removal of Tuple Parameter Unpacking Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3114 Renaming iterator.next() to iterator.__next__() Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3115 Metaclasses in Python 3000 Talin 3.0 SF 3116 New I/O Daniel Stutzbach, Guido van Rossum, Mike Verdone 3.0 SF 3118 Revising the buffer protocol Travis Oliphant, Carl Banks 3.0 SF 3119 Introducing Abstract Base Classes Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.0 SF 3120 Using UTF-8 as the default source encoding Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3121 Extension Module Initialization and Finalization Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3123 Making PyObject_HEAD conform to standard C Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax Patrick Maupin 3.0 SF 3129 Class Decorators Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3131 Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3132 Extended Iterable Unpacking Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3134 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3135 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney, Lie Ryan 3.0 SF 3137 Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3138 String representation in Python 3000 Atsuo Ishimoto 3.0 SF 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers Jeffrey Yasskin 3.0 SF 3144 IP Address Manipulation Library for the Python Standard Library Peter Moody 3.3 SF 3147 PYC Repository Directories Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3148 futures - execute computations asynchronously Brian Quinlan 3.2 SF 3149 ABI version tagged .so files Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3154 Pickle protocol version 4 Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3156 Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module Guido van Rossum 3.3 Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors PS 5 Guidelines for Language Evolution Paul Prescod PS 6 Bug Fix Releases Aahz, Anthony Baxter IF 160 Python 1.6 Release Schedule Fred L. Drake, Jr. 1.6 IF 200 Python 2.0 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.0 IF 226 Python 2.1 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.1 IF 251 Python 2.2 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum 2.2 IF 283 Python 2.3 Release Schedule Guido van Rossum 2.3 IF 320 Python 2.4 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Raymond Hettinger, Anthony Baxter 2.4 PF 347 Migrating the Python CVS to Subversion Martin von Löwis IF 356 Python 2.5 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Guido van Rossum, Anthony Baxter 2.5 PF 360 Externally Maintained Packages Brett Cannon IF 361 Python 2.6 and 3.0 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Barry Warsaw 2.6, 3.0 IF 373 Python 2.7 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 2.7 PF 374 Choosing a distributed VCS for the Python project Brett Cannon, Stephen J. Turnbull, Alexandre Vassalotti, Barry Warsaw, Dirkjan Ochtman IF 375 Python 3.1 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 3.1 PF 385 Migrating from Subversion to Mercurial Dirkjan Ochtman, Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl IF 392 Python 3.2 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.2 IF 398 Python 3.3 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.3 IF 404 Python 2.8 Un-release Schedule Barry Warsaw 2.8 IF 429 Python 3.4 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.4 PS 438 Transitioning to release-file hosting on PyPI Holger Krekel, Carl Meyer PF 449 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Auto Discovery and Naming Scheme Donald Stufft PF 464 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Authenticity API Donald Stufft PF 470 Removing External Hosting Support on PyPI Donald Stufft IF 478 Python 3.5 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.5 IF 494 Python 3.6 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.6 PF 512 Migrating from hg.python.org to GitHub Brett Cannon IF 537 Python 3.7 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.7 PF 541 Package Index Name Retention Łukasz Langa IF 569 Python 3.8 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.8 PF 581 Using GitHub Issues for CPython Mariatta IF 596 Python 3.9 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.9 PF 3000 Python 3000 Guido van Rossum PF 3002 Procedure for Backwards-Incompatible Changes Steven Bethard PF 3003 Python Language Moratorium Brett Cannon, Jesse Noller, Guido van Rossum PF 3099 Things that will Not Change in Python 3000 Georg Brandl PF 3100 Miscellaneous Python 3.0 Plans Brett Cannon PF 8001 Python Governance Voting Process Brett Cannon, Christian Heimes, Donald Stufft, Eric Snow, Gregory P. Smith, Łukasz Langa, Mariatta, Nathaniel J. Smith, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond Hettinger, Tal Einat, Tim Peters, Zachary Ware Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) PEP Title Authors SD 213 Attribute Access Handlers Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 219 Stackless Python Gordon McMillan 2.1 SD 222 Web Library Enhancements A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SD 233 Python Online Help Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 267 Optimized Access to Module Namespaces Jeremy Hylton 2.2 SD 269 Pgen Module for Python Jonathan Riehl 2.2 SD 280 Optimizing access to globals Guido van Rossum 2.3 SD 286 Enhanced Argument Tuples Martin von Löwis 2.3 SD 312 Simple Implicit Lambda Roman Suzi, Alex Martelli 2.4 SD 316 Programming by Contract for Python Terence Way SD 323 Copyable Iterators Alex Martelli 2.5 SD 337 Logging Usage in the Standard Library Michael P. Dubner 2.5 SD 368 Standard image protocol and class Lino Mastrodomenico 2.6, 3.0 SD 400 Deprecate codecs.StreamReader and codecs.StreamWriter Victor Stinner 3.3 SD 403 General purpose decorator clause (aka “@in” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 PD 407 New release cycle and introducing long-term support versions Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl, Barry Warsaw SD 419 Protecting cleanup statements from interruptions Paul Colomiets 3.3 ID 423 Naming conventions and recipes related to packaging Benoit Bryon ID 444 Python Web3 Interface Chris McDonough, Armin Ronacher SD 447 Add __getdescriptor__ method to metaclass Ronald Oussoren SD 491 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.9 Daniel Holth SD 499 python -m foo should also bind ‘foo’ in sys.modules Cameron Simpson, Chris Angelico, Joseph Jevnik 3.10 SD 505 None-aware operators Mark E. Haase, Steve Dower 3.8 SD 532 A circuit breaking protocol and binary operators Alyssa Coghlan, Mark E. Haase 3.8 SD 533 Deterministic cleanup for iterators Nathaniel J. Smith SD 534 Improved Errors for Missing Standard Library Modules Tomáš Orsava, Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan SD 535 Rich comparison chaining Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SD 547 Running extension modules using the -m option Marcel Plch, Petr Viktorin 3.7 SD 556 Threaded garbage collection Antoine Pitrou 3.7 SD 568 Generator-sensitivity for Context Variables Nathaniel J. Smith 3.8 SD 661 Sentinel Values Tal Einat SD 674 Disallow using macros as l-values Victor Stinner 3.12 SD 774 Removing the LLVM requirement for JIT builds Savannah Ostrowski 3.14 SD 778 Supporting Symlinks in Wheels Emma Harper Smith SD 787 Safer subprocess usage using t-strings Nick Humrich, Alyssa Coghlan 3.15 SD 3124 Overloading, Generic Functions, Interfaces, and Adaptation Phillip J. Eby SD 3143 Standard daemon process library Ben Finney 3.x SD 3150 Statement local namespaces (aka “given” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs PEP Title Authors PW 3 Guidelines for Handling Bug Reports Jeremy Hylton PW 9 Sample Plaintext PEP Template Barry Warsaw PW 42 Feature Requests Jeremy Hylton IS 102 Doing Python Micro Releases Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IW 103 Collecting information about git Oleg Broytman SR 204 Range Literals Thomas Wouters 2.0 IW 206 Python Advanced Library A.M. Kuchling SW 209 Multi-dimensional Arrays Paul Barrett, Travis Oliphant 2.2 SR 210 Decoupling the Interpreter Loop David Ascher 2.1 SR 211 Adding A New Outer Product Operator Greg Wilson 2.1 SR 212 Loop Counter Iteration Peter Schneider-Kamp 2.1 SS 215 String Interpolation Ka-Ping Yee 2.1 IW 216 Docstring Format Moshe Zadka IR 220 Coroutines, Generators, Continuations Gordon McMillan SR 224 Attribute Docstrings Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SR 225 Elementwise/Objectwise Operators Huaiyu Zhu, Gregory Lielens 2.1 SW 228 Reworking Python’s Numeric Model Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum SR 231 __findattr__() Barry Warsaw 2.1 SR 239 Adding a Rational Type to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SR 240 Adding a Rational Literal to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SS 241 Metadata for Python Software Packages A.M. Kuchling SW 242 Numeric Kinds Paul F. Dubois 2.2 SW 243 Module Repository Upload Mechanism Sean Reifschneider 2.1 SR 244 The directive statement Martin von Löwis 2.1 SR 245 Python Interface Syntax Michel Pelletier 2.2 SR 246 Object Adaptation Alex Martelli, Clark C. Evans 2.5 SR 254 Making Classes Look More Like Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 256 Docstring Processing System Framework David Goodger SR 258 Docutils Design Specification David Goodger SR 259 Omit printing newline after newline Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 262 A Database of Installed Python Packages A.M. Kuchling SR 265 Sorting Dictionaries by Value Grant Griffin 2.2 SW 266 Optimizing Global Variable/Attribute Access Skip Montanaro 2.3 SR 268 Extended HTTP functionality and WebDAV Greg Stein 2.x SR 270 uniq method for list objects Jason Petrone 2.2 SR 271 Prefixing sys.path by command line option Frédéric B. Giacometti 2.2 SR 275 Switching on Multiple Values Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SR 276 Simple Iterator for ints Jim Althoff 2.3 SR 281 Loop Counter Iteration with range and xrange Magnus Lie Hetland 2.3 SR 284 Integer for-loops David Eppstein, Gregory Ewing 2.3 SW 288 Generators Attributes and Exceptions Raymond Hettinger 2.5 IS 291 Backward Compatibility for the Python 2 Standard Library Neal Norwitz 2.3 SR 294 Type Names in the types Module Oren Tirosh 2.5 SR 295 Interpretation of multiline string constants Stepan Koltsov 3.0 SW 296 Adding a bytes Object Type Scott Gilbert 2.3 SR 297 Support for System Upgrades Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SW 298 The Locked Buffer Interface Thomas Heller 2.3 SR 299 Special __main__() function in modules Jeff Epler 2.3 SR 303 Extend divmod() for Multiple Divisors Thomas Bellman 2.3 SW 304 Controlling Generation of Bytecode Files Skip Montanaro IW 306 How to Change Python’s Grammar Michael Hudson, Jack Diederich, Alyssa Coghlan, Benjamin Peterson SR 310 Reliable Acquisition/Release Pairs Michael Hudson, Paul Moore 2.4 SR 313 Adding Roman Numeral Literals to Python Mike Meyer 2.4 SS 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.1 A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones 2.5 SR 315 Enhanced While Loop Raymond Hettinger, W Isaac Carroll 2.5 SR 317 Eliminate Implicit Exception Instantiation Steven Taschuk 2.4 SR 319 Python Synchronize/Asynchronize Block Michel Pelletier 2.4 SW 321 Date/Time Parsing and Formatting A.M. Kuchling 2.4 SR 325 Resource-Release Support for Generators Samuele Pedroni 2.4 SR 326 A Case for Top and Bottom Values Josiah Carlson, Terry Reedy 2.4 SR 329 Treating Builtins as Constants in the Standard Library Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SR 330 Python Bytecode Verification Michel Pelletier 2.6 SR 332 Byte vectors and String/Unicode Unification Skip Montanaro 2.5 SW 334 Simple Coroutines via SuspendIteration Clark C. Evans 3.0 SR 335 Overloadable Boolean Operators Gregory Ewing 3.3 SR 336 Make None Callable Andrew McClelland IW 339 Design of the CPython Compiler Brett Cannon SR 340 Anonymous Block Statements Guido van Rossum SS 344 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 2.5 SS 345 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.2 Richard Jones 2.7 SW 346 User Defined (“with”) Statements Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SR 348 Exception Reorganization for Python 3.0 Brett Cannon SR 349 Allow str() to return unicode strings Neil Schemenauer 2.5 IR 350 Codetags Micah Elliott SR 351 The freeze protocol Barry Warsaw 2.5 SS 354 Enumerations in Python Ben Finney 2.6 SR 355 Path - Object oriented filesystem paths Björn Lindqvist 2.5 SW 359 The “make” Statement Steven Bethard 2.6 SR 363 Syntax For Dynamic Attribute Access Ben North SW 364 Transitioning to the Py3K Standard Library Barry Warsaw 2.6 SR 365 Adding the pkg_resources module Phillip J. Eby SS 367 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney 2.6 SW 369 Post import hooks Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SR 377 Allow __enter__() methods to skip the statement body Alyssa Coghlan 2.7, 3.1 SW 379 Adding an Assignment Expression Jervis Whitley 2.7, 3.2 SW 381 Mirroring infrastructure for PyPI Tarek Ziadé, Martin von Löwis SR 382 Namespace Packages Martin von Löwis 3.2 SS 386 Changing the version comparison module in Distutils Tarek Ziadé SR 390 Static metadata for Distutils Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SW 395 Qualified Names for Modules Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 IW 396 Module Version Numbers Barry Warsaw PR 401 BDFL Retirement Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon SR 402 Simplified Package Layout and Partitioning Phillip J. Eby 3.3 SW 406 Improved Encapsulation of Import State Alyssa Coghlan, Greg Slodkowicz 3.4 SR 408 Standard library __preview__ package Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 SR 410 Use decimal.Decimal type for timestamps Victor Stinner 3.3 IS 411 Provisional packages in the Python standard library Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 PW 413 Faster evolution of the Python Standard Library Alyssa Coghlan SR 416 Add a frozendict builtin type Victor Stinner 3.3 SW 422 Simpler customisation of class creation Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Urban 3.5 IW 426 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.0 Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Holth, Donald Stufft SS 431 Time zone support improvements Lennart Regebro SW 432 Restructuring the CPython startup sequence Alyssa Coghlan, Victor Stinner, Eric Snow SS 433 Easier suppression of file descriptor inheritance Victor Stinner 3.4 SR 437 A DSL for specifying signatures, annotations and argument converters Stefan Krah 3.4 SR 439 Inclusion of implicit pip bootstrap in Python installation Richard Jones 3.4 SR 455 Adding a key-transforming dictionary to collections Antoine Pitrou 3.5 SW 459 Standard Metadata Extensions for Python Software Packages Alyssa Coghlan SW 460 Add binary interpolation and formatting Antoine Pitrou 3.5 PW 462 Core development workflow automation for CPython Alyssa Coghlan SR 463 Exception-catching expressions Chris Angelico 3.5 SW 469 Migration of dict iteration code to Python 3 Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SR 472 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini, Joseph Martinot-Lagarde 3.6 SR 473 Adding structured data to built-in exceptions Sebastian Kreft PW 474 Creating forge.python.org Alyssa Coghlan PW 481 Migrate CPython to Git, Github, and Phabricator Donald Stufft SR 490 Chain exceptions at C level Victor Stinner 3.6 IR 496 Environment Markers James Polley PR 497 A standard mechanism for backward compatibility Ed Schofield SR 500 A protocol for delegating datetime methods to their tzinfo implementations Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters SW 501 General purpose template literal strings Alyssa Coghlan, Nick Humrich 3.12 IR 502 String Interpolation - Extended Discussion Mike G. Miller 3.6 SW 504 Using the System RNG by default Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 PR 507 Migrate CPython to Git and GitLab Barry Warsaw SS 509 Add a private version to dict Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 510 Specialize functions with guards Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 511 API for code transformers Victor Stinner 3.6 IS 513 A Platform Tag for Portable Linux Built Distributions Robert T. McGibbon, Nathaniel J. Smith SR 516 Build system abstraction for pip/conda etc Robert Collins, Nathaniel J. Smith SW 521 Managing global context via ‘with’ blocks in generators and coroutines Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SR 522 Allow BlockingIOError in security sensitive APIs Alyssa Coghlan, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SW 531 Existence checking operators Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SW 536 Final Grammar for Literal String Interpolation Philipp Angerer 3.7 SR 542 Dot Notation Assignment In Function Header Markus Meskanen SW 543 A Unified TLS API for Python Cory Benfield, Christian Heimes 3.7 SR 546 Backport ssl.MemoryBIO and ssl.SSLObject to Python 2.7 Victor Stinner, Cory Benfield 2.7 SR 548 More Flexible Loop Control R David Murray 3.7 SR 549 Instance Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.7 SW 550 Execution Context Yury Selivanov, Elvis Pranskevichus 3.7 IW 551 Security transparency in the Python runtime Steve Dower 3.7 SS 554 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.13 SW 555 Context-local variables (contextvars) Koos Zevenhoven 3.7 SW 558 Defined semantics for locals() Alyssa Coghlan 3.13 SR 559 Built-in noop() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SS 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations Łukasz Langa 3.7 IS 571 The manylinux2010 Platform Tag Mark Williams, Geoffrey Thomas, Thomas Kluyver SW 575 Unifying function/method classes Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SW 576 Rationalize Built-in function classes Mark Shannon 3.8 SW 577 Augmented Assignment Expressions Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SR 580 The C call protocol Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SR 582 Python local packages directory Kushal Das, Steve Dower, Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan 3.12 IW 583 A Concurrency Memory Model for Python Jeffrey Yasskin IW 595 Improving bugs.python.org Ezio Melotti, Berker Peksag IW 598 Introducing incremental feature releases Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IS 599 The manylinux2014 Platform Tag Dustin Ingram SR 601 Forbid return/break/continue breaking out of finally Damien George, Batuhan Taskaya 3.8 IR 605 A rolling feature release stream for CPython Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 SR 606 Python Compatibility Version Victor Stinner 3.9 SR 608 Coordinated Python release Miro Hrončok, Victor Stinner 3.9 SW 611 The one million limit Mark Shannon SW 620 Hide implementation details from the C API Victor Stinner 3.12 SS 622 Structural Pattern Matching Brandt Bucher, Daniel F Moisset, Tobias Kohn, Ivan Levkivskyi, Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.10 SS 631 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml based on PEP 508 Ofek Lev SR 633 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml using an exploded TOML table Laurie Opperman, Arun Babu Neelicattu SR 637 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini 3.10 SR 640 Unused variable syntax Thomas Wouters 3.10 SR 641 Using an underscore in the version portion of Python 3.10 compatibility tags Brett Cannon, Steve Dower, Barry Warsaw 3.10 SR 642 Explicit Pattern Syntax for Structural Pattern Matching Alyssa Coghlan 3.10 SW 645 Allow writing optional types as x? Maggie Moss SR 648 Extensible customizations of the interpreter at startup Mario Corchero 3.11 SW 650 Specifying Installer Requirements for Python Projects Vikram Jayanthi, Dustin Ingram, Brett Cannon SR 651 Robust Stack Overflow Handling Mark Shannon SR 662 Editable installs via virtual wheels Bernát Gábor IR 663 Standardizing Enum str(), repr(), and format() behaviors Ethan Furman 3.11 SR 665 A file format to list Python dependencies for reproducibility of an application Brett Cannon, Pradyun Gedam, Tzu-ping Chung SR 666 Reject Foolish Indentation Laura Creighton 2.2 SR 677 Callable Type Syntax Steven Troxler, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan 3.11 SR 679 New assert statement syntax with parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Stan Ulbrych 3.15 SR 690 Lazy Imports Germán Méndez Bravo, Carl Meyer 3.12 SW 704 Require virtual environments by default for package installers Pradyun Gedam SR 707 A simplified signature for __exit__ and __aexit__ Irit Katriel 3.12 SR 712 Adding a “converter” parameter to dataclasses.field Joshua Cannon 3.13 SR 713 Callable Modules Amethyst Reese 3.12 SR 722 Dependency specification for single-file scripts Paul Moore SW 724 Stricter Type Guards Rich Chiodo, Eric Traut, Erik De Bonte 3.13 SR 726 Module __setattr__ and __delattr__ Sergey B Kirpichev 3.13 SW 727 Documentation in Annotated Metadata Sebastián Ramírez 3.13 SR 736 Shorthand syntax for keyword arguments at invocation Joshua Bambrick, Chris Angelico 3.14 SR 754 IEEE 754 Floating Point Special Values Gregory R. Warnes 2.3 SW 756 Add PyUnicode_Export() and PyUnicode_Import() C functions Victor Stinner 3.14 SW 759 External Wheel Hosting Barry Warsaw, Emma Harper Smith SW 760 No More Bare Excepts Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#5-your-privacy-choices-and-rights	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/push-notification	Android Push Template - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? 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Navigation Channel Editors Android Push Template Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Channel Editors Android Push Template OpenAI Open in ChatGPT How to design advanced Android Push template with customisation options to send silent, sticky notifications, and more. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Design Template You can design template with a simple form editor tool. You can add variables with Handlebars language. You can check how the message will look in the preview section on the right side. Once designed, you can save the push notification template by clicking on Save Draft. When you are ready, you can Publish Draft by providing a name to the version. This will become the Live version, and will be used whenever the associated workflow is triggered. Android Push notification fields description Field Description Title Small message text box. Note that this field will be displayed in single line only, and very long content can get curtailed. Use handlebars to add variables. Small Icon Small icon is displayed on the top status bar as well as the notification itself. Developer needs to set this to your logo in your app. Default shown is bell icon. The color used is your brand color set in ‘Organisation Settings’ Large Icon The large icon will show up to the left of the notification text on Android 4.0.3 - 6.0 devices, and shows on the right for Android 7.0+ devices. SuprSend puts your organisation logo as default in the large icon, which you can set from ‘Organisations Tab’. Message Large message text box. Use handlebars to add variables. Subtext Optional Subtext appears on top, next to your brand name. Banner Image Optional For dynamic images: Banner filetypes: PNG, JPG, JPEG. Recommended aspect ratio: 2:1 Recommended maximum size: 700 KB For static images (that are uploaded): -SuprSend will auto-scale your image so that it doesn’t get cropped -SuprSend will optimise the image size so that it is loaded faster on low internet connections. Action URL Provide a URL where a user will go when he clicks on the push notification. You can give your android deeplink URL as well. Action Buttons Optional Enter up to 3 Button names and URL. You can use variable names using handlebars in both action name and URL. You can give your android deeplink URL as well. The action button name color is picked up from your organisation settings. You cannot change button color in a template once it is created. Android Push Advanced Configurations ( Optional ) Field Type Description Silent Boolean With Silent “ON”, users won’t see this message on their device. Instead, these notifications trigger background activities within the application using the notification payload. For instance, they could be utilized to send breaking news alerts or notify users that the latest episode of their favorite TV show is available for offline viewing. Silent notifications are particularly useful for delivering sporadic but time-sensitive content, where immediate access is crucial and the delay associated with background fetches may not be tolerable. Timeout Numeric You can use timeout if you want your notifications to auto-dismiss after a certain time period in case your user has not interacted with that notification. You can add time in seconds in this field. Sticky Notifications Boolean With Sticky Notifications “ON”, the user will not be able to dismiss the notification by left swiping on the notification tray. However, notification will be removed from the tray if the user has clicked on the notification Notification group Single line Text Add a group name to the notification if you want your notifications to be stacked together in the tray. Notifications belonging to the same group will be stacked together. App icon (Small icon) Single line Text Small icon name without extension. The small icon is displayed on the top status bar and on the left side of notification header. By default SuprSend will show a bell icon, however you can customize this to show your app icon instead. Sound Single line Text Sound file name without extension or with extension. This is used to play custom sound on notification delivery. If left blank, the default notification sound of the device will be played. To set custom sound, you’ll have to add raw sound file in your android app folder Custom key-value pair key-value pair You can use this field to send custom key-value pairs to users’ device. This is generally used for storing and retrieving data for caching, app metadata, or user settings. You can combine it with silent notification if the purpose is to update data in user’s applications without notifying them. Both key and value is passed as string in the notification payload. e.g., if you are passing this json: {"foo":1, "bar:1} . It will be passed as "json": "{\"foo\":1,\"bar\":1}" in the payload. You can add variables in both key and value to programmatically pass custom data based on your event or workflow input. Please note that your app’s backend must be able to process custom key-value pairs for the data payload to function properly. Required- Supported SDK version for app icon and sound: App icon functionality is supported in Android native and react native version 0.1.8 and above. Custom Sound is supported in Android native and react native version 2.2.0 and above. If you are using an older SDK version, please upgrade to the latest SDK version Adding dynamic content in Android Push There will always be the case where you would be required to add dynamic content to a template, so as to personalise it for your users. To achieve this, you can add variables in the template, which will be replaced with the dynamic content at the time of sending push. To send actual values to replace variables at the time of communication trigger, use one of our frontend or backend SDKs. Here is a step by step guide on how to add dynamic content in android push: 1 Declaring Variables in the global 'Variables' button: If you are at this stage, it is assumed that you have declared the variables along with sample values in the global Mock data button. To see how to declare variables before using them in designing templates, refer to this section in the Templates documentation . 2 Using variables in the templates: Once the variables are declared, you can use them while designing the android push template. We support handlebars to add variables in the template. As a general rule, all the variables have to be entered within double curly brackets: {{variable_name}} If you have declared the variables in the global ‘Variables’ button, then they will come as auto-suggestions when you type a curly bracket { . This will remove the chances of error like variable mismatch at the time of template rendering. Note that you will be able to enter a variable name even when you have not declared it inside the ‘Variables’ button. To manually enter the variable name, follow the handlerbars guide here . Below are some examples of how to enter variables in the template design. For illustration, we are using the same sample variable names that we declared in the ‘ Templates ’ section: json Copy Ask AI { "array" : [ { "product_name" : "Aldo Sling Bag" , "product_price" : "3,950.00" }, { "product_name" : "Clarles & Keith Women Slipper, Biege, 38UK" , "product_price" : "2,549.00" }, { "product_name" : "RayBan Sunglasses" , "product_price" : "7,899.00" } ], "event" : { "location" : { "city" : "Bangalore" , "state" : "KA" }, "order_id" : "11200123" , "first_name" : "Nikita" }, "product_page" : "https://www.suprsend.com" } To enter a nested variable, enter in the format {{var1.var2.var3}} . Eg. to refer to city in the example above, you need to enter {{event.location.city}} To refer to an array element, enter in format {{var1.[_index_].var2}}. Eg. to refer to product_name of the first element of the array array , enter {{array.[0].product_name}}` If you have any space in the variable name, enclose it in square bracket {{event.[first name]}} You will be able to see the sample values in the Preview section, as well as in the Live version when you publish a draft. If you cannot see your variable being rendered with the sample value, check one of the following: Make sure you have entered the variable name and the sample value in the Variables button. Make sure you have entered the correct variable name in the template, as per the handlebars guideline. What happens if there is variable mismatch at the time of sending? At the time of sending communication, if there is a variable present in the template whose value is not rendered due to mismatch or missing, SuprSend will simply discard the template and not send that particular notification to your user. Please note that the rest of the templates will be sent. Eg. if there is an error in rendering Android Push template, but email template is successfully rendered, Android Push notification will not be triggered, but email notification will be triggered by SuprSend. How to change the small icon for a notification? To show a small app icon in your notification, you’ll have to add a small icon in the drawable folder of application modules. You can either use a vector drawable or a png image. We recommend naming this file as ic_suprsend_app_icon Generate icon images with alpha transparency: Note that Android only uses the alpha channel for the icon. It will display monochrome in the status bar but an accent color can be applied to the left side the notification itself. Option A. Adding a vector drawable You can add a vector drawable icon to the default drawable folder of your application module(androidApp/src/main/res/drawable/). Check out a sample vector drawable link . Option B. Adding a png icon for small icon You can add a icon in .png format. To render this png icon as a small icon in your push notification, you will have to create icons of below sizes and place them in their respective folders. Refer below table: Density (dp) Size (px) MDPI 24x24 HDPI 36x36 XHDPI 48x48 XXHDPI 72x72 XXXHDPI 96x96 Follow below steps to add icons in .png format 1 Generate icon Option A. Using Android Asset Studio (Recommended) To quickly generate small icons with the correct settings, you can use Android Asset Studio . Option B. Manually create icons If you prefer to create your own icons, you must make your icons for all sizes and make the small ones in white with a transparent background. 2 Create project paths Make sure the following paths exist in your App -> main folder, create any folders you are missing. Place images of each size in their respective folders. SDK File path Android Native res/drawable-mdpi/ (24x24) res/drawable-hdpi/ (36x36) res/drawable-xhdpi/ (48x48) res/drawable-xxhdpi/ (72x72) res/drawable-xxxhdpi/ (96x96) React Native android/app/src/main/res/drawable-mdpi/ (24x24) android/app/src/main/res/drawable-hdpi/ (36x36) android/app/src/main/res/drawable-xhdpi/ (48x48) android/app/src/main/res/drawable-xxhdpi/ (72x72) android/app/src/main/res/drawable-xxxhdpi/ (96x96) Your project should look similar to this depending on your SDK. Sample png drawable link Troubleshooting Icons Not Showing: If you see the default SuprSend bell icon even after adding app icon in your template, you did not add all icon sizes. Please add all icons sizes and correct paths. If you see a solid square, you set the image to the correct path, but the image does not have alpha transparency. For more help, try using images from this Android Asset Studio clipart . How to add a custom sound file in your android project? From Android O onwards, notification sound became a property of notification channel and is only set at the time of new category creation (Notification channel is identified as notification category in SuprSend). This means that for a user when you first time send the notification in a particular category, the sound is set for that category and even if you change the sound in your template, the sound in that category will not change. The updated sound will play for the user either if you send notification in a new category or user uninstalls and re-installs the app. For devices on android version before O, the sound will be set at individual notification level and whenever you change the sound on a template, it will play the new sound for user. Leaving the sound field blank will play the default notification sound on the device. To change the notification sound you will have to add the sound file to the raw folder of your android app. Location Copy Ask AI projectroot/app/res/raw Please keep the file name in lower case and avoid using space in the file name instead you can use underscore(_) in place of space E.g.- notification.mp3, notificationMusic.mp3,notification_music.mp3 Sound is set at channel level for android version >= 8.0: From Android O onwards (~95% of the android users), notification sound became a property of notification channel and is only set at the time of new category creation . So, the new sound set at template will only change for users if you are sending the notification in a new notification category user is installing the app for the first time or getting notification in that category for the first time user has uninstalled and reinstalled the app Image optimisations SuprSend does some image optimisations in push notifications for images that are static in nature, ie. image is uploaded in ‘Banner Image’ field on template, so that the push notification delivery rate increases and the time of delivery for push notification reduces. These optimisations are as below: 1. Image optimisation based on Screen Width If there is a very large image in the “Banner Image” field, SuprSend will reduce the image size to fit as per the mobile screen width of your user. 2. Image optimisation based on network Your users might be on different network, namely wifi, 4G, 3G, 2G. And therefore, depending on your user’s network we optimise the image size. This improves the push notification delivery for users whose network is not very fast. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous iOS Push Template How to design simple iOS Push template with click action and image. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Design Template Android Push notification fields description Android Push Advanced Configurations (Optional) Adding dynamic content in Android Push How to change the small icon for a notification? How to add a custom sound file in your android project? Image optimisations	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://peps.python.org#svg-sun	PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) \| peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEP 0 Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) Author : The PEP Editors Status : Active Type : Informational Created : 13-Jul-2000 Table of Contents Introduction Topics API Numerical Index Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs Other Informational PEPs Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) Open PEPs (under consideration) Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs Reserved PEP Numbers PEP Types Key PEP Status Key Authors/Owners Introduction This PEP contains the index of all Python Enhancement Proposals, known as PEPs. PEP numbers are assigned by the PEP editors, and once assigned are never changed. The version control history of the PEP texts represent their historical record. Topics PEPs for specialist subjects are indexed by topic . Governance PEPs Packaging PEPs Release PEPs Typing PEPs API The PEPS API is a JSON file of metadata about all the published PEPs. Read more here . Numerical Index The numerical index contains a table of all PEPs, ordered by number. Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs PEP Title Authors PA 1 PEP Purpose and Guidelines Barry Warsaw, Jeremy Hylton, David Goodger, Alyssa Coghlan PA 2 Procedure for Adding New Modules Brett Cannon, Martijn Faassen PA 4 Deprecation of Standard Modules Brett Cannon, Martin von Löwis PA 7 Style Guide for C Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw PA 8 Style Guide for Python Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw, Alyssa Coghlan PA 10 Voting Guidelines Barry Warsaw PA 11 CPython platform support Martin von Löwis, Brett Cannon PA 12 Sample reStructuredText PEP Template David Goodger, Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon PA 13 Python Language Governance The Python core team and community PA 387 Backwards Compatibility Policy Benjamin Peterson PA 545 Python Documentation Translations Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, Victor Stinner PA 602 Annual Release Cycle for Python Łukasz Langa 3.9 PA 609 Python Packaging Authority (PyPA) Governance Dustin Ingram, Pradyun Gedam, Sumana Harihareswara PA 676 PEP Infrastructure Process Adam Turner PA 729 Typing governance process Jelle Zijlstra, Shantanu Jain PA 731 C API Working Group Charter Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Victor Stinner, Steve Dower, Irit Katriel PA 732 The Python Documentation Editorial Board Joanna Jablonski PA 761 Deprecating PGP signatures for CPython artifacts Seth Michael Larson 3.14 PA 811 Defining Python Security Response Team membership and responsibilities Seth Michael Larson Other Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors IA 20 The Zen of Python Tim Peters IA 101 Doing Python Releases 101 Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IF 247 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions A.M. Kuchling IF 248 Python Database API Specification v1.0 Greg Stein, Marc-André Lemburg IF 249 Python Database API Specification v2.0 Marc-André Lemburg IA 257 Docstring Conventions David Goodger, Guido van Rossum IF 272 API for Block Encryption Algorithms v1.0 A.M. Kuchling IA 287 reStructuredText Docstring Format David Goodger IA 290 Code Migration and Modernization Raymond Hettinger IF 333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0 Phillip J. Eby IA 394 The “python” Command on Unix-Like Systems Kerrick Staley, Alyssa Coghlan, Barry Warsaw, Petr Viktorin, Miro Hrončok, Carol Willing IF 399 Pure Python/C Accelerator Module Compatibility Requirements Brett Cannon 3.3 IF 430 Migrating to Python 3 as the default online documentation Alyssa Coghlan IA 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches Todd Rovito, Terry Reedy IF 452 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions v2.0 A.M. Kuchling, Christian Heimes IF 457 Notation For Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings IF 482 Literature Overview for Type Hints Łukasz Langa IF 483 The Theory of Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Ivan Levkivskyi IA 514 Python registration in the Windows registry Steve Dower IF 579 Refactoring C functions and methods Jeroen Demeyer IF 588 GitHub Issues Migration Plan Mariatta IF 607 Reducing CPython’s Feature Delivery Latency Łukasz Langa, Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IA 619 Python 3.10 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.10 IF 630 Isolating Extension Modules Petr Viktorin IF 635 Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale Tobias Kohn, Guido van Rossum 3.10 IF 636 Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial Daniel F Moisset 3.10 IF 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter Mark Shannon IA 664 Python 3.11 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.11 IA 672 Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python Petr Viktorin IA 693 Python 3.12 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.12 IA 719 Python 3.13 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.13 IF 733 An Evaluation of Python’s Public C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Domenico Andreoli, Stefan Behnel, Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick, Simon Cross, Steve Dower, Tim Felgentreff, David Hewitt, Shantanu Jain, Wenzel Jakob, Irit Katriel, Marc-Andre Lemburg, Donghee Na, Karl Nelson, Ronald Oussoren, Antoine Pitrou, Neil Schemenauer, Mark Shannon, Stepan Sindelar, Gregory P. Smith, Eric Snow, Victor Stinner, Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Carol Willing, William Woodruff, David Woods, Jelle Zijlstra IA 745 Python 3.14 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.14 IF 762 REPL-acing the default REPL Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, Lysandros Nikolaou, Emily Morehouse-Valcarcel 3.13 IA 790 Python 3.15 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.15 IA 801 Reserved Barry Warsaw IF 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Phillip J. Eby IF 8000 Python Language Governance Proposal Overview Barry Warsaw IF 8002 Open Source Governance Survey Barry Warsaw, Łukasz Langa, Antoine Pitrou, Doug Hellmann, Carol Willing IA 8016 The Steering Council Model Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft IF 8100 January 2019 Steering Council election Nathaniel J. Smith, Ee Durbin IF 8101 2020 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin IF 8102 2021 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8103 2022 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8104 2023 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8105 2024 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8106 2025 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8107 2026 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) PEP Title Authors SP 708 Extending the Repository API to Mitigate Dependency Confusion Attacks Donald Stufft Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) PEP Title Authors SA 458 Secure PyPI downloads with signed repository metadata Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Marina Moore, Lukas Puehringer, Joshua Lock, Lois Anne DeLong, Justin Cappos SA 658 Serve Distribution Metadata in the Simple Repository API Tzu-ping Chung SA 668 Marking Python base environments as “externally managed” Geoffrey Thomas, Matthias Klose, Filipe Laíns, Donald Stufft, Tzu-ping Chung, Stefano Rivera, Elana Hashman, Pradyun Gedam SA 686 Make UTF-8 mode default Inada Naoki 3.15 SA 687 Isolating modules in the standard library Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Petr Viktorin 3.12 SA 691 JSON-based Simple API for Python Package Indexes Donald Stufft, Pradyun Gedam, Cooper Lees, Dustin Ingram SA 699 Remove private dict version field added in PEP 509 Ken Jin 3.12 SA 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou, Marta Gómez Macías 3.12 SA 703 Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython Sam Gross 3.13 SA 714 Rename dist-info-metadata in the Simple API Donald Stufft SA 728 TypedDict with Typed Extra Items Zixuan James Li 3.15 SA 739 build-details.json 1.0 — a static description file for Python build details Filipe Laíns 3.14 SA 753 Uniform project URLs in core metadata William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SA 770 Improving measurability of Python packages with Software Bill-of-Materials Seth Larson SA 773 A Python Installation Manager for Windows Steve Dower SA 793 PyModExport: A new entry point for C extension modules Petr Viktorin 3.15 SA 794 Import Name Metadata Brett Cannon SA 798 Unpacking in Comprehensions Adam Hartz, Erik Demaine 3.15 SA 799 A dedicated profiling package for organizing Python profiling tools Pablo Galindo Salgado, László Kiss Kollár 3.15 SA 810 Explicit lazy imports Pablo Galindo Salgado, Germán Méndez Bravo, Thomas Wouters, Dino Viehland, Brittany Reynoso, Noah Kim, Tim Stumbaugh 3.15 Open PEPs (under consideration) PEP Title Authors S 467 Minor API improvements for binary sequences Alyssa Coghlan, Ethan Furman 3.15 S 480 Surviving a Compromise of PyPI: End-to-end signing of packages Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Justin Cappos, Marina Moore S 603 Adding a frozenmap type to collections Yury Selivanov S 638 Syntactic Macros Mark Shannon S 653 Precise Semantics for Pattern Matching Mark Shannon S 671 Syntax for late-bound function argument defaults Chris Angelico 3.12 S 694 Upload 2.0 API for Python Package Indexes Barry Warsaw, Donald Stufft, Ee Durbin S 710 Recording the provenance of installed packages Fridolín Pokorný S 711 PyBI: a standard format for distributing Python Binaries Nathaniel J. Smith S 718 Subscriptable functions James Hilton-Balfe 3.15 I 720 Cross-compiling Python packages Filipe Laíns 3.12 S 725 Specifying external dependencies in pyproject.toml Pradyun Gedam, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Ralf Gommers S 743 Add Py_OMIT_LEGACY_API to the Python C API Victor Stinner, Petr Viktorin 3.15 I 744 JIT Compilation Brandt Bucher, Savannah Ostrowski 3.13 S 746 Type checking Annotated metadata Adrian Garcia Badaracco 3.15 S 747 Annotating Type Forms David Foster, Eric Traut 3.15 S 748 A Unified TLS API for Python Joop van de Pol, William Woodruff 3.14 S 752 Implicit namespaces for package repositories Ofek Lev, Jarek Potiuk P 755 Implicit namespace policy for PyPI Ofek Lev S 764 Inline typed dictionaries Victorien Plot 3.15 I 766 Explicit Priority Choices Among Multiple Indexes Michael Sarahan S 767 Annotating Read-Only Attributes Eneg 3.15 S 771 Default Extras for Python Software Packages Thomas Robitaille, Jonathan Dekhtiar P 772 Packaging Council governance process Barry Warsaw, Deb Nicholson, Pradyun Gedam I 776 Emscripten Support Hood Chatham 3.14 S 777 How to Re-invent the Wheel Emma Harper Smith S 780 ABI features as environment markers Klaus Zimmermann, Ralf Gommers 3.14 S 781 Make TYPE_CHECKING a built-in constant Inada Naoki 3.15 S 783 Emscripten Packaging Hood Chatham S 785 New methods for easier handling of ExceptionGroups Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.14 S 788 Protecting the C API from Interpreter Finalization Peter Bierma 3.15 S 789 Preventing task-cancellation bugs by limiting yield in async generators Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.14 S 800 Disjoint bases in the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.15 S 802 Display Syntax for the Empty Set Adam Turner 3.15 S 803 Stable ABI for Free-Threaded Builds Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 804 An external dependency registry and name mapping mechanism Pradyun Gedam, Ralf Gommers, Michał Górny, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Michael Sarahan S 806 Mixed sync/async context managers with precise async marking Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.15 S 807 Index support for Trusted Publishing William Woodruff S 808 Including static values in dynamic project metadata Henry Schreiner, Cristian Le S 809 Stable ABI for the Future Steve Dower 3.15 S 814 Add frozendict built-in type Victor Stinner, Donghee Na 3.15 S 815 Deprecate RECORD.jws and RECORD.p7s Konstantin Schütze, William Woodruff I 816 WASI Support Brett Cannon S 819 JSON Package Metadata Emma Harper Smith S 820 PySlot: Unified slot system for the C API Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 822 Dedented Multiline String (d-string) Inada Naoki 3.15 Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) PEP Title Authors SF 100 Python Unicode Integration Marc-André Lemburg 2.0 SF 201 Lockstep Iteration Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 202 List Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 203 Augmented Assignments Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 205 Weak References Fred L. Drake, Jr. 2.1 SF 207 Rich Comparisons Guido van Rossum, David Ascher 2.1 SF 208 Reworking the Coercion Model Neil Schemenauer, Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SF 214 Extended Print Statement Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 217 Display Hook for Interactive Use Moshe Zadka 2.1 SF 218 Adding a Built-In Set Object Type Greg Wilson, Raymond Hettinger 2.2 SF 221 Import As Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 223 Change the Meaning of x Escapes Tim Peters 2.0 SF 227 Statically Nested Scopes Jeremy Hylton 2.1 SF 229 Using Distutils to Build Python A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SF 230 Warning Framework Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 232 Function Attributes Barry Warsaw 2.1 SF 234 Iterators Ka-Ping Yee, Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 235 Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms Tim Peters 2.1 SF 236 Back to the __future__ Tim Peters 2.1 SF 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 238 Changing the Division Operator Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 250 Using site-packages on Windows Paul Moore 2.2 SF 252 Making Types Look More Like Classes Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 253 Subtyping Built-in Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 255 Simple Generators Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland 2.2 SF 260 Simplify xrange() Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 261 Support for “wide” Unicode characters Paul Prescod 2.2 SF 263 Defining Python Source Code Encodings Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis 2.3 SF 264 Future statements in simulated shells Michael Hudson 2.2 SF 273 Import Modules from Zip Archives James C. Ahlstrom 2.3 SF 274 Dict Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.7, 3.0 SF 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT Neil Hodgson 2.3 SF 278 Universal Newline Support Jack Jansen 2.3 SF 279 The enumerate() built-in function Raymond Hettinger 2.3 SF 282 A Logging System Vinay Sajip, Trent Mick 2.3 SF 285 Adding a bool type Guido van Rossum 2.3 SF 289 Generator Expressions Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 292 Simpler String Substitutions Barry Warsaw 2.4 SF 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks Walter Dörwald 2.3 SF 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils Richard Jones 2.3 SF 302 New Import Hooks Just van Rossum, Paul Moore 2.3 SF 305 CSV File API Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells 2.3 SF 307 Extensions to the pickle protocol Guido van Rossum, Tim Peters 2.3 SF 308 Conditional Expressions Guido van Rossum, Raymond Hettinger 2.5 SF 309 Partial Function Application Peter Harris 2.5 SF 311 Simplified Global Interpreter Lock Acquisition for Extensions Mark Hammond 2.3 SF 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods Kevin D. Smith, Jim J. Jewett, Skip Montanaro, Anthony Baxter 2.4 SF 322 Reverse Iteration Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 324 subprocess - New process module Peter Astrand 2.4 SF 327 Decimal Data Type Facundo Batista 2.4 SF 328 Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative Aahz 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 SF 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Christian R. Reis 2.4 SF 338 Executing modules as scripts Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 341 Unifying try-except and try-finally Georg Brandl 2.5 SF 342 Coroutines via Enhanced Generators Guido van Rossum, Phillip J. Eby 2.5 SF 343 The “with” Statement Guido van Rossum, Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 352 Required Superclass for Exceptions Brett Cannon, Guido van Rossum 2.5 SF 353 Using ssize_t as the index type Martin von Löwis 2.5 SF 357 Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing Travis Oliphant 2.5 SF 358 The “bytes” Object Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum 2.6, 3.0 SF 362 Function Signature Object Brett Cannon, Jiwon Seo, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings 3.3 SF 366 Main module explicit relative imports Alyssa Coghlan 2.6, 3.0 SF 370 Per user site-packages directory Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SF 371 Addition of the multiprocessing package to the standard library Jesse Noller, Richard Oudkerk 2.6, 3.0 SF 372 Adding an ordered dictionary to collections Armin Ronacher, Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 376 Database of Installed Python Distributions Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SF 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator Gregory Ewing 3.3 SF 383 Non-decodable Bytes in System Character Interfaces Martin von Löwis 3.1 SF 384 Defining a Stable ABI Martin von Löwis 3.2 SF 389 argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module Steven Bethard 2.7, 3.2 SF 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging Vinay Sajip 2.7, 3.2 SF 393 Flexible String Representation Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 397 Python launcher for Windows Mark Hammond, Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 405 Python Virtual Environments Carl Meyer 3.3 SF 409 Suppressing exception context Ethan Furman 3.3 SF 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary Mark Shannon 3.3 SF 414 Explicit Unicode Literal for Python 3.3 Armin Ronacher, Alyssa Coghlan 3.3 SF 415 Implement context suppression with exception attributes Benjamin Peterson 3.3 SF 417 Including mock in the Standard Library Michael Foord 3.3 SF 418 Add monotonic time, performance counter, and process time functions Cameron Simpson, Jim J. Jewett, Stephen J. Turnbull, Victor Stinner 3.3 SF 420 Implicit Namespace Packages Eric V. Smith 3.3 SF 421 Adding sys.implementation Eric Snow 3.3 SF 424 A method for exposing a length hint Alex Gaynor 3.4 SF 425 Compatibility Tags for Built Distributions Daniel Holth 3.4 SF 427 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.0 Daniel Holth SF 428 The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 435 Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky, Ethan Furman 3.4 SF 436 The Argument Clinic DSL Larry Hastings 3.4 SF 440 Version Identification and Dependency Specification Alyssa Coghlan, Donald Stufft SF 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support Daniel Holth, Paul Moore 3.5 SF 442 Safe object finalization Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 443 Single-dispatch generic functions Łukasz Langa 3.4 SF 445 Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 446 Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 448 Additional Unpacking Generalizations Joshua Landau 3.5 SF 450 Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.4 SF 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Eric Snow 3.4 SF 453 Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 454 Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 456 Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm Christian Heimes 3.4 SF 461 Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray Ethan Furman 3.5 SF 465 A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication Nathaniel J. Smith 3.5 SF 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7.x Alyssa Coghlan 2.7.9 SF 468 Preserving the order of *kwargs in a function. Eric Snow 3.6 SF 471 os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator Ben Hoyt 3.5 SF 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR Charles-François Natali, Victor Stinner 3.5 SF 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients Alex Gaynor 2.7.9, 3.4.3, 3.5 SF 477 Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators Chris Angelico, Guido van Rossum 3.5 SF 484 Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.5 SF 485 A Function for testing approximate equality Christopher Barker 3.5 SF 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments Paul Moore 3.5 SF 487 Simpler customisation of class creation Martin Teichmann 3.6 SF 488 Elimination of PYO files Brett Cannon 3.5 SF 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SF 492 Coroutines with async and await syntax Yury Selivanov 3.5 SF 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7 Alyssa Coghlan, Robert Kuska, Marc-André Lemburg 2.7.12 SF 495 Local Time Disambiguation Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters 3.6 SF 498 Literal String Interpolation Eric V. Smith 3.6 SF 503 Simple Repository API Donald Stufft SF 506 Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.6 SF 508 Dependency specification for Python Software Packages Robert Collins SF 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals Georg Brandl, Serhiy Storchaka 3.6 SF 517 A build-system independent format for source trees Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 518 Specifying Minimum Build System Requirements for Python Projects Brett Cannon, Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft SF 519 Adding a file system path protocol Brett Cannon, Koos Zevenhoven 3.6 SF 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order Eric Snow 3.6 SF 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython Brett Cannon, Dino Viehland 3.6 SF 524 Make os.urandom() blocking on Linux Victor Stinner 3.6 SF 525 Asynchronous Generators Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 526 Syntax for Variable Annotations Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, Guido van Rossum 3.6 SF 527 Removing Un(der)used file types/extensions on PyPI Donald Stufft SF 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 538 Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 539 A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython Erik M. Bray, Masayuki Yamamoto 3.7 SF 540 Add a new UTF-8 Mode Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 544 Protocols: Structural subtyping (static duck typing) Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.8 SF 552 Deterministic pycs Benjamin Peterson 3.7 SF 553 Built-in breakpoint() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SF 557 Data Classes Eric V. Smith 3.7 SF 560 Core support for typing module and generic types Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 561 Distributing and Packaging Type Information Emma Harper Smith 3.7 SF 562 Module __getattr__ and __dir__ Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 564 Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 566 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.1 Dustin Ingram 3.x SF 567 Context Variables Yury Selivanov 3.7 SF 570 Python Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Mario Corchero, Eric N. Vander Weele 3.8 SF 572 Assignment Expressions Chris Angelico, Tim Peters, Guido van Rossum 3.8 SF 573 Module State Access from C Extension Methods Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan, Eric Snow, Marcel Plch 3.9 SF 574 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data Antoine Pitrou 3.8 SF 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks Steve Dower 3.8 SF 584 Add Union Operators To dict Steven D’Aprano, Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 585 Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections Łukasz Langa 3.9 SF 586 Literal Types Michael Lee, Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 587 Python Initialization Configuration Victor Stinner, Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SF 589 TypedDict: Type Hints for Dictionaries with a Fixed Set of Keys Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 590 Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SF 591 Adding a final qualifier to typing Michael J. Sullivan, Ivan Levkivskyi 3.8 SF 592 Adding “Yank” Support to the Simple API Donald Stufft SF 593 Flexible function and variable annotations Till Varoquaux, Konstantin Kashin 3.9 SF 594 Removing dead batteries from the standard library Christian Heimes, Brett Cannon 3.11 SF 597 Add optional EncodingWarning Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 600 Future ‘manylinux’ Platform Tags for Portable Linux Built Distributions Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 604 Allow writing union types as X \| Y Philippe PRADOS, Maggie Moss 3.10 SF 610 Recording the Direct URL Origin of installed distributions Stéphane Bidoul, Chris Jerdonek SF 612 Parameter Specification Variables Mark Mendoza 3.10 SF 613 Explicit Type Aliases Shannon Zhu 3.10 SF 614 Relaxing Grammar Restrictions On Decorators Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 615 Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library Paul Ganssle 3.9 SF 616 String methods to remove prefixes and suffixes Dennis Sweeney 3.9 SF 617 New PEG parser for CPython Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou 3.9 SF 618 Add Optional Length-Checking To zip Brandt Bucher 3.10 SF 621 Storing project metadata in pyproject.toml Brett Cannon, Dustin Ingram, Paul Ganssle, Pradyun Gedam, Sébastien Eustace, Thomas Kluyver, Tzu-ping Chung SF 623 Remove wstr from Unicode Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 624 Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs Inada Naoki 3.11 SF 625 Filename of a Source Distribution Tzu-ping Chung, Paul Moore SF 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. Mark Shannon 3.10 SF 627 Recording installed projects Petr Viktorin SF 628 Add math.tau Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 SF 629 Versioning PyPI’s Simple API Donald Stufft SF 632 Deprecate distutils module Steve Dower 3.10 SF 634 Structural Pattern Matching: Specification Brandt Bucher, Guido van Rossum 3.10 SF 639 Improving License Clarity with Better Package Metadata Philippe Ombredanne, C.A.M. Gerlach, Karolina Surma SF 643 Metadata for Package Source Distributions Paul Moore SF 644 Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer Christian Heimes 3.10 SF 646 Variadic Generics Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Vincent Siles 3.11 SF 647 User-Defined Type Guards Eric Traut 3.10 SF 649 Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.14 SF 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI Petr Viktorin 3.10 SF 654 Exception Groups and except Irit Katriel, Yury Selivanov, Guido van Rossum 3.11 SF 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or potentially-missing David Foster 3.11 SF 656 Platform Tag for Linux Distributions Using Musl Tzu-ping Chung SF 657 Include Fine Grained Error Locations in Tracebacks Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Ammar Askar 3.11 SF 660 Editable installs for pyproject.toml based builds (wheel based) Daniel Holth, Stéphane Bidoul SF 667 Consistent views of namespaces Mark Shannon, Tian Gao 3.13 SF 669 Low Impact Monitoring for CPython Mark Shannon 3.12 SF 670 Convert macros to functions in the Python C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Victor Stinner 3.11 SF 673 Self Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, James Hilton-Balfe 3.11 SF 675 Arbitrary Literal String Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Graham Bleaney 3.11 SF 678 Enriching Exceptions with Notes Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.11 SF 680 tomllib: Support for Parsing TOML in the Standard Library Taneli Hukkinen, Shantanu Jain 3.11 SF 681 Data Class Transforms Erik De Bonte, Eric Traut 3.11 SF 682 Format Specifier for Signed Zero John Belmonte 3.11 SF 683 Immortal Objects, Using a Fixed Refcount Eric Snow, Eddie Elizondo 3.12 SF 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL Eric Snow 3.12 SF 685 Comparison of extra names for optional distribution dependencies Brett Cannon SF 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python Jelle Zijlstra 3.12 SF 689 Unstable C API tier Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 692 Using TypedDict for more precise *kwargs typing Franek Magiera 3.12 SF 695 Type Parameter Syntax Eric Traut 3.12 SF 696 Type Defaults for Type Parameters James Hilton-Balfe 3.13 SF 697 Limited C API for Extending Opaque Types Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing Steven Troxler, Joshua Xu, Shannon Zhu 3.12 SF 700 Additional Fields for the Simple API for Package Indexes Paul Moore SF 702 Marking deprecations using the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 705 TypedDict: Read-only items Alice Purcell 3.13 SF 706 Filter for tarfile.extractall Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 709 Inlined comprehensions Carl Meyer 3.12 SF 715 Disabling bdist_egg distribution uploads on PyPI William Woodruff SF 721 Using tarfile.data_filter for source distribution extraction Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 723 Inline script metadata Ofek Lev SF 730 Adding iOS as a supported platform Russell Keith-Magee 3.13 SF 734 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.14 SF 735 Dependency Groups in pyproject.toml Stephen Rosen SF 737 C API to format a type fully qualified name Victor Stinner 3.13 SF 738 Adding Android as a supported platform Malcolm Smith 3.13 SF 740 Index support for digital attestations William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca, Dustin Ingram SF 741 Python Configuration C API Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 742 Narrowing types with TypeIs Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 749 Implementing PEP 649 Jelle Zijlstra 3.14 SF 750 Template Strings Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck 3.14 SF 751 A file format to record Python dependencies for installation reproducibility Brett Cannon SF 757 C API to import-export Python integers Sergey B Kirpichev, Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 758 Allow except and except expressions without parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett Cannon 3.14 SF 765 Disallow return/break/continue that exit a finally block Irit Katriel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.14 SF 768 Safe external debugger interface for CPython Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, Ivona Stojanovic 3.14 SF 779 Criteria for supported status for free-threaded Python Thomas Wouters, Matt Page, Sam Gross 3.14 SF 782 Add PyBytesWriter C API Victor Stinner 3.15 SF 784 Adding Zstandard to the standard library Emma Harper Smith 3.14 SF 791 math.integer — submodule for integer-specific mathematics functions Neil Girdhar, Sergey B Kirpichev, Tim Peters, Serhiy Storchaka 3.15 SF 792 Project status markers in the simple index William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SF 3101 Advanced String Formatting Talin 3.0 SF 3102 Keyword-Only Arguments Talin 3.0 SF 3104 Access to Names in Outer Scopes Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3105 Make print a function Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3106 Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items() Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3107 Function Annotations Collin Winter, Tony Lownds 3.0 SF 3108 Standard Library Reorganization Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3109 Raising Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3110 Catching Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3111 Simple input built-in in Python 3000 Andre Roberge 3.0 SF 3112 Bytes literals in Python 3000 Jason Orendorff 3.0 SF 3113 Removal of Tuple Parameter Unpacking Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3114 Renaming iterator.next() to iterator.__next__() Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3115 Metaclasses in Python 3000 Talin 3.0 SF 3116 New I/O Daniel Stutzbach, Guido van Rossum, Mike Verdone 3.0 SF 3118 Revising the buffer protocol Travis Oliphant, Carl Banks 3.0 SF 3119 Introducing Abstract Base Classes Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.0 SF 3120 Using UTF-8 as the default source encoding Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3121 Extension Module Initialization and Finalization Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3123 Making PyObject_HEAD conform to standard C Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax Patrick Maupin 3.0 SF 3129 Class Decorators Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3131 Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3132 Extended Iterable Unpacking Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3134 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3135 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney, Lie Ryan 3.0 SF 3137 Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3138 String representation in Python 3000 Atsuo Ishimoto 3.0 SF 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers Jeffrey Yasskin 3.0 SF 3144 IP Address Manipulation Library for the Python Standard Library Peter Moody 3.3 SF 3147 PYC Repository Directories Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3148 futures - execute computations asynchronously Brian Quinlan 3.2 SF 3149 ABI version tagged .so files Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3154 Pickle protocol version 4 Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3156 Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module Guido van Rossum 3.3 Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors PS 5 Guidelines for Language Evolution Paul Prescod PS 6 Bug Fix Releases Aahz, Anthony Baxter IF 160 Python 1.6 Release Schedule Fred L. Drake, Jr. 1.6 IF 200 Python 2.0 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.0 IF 226 Python 2.1 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.1 IF 251 Python 2.2 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum 2.2 IF 283 Python 2.3 Release Schedule Guido van Rossum 2.3 IF 320 Python 2.4 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Raymond Hettinger, Anthony Baxter 2.4 PF 347 Migrating the Python CVS to Subversion Martin von Löwis IF 356 Python 2.5 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Guido van Rossum, Anthony Baxter 2.5 PF 360 Externally Maintained Packages Brett Cannon IF 361 Python 2.6 and 3.0 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Barry Warsaw 2.6, 3.0 IF 373 Python 2.7 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 2.7 PF 374 Choosing a distributed VCS for the Python project Brett Cannon, Stephen J. Turnbull, Alexandre Vassalotti, Barry Warsaw, Dirkjan Ochtman IF 375 Python 3.1 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 3.1 PF 385 Migrating from Subversion to Mercurial Dirkjan Ochtman, Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl IF 392 Python 3.2 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.2 IF 398 Python 3.3 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.3 IF 404 Python 2.8 Un-release Schedule Barry Warsaw 2.8 IF 429 Python 3.4 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.4 PS 438 Transitioning to release-file hosting on PyPI Holger Krekel, Carl Meyer PF 449 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Auto Discovery and Naming Scheme Donald Stufft PF 464 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Authenticity API Donald Stufft PF 470 Removing External Hosting Support on PyPI Donald Stufft IF 478 Python 3.5 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.5 IF 494 Python 3.6 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.6 PF 512 Migrating from hg.python.org to GitHub Brett Cannon IF 537 Python 3.7 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.7 PF 541 Package Index Name Retention Łukasz Langa IF 569 Python 3.8 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.8 PF 581 Using GitHub Issues for CPython Mariatta IF 596 Python 3.9 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.9 PF 3000 Python 3000 Guido van Rossum PF 3002 Procedure for Backwards-Incompatible Changes Steven Bethard PF 3003 Python Language Moratorium Brett Cannon, Jesse Noller, Guido van Rossum PF 3099 Things that will Not Change in Python 3000 Georg Brandl PF 3100 Miscellaneous Python 3.0 Plans Brett Cannon PF 8001 Python Governance Voting Process Brett Cannon, Christian Heimes, Donald Stufft, Eric Snow, Gregory P. Smith, Łukasz Langa, Mariatta, Nathaniel J. Smith, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond Hettinger, Tal Einat, Tim Peters, Zachary Ware Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) PEP Title Authors SD 213 Attribute Access Handlers Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 219 Stackless Python Gordon McMillan 2.1 SD 222 Web Library Enhancements A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SD 233 Python Online Help Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 267 Optimized Access to Module Namespaces Jeremy Hylton 2.2 SD 269 Pgen Module for Python Jonathan Riehl 2.2 SD 280 Optimizing access to globals Guido van Rossum 2.3 SD 286 Enhanced Argument Tuples Martin von Löwis 2.3 SD 312 Simple Implicit Lambda Roman Suzi, Alex Martelli 2.4 SD 316 Programming by Contract for Python Terence Way SD 323 Copyable Iterators Alex Martelli 2.5 SD 337 Logging Usage in the Standard Library Michael P. Dubner 2.5 SD 368 Standard image protocol and class Lino Mastrodomenico 2.6, 3.0 SD 400 Deprecate codecs.StreamReader and codecs.StreamWriter Victor Stinner 3.3 SD 403 General purpose decorator clause (aka “@in” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 PD 407 New release cycle and introducing long-term support versions Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl, Barry Warsaw SD 419 Protecting cleanup statements from interruptions Paul Colomiets 3.3 ID 423 Naming conventions and recipes related to packaging Benoit Bryon ID 444 Python Web3 Interface Chris McDonough, Armin Ronacher SD 447 Add __getdescriptor__ method to metaclass Ronald Oussoren SD 491 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.9 Daniel Holth SD 499 python -m foo should also bind ‘foo’ in sys.modules Cameron Simpson, Chris Angelico, Joseph Jevnik 3.10 SD 505 None-aware operators Mark E. Haase, Steve Dower 3.8 SD 532 A circuit breaking protocol and binary operators Alyssa Coghlan, Mark E. Haase 3.8 SD 533 Deterministic cleanup for iterators Nathaniel J. Smith SD 534 Improved Errors for Missing Standard Library Modules Tomáš Orsava, Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan SD 535 Rich comparison chaining Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SD 547 Running extension modules using the -m option Marcel Plch, Petr Viktorin 3.7 SD 556 Threaded garbage collection Antoine Pitrou 3.7 SD 568 Generator-sensitivity for Context Variables Nathaniel J. Smith 3.8 SD 661 Sentinel Values Tal Einat SD 674 Disallow using macros as l-values Victor Stinner 3.12 SD 774 Removing the LLVM requirement for JIT builds Savannah Ostrowski 3.14 SD 778 Supporting Symlinks in Wheels Emma Harper Smith SD 787 Safer subprocess usage using t-strings Nick Humrich, Alyssa Coghlan 3.15 SD 3124 Overloading, Generic Functions, Interfaces, and Adaptation Phillip J. Eby SD 3143 Standard daemon process library Ben Finney 3.x SD 3150 Statement local namespaces (aka “given” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs PEP Title Authors PW 3 Guidelines for Handling Bug Reports Jeremy Hylton PW 9 Sample Plaintext PEP Template Barry Warsaw PW 42 Feature Requests Jeremy Hylton IS 102 Doing Python Micro Releases Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IW 103 Collecting information about git Oleg Broytman SR 204 Range Literals Thomas Wouters 2.0 IW 206 Python Advanced Library A.M. Kuchling SW 209 Multi-dimensional Arrays Paul Barrett, Travis Oliphant 2.2 SR 210 Decoupling the Interpreter Loop David Ascher 2.1 SR 211 Adding A New Outer Product Operator Greg Wilson 2.1 SR 212 Loop Counter Iteration Peter Schneider-Kamp 2.1 SS 215 String Interpolation Ka-Ping Yee 2.1 IW 216 Docstring Format Moshe Zadka IR 220 Coroutines, Generators, Continuations Gordon McMillan SR 224 Attribute Docstrings Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SR 225 Elementwise/Objectwise Operators Huaiyu Zhu, Gregory Lielens 2.1 SW 228 Reworking Python’s Numeric Model Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum SR 231 __findattr__() Barry Warsaw 2.1 SR 239 Adding a Rational Type to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SR 240 Adding a Rational Literal to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SS 241 Metadata for Python Software Packages A.M. Kuchling SW 242 Numeric Kinds Paul F. Dubois 2.2 SW 243 Module Repository Upload Mechanism Sean Reifschneider 2.1 SR 244 The directive statement Martin von Löwis 2.1 SR 245 Python Interface Syntax Michel Pelletier 2.2 SR 246 Object Adaptation Alex Martelli, Clark C. Evans 2.5 SR 254 Making Classes Look More Like Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 256 Docstring Processing System Framework David Goodger SR 258 Docutils Design Specification David Goodger SR 259 Omit printing newline after newline Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 262 A Database of Installed Python Packages A.M. Kuchling SR 265 Sorting Dictionaries by Value Grant Griffin 2.2 SW 266 Optimizing Global Variable/Attribute Access Skip Montanaro 2.3 SR 268 Extended HTTP functionality and WebDAV Greg Stein 2.x SR 270 uniq method for list objects Jason Petrone 2.2 SR 271 Prefixing sys.path by command line option Frédéric B. Giacometti 2.2 SR 275 Switching on Multiple Values Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SR 276 Simple Iterator for ints Jim Althoff 2.3 SR 281 Loop Counter Iteration with range and xrange Magnus Lie Hetland 2.3 SR 284 Integer for-loops David Eppstein, Gregory Ewing 2.3 SW 288 Generators Attributes and Exceptions Raymond Hettinger 2.5 IS 291 Backward Compatibility for the Python 2 Standard Library Neal Norwitz 2.3 SR 294 Type Names in the types Module Oren Tirosh 2.5 SR 295 Interpretation of multiline string constants Stepan Koltsov 3.0 SW 296 Adding a bytes Object Type Scott Gilbert 2.3 SR 297 Support for System Upgrades Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SW 298 The Locked Buffer Interface Thomas Heller 2.3 SR 299 Special __main__() function in modules Jeff Epler 2.3 SR 303 Extend divmod() for Multiple Divisors Thomas Bellman 2.3 SW 304 Controlling Generation of Bytecode Files Skip Montanaro IW 306 How to Change Python’s Grammar Michael Hudson, Jack Diederich, Alyssa Coghlan, Benjamin Peterson SR 310 Reliable Acquisition/Release Pairs Michael Hudson, Paul Moore 2.4 SR 313 Adding Roman Numeral Literals to Python Mike Meyer 2.4 SS 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.1 A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones 2.5 SR 315 Enhanced While Loop Raymond Hettinger, W Isaac Carroll 2.5 SR 317 Eliminate Implicit Exception Instantiation Steven Taschuk 2.4 SR 319 Python Synchronize/Asynchronize Block Michel Pelletier 2.4 SW 321 Date/Time Parsing and Formatting A.M. Kuchling 2.4 SR 325 Resource-Release Support for Generators Samuele Pedroni 2.4 SR 326 A Case for Top and Bottom Values Josiah Carlson, Terry Reedy 2.4 SR 329 Treating Builtins as Constants in the Standard Library Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SR 330 Python Bytecode Verification Michel Pelletier 2.6 SR 332 Byte vectors and String/Unicode Unification Skip Montanaro 2.5 SW 334 Simple Coroutines via SuspendIteration Clark C. Evans 3.0 SR 335 Overloadable Boolean Operators Gregory Ewing 3.3 SR 336 Make None Callable Andrew McClelland IW 339 Design of the CPython Compiler Brett Cannon SR 340 Anonymous Block Statements Guido van Rossum SS 344 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 2.5 SS 345 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.2 Richard Jones 2.7 SW 346 User Defined (“with”) Statements Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SR 348 Exception Reorganization for Python 3.0 Brett Cannon SR 349 Allow str() to return unicode strings Neil Schemenauer 2.5 IR 350 Codetags Micah Elliott SR 351 The freeze protocol Barry Warsaw 2.5 SS 354 Enumerations in Python Ben Finney 2.6 SR 355 Path - Object oriented filesystem paths Björn Lindqvist 2.5 SW 359 The “make” Statement Steven Bethard 2.6 SR 363 Syntax For Dynamic Attribute Access Ben North SW 364 Transitioning to the Py3K Standard Library Barry Warsaw 2.6 SR 365 Adding the pkg_resources module Phillip J. Eby SS 367 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney 2.6 SW 369 Post import hooks Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SR 377 Allow __enter__() methods to skip the statement body Alyssa Coghlan 2.7, 3.1 SW 379 Adding an Assignment Expression Jervis Whitley 2.7, 3.2 SW 381 Mirroring infrastructure for PyPI Tarek Ziadé, Martin von Löwis SR 382 Namespace Packages Martin von Löwis 3.2 SS 386 Changing the version comparison module in Distutils Tarek Ziadé SR 390 Static metadata for Distutils Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SW 395 Qualified Names for Modules Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 IW 396 Module Version Numbers Barry Warsaw PR 401 BDFL Retirement Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon SR 402 Simplified Package Layout and Partitioning Phillip J. Eby 3.3 SW 406 Improved Encapsulation of Import State Alyssa Coghlan, Greg Slodkowicz 3.4 SR 408 Standard library __preview__ package Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 SR 410 Use decimal.Decimal type for timestamps Victor Stinner 3.3 IS 411 Provisional packages in the Python standard library Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 PW 413 Faster evolution of the Python Standard Library Alyssa Coghlan SR 416 Add a frozendict builtin type Victor Stinner 3.3 SW 422 Simpler customisation of class creation Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Urban 3.5 IW 426 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.0 Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Holth, Donald Stufft SS 431 Time zone support improvements Lennart Regebro SW 432 Restructuring the CPython startup sequence Alyssa Coghlan, Victor Stinner, Eric Snow SS 433 Easier suppression of file descriptor inheritance Victor Stinner 3.4 SR 437 A DSL for specifying signatures, annotations and argument converters Stefan Krah 3.4 SR 439 Inclusion of implicit pip bootstrap in Python installation Richard Jones 3.4 SR 455 Adding a key-transforming dictionary to collections Antoine Pitrou 3.5 SW 459 Standard Metadata Extensions for Python Software Packages Alyssa Coghlan SW 460 Add binary interpolation and formatting Antoine Pitrou 3.5 PW 462 Core development workflow automation for CPython Alyssa Coghlan SR 463 Exception-catching expressions Chris Angelico 3.5 SW 469 Migration of dict iteration code to Python 3 Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SR 472 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini, Joseph Martinot-Lagarde 3.6 SR 473 Adding structured data to built-in exceptions Sebastian Kreft PW 474 Creating forge.python.org Alyssa Coghlan PW 481 Migrate CPython to Git, Github, and Phabricator Donald Stufft SR 490 Chain exceptions at C level Victor Stinner 3.6 IR 496 Environment Markers James Polley PR 497 A standard mechanism for backward compatibility Ed Schofield SR 500 A protocol for delegating datetime methods to their tzinfo implementations Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters SW 501 General purpose template literal strings Alyssa Coghlan, Nick Humrich 3.12 IR 502 String Interpolation - Extended Discussion Mike G. Miller 3.6 SW 504 Using the System RNG by default Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 PR 507 Migrate CPython to Git and GitLab Barry Warsaw SS 509 Add a private version to dict Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 510 Specialize functions with guards Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 511 API for code transformers Victor Stinner 3.6 IS 513 A Platform Tag for Portable Linux Built Distributions Robert T. McGibbon, Nathaniel J. Smith SR 516 Build system abstraction for pip/conda etc Robert Collins, Nathaniel J. Smith SW 521 Managing global context via ‘with’ blocks in generators and coroutines Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SR 522 Allow BlockingIOError in security sensitive APIs Alyssa Coghlan, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SW 531 Existence checking operators Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SW 536 Final Grammar for Literal String Interpolation Philipp Angerer 3.7 SR 542 Dot Notation Assignment In Function Header Markus Meskanen SW 543 A Unified TLS API for Python Cory Benfield, Christian Heimes 3.7 SR 546 Backport ssl.MemoryBIO and ssl.SSLObject to Python 2.7 Victor Stinner, Cory Benfield 2.7 SR 548 More Flexible Loop Control R David Murray 3.7 SR 549 Instance Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.7 SW 550 Execution Context Yury Selivanov, Elvis Pranskevichus 3.7 IW 551 Security transparency in the Python runtime Steve Dower 3.7 SS 554 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.13 SW 555 Context-local variables (contextvars) Koos Zevenhoven 3.7 SW 558 Defined semantics for locals() Alyssa Coghlan 3.13 SR 559 Built-in noop() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SS 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations Łukasz Langa 3.7 IS 571 The manylinux2010 Platform Tag Mark Williams, Geoffrey Thomas, Thomas Kluyver SW 575 Unifying function/method classes Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SW 576 Rationalize Built-in function classes Mark Shannon 3.8 SW 577 Augmented Assignment Expressions Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SR 580 The C call protocol Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SR 582 Python local packages directory Kushal Das, Steve Dower, Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan 3.12 IW 583 A Concurrency Memory Model for Python Jeffrey Yasskin IW 595 Improving bugs.python.org Ezio Melotti, Berker Peksag IW 598 Introducing incremental feature releases Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IS 599 The manylinux2014 Platform Tag Dustin Ingram SR 601 Forbid return/break/continue breaking out of finally Damien George, Batuhan Taskaya 3.8 IR 605 A rolling feature release stream for CPython Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 SR 606 Python Compatibility Version Victor Stinner 3.9 SR 608 Coordinated Python release Miro Hrončok, Victor Stinner 3.9 SW 611 The one million limit Mark Shannon SW 620 Hide implementation details from the C API Victor Stinner 3.12 SS 622 Structural Pattern Matching Brandt Bucher, Daniel F Moisset, Tobias Kohn, Ivan Levkivskyi, Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.10 SS 631 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml based on PEP 508 Ofek Lev SR 633 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml using an exploded TOML table Laurie Opperman, Arun Babu Neelicattu SR 637 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini 3.10 SR 640 Unused variable syntax Thomas Wouters 3.10 SR 641 Using an underscore in the version portion of Python 3.10 compatibility tags Brett Cannon, Steve Dower, Barry Warsaw 3.10 SR 642 Explicit Pattern Syntax for Structural Pattern Matching Alyssa Coghlan 3.10 SW 645 Allow writing optional types as x? Maggie Moss SR 648 Extensible customizations of the interpreter at startup Mario Corchero 3.11 SW 650 Specifying Installer Requirements for Python Projects Vikram Jayanthi, Dustin Ingram, Brett Cannon SR 651 Robust Stack Overflow Handling Mark Shannon SR 662 Editable installs via virtual wheels Bernát Gábor IR 663 Standardizing Enum str(), repr(), and format() behaviors Ethan Furman 3.11 SR 665 A file format to list Python dependencies for reproducibility of an application Brett Cannon, Pradyun Gedam, Tzu-ping Chung SR 666 Reject Foolish Indentation Laura Creighton 2.2 SR 677 Callable Type Syntax Steven Troxler, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan 3.11 SR 679 New assert statement syntax with parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Stan Ulbrych 3.15 SR 690 Lazy Imports Germán Méndez Bravo, Carl Meyer 3.12 SW 704 Require virtual environments by default for package installers Pradyun Gedam SR 707 A simplified signature for __exit__ and __aexit__ Irit Katriel 3.12 SR 712 Adding a “converter” parameter to dataclasses.field Joshua Cannon 3.13 SR 713 Callable Modules Amethyst Reese 3.12 SR 722 Dependency specification for single-file scripts Paul Moore SW 724 Stricter Type Guards Rich Chiodo, Eric Traut, Erik De Bonte 3.13 SR 726 Module __setattr__ and __delattr__ Sergey B Kirpichev 3.13 SW 727 Documentation in Annotated Metadata Sebastián Ramírez 3.13 SR 736 Shorthand syntax for keyword arguments at invocation Joshua Bambrick, Chris Angelico 3.14 SR 754 IEEE 754 Floating Point Special Values Gregory R. Warnes 2.3 SW 756 Add PyUnicode_Export() and PyUnicode_Import() C functions Victor Stinner 3.14 SW 759 External Wheel Hosting Barry Warsaw, Emma Harper Smith SW 760 No More Bare Excepts Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://www.cnri.reston.va.us	Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI)   HOME ABOUT CNRI Directors, Officers & Senior Staff News & Announcements Employment Opportunities RESEARCH FOCUS AREAS PROJECTS PUBLICATIONS CONTACTS Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) is a not-for-profit organization formed in 1986 to undertake, foster, and promote research in the public interest. Activities center around strategic development of network-based information technologies, providing leadership and funding for information infrastructure research and development. CNRI engages in prototyping and system and technology demonstration projects in order to further the design and implementation of selected infrastructure components for new computing- and communications-based applications. Current research expands upon the core components of CNRI's Digital Object Architecture; Handle.Net Registry for assigning, managing, and resolving persistent identifiers for digital objects and other Internet resources, and Cordra.org which provides a mechanism for the creation of, and access to, digital objects as discrete data structures. Other areas of interest support ongoing research in digital libraries and other networked information technologies, including the MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange . Of Special Interest: CNRI announces the release of Handle.Net (v8) Software . --> Invited keynote by Bob Kahn for the Internet Governance Forum 2025 in Norway. Comments at the Meeting of the Advisory Committee on International Communications and Information Policy (ACICIP) , U. S. Department of State, December 16, 2016, by Robert E. Kahn, President & CEO, Corporation for National Research Initiatives. CNRI Announces Cordra : Techniques for Long-term and Storage-independent Management of Digital Information. ITU Interviews Dr. Robert E. Kahn , Chairman, CEO and President, CNRI. YouTube, published November 17, 2014. Topics included the role of the Digital Object Architecture (DOA) in combating counterfeit ICT products and devices, and what governments and the corporate sector can do to help. ITU-T Recommendation , "Framework for discovery of identity management information", approved, based largely on CNRI's Digital Object Architecture. Dr. Robert E. Kahn received the first Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering at a ceremony at Buckingham Palace. --> Lyons, Patrice A., " Managing Information in Digital Form ", in Information Security & Privacy News, Information Security Committee, ABA Section of Science & Technology Law, Volume 5, Issue 1, Winter 2014. See also Exhibit A: Part IV Content Identification , contribution of P. A. Lyons, Committee 703Spring Report (2003), American Bar Association. --> Dr. Robert E. Kahn received the first Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering at a ceremony at Buckingham Palace. --> Corporation for National Research Initiatives 1895 Preston White Drive, Suite 100, Reston, Virginia 20191 301 East High Street, Charlottesville, Virginia 22902 (703) 620-8990 July 2025	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#zlib	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. 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By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. 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This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. zlib ¶ The zlib extension is built using an included copy of the zlib sources if the zlib version found on the system is too old to be used for the build: Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of this software. Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to the following restrictions: 1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. 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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#history-and-license	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://www.python.org/psf/community-stories/#python-network	Community Stories \| Python Software Foundation Notice: While JavaScript is not essential for this website, your interaction with the content will be limited. Please turn JavaScript on for the full experience. Skip to content ▼ Close Python PSF Docs PyPI Jobs Community ▲ The Python Network Donate &equiv; Menu Search This Site GO A A Smaller Larger Reset Socialize LinkedIn Mastodon Chat on IRC Twitter About Mission Statement Board of Directors & Officers PSF Staff Annual Impact Report Fiscal Sponsorees Public Records Legal & Policies PSF FAQ Developers in Residence Sponsorship PSF Sponsors Apply to Sponsor Sponsorship Prospectus 2025-26 Membership Sign up as a Member of the PSF! 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With more funding, we can finally make managing packages pleasant as programming in Python. Sumana Harihareswara, Changeset Consulting CPython Development I started using Python in my PhD for performing different simulations of rotating black holes, black hole jets and their properties. I quickly fell in love with the language and its community and that led me to become a core dev some years ago. Since I became a core dev I have worked towards making Python faster and more versatile. Although most of my work is in the parser, the compiler pipeline and the garbage collector I like to work all over the place fixing bugs and trying to spot performance improvement opportunities. Hopefully, in the following years, we can push Python forward to the future by improving its general speed, making it more compatible with other implementations and improving the multi-core experience. Although this will be a challenging path and will require drastic changes in Python itself and its C-API, I am very excited about the things to come and what awaits for the Python Language and its community :) Pablo Galindo Salgado, Python Core Developer Community trainings A huge turning point in my career was a Python workshop. I programmed a bit as a kid, and took a single CS class in college, and tried to poke along doing some self-study so I could get better. And then I attended a Boston Python Workshop for Women And Their Friends http://bostonpythonworkshop.com/ , led by Jessica McKellar. We worked through well-designed exercises and I got hands-on practice that helped me get through that transition, from painstakingly copying individual lines and functions into the interpreter, to thinking in terms of Python's program flow. Years later, my Python and software management skills have been invaluable. I run a small business, where I've been able to hire, train, and mentor contract workers who then go on to get full-time programming jobs. We've helped overhaul the Python Package Index, mentored and recruited contributors to Zulip, helped journalists open-source their code, and more. Right now I'm leading pip's work replacing its dependency resolver, which is a game-changer for future work making Python packaging easier to deal with. People who care about Python invested in running that workshop, and it's paid off very well in my case. Investing in Python events, and the organization that supports them, is a good bet. Sumana Harihareswara, Changeset Consulting PyCon US In 2015, as I was figuring out what I wanted to do next with my career, I attended PyCon North America in Montreal. I volunteered with the GNU Mailman team to expedite the release of Mailman 3.0. At the end of the sprint, I thought, "maybe I could charge for this." Later that year, I started Changeset Consulting, where I expedite long-awaited releases for open source software projects. Through Changeset, I helped the PSF finish and deploy the new PyPI, and I'm working on pip's dependency resolver overhaul and a fresh release of GNU Autoconf. If it weren't for the PSF, my life would be very different, and probably a lot less interesting. Sumana Harihareswara, Changeset Consulting An important community event that the PSF produces is PyCon US, where community members get a chance to receive training, share ideas, or even be mentored. At PyCon US 2019, Sumana Harihareswara helped Brian Rutledge make his 1st contribution to Python Packaging. Months later he became a co-maintainer of Twine, the upload utility for PyPI. As of May 2020, he successfully worked with a newer contributor to finish adding PEP 484 type annotations to Twine's codebase. This will make it easier for us to keep this code bug-free in the future, which means open source maintainers can have a smooth experience sharing their code with us on PyPI! Sumana Harihareswara, Changeset Consulting Grants Program My name is Iqbal and I have been using Python for 18 years. On a professional level Python as a programming tool has given me a career, and on a personal level as an ideology has helped me make friends and given me satisfaction by giving me the opportunity to be part of something bigger than myself. As member or lead of the different conference committee and also as conference chair, I have worked hard to make sure anyone can participate and contribute, regardless of personal situation, among others: Grants program were started for those that are financially constrained, quotas were setup for first time speakers, opportunities to present talks were initiated for non-english speakers, partnership with other groups such as Women Who Code and PyLadies to bolster underrepresented women groups in the conferences. Last but not least, in the beginning I also helped introduce a Code Of Conduct based on PSF's CoC to introduce a safe and welcoming environment for everyone. At that time, it wasn't common yet to have CoCs for conferences. The PSF has done a wonderful job by taking the lead and acting as a standard bearer for us in the rest of the world to follow. Initiatives such as their grants program that helps monetarily and also gives exposure to less known events, knowledge and know-how on how to manage conferences and meetups, and most importantly an access to other people within the community to share and source out ideas have been invaluable to us. Going forward, with the new normal, supporting virtual events is definitely an important thing which the PSF can help with. A step-by-step guide on how to manage virtual events, how tos for tools and a platform to expose events to the worldwide community would be very helpful. In a world that is widening in terms of inequality where we tend to take away more and more, I am happy to be part of a community led by the PSF that continues to share and give: through code, through knowledge, through money and through friendship. 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https://peps.python.org#topics	PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) \| peps.python.org Following system colour scheme Selected dark colour scheme Selected light colour scheme Python Enhancement Proposals Python » PEP Index » PEP 0 Toggle light / dark / auto colour theme PEP 0 – Index of Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) Author : The PEP Editors Status : Active Type : Informational Created : 13-Jul-2000 Table of Contents Introduction Topics API Numerical Index Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs Other Informational PEPs Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) Open PEPs (under consideration) Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs Reserved PEP Numbers PEP Types Key PEP Status Key Authors/Owners Introduction This PEP contains the index of all Python Enhancement Proposals, known as PEPs. PEP numbers are assigned by the PEP editors, and once assigned are never changed. The version control history of the PEP texts represent their historical record. Topics PEPs for specialist subjects are indexed by topic . Governance PEPs Packaging PEPs Release PEPs Typing PEPs API The PEPS API is a JSON file of metadata about all the published PEPs. Read more here . Numerical Index The numerical index contains a table of all PEPs, ordered by number. Index by Category Process and Meta-PEPs PEP Title Authors PA 1 PEP Purpose and Guidelines Barry Warsaw, Jeremy Hylton, David Goodger, Alyssa Coghlan PA 2 Procedure for Adding New Modules Brett Cannon, Martijn Faassen PA 4 Deprecation of Standard Modules Brett Cannon, Martin von Löwis PA 7 Style Guide for C Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw PA 8 Style Guide for Python Code Guido van Rossum, Barry Warsaw, Alyssa Coghlan PA 10 Voting Guidelines Barry Warsaw PA 11 CPython platform support Martin von Löwis, Brett Cannon PA 12 Sample reStructuredText PEP Template David Goodger, Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon PA 13 Python Language Governance The Python core team and community PA 387 Backwards Compatibility Policy Benjamin Peterson PA 545 Python Documentation Translations Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, Victor Stinner PA 602 Annual Release Cycle for Python Łukasz Langa 3.9 PA 609 Python Packaging Authority (PyPA) Governance Dustin Ingram, Pradyun Gedam, Sumana Harihareswara PA 676 PEP Infrastructure Process Adam Turner PA 729 Typing governance process Jelle Zijlstra, Shantanu Jain PA 731 C API Working Group Charter Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Victor Stinner, Steve Dower, Irit Katriel PA 732 The Python Documentation Editorial Board Joanna Jablonski PA 761 Deprecating PGP signatures for CPython artifacts Seth Michael Larson 3.14 PA 811 Defining Python Security Response Team membership and responsibilities Seth Michael Larson Other Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors IA 20 The Zen of Python Tim Peters IA 101 Doing Python Releases 101 Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IF 247 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions A.M. Kuchling IF 248 Python Database API Specification v1.0 Greg Stein, Marc-André Lemburg IF 249 Python Database API Specification v2.0 Marc-André Lemburg IA 257 Docstring Conventions David Goodger, Guido van Rossum IF 272 API for Block Encryption Algorithms v1.0 A.M. Kuchling IA 287 reStructuredText Docstring Format David Goodger IA 290 Code Migration and Modernization Raymond Hettinger IF 333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0 Phillip J. Eby IA 394 The “python” Command on Unix-Like Systems Kerrick Staley, Alyssa Coghlan, Barry Warsaw, Petr Viktorin, Miro Hrončok, Carol Willing IF 399 Pure Python/C Accelerator Module Compatibility Requirements Brett Cannon 3.3 IF 430 Migrating to Python 3 as the default online documentation Alyssa Coghlan IA 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches Todd Rovito, Terry Reedy IF 452 API for Cryptographic Hash Functions v2.0 A.M. Kuchling, Christian Heimes IF 457 Notation For Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings IF 482 Literature Overview for Type Hints Łukasz Langa IF 483 The Theory of Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Ivan Levkivskyi IA 514 Python registration in the Windows registry Steve Dower IF 579 Refactoring C functions and methods Jeroen Demeyer IF 588 GitHub Issues Migration Plan Mariatta IF 607 Reducing CPython’s Feature Delivery Latency Łukasz Langa, Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IA 619 Python 3.10 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.10 IF 630 Isolating Extension Modules Petr Viktorin IF 635 Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale Tobias Kohn, Guido van Rossum 3.10 IF 636 Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial Daniel F Moisset 3.10 IF 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter Mark Shannon IA 664 Python 3.11 Release Schedule Pablo Galindo Salgado 3.11 IA 672 Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python Petr Viktorin IA 693 Python 3.12 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.12 IA 719 Python 3.13 Release Schedule Thomas Wouters 3.13 IF 733 An Evaluation of Python’s Public C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Domenico Andreoli, Stefan Behnel, Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick, Simon Cross, Steve Dower, Tim Felgentreff, David Hewitt, Shantanu Jain, Wenzel Jakob, Irit Katriel, Marc-Andre Lemburg, Donghee Na, Karl Nelson, Ronald Oussoren, Antoine Pitrou, Neil Schemenauer, Mark Shannon, Stepan Sindelar, Gregory P. Smith, Eric Snow, Victor Stinner, Guido van Rossum, Petr Viktorin, Carol Willing, William Woodruff, David Woods, Jelle Zijlstra IA 745 Python 3.14 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.14 IF 762 REPL-acing the default REPL Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, Lysandros Nikolaou, Emily Morehouse-Valcarcel 3.13 IA 790 Python 3.15 Release Schedule Hugo van Kemenade 3.15 IA 801 Reserved Barry Warsaw IF 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Phillip J. Eby IF 8000 Python Language Governance Proposal Overview Barry Warsaw IF 8002 Open Source Governance Survey Barry Warsaw, Łukasz Langa, Antoine Pitrou, Doug Hellmann, Carol Willing IA 8016 The Steering Council Model Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft IF 8100 January 2019 Steering Council election Nathaniel J. Smith, Ee Durbin IF 8101 2020 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin IF 8102 2021 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8103 2022 Term Steering Council election Ewa Jodlowska, Ee Durbin, Joe Carey IF 8104 2023 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8105 2024 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8106 2025 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin IF 8107 2026 Term Steering Council election Ee Durbin Provisional PEPs (provisionally accepted; interface may still change) PEP Title Authors SP 708 Extending the Repository API to Mitigate Dependency Confusion Attacks Donald Stufft Accepted PEPs (accepted; may not be implemented yet) PEP Title Authors SA 458 Secure PyPI downloads with signed repository metadata Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Marina Moore, Lukas Puehringer, Joshua Lock, Lois Anne DeLong, Justin Cappos SA 658 Serve Distribution Metadata in the Simple Repository API Tzu-ping Chung SA 668 Marking Python base environments as “externally managed” Geoffrey Thomas, Matthias Klose, Filipe Laíns, Donald Stufft, Tzu-ping Chung, Stefano Rivera, Elana Hashman, Pradyun Gedam SA 686 Make UTF-8 mode default Inada Naoki 3.15 SA 687 Isolating modules in the standard library Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Petr Viktorin 3.12 SA 691 JSON-based Simple API for Python Package Indexes Donald Stufft, Pradyun Gedam, Cooper Lees, Dustin Ingram SA 699 Remove private dict version field added in PEP 509 Ken Jin 3.12 SA 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou, Marta Gómez Macías 3.12 SA 703 Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython Sam Gross 3.13 SA 714 Rename dist-info-metadata in the Simple API Donald Stufft SA 728 TypedDict with Typed Extra Items Zixuan James Li 3.15 SA 739 build-details.json 1.0 — a static description file for Python build details Filipe Laíns 3.14 SA 753 Uniform project URLs in core metadata William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SA 770 Improving measurability of Python packages with Software Bill-of-Materials Seth Larson SA 773 A Python Installation Manager for Windows Steve Dower SA 793 PyModExport: A new entry point for C extension modules Petr Viktorin 3.15 SA 794 Import Name Metadata Brett Cannon SA 798 Unpacking in Comprehensions Adam Hartz, Erik Demaine 3.15 SA 799 A dedicated profiling package for organizing Python profiling tools Pablo Galindo Salgado, László Kiss Kollár 3.15 SA 810 Explicit lazy imports Pablo Galindo Salgado, Germán Méndez Bravo, Thomas Wouters, Dino Viehland, Brittany Reynoso, Noah Kim, Tim Stumbaugh 3.15 Open PEPs (under consideration) PEP Title Authors S 467 Minor API improvements for binary sequences Alyssa Coghlan, Ethan Furman 3.15 S 480 Surviving a Compromise of PyPI: End-to-end signing of packages Trishank Karthik Kuppusamy, Vladimir Diaz, Justin Cappos, Marina Moore S 603 Adding a frozenmap type to collections Yury Selivanov S 638 Syntactic Macros Mark Shannon S 653 Precise Semantics for Pattern Matching Mark Shannon S 671 Syntax for late-bound function argument defaults Chris Angelico 3.12 S 694 Upload 2.0 API for Python Package Indexes Barry Warsaw, Donald Stufft, Ee Durbin S 710 Recording the provenance of installed packages Fridolín Pokorný S 711 PyBI: a standard format for distributing Python Binaries Nathaniel J. Smith S 718 Subscriptable functions James Hilton-Balfe 3.15 I 720 Cross-compiling Python packages Filipe Laíns 3.12 S 725 Specifying external dependencies in pyproject.toml Pradyun Gedam, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Ralf Gommers S 743 Add Py_OMIT_LEGACY_API to the Python C API Victor Stinner, Petr Viktorin 3.15 I 744 JIT Compilation Brandt Bucher, Savannah Ostrowski 3.13 S 746 Type checking Annotated metadata Adrian Garcia Badaracco 3.15 S 747 Annotating Type Forms David Foster, Eric Traut 3.15 S 748 A Unified TLS API for Python Joop van de Pol, William Woodruff 3.14 S 752 Implicit namespaces for package repositories Ofek Lev, Jarek Potiuk P 755 Implicit namespace policy for PyPI Ofek Lev S 764 Inline typed dictionaries Victorien Plot 3.15 I 766 Explicit Priority Choices Among Multiple Indexes Michael Sarahan S 767 Annotating Read-Only Attributes Eneg 3.15 S 771 Default Extras for Python Software Packages Thomas Robitaille, Jonathan Dekhtiar P 772 Packaging Council governance process Barry Warsaw, Deb Nicholson, Pradyun Gedam I 776 Emscripten Support Hood Chatham 3.14 S 777 How to Re-invent the Wheel Emma Harper Smith S 780 ABI features as environment markers Klaus Zimmermann, Ralf Gommers 3.14 S 781 Make TYPE_CHECKING a built-in constant Inada Naoki 3.15 S 783 Emscripten Packaging Hood Chatham S 785 New methods for easier handling of ExceptionGroups Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.14 S 788 Protecting the C API from Interpreter Finalization Peter Bierma 3.15 S 789 Preventing task-cancellation bugs by limiting yield in async generators Zac Hatfield-Dodds, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.14 S 800 Disjoint bases in the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.15 S 802 Display Syntax for the Empty Set Adam Turner 3.15 S 803 Stable ABI for Free-Threaded Builds Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 804 An external dependency registry and name mapping mechanism Pradyun Gedam, Ralf Gommers, Michał Górny, Jaime Rodríguez-Guerra, Michael Sarahan S 806 Mixed sync/async context managers with precise async marking Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.15 S 807 Index support for Trusted Publishing William Woodruff S 808 Including static values in dynamic project metadata Henry Schreiner, Cristian Le S 809 Stable ABI for the Future Steve Dower 3.15 S 814 Add frozendict built-in type Victor Stinner, Donghee Na 3.15 S 815 Deprecate RECORD.jws and RECORD.p7s Konstantin Schütze, William Woodruff I 816 WASI Support Brett Cannon S 819 JSON Package Metadata Emma Harper Smith S 820 PySlot: Unified slot system for the C API Petr Viktorin 3.15 S 822 Dedented Multiline String (d-string) Inada Naoki 3.15 Finished PEPs (done, with a stable interface) PEP Title Authors SF 100 Python Unicode Integration Marc-André Lemburg 2.0 SF 201 Lockstep Iteration Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 202 List Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 203 Augmented Assignments Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 205 Weak References Fred L. Drake, Jr. 2.1 SF 207 Rich Comparisons Guido van Rossum, David Ascher 2.1 SF 208 Reworking the Coercion Model Neil Schemenauer, Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SF 214 Extended Print Statement Barry Warsaw 2.0 SF 217 Display Hook for Interactive Use Moshe Zadka 2.1 SF 218 Adding a Built-In Set Object Type Greg Wilson, Raymond Hettinger 2.2 SF 221 Import As Thomas Wouters 2.0 SF 223 Change the Meaning of x Escapes Tim Peters 2.0 SF 227 Statically Nested Scopes Jeremy Hylton 2.1 SF 229 Using Distutils to Build Python A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SF 230 Warning Framework Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 232 Function Attributes Barry Warsaw 2.1 SF 234 Iterators Ka-Ping Yee, Guido van Rossum 2.1 SF 235 Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms Tim Peters 2.1 SF 236 Back to the __future__ Tim Peters 2.1 SF 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 238 Changing the Division Operator Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 250 Using site-packages on Windows Paul Moore 2.2 SF 252 Making Types Look More Like Classes Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 253 Subtyping Built-in Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 255 Simple Generators Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland 2.2 SF 260 Simplify xrange() Guido van Rossum 2.2 SF 261 Support for “wide” Unicode characters Paul Prescod 2.2 SF 263 Defining Python Source Code Encodings Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis 2.3 SF 264 Future statements in simulated shells Michael Hudson 2.2 SF 273 Import Modules from Zip Archives James C. Ahlstrom 2.3 SF 274 Dict Comprehensions Barry Warsaw 2.7, 3.0 SF 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT Neil Hodgson 2.3 SF 278 Universal Newline Support Jack Jansen 2.3 SF 279 The enumerate() built-in function Raymond Hettinger 2.3 SF 282 A Logging System Vinay Sajip, Trent Mick 2.3 SF 285 Adding a bool type Guido van Rossum 2.3 SF 289 Generator Expressions Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 292 Simpler String Substitutions Barry Warsaw 2.4 SF 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks Walter Dörwald 2.3 SF 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils Richard Jones 2.3 SF 302 New Import Hooks Just van Rossum, Paul Moore 2.3 SF 305 CSV File API Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells 2.3 SF 307 Extensions to the pickle protocol Guido van Rossum, Tim Peters 2.3 SF 308 Conditional Expressions Guido van Rossum, Raymond Hettinger 2.5 SF 309 Partial Function Application Peter Harris 2.5 SF 311 Simplified Global Interpreter Lock Acquisition for Extensions Mark Hammond 2.3 SF 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods Kevin D. Smith, Jim J. Jewett, Skip Montanaro, Anthony Baxter 2.4 SF 322 Reverse Iteration Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SF 324 subprocess - New process module Peter Astrand 2.4 SF 327 Decimal Data Type Facundo Batista 2.4 SF 328 Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative Aahz 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 SF 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Christian R. Reis 2.4 SF 338 Executing modules as scripts Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 341 Unifying try-except and try-finally Georg Brandl 2.5 SF 342 Coroutines via Enhanced Generators Guido van Rossum, Phillip J. Eby 2.5 SF 343 The “with” Statement Guido van Rossum, Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SF 352 Required Superclass for Exceptions Brett Cannon, Guido van Rossum 2.5 SF 353 Using ssize_t as the index type Martin von Löwis 2.5 SF 357 Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing Travis Oliphant 2.5 SF 358 The “bytes” Object Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum 2.6, 3.0 SF 362 Function Signature Object Brett Cannon, Jiwon Seo, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings 3.3 SF 366 Main module explicit relative imports Alyssa Coghlan 2.6, 3.0 SF 370 Per user site-packages directory Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SF 371 Addition of the multiprocessing package to the standard library Jesse Noller, Richard Oudkerk 2.6, 3.0 SF 372 Adding an ordered dictionary to collections Armin Ronacher, Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 376 Database of Installed Python Distributions Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SF 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Raymond Hettinger 2.7, 3.1 SF 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator Gregory Ewing 3.3 SF 383 Non-decodable Bytes in System Character Interfaces Martin von Löwis 3.1 SF 384 Defining a Stable ABI Martin von Löwis 3.2 SF 389 argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module Steven Bethard 2.7, 3.2 SF 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging Vinay Sajip 2.7, 3.2 SF 393 Flexible String Representation Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 397 Python launcher for Windows Mark Hammond, Martin von Löwis 3.3 SF 405 Python Virtual Environments Carl Meyer 3.3 SF 409 Suppressing exception context Ethan Furman 3.3 SF 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary Mark Shannon 3.3 SF 414 Explicit Unicode Literal for Python 3.3 Armin Ronacher, Alyssa Coghlan 3.3 SF 415 Implement context suppression with exception attributes Benjamin Peterson 3.3 SF 417 Including mock in the Standard Library Michael Foord 3.3 SF 418 Add monotonic time, performance counter, and process time functions Cameron Simpson, Jim J. Jewett, Stephen J. Turnbull, Victor Stinner 3.3 SF 420 Implicit Namespace Packages Eric V. Smith 3.3 SF 421 Adding sys.implementation Eric Snow 3.3 SF 424 A method for exposing a length hint Alex Gaynor 3.4 SF 425 Compatibility Tags for Built Distributions Daniel Holth 3.4 SF 427 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.0 Daniel Holth SF 428 The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 435 Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky, Ethan Furman 3.4 SF 436 The Argument Clinic DSL Larry Hastings 3.4 SF 440 Version Identification and Dependency Specification Alyssa Coghlan, Donald Stufft SF 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support Daniel Holth, Paul Moore 3.5 SF 442 Safe object finalization Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 443 Single-dispatch generic functions Łukasz Langa 3.4 SF 445 Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 446 Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 448 Additional Unpacking Generalizations Joshua Landau 3.5 SF 450 Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.4 SF 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Eric Snow 3.4 SF 453 Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 454 Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations Victor Stinner 3.4 SF 456 Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm Christian Heimes 3.4 SF 461 Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray Ethan Furman 3.5 SF 465 A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication Nathaniel J. Smith 3.5 SF 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7.x Alyssa Coghlan 2.7.9 SF 468 Preserving the order of *kwargs in a function. Eric Snow 3.6 SF 471 os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator Ben Hoyt 3.5 SF 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR Charles-François Natali, Victor Stinner 3.5 SF 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients Alex Gaynor 2.7.9, 3.4.3, 3.5 SF 477 Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan SF 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators Chris Angelico, Guido van Rossum 3.5 SF 484 Type Hints Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.5 SF 485 A Function for testing approximate equality Christopher Barker 3.5 SF 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments Paul Moore 3.5 SF 487 Simpler customisation of class creation Martin Teichmann 3.6 SF 488 Elimination of PYO files Brett Cannon 3.5 SF 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SF 492 Coroutines with async and await syntax Yury Selivanov 3.5 SF 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7 Alyssa Coghlan, Robert Kuska, Marc-André Lemburg 2.7.12 SF 495 Local Time Disambiguation Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters 3.6 SF 498 Literal String Interpolation Eric V. Smith 3.6 SF 503 Simple Repository API Donald Stufft SF 506 Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library Steven D’Aprano 3.6 SF 508 Dependency specification for Python Software Packages Robert Collins SF 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals Georg Brandl, Serhiy Storchaka 3.6 SF 517 A build-system independent format for source trees Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 518 Specifying Minimum Build System Requirements for Python Projects Brett Cannon, Nathaniel J. Smith, Donald Stufft SF 519 Adding a file system path protocol Brett Cannon, Koos Zevenhoven 3.6 SF 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order Eric Snow 3.6 SF 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython Brett Cannon, Dino Viehland 3.6 SF 524 Make os.urandom() blocking on Linux Victor Stinner 3.6 SF 525 Asynchronous Generators Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 526 Syntax for Variable Annotations Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, Guido van Rossum 3.6 SF 527 Removing Un(der)used file types/extensions on PyPI Donald Stufft SF 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 Steve Dower 3.6 SF 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions Yury Selivanov 3.6 SF 538 Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 539 A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython Erik M. Bray, Masayuki Yamamoto 3.7 SF 540 Add a new UTF-8 Mode Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 544 Protocols: Structural subtyping (static duck typing) Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo, Łukasz Langa 3.8 SF 552 Deterministic pycs Benjamin Peterson 3.7 SF 553 Built-in breakpoint() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SF 557 Data Classes Eric V. Smith 3.7 SF 560 Core support for typing module and generic types Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 561 Distributing and Packaging Type Information Emma Harper Smith 3.7 SF 562 Module __getattr__ and __dir__ Ivan Levkivskyi 3.7 SF 564 Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution Victor Stinner 3.7 SF 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SF 566 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.1 Dustin Ingram 3.x SF 567 Context Variables Yury Selivanov 3.7 SF 570 Python Positional-Only Parameters Larry Hastings, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Mario Corchero, Eric N. Vander Weele 3.8 SF 572 Assignment Expressions Chris Angelico, Tim Peters, Guido van Rossum 3.8 SF 573 Module State Access from C Extension Methods Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan, Eric Snow, Marcel Plch 3.9 SF 574 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data Antoine Pitrou 3.8 SF 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks Steve Dower 3.8 SF 584 Add Union Operators To dict Steven D’Aprano, Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 585 Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections Łukasz Langa 3.9 SF 586 Literal Types Michael Lee, Ivan Levkivskyi, Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 587 Python Initialization Configuration Victor Stinner, Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SF 589 TypedDict: Type Hints for Dictionaries with a Fixed Set of Keys Jukka Lehtosalo 3.8 SF 590 Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SF 591 Adding a final qualifier to typing Michael J. Sullivan, Ivan Levkivskyi 3.8 SF 592 Adding “Yank” Support to the Simple API Donald Stufft SF 593 Flexible function and variable annotations Till Varoquaux, Konstantin Kashin 3.9 SF 594 Removing dead batteries from the standard library Christian Heimes, Brett Cannon 3.11 SF 597 Add optional EncodingWarning Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 600 Future ‘manylinux’ Platform Tags for Portable Linux Built Distributions Nathaniel J. Smith, Thomas Kluyver SF 604 Allow writing union types as X \| Y Philippe PRADOS, Maggie Moss 3.10 SF 610 Recording the Direct URL Origin of installed distributions Stéphane Bidoul, Chris Jerdonek SF 612 Parameter Specification Variables Mark Mendoza 3.10 SF 613 Explicit Type Aliases Shannon Zhu 3.10 SF 614 Relaxing Grammar Restrictions On Decorators Brandt Bucher 3.9 SF 615 Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library Paul Ganssle 3.9 SF 616 String methods to remove prefixes and suffixes Dennis Sweeney 3.9 SF 617 New PEG parser for CPython Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou 3.9 SF 618 Add Optional Length-Checking To zip Brandt Bucher 3.10 SF 621 Storing project metadata in pyproject.toml Brett Cannon, Dustin Ingram, Paul Ganssle, Pradyun Gedam, Sébastien Eustace, Thomas Kluyver, Tzu-ping Chung SF 623 Remove wstr from Unicode Inada Naoki 3.10 SF 624 Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs Inada Naoki 3.11 SF 625 Filename of a Source Distribution Tzu-ping Chung, Paul Moore SF 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. Mark Shannon 3.10 SF 627 Recording installed projects Petr Viktorin SF 628 Add math.tau Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 SF 629 Versioning PyPI’s Simple API Donald Stufft SF 632 Deprecate distutils module Steve Dower 3.10 SF 634 Structural Pattern Matching: Specification Brandt Bucher, Guido van Rossum 3.10 SF 639 Improving License Clarity with Better Package Metadata Philippe Ombredanne, C.A.M. Gerlach, Karolina Surma SF 643 Metadata for Package Source Distributions Paul Moore SF 644 Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer Christian Heimes 3.10 SF 646 Variadic Generics Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Vincent Siles 3.11 SF 647 User-Defined Type Guards Eric Traut 3.10 SF 649 Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.14 SF 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI Petr Viktorin 3.10 SF 654 Exception Groups and except Irit Katriel, Yury Selivanov, Guido van Rossum 3.11 SF 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or potentially-missing David Foster 3.11 SF 656 Platform Tag for Linux Distributions Using Musl Tzu-ping Chung SF 657 Include Fine Grained Error Locations in Tracebacks Pablo Galindo Salgado, Batuhan Taskaya, Ammar Askar 3.11 SF 660 Editable installs for pyproject.toml based builds (wheel based) Daniel Holth, Stéphane Bidoul SF 667 Consistent views of namespaces Mark Shannon, Tian Gao 3.13 SF 669 Low Impact Monitoring for CPython Mark Shannon 3.12 SF 670 Convert macros to functions in the Python C API Erlend Egeberg Aasland, Victor Stinner 3.11 SF 673 Self Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, James Hilton-Balfe 3.11 SF 675 Arbitrary Literal String Type Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, Graham Bleaney 3.11 SF 678 Enriching Exceptions with Notes Zac Hatfield-Dodds 3.11 SF 680 tomllib: Support for Parsing TOML in the Standard Library Taneli Hukkinen, Shantanu Jain 3.11 SF 681 Data Class Transforms Erik De Bonte, Eric Traut 3.11 SF 682 Format Specifier for Signed Zero John Belmonte 3.11 SF 683 Immortal Objects, Using a Fixed Refcount Eric Snow, Eddie Elizondo 3.12 SF 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL Eric Snow 3.12 SF 685 Comparison of extra names for optional distribution dependencies Brett Cannon SF 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python Jelle Zijlstra 3.12 SF 689 Unstable C API tier Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 692 Using TypedDict for more precise *kwargs typing Franek Magiera 3.12 SF 695 Type Parameter Syntax Eric Traut 3.12 SF 696 Type Defaults for Type Parameters James Hilton-Balfe 3.13 SF 697 Limited C API for Extending Opaque Types Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing Steven Troxler, Joshua Xu, Shannon Zhu 3.12 SF 700 Additional Fields for the Simple API for Package Indexes Paul Moore SF 702 Marking deprecations using the type system Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 705 TypedDict: Read-only items Alice Purcell 3.13 SF 706 Filter for tarfile.extractall Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 709 Inlined comprehensions Carl Meyer 3.12 SF 715 Disabling bdist_egg distribution uploads on PyPI William Woodruff SF 721 Using tarfile.data_filter for source distribution extraction Petr Viktorin 3.12 SF 723 Inline script metadata Ofek Lev SF 730 Adding iOS as a supported platform Russell Keith-Magee 3.13 SF 734 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.14 SF 735 Dependency Groups in pyproject.toml Stephen Rosen SF 737 C API to format a type fully qualified name Victor Stinner 3.13 SF 738 Adding Android as a supported platform Malcolm Smith 3.13 SF 740 Index support for digital attestations William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca, Dustin Ingram SF 741 Python Configuration C API Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 742 Narrowing types with TypeIs Jelle Zijlstra 3.13 SF 749 Implementing PEP 649 Jelle Zijlstra 3.14 SF 750 Template Strings Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck 3.14 SF 751 A file format to record Python dependencies for installation reproducibility Brett Cannon SF 757 C API to import-export Python integers Sergey B Kirpichev, Victor Stinner 3.14 SF 758 Allow except and except expressions without parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett Cannon 3.14 SF 765 Disallow return/break/continue that exit a finally block Irit Katriel, Alyssa Coghlan 3.14 SF 768 Safe external debugger interface for CPython Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, Ivona Stojanovic 3.14 SF 779 Criteria for supported status for free-threaded Python Thomas Wouters, Matt Page, Sam Gross 3.14 SF 782 Add PyBytesWriter C API Victor Stinner 3.15 SF 784 Adding Zstandard to the standard library Emma Harper Smith 3.14 SF 791 math.integer — submodule for integer-specific mathematics functions Neil Girdhar, Sergey B Kirpichev, Tim Peters, Serhiy Storchaka 3.15 SF 792 Project status markers in the simple index William Woodruff, Facundo Tuesca SF 3101 Advanced String Formatting Talin 3.0 SF 3102 Keyword-Only Arguments Talin 3.0 SF 3104 Access to Names in Outer Scopes Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3105 Make print a function Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3106 Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items() Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3107 Function Annotations Collin Winter, Tony Lownds 3.0 SF 3108 Standard Library Reorganization Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3109 Raising Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3110 Catching Exceptions in Python 3000 Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3111 Simple input built-in in Python 3000 Andre Roberge 3.0 SF 3112 Bytes literals in Python 3000 Jason Orendorff 3.0 SF 3113 Removal of Tuple Parameter Unpacking Brett Cannon 3.0 SF 3114 Renaming iterator.next() to iterator.__next__() Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3115 Metaclasses in Python 3000 Talin 3.0 SF 3116 New I/O Daniel Stutzbach, Guido van Rossum, Mike Verdone 3.0 SF 3118 Revising the buffer protocol Travis Oliphant, Carl Banks 3.0 SF 3119 Introducing Abstract Base Classes Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.0 SF 3120 Using UTF-8 as the default source encoding Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3121 Extension Module Initialization and Finalization Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3123 Making PyObject_HEAD conform to standard C Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax Patrick Maupin 3.0 SF 3129 Class Decorators Collin Winter 3.0 SF 3131 Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers Martin von Löwis 3.0 SF 3132 Extended Iterable Unpacking Georg Brandl 3.0 SF 3134 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 3.0 SF 3135 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney, Lie Ryan 3.0 SF 3137 Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer Guido van Rossum 3.0 SF 3138 String representation in Python 3000 Atsuo Ishimoto 3.0 SF 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers Jeffrey Yasskin 3.0 SF 3144 IP Address Manipulation Library for the Python Standard Library Peter Moody 3.3 SF 3147 PYC Repository Directories Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3148 futures - execute computations asynchronously Brian Quinlan 3.2 SF 3149 ABI version tagged .so files Barry Warsaw 3.2 SF 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3154 Pickle protocol version 4 Antoine Pitrou 3.4 SF 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions Antoine Pitrou 3.3 SF 3156 Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module Guido van Rossum 3.3 Historical Meta-PEPs and Informational PEPs PEP Title Authors PS 5 Guidelines for Language Evolution Paul Prescod PS 6 Bug Fix Releases Aahz, Anthony Baxter IF 160 Python 1.6 Release Schedule Fred L. Drake, Jr. 1.6 IF 200 Python 2.0 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.0 IF 226 Python 2.1 Release Schedule Jeremy Hylton 2.1 IF 251 Python 2.2 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum 2.2 IF 283 Python 2.3 Release Schedule Guido van Rossum 2.3 IF 320 Python 2.4 Release Schedule Barry Warsaw, Raymond Hettinger, Anthony Baxter 2.4 PF 347 Migrating the Python CVS to Subversion Martin von Löwis IF 356 Python 2.5 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Guido van Rossum, Anthony Baxter 2.5 PF 360 Externally Maintained Packages Brett Cannon IF 361 Python 2.6 and 3.0 Release Schedule Neal Norwitz, Barry Warsaw 2.6, 3.0 IF 373 Python 2.7 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 2.7 PF 374 Choosing a distributed VCS for the Python project Brett Cannon, Stephen J. Turnbull, Alexandre Vassalotti, Barry Warsaw, Dirkjan Ochtman IF 375 Python 3.1 Release Schedule Benjamin Peterson 3.1 PF 385 Migrating from Subversion to Mercurial Dirkjan Ochtman, Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl IF 392 Python 3.2 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.2 IF 398 Python 3.3 Release Schedule Georg Brandl 3.3 IF 404 Python 2.8 Un-release Schedule Barry Warsaw 2.8 IF 429 Python 3.4 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.4 PS 438 Transitioning to release-file hosting on PyPI Holger Krekel, Carl Meyer PF 449 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Auto Discovery and Naming Scheme Donald Stufft PF 464 Removal of the PyPI Mirror Authenticity API Donald Stufft PF 470 Removing External Hosting Support on PyPI Donald Stufft IF 478 Python 3.5 Release Schedule Larry Hastings 3.5 IF 494 Python 3.6 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.6 PF 512 Migrating from hg.python.org to GitHub Brett Cannon IF 537 Python 3.7 Release Schedule Ned Deily 3.7 PF 541 Package Index Name Retention Łukasz Langa IF 569 Python 3.8 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.8 PF 581 Using GitHub Issues for CPython Mariatta IF 596 Python 3.9 Release Schedule Łukasz Langa 3.9 PF 3000 Python 3000 Guido van Rossum PF 3002 Procedure for Backwards-Incompatible Changes Steven Bethard PF 3003 Python Language Moratorium Brett Cannon, Jesse Noller, Guido van Rossum PF 3099 Things that will Not Change in Python 3000 Georg Brandl PF 3100 Miscellaneous Python 3.0 Plans Brett Cannon PF 8001 Python Governance Voting Process Brett Cannon, Christian Heimes, Donald Stufft, Eric Snow, Gregory P. Smith, Łukasz Langa, Mariatta, Nathaniel J. Smith, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond Hettinger, Tal Einat, Tim Peters, Zachary Ware Deferred PEPs (postponed pending further research or updates) PEP Title Authors SD 213 Attribute Access Handlers Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 219 Stackless Python Gordon McMillan 2.1 SD 222 Web Library Enhancements A.M. Kuchling 2.1 SD 233 Python Online Help Paul Prescod 2.1 SD 267 Optimized Access to Module Namespaces Jeremy Hylton 2.2 SD 269 Pgen Module for Python Jonathan Riehl 2.2 SD 280 Optimizing access to globals Guido van Rossum 2.3 SD 286 Enhanced Argument Tuples Martin von Löwis 2.3 SD 312 Simple Implicit Lambda Roman Suzi, Alex Martelli 2.4 SD 316 Programming by Contract for Python Terence Way SD 323 Copyable Iterators Alex Martelli 2.5 SD 337 Logging Usage in the Standard Library Michael P. Dubner 2.5 SD 368 Standard image protocol and class Lino Mastrodomenico 2.6, 3.0 SD 400 Deprecate codecs.StreamReader and codecs.StreamWriter Victor Stinner 3.3 SD 403 General purpose decorator clause (aka “@in” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 PD 407 New release cycle and introducing long-term support versions Antoine Pitrou, Georg Brandl, Barry Warsaw SD 419 Protecting cleanup statements from interruptions Paul Colomiets 3.3 ID 423 Naming conventions and recipes related to packaging Benoit Bryon ID 444 Python Web3 Interface Chris McDonough, Armin Ronacher SD 447 Add __getdescriptor__ method to metaclass Ronald Oussoren SD 491 The Wheel Binary Package Format 1.9 Daniel Holth SD 499 python -m foo should also bind ‘foo’ in sys.modules Cameron Simpson, Chris Angelico, Joseph Jevnik 3.10 SD 505 None-aware operators Mark E. Haase, Steve Dower 3.8 SD 532 A circuit breaking protocol and binary operators Alyssa Coghlan, Mark E. Haase 3.8 SD 533 Deterministic cleanup for iterators Nathaniel J. Smith SD 534 Improved Errors for Missing Standard Library Modules Tomáš Orsava, Petr Viktorin, Alyssa Coghlan SD 535 Rich comparison chaining Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SD 547 Running extension modules using the -m option Marcel Plch, Petr Viktorin 3.7 SD 556 Threaded garbage collection Antoine Pitrou 3.7 SD 568 Generator-sensitivity for Context Variables Nathaniel J. Smith 3.8 SD 661 Sentinel Values Tal Einat SD 674 Disallow using macros as l-values Victor Stinner 3.12 SD 774 Removing the LLVM requirement for JIT builds Savannah Ostrowski 3.14 SD 778 Supporting Symlinks in Wheels Emma Harper Smith SD 787 Safer subprocess usage using t-strings Nick Humrich, Alyssa Coghlan 3.15 SD 3124 Overloading, Generic Functions, Interfaces, and Adaptation Phillip J. Eby SD 3143 Standard daemon process library Ben Finney 3.x SD 3150 Statement local namespaces (aka “given” clause) Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 Rejected, Superseded, and Withdrawn PEPs PEP Title Authors PW 3 Guidelines for Handling Bug Reports Jeremy Hylton PW 9 Sample Plaintext PEP Template Barry Warsaw PW 42 Feature Requests Jeremy Hylton IS 102 Doing Python Micro Releases Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Guido van Rossum IW 103 Collecting information about git Oleg Broytman SR 204 Range Literals Thomas Wouters 2.0 IW 206 Python Advanced Library A.M. Kuchling SW 209 Multi-dimensional Arrays Paul Barrett, Travis Oliphant 2.2 SR 210 Decoupling the Interpreter Loop David Ascher 2.1 SR 211 Adding A New Outer Product Operator Greg Wilson 2.1 SR 212 Loop Counter Iteration Peter Schneider-Kamp 2.1 SS 215 String Interpolation Ka-Ping Yee 2.1 IW 216 Docstring Format Moshe Zadka IR 220 Coroutines, Generators, Continuations Gordon McMillan SR 224 Attribute Docstrings Marc-André Lemburg 2.1 SR 225 Elementwise/Objectwise Operators Huaiyu Zhu, Gregory Lielens 2.1 SW 228 Reworking Python’s Numeric Model Moshe Zadka, Guido van Rossum SR 231 __findattr__() Barry Warsaw 2.1 SR 239 Adding a Rational Type to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SR 240 Adding a Rational Literal to Python Christopher A. Craig, Moshe Zadka 2.2 SS 241 Metadata for Python Software Packages A.M. Kuchling SW 242 Numeric Kinds Paul F. Dubois 2.2 SW 243 Module Repository Upload Mechanism Sean Reifschneider 2.1 SR 244 The directive statement Martin von Löwis 2.1 SR 245 Python Interface Syntax Michel Pelletier 2.2 SR 246 Object Adaptation Alex Martelli, Clark C. Evans 2.5 SR 254 Making Classes Look More Like Types Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 256 Docstring Processing System Framework David Goodger SR 258 Docutils Design Specification David Goodger SR 259 Omit printing newline after newline Guido van Rossum 2.2 SR 262 A Database of Installed Python Packages A.M. Kuchling SR 265 Sorting Dictionaries by Value Grant Griffin 2.2 SW 266 Optimizing Global Variable/Attribute Access Skip Montanaro 2.3 SR 268 Extended HTTP functionality and WebDAV Greg Stein 2.x SR 270 uniq method for list objects Jason Petrone 2.2 SR 271 Prefixing sys.path by command line option Frédéric B. Giacometti 2.2 SR 275 Switching on Multiple Values Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SR 276 Simple Iterator for ints Jim Althoff 2.3 SR 281 Loop Counter Iteration with range and xrange Magnus Lie Hetland 2.3 SR 284 Integer for-loops David Eppstein, Gregory Ewing 2.3 SW 288 Generators Attributes and Exceptions Raymond Hettinger 2.5 IS 291 Backward Compatibility for the Python 2 Standard Library Neal Norwitz 2.3 SR 294 Type Names in the types Module Oren Tirosh 2.5 SR 295 Interpretation of multiline string constants Stepan Koltsov 3.0 SW 296 Adding a bytes Object Type Scott Gilbert 2.3 SR 297 Support for System Upgrades Marc-André Lemburg 2.6 SW 298 The Locked Buffer Interface Thomas Heller 2.3 SR 299 Special __main__() function in modules Jeff Epler 2.3 SR 303 Extend divmod() for Multiple Divisors Thomas Bellman 2.3 SW 304 Controlling Generation of Bytecode Files Skip Montanaro IW 306 How to Change Python’s Grammar Michael Hudson, Jack Diederich, Alyssa Coghlan, Benjamin Peterson SR 310 Reliable Acquisition/Release Pairs Michael Hudson, Paul Moore 2.4 SR 313 Adding Roman Numeral Literals to Python Mike Meyer 2.4 SS 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.1 A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones 2.5 SR 315 Enhanced While Loop Raymond Hettinger, W Isaac Carroll 2.5 SR 317 Eliminate Implicit Exception Instantiation Steven Taschuk 2.4 SR 319 Python Synchronize/Asynchronize Block Michel Pelletier 2.4 SW 321 Date/Time Parsing and Formatting A.M. Kuchling 2.4 SR 325 Resource-Release Support for Generators Samuele Pedroni 2.4 SR 326 A Case for Top and Bottom Values Josiah Carlson, Terry Reedy 2.4 SR 329 Treating Builtins as Constants in the Standard Library Raymond Hettinger 2.4 SR 330 Python Bytecode Verification Michel Pelletier 2.6 SR 332 Byte vectors and String/Unicode Unification Skip Montanaro 2.5 SW 334 Simple Coroutines via SuspendIteration Clark C. Evans 3.0 SR 335 Overloadable Boolean Operators Gregory Ewing 3.3 SR 336 Make None Callable Andrew McClelland IW 339 Design of the CPython Compiler Brett Cannon SR 340 Anonymous Block Statements Guido van Rossum SS 344 Exception Chaining and Embedded Tracebacks Ka-Ping Yee 2.5 SS 345 Metadata for Python Software Packages 1.2 Richard Jones 2.7 SW 346 User Defined (“with”) Statements Alyssa Coghlan 2.5 SR 348 Exception Reorganization for Python 3.0 Brett Cannon SR 349 Allow str() to return unicode strings Neil Schemenauer 2.5 IR 350 Codetags Micah Elliott SR 351 The freeze protocol Barry Warsaw 2.5 SS 354 Enumerations in Python Ben Finney 2.6 SR 355 Path - Object oriented filesystem paths Björn Lindqvist 2.5 SW 359 The “make” Statement Steven Bethard 2.6 SR 363 Syntax For Dynamic Attribute Access Ben North SW 364 Transitioning to the Py3K Standard Library Barry Warsaw 2.6 SR 365 Adding the pkg_resources module Phillip J. Eby SS 367 New Super Calvin Spealman, Tim Delaney 2.6 SW 369 Post import hooks Christian Heimes 2.6, 3.0 SR 377 Allow __enter__() methods to skip the statement body Alyssa Coghlan 2.7, 3.1 SW 379 Adding an Assignment Expression Jervis Whitley 2.7, 3.2 SW 381 Mirroring infrastructure for PyPI Tarek Ziadé, Martin von Löwis SR 382 Namespace Packages Martin von Löwis 3.2 SS 386 Changing the version comparison module in Distutils Tarek Ziadé SR 390 Static metadata for Distutils Tarek Ziadé 2.7, 3.2 SW 395 Qualified Names for Modules Alyssa Coghlan 3.4 IW 396 Module Version Numbers Barry Warsaw PR 401 BDFL Retirement Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon SR 402 Simplified Package Layout and Partitioning Phillip J. Eby 3.3 SW 406 Improved Encapsulation of Import State Alyssa Coghlan, Greg Slodkowicz 3.4 SR 408 Standard library __preview__ package Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 SR 410 Use decimal.Decimal type for timestamps Victor Stinner 3.3 IS 411 Provisional packages in the Python standard library Alyssa Coghlan, Eli Bendersky 3.3 PW 413 Faster evolution of the Python Standard Library Alyssa Coghlan SR 416 Add a frozendict builtin type Victor Stinner 3.3 SW 422 Simpler customisation of class creation Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Urban 3.5 IW 426 Metadata for Python Software Packages 2.0 Alyssa Coghlan, Daniel Holth, Donald Stufft SS 431 Time zone support improvements Lennart Regebro SW 432 Restructuring the CPython startup sequence Alyssa Coghlan, Victor Stinner, Eric Snow SS 433 Easier suppression of file descriptor inheritance Victor Stinner 3.4 SR 437 A DSL for specifying signatures, annotations and argument converters Stefan Krah 3.4 SR 439 Inclusion of implicit pip bootstrap in Python installation Richard Jones 3.4 SR 455 Adding a key-transforming dictionary to collections Antoine Pitrou 3.5 SW 459 Standard Metadata Extensions for Python Software Packages Alyssa Coghlan SW 460 Add binary interpolation and formatting Antoine Pitrou 3.5 PW 462 Core development workflow automation for CPython Alyssa Coghlan SR 463 Exception-catching expressions Chris Angelico 3.5 SW 469 Migration of dict iteration code to Python 3 Alyssa Coghlan 3.5 SR 472 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini, Joseph Martinot-Lagarde 3.6 SR 473 Adding structured data to built-in exceptions Sebastian Kreft PW 474 Creating forge.python.org Alyssa Coghlan PW 481 Migrate CPython to Git, Github, and Phabricator Donald Stufft SR 490 Chain exceptions at C level Victor Stinner 3.6 IR 496 Environment Markers James Polley PR 497 A standard mechanism for backward compatibility Ed Schofield SR 500 A protocol for delegating datetime methods to their tzinfo implementations Alexander Belopolsky, Tim Peters SW 501 General purpose template literal strings Alyssa Coghlan, Nick Humrich 3.12 IR 502 String Interpolation - Extended Discussion Mike G. Miller 3.6 SW 504 Using the System RNG by default Alyssa Coghlan 3.6 PR 507 Migrate CPython to Git and GitLab Barry Warsaw SS 509 Add a private version to dict Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 510 Specialize functions with guards Victor Stinner 3.6 SR 511 API for code transformers Victor Stinner 3.6 IS 513 A Platform Tag for Portable Linux Built Distributions Robert T. McGibbon, Nathaniel J. Smith SR 516 Build system abstraction for pip/conda etc Robert Collins, Nathaniel J. Smith SW 521 Managing global context via ‘with’ blocks in generators and coroutines Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SR 522 Allow BlockingIOError in security sensitive APIs Alyssa Coghlan, Nathaniel J. Smith 3.6 SW 531 Existence checking operators Alyssa Coghlan 3.7 SW 536 Final Grammar for Literal String Interpolation Philipp Angerer 3.7 SR 542 Dot Notation Assignment In Function Header Markus Meskanen SW 543 A Unified TLS API for Python Cory Benfield, Christian Heimes 3.7 SR 546 Backport ssl.MemoryBIO and ssl.SSLObject to Python 2.7 Victor Stinner, Cory Benfield 2.7 SR 548 More Flexible Loop Control R David Murray 3.7 SR 549 Instance Descriptors Larry Hastings 3.7 SW 550 Execution Context Yury Selivanov, Elvis Pranskevichus 3.7 IW 551 Security transparency in the Python runtime Steve Dower 3.7 SS 554 Multiple Interpreters in the Stdlib Eric Snow 3.13 SW 555 Context-local variables (contextvars) Koos Zevenhoven 3.7 SW 558 Defined semantics for locals() Alyssa Coghlan 3.13 SR 559 Built-in noop() Barry Warsaw 3.7 SS 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations Łukasz Langa 3.7 IS 571 The manylinux2010 Platform Tag Mark Williams, Geoffrey Thomas, Thomas Kluyver SW 575 Unifying function/method classes Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SW 576 Rationalize Built-in function classes Mark Shannon 3.8 SW 577 Augmented Assignment Expressions Alyssa Coghlan 3.8 SR 580 The C call protocol Jeroen Demeyer 3.8 SR 582 Python local packages directory Kushal Das, Steve Dower, Donald Stufft, Alyssa Coghlan 3.12 IW 583 A Concurrency Memory Model for Python Jeffrey Yasskin IW 595 Improving bugs.python.org Ezio Melotti, Berker Peksag IW 598 Introducing incremental feature releases Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 IS 599 The manylinux2014 Platform Tag Dustin Ingram SR 601 Forbid return/break/continue breaking out of finally Damien George, Batuhan Taskaya 3.8 IR 605 A rolling feature release stream for CPython Steve Dower, Alyssa Coghlan 3.9 SR 606 Python Compatibility Version Victor Stinner 3.9 SR 608 Coordinated Python release Miro Hrončok, Victor Stinner 3.9 SW 611 The one million limit Mark Shannon SW 620 Hide implementation details from the C API Victor Stinner 3.12 SS 622 Structural Pattern Matching Brandt Bucher, Daniel F Moisset, Tobias Kohn, Ivan Levkivskyi, Guido van Rossum, Talin 3.10 SS 631 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml based on PEP 508 Ofek Lev SR 633 Dependency specification in pyproject.toml using an exploded TOML table Laurie Opperman, Arun Babu Neelicattu SR 637 Support for indexing with keyword arguments Stefano Borini 3.10 SR 640 Unused variable syntax Thomas Wouters 3.10 SR 641 Using an underscore in the version portion of Python 3.10 compatibility tags Brett Cannon, Steve Dower, Barry Warsaw 3.10 SR 642 Explicit Pattern Syntax for Structural Pattern Matching Alyssa Coghlan 3.10 SW 645 Allow writing optional types as x? Maggie Moss SR 648 Extensible customizations of the interpreter at startup Mario Corchero 3.11 SW 650 Specifying Installer Requirements for Python Projects Vikram Jayanthi, Dustin Ingram, Brett Cannon SR 651 Robust Stack Overflow Handling Mark Shannon SR 662 Editable installs via virtual wheels Bernát Gábor IR 663 Standardizing Enum str(), repr(), and format() behaviors Ethan Furman 3.11 SR 665 A file format to list Python dependencies for reproducibility of an application Brett Cannon, Pradyun Gedam, Tzu-ping Chung SR 666 Reject Foolish Indentation Laura Creighton 2.2 SR 677 Callable Type Syntax Steven Troxler, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan 3.11 SR 679 New assert statement syntax with parentheses Pablo Galindo Salgado, Stan Ulbrych 3.15 SR 690 Lazy Imports Germán Méndez Bravo, Carl Meyer 3.12 SW 704 Require virtual environments by default for package installers Pradyun Gedam SR 707 A simplified signature for __exit__ and __aexit__ Irit Katriel 3.12 SR 712 Adding a “converter” parameter to dataclasses.field Joshua Cannon 3.13 SR 713 Callable Modules Amethyst Reese 3.12 SR 722 Dependency specification for single-file scripts Paul Moore SW 724 Stricter Type Guards Rich Chiodo, Eric Traut, Erik De Bonte 3.13 SR 726 Module __setattr__ and __delattr__ Sergey B Kirpichev 3.13 SW 727 Documentation in Annotated Metadata Sebastián Ramírez 3.13 SR 736 Shorthand syntax for keyword arguments at invocation Joshua Bambrick, Chris Angelico 3.14 SR 754 IEEE 754 Floating Point Special Values Gregory R. Warnes 2.3 SW 756 Add PyUnicode_Export() and PyUnicode_Import() C functions Victor Stinner 3.14 SW 759 External Wheel Hosting Barry Warsaw, Emma Harper Smith SW 760 No More Bare Excepts Pablo Galindo Salgado, Brett	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://popcorn.forem.com/_c9af00d5bb7c26378eceb/2025nyeon-gidaedoeneun-k-deurama-sinjag-top-5-gdj	2025년 기대되는 K-드라마 신작 TOP 5 - Popcorn Movies and TV Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Popcorn Movies and TV Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse 채혁기 Posted on Dec 5, 2025 2025년 기대되는 K-드라마 신작 TOP 5 # korean # entertainment # kdrama # tv 2025년 기대되는 K-드라마 신작 TOP 5 2025년 상반기 방영 예정인 한국 드라마 중 가장 기대를 모으는 작품들을 소개합니다. 1위: 타임슬립 로맨스 드라마 현대와 과거를 오가는 판타지 로맨스로, 인기 배우의 복귀작이라는 점에서 큰 관심을 받고 있습니다. 방송사 : tvN 방영 예정 : 2025년 3월 장르 : 로맨스/판타지 2위: 범죄 스릴러 드라마 연쇄 살인 사건을 추적하는 형사 이야기로, 원작 웹툰의 높은 인기를 바탕으로 제작되었습니다. 방송사 : Netflix 방영 예정 : 2025년 4월 장르 : 스릴러/범죄 3위: 메디컬 휴먼 드라마 작은 시골 병원을 배경으로 한 감동적인 이야기가 펼쳐집니다. 방송사 : SBS 방영 예정 : 2025년 5월 장르 : 메디컬/휴먼 결론 2025년 상반기 드라마 라인업은 정말 풍성합니다. 로맨스부터 스릴러까지 다양한 장르의 작품들이 시청자들을 기다리고 있습니다. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse 채혁기 Follow Joined Dec 4, 2025 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Popcorn Movies and TV — Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Popcorn Movies and TV © 2016 - 2026. Let's watch something great! Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://core.forem.com/t/aws/page/4	Amazon Web Services Page 4 - Forem Core Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Forem Core Close Amazon Web Services Follow Hide Amazon Web Services (AWS) is a collection of web services for computing, storage, machine learning, security, and more There are over 200+ AWS services as of 2023. Create Post submission guidelines Articles which primary focus is AWS are permitted to used the #aws tag. Older #aws posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem Core — Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem Core © 2016 - 2026. Community building community Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#w3c-c14n-test-suite	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#global-unbounded-sequences-gus	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python 1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 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Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#zstandard-bindings	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/library/random.html#module-random	random — Generate pseudo-random numbers — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents random — Generate pseudo-random numbers Bookkeeping functions Functions for bytes Functions for integers Functions for sequences Discrete distributions Real-valued distributions Alternative Generator Notes on Reproducibility Examples Recipes Command-line usage Command-line example Previous topic fractions — Rational numbers Next topic statistics — Mathematical statistics functions This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Numeric and Mathematical Modules » random — Generate pseudo-random numbers \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| random — Generate pseudo-random numbers ¶ Source code: Lib/random.py This module implements pseudo-random number generators for various distributions. For integers, there is uniform selection from a range. For sequences, there is uniform selection of a random element, a function to generate a random permutation of a list in-place, and a function for random sampling without replacement. On the real line, there are functions to compute uniform, normal (Gaussian), lognormal, negative exponential, gamma, and beta distributions. For generating distributions of angles, the von Mises distribution is available. Almost all module functions depend on the basic function random() , which generates a random float uniformly in the half-open range 0.0 <= X < 1.0 . Python uses the Mersenne Twister as the core generator. It produces 53-bit precision floats and has a period of 2*19937-1. The underlying implementation in C is both fast and threadsafe. The Mersenne Twister is one of the most extensively tested random number generators in existence. However, being completely deterministic, it is not suitable for all purposes, and is completely unsuitable for cryptographic purposes. The functions supplied by this module are actually bound methods of a hidden instance of the random.Random class. You can instantiate your own instances of Random to get generators that don’t share state. Class Random can also be subclassed if you want to use a different basic generator of your own devising: see the documentation on that class for more details. The random module also provides the SystemRandom class which uses the system function os.urandom() to generate random numbers from sources provided by the operating system. Warning The pseudo-random generators of this module should not be used for security purposes. For security or cryptographic uses, see the secrets module. See also M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, “Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator”, ACM Transactions on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol. 8, No. 1, January pp.3–30 1998. Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe for a compatible alternative random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple update operations. Note The global random number generator and instances of Random are thread-safe. However, in the free-threaded build, concurrent calls to the global generator or to the same instance of Random may encounter contention and poor performance. Consider using separate instances of Random per thread instead. Bookkeeping functions ¶ random. seed ( a = None , version = 2 ) ¶ Initialize the random number generator. If a is omitted or None , the current system time is used. If randomness sources are provided by the operating system, they are used instead of the system time (see the os.urandom() function for details on availability). If a is an int, its absolute value is used directly. With version 2 (the default), a str , bytes , or bytearray object gets converted to an int and all of its bits are used. With version 1 (provided for reproducing random sequences from older versions of Python), the algorithm for str and bytes generates a narrower range of seeds. Changed in version 3.2: Moved to the version 2 scheme which uses all of the bits in a string seed. Changed in version 3.11: The seed must be one of the following types: None , int , float , str , bytes , or bytearray . random. getstate ( ) ¶ Return an object capturing the current internal state of the generator. This object can be passed to setstate() to restore the state. random. setstate ( state ) ¶ state should have been obtained from a previous call to getstate() , and setstate() restores the internal state of the generator to what it was at the time getstate() was called. Functions for bytes ¶ random. randbytes ( n ) ¶ Generate n random bytes. This method should not be used for generating security tokens. Use secrets.token_bytes() instead. Added in version 3.9. Functions for integers ¶ random. randrange ( stop ) ¶ random. randrange ( start , stop [ , step ] ) Return a randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step) . This is roughly equivalent to choice(range(start, stop, step)) but supports arbitrarily large ranges and is optimized for common cases. The positional argument pattern matches the range() function. Keyword arguments should not be used because they can be interpreted in unexpected ways. For example randrange(start=100) is interpreted as randrange(0, 100, 1) . Changed in version 3.2: randrange() is more sophisticated about producing equally distributed values. Formerly it used a style like int(random()n) which could produce slightly uneven distributions. Changed in version 3.12: Automatic conversion of non-integer types is no longer supported. Calls such as randrange(10.0) and randrange(Fraction(10, 1)) now raise a TypeError . random. randint ( a , b ) ¶ Return a random integer N such that a <= N <= b . Alias for randrange(a, b+1) . random. getrandbits ( k ) ¶ Returns a non-negative Python integer with k random bits. This method is supplied with the Mersenne Twister generator and some other generators may also provide it as an optional part of the API. When available, getrandbits() enables randrange() to handle arbitrarily large ranges. Changed in version 3.9: This method now accepts zero for k . Functions for sequences ¶ random. choice ( seq ) ¶ Return a random element from the non-empty sequence seq . If seq is empty, raises IndexError . random. choices ( population , weights = None , * , cum_weights = None , k = 1 ) ¶ Return a k sized list of elements chosen from the population with replacement. If the population is empty, raises IndexError . If a weights sequence is specified, selections are made according to the relative weights. Alternatively, if a cum_weights sequence is given, the selections are made according to the cumulative weights (perhaps computed using itertools.accumulate() ). For example, the relative weights [10, 5, 30, 5] are equivalent to the cumulative weights [10, 15, 45, 50] . Internally, the relative weights are converted to cumulative weights before making selections, so supplying the cumulative weights saves work. If neither weights nor cum_weights are specified, selections are made with equal probability. If a weights sequence is supplied, it must be the same length as the population sequence. It is a TypeError to specify both weights and cum_weights . The weights or cum_weights can use any numeric type that interoperates with the float values returned by random() (that includes integers, floats, and fractions but excludes decimals). Weights are assumed to be non-negative and finite. A ValueError is raised if all weights are zero. For a given seed, the choices() function with equal weighting typically produces a different sequence than repeated calls to choice() . The algorithm used by choices() uses floating-point arithmetic for internal consistency and speed. The algorithm used by choice() defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections to avoid small biases from round-off error. Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.9: Raises a ValueError if all weights are zero. random. shuffle ( x ) ¶ Shuffle the sequence x in place. To shuffle an immutable sequence and return a new shuffled list, use sample(x, k=len(x)) instead. Note that even for small len(x) , the total number of permutations of x can quickly grow larger than the period of most random number generators. This implies that most permutations of a long sequence can never be generated. For example, a sequence of length 2080 is the largest that can fit within the period of the Mersenne Twister random number generator. Changed in version 3.11: Removed the optional parameter random . random. sample ( population , k , * , counts = None ) ¶ Return a k length list of unique elements chosen from the population sequence. Used for random sampling without replacement. Returns a new list containing elements from the population while leaving the original population unchanged. The resulting list is in selection order so that all sub-slices will also be valid random samples. This allows raffle winners (the sample) to be partitioned into grand prize and second place winners (the subslices). Members of the population need not be hashable or unique. If the population contains repeats, then each occurrence is a possible selection in the sample. Repeated elements can be specified one at a time or with the optional keyword-only counts parameter. For example, sample(['red', 'blue'], counts=[4, 2], k=5) is equivalent to sample(['red', 'red', 'red', 'red', 'blue', 'blue'], k=5) . To choose a sample from a range of integers, use a range() object as an argument. This is especially fast and space efficient for sampling from a large population: sample(range(10000000), k=60) . If the sample size is larger than the population size, a ValueError is raised. Changed in version 3.9: Added the counts parameter. Changed in version 3.11: The population must be a sequence. Automatic conversion of sets to lists is no longer supported. Discrete distributions ¶ The following function generates a discrete distribution. random. binomialvariate ( n = 1 , p = 0.5 ) ¶ Binomial distribution . Return the number of successes for n independent trials with the probability of success in each trial being p : Mathematically equivalent to: sum ( random () < p for i in range ( n )) The number of trials n should be a non-negative integer. The probability of success p should be between 0.0 <= p <= 1.0 . The result is an integer in the range 0 <= X <= n . Added in version 3.12. Real-valued distributions ¶ The following functions generate specific real-valued distributions. Function parameters are named after the corresponding variables in the distribution’s equation, as used in common mathematical practice; most of these equations can be found in any statistics text. random. random ( ) ¶ Return the next random floating-point number in the range 0.0 <= X < 1.0 random. uniform ( a , b ) ¶ Return a random floating-point number N such that a <= N <= b for a <= b and b <= N <= a for b < a . The end-point value b may or may not be included in the range depending on floating-point rounding in the expression a + (b-a) * random() . random. triangular ( low , high , mode ) ¶ Return a random floating-point number N such that low <= N <= high and with the specified mode between those bounds. The low and high bounds default to zero and one. The mode argument defaults to the midpoint between the bounds, giving a symmetric distribution. random. betavariate ( alpha , beta ) ¶ Beta distribution. Conditions on the parameters are alpha > 0 and beta > 0 . Returned values range between 0 and 1. random. expovariate ( lambd = 1.0 ) ¶ Exponential distribution. lambd is 1.0 divided by the desired mean. It should be nonzero. (The parameter would be called “lambda”, but that is a reserved word in Python.) Returned values range from 0 to positive infinity if lambd is positive, and from negative infinity to 0 if lambd is negative. Changed in version 3.12: Added the default value for lambd . random. gammavariate ( alpha , beta ) ¶ Gamma distribution. ( Not the gamma function!) The shape and scale parameters, alpha and beta , must have positive values. (Calling conventions vary and some sources define ‘beta’ as the inverse of the scale). The probability distribution function is: x ** ( alpha - 1 ) * math . exp ( - x / beta ) pdf ( x ) = -------------------------------------- math . gamma ( alpha ) * beta ** alpha random. gauss ( mu = 0.0 , sigma = 1.0 ) ¶ Normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution. mu is the mean, and sigma is the standard deviation. This is slightly faster than the normalvariate() function defined below. Multithreading note: When two threads call this function simultaneously, it is possible that they will receive the same return value. This can be avoided in three ways. 1) Have each thread use a different instance of the random number generator. 2) Put locks around all calls. 3) Use the slower, but thread-safe normalvariate() function instead. Changed in version 3.11: mu and sigma now have default arguments. random. lognormvariate ( mu , sigma ) ¶ Log normal distribution. If you take the natural logarithm of this distribution, you’ll get a normal distribution with mean mu and standard deviation sigma . mu can have any value, and sigma must be greater than zero. random. normalvariate ( mu = 0.0 , sigma = 1.0 ) ¶ Normal distribution. mu is the mean, and sigma is the standard deviation. Changed in version 3.11: mu and sigma now have default arguments. random. vonmisesvariate ( mu , kappa ) ¶ mu is the mean angle, expressed in radians between 0 and 2* pi , and kappa is the concentration parameter, which must be greater than or equal to zero. If kappa is equal to zero, this distribution reduces to a uniform random angle over the range 0 to 2* pi . random. paretovariate ( alpha ) ¶ Pareto distribution. alpha is the shape parameter. random. weibullvariate ( alpha , beta ) ¶ Weibull distribution. alpha is the scale parameter and beta is the shape parameter. Alternative Generator ¶ class random. Random ( [ seed ] ) ¶ Class that implements the default pseudo-random number generator used by the random module. Changed in version 3.11: Formerly the seed could be any hashable object. Now it is limited to: None , int , float , str , bytes , or bytearray . Subclasses of Random should override the following methods if they wish to make use of a different basic generator: seed ( a = None , version = 2 ) ¶ Override this method in subclasses to customise the seed() behaviour of Random instances. getstate ( ) ¶ Override this method in subclasses to customise the getstate() behaviour of Random instances. setstate ( state ) ¶ Override this method in subclasses to customise the setstate() behaviour of Random instances. random ( ) ¶ Override this method in subclasses to customise the random() behaviour of Random instances. Optionally, a custom generator subclass can also supply the following method: getrandbits ( k ) ¶ Override this method in subclasses to customise the getrandbits() behaviour of Random instances. randbytes ( n ) ¶ Override this method in subclasses to customise the randbytes() behaviour of Random instances. class random. SystemRandom ( [ seed ] ) ¶ Class that uses the os.urandom() function for generating random numbers from sources provided by the operating system. Not available on all systems. Does not rely on software state, and sequences are not reproducible. Accordingly, the seed() method has no effect and is ignored. The getstate() and setstate() methods raise NotImplementedError if called. Notes on Reproducibility ¶ Sometimes it is useful to be able to reproduce the sequences given by a pseudo-random number generator. By reusing a seed value, the same sequence should be reproducible from run to run as long as multiple threads are not running. Most of the random module’s algorithms and seeding functions are subject to change across Python versions, but two aspects are guaranteed not to change: If a new seeding method is added, then a backward compatible seeder will be offered. The generator’s random() method will continue to produce the same sequence when the compatible seeder is given the same seed. Examples ¶ Basic examples: >>> random () # Random float: 0.0 <= x < 1.0 0.37444887175646646 >>> uniform ( 2.5 , 10.0 ) # Random float: 2.5 <= x <= 10.0 3.1800146073117523 >>> expovariate ( 1 / 5 ) # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds 5.148957571865031 >>> randrange ( 10 ) # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive 7 >>> randrange ( 0 , 101 , 2 ) # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive 26 >>> choice ([ 'win' , 'lose' , 'draw' ]) # Single random element from a sequence 'draw' >>> deck = 'ace two three four' . split () >>> shuffle ( deck ) # Shuffle a list >>> deck ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three'] >>> sample ([ 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 ], k = 4 ) # Four samples without replacement [40, 10, 50, 30] Simulations: >>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement) >>> choices ([ 'red' , 'black' , 'green' ], [ 18 , 18 , 2 ], k = 6 ) ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black'] >>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck >>> # of 52 playing cards, and determine the proportion of cards >>> # with a ten-value: ten, jack, queen, or king. >>> deal = sample ([ 'tens' , 'low cards' ], counts = [ 16 , 36 ], k = 20 ) >>> deal . count ( 'tens' ) / 20 0.15 >>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins >>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time. >>> sum ( binomialvariate ( n = 7 , p = 0.6 ) >= 5 for i in range ( 10_000 )) / 10_000 0.4169 >>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles >>> def trial (): ... return 2_500 <= sorted ( choices ( range ( 10_000 ), k = 5 ))[ 2 ] < 7_500 ... >>> sum ( trial () for i in range ( 10_000 )) / 10_000 0.7958 Example of statistical bootstrapping using resampling with replacement to estimate a confidence interval for the mean of a sample: # https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155 from statistics import fmean as mean from random import choices data = [ 41 , 50 , 29 , 37 , 81 , 30 , 73 , 63 , 20 , 35 , 68 , 22 , 60 , 31 , 95 ] means = sorted ( mean ( choices ( data , k = len ( data ))) for i in range ( 100 )) print ( f 'The sample mean of { mean ( data ) : .1f } has a 90% confidence ' f 'interval from { means [ 5 ] : .1f } to { means [ 94 ] : .1f } ' ) Example of a resampling permutation test to determine the statistical significance or p-value of an observed difference between the effects of a drug versus a placebo: # Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson from statistics import fmean as mean from random import shuffle drug = [ 54 , 73 , 53 , 70 , 73 , 68 , 52 , 65 , 65 ] placebo = [ 54 , 51 , 58 , 44 , 55 , 52 , 42 , 47 , 58 , 46 ] observed_diff = mean ( drug ) - mean ( placebo ) n = 10_000 count = 0 combined = drug + placebo for i in range ( n ): shuffle ( combined ) new_diff = mean ( combined [: len ( drug )]) - mean ( combined [ len ( drug ):]) count += ( new_diff >= observed_diff ) print ( f ' { n } label reshufflings produced only { count } instances with a difference' ) print ( f 'at least as extreme as the observed difference of { observed_diff : .1f } .' ) print ( f 'The one-sided p-value of { count / n : .4f } leads us to reject the null' ) print ( f 'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.' ) Simulation of arrival times and service deliveries for a multiserver queue: from heapq import heapify , heapreplace from random import expovariate , gauss from statistics import mean , quantiles average_arrival_interval = 5.6 average_service_time = 15.0 stdev_service_time = 3.5 num_servers = 3 waits = [] arrival_time = 0.0 servers = [ 0.0 ] * num_servers # time when each server becomes available heapify ( servers ) for i in range ( 1_000_000 ): arrival_time += expovariate ( 1.0 / average_arrival_interval ) next_server_available = servers [ 0 ] wait = max ( 0.0 , next_server_available - arrival_time ) waits . append ( wait ) service_duration = max ( 0.0 , gauss ( average_service_time , stdev_service_time )) service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration heapreplace ( servers , service_completed ) print ( f 'Mean wait: { mean ( waits ) : .1f } Max wait: { max ( waits ) : .1f } ' ) print ( 'Quartiles:' , [ round ( q , 1 ) for q in quantiles ( waits )]) See also Statistics for Hackers a video tutorial by Jake Vanderplas on statistical analysis using just a few fundamental concepts including simulation, sampling, shuffling, and cross-validation. Economics Simulation a simulation of a marketplace by Peter Norvig that shows effective use of many of the tools and distributions provided by this module (gauss, uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular, and randrange). A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python) a tutorial by Peter Norvig covering the basics of probability theory, how to write simulations, and how to perform data analysis using Python. Recipes ¶ These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections from the combinatoric iterators in the itertools module: import random def random_product ( * iterables , repeat = 1 ): "Random selection from itertools.product(iterables, repeat=repeat)" pools = tuple ( map ( tuple , iterables )) repeat return tuple ( map ( random . choice , pools )) def random_permutation ( iterable , r = None ): "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)" pool = tuple ( iterable ) r = len ( pool ) if r is None else r return tuple ( random . sample ( pool , r )) def random_combination ( iterable , r ): "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)" pool = tuple ( iterable ) n = len ( pool ) indices = sorted ( random . sample ( range ( n ), r )) return tuple ( pool [ i ] for i in indices ) def random_combination_with_replacement ( iterable , r ): "Choose r elements with replacement. Order the result to match the iterable." # Result will be in set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)). pool = tuple ( iterable ) n = len ( pool ) indices = sorted ( random . choices ( range ( n ), k = r )) return tuple ( pool [ i ] for i in indices ) def random_derangement ( iterable ): "Choose a permutation where no element stays in its original position." seq = tuple ( iterable ) if len ( seq ) < 2 : if not seq : return () raise IndexError ( 'No derangments to choose from' ) perm = list ( range ( len ( seq ))) start = tuple ( perm ) while True : random . shuffle ( perm ) if all ( p != q for p , q in zip ( start , perm )): return tuple ([ seq [ i ] for i in perm ]) The default random() returns multiples of 2⁻⁵³ in the range 0.0 ≤ x < 1.0 . All such numbers are evenly spaced and are exactly representable as Python floats. However, many other representable floats in that interval are not possible selections. For example, 0.05954861408025609 isn’t an integer multiple of 2⁻⁵³. The following recipe takes a different approach. All floats in the interval are possible selections. The mantissa comes from a uniform distribution of integers in the range 2⁵² ≤ mantissa < 2⁵³ . The exponent comes from a geometric distribution where exponents smaller than -53 occur half as often as the next larger exponent. from random import Random from math import ldexp class FullRandom ( Random ): def random ( self ): mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 \| self . getrandbits ( 52 ) exponent = - 53 x = 0 while not x : x = self . getrandbits ( 32 ) exponent += x . bit_length () - 32 return ldexp ( mantissa , exponent ) All real valued distributions in the class will use the new method: >>> fr = FullRandom () >>> fr . random () 0.05954861408025609 >>> fr . expovariate ( 0.25 ) 8.87925541791544 The recipe is conceptually equivalent to an algorithm that chooses from all the multiples of 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ in the range 0.0 ≤ x < 1.0 . All such numbers are evenly spaced, but most have to be rounded down to the nearest representable Python float. (The value 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ is the smallest positive unnormalized float and is equal to math.ulp(0.0) .) See also Generating Pseudo-random Floating-Point Values a paper by Allen B. Downey describing ways to generate more fine-grained floats than normally generated by random() . Command-line usage ¶ Added in version 3.13. The random module can be executed from the command line. python -m random [ -h ] [ -c CHOICE [ CHOICE ... ] \| -i N \| -f N ] [ input ... ] The following options are accepted: -h , --help ¶ Show the help message and exit. -c CHOICE [CHOICE ...] ¶ --choice CHOICE [CHOICE ...] ¶ Print a random choice, using choice() . -i <N> ¶ --integer <N> ¶ Print a random integer between 1 and N inclusive, using randint() . -f <N> ¶ --float <N> ¶ Print a random floating-point number between 0 and N inclusive, using uniform() . If no options are given, the output depends on the input: String or multiple: same as --choice . Integer: same as --integer . Float: same as --float . Command-line example ¶ Here are some examples of the random command-line interface: $ # Choose one at random $ python -m random egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce" Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce $ # Random integer $ python -m random 6 6 $ # Random floating-point number $ python -m random 1 .8 1.7080016272295635 $ # With explicit arguments $ python -m random --choice egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce" egg $ python -m random --integer 6 3 $ python -m random --float 1 .8 1.5666339105010318 $ python -m random --integer 6 5 $ python -m random --float 6 3.1942323316565915 Table of Contents random — Generate pseudo-random numbers Bookkeeping functions Functions for bytes Functions for integers Functions for sequences Discrete distributions Real-valued distributions Alternative Generator Notes on Reproducibility Examples Recipes Command-line usage Command-line example Previous topic fractions — Rational numbers Next topic statistics — Mathematical statistics functions This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Numeric and Mathematical Modules » random — Generate pseudo-random numbers \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. 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https://datalaria.com/en/posts/app_openweather_part2_frontend/	Weather Service Project (Part 2): Building the Interactive Frontend with GitHub Pages or Netlify and JavaScript \| Datalaria Datalaria \| Es Blog Apps Games About Tags Contact Weather Service Project (Part 2): Building the Interactive Frontend with GitHub Pages or Netlify and JavaScript Second installment of the Weather Service project. We dive into the frontend: serving a dynamic dashboard with GitHub Pages or Netlify, reading CSV data with PapaParse.js, and creating interactive charts with Chart.js. November 8, 2025  · Datalaria \| Translations: Es In the first part of this series , we laid the groundwork for our global weather service. We built a Python script to fetch weather data from OpenWeatherMap, efficiently stored it in city-specific CSV files, and automated the entire collection process using GitHub Actions. Our “robot” is diligently gathering data 24/7. But what good is data if you can’t see it? Today, we shift our focus to the frontend : building an interactive, user-friendly dashboard that allows anyone to explore the weather data we’ve collected. We’ll leverage the power of static site hosting with GitHub Pages or Netlify , use “vanilla” JavaScript to bring it to life, and rely on some excellent libraries for data handling and visualization. Let’s make our data shine! Free Web Hosting: GitHub Pages vs. Netlify # The first hurdle for any web project is hosting. Traditional servers can be costly and complex to manage. Following our “serverless and free” philosophy, both GitHub Pages and Netlify are perfect solutions for hosting static websites directly from your GitHub repository. Option 1: GitHub Pages # GitHub Pages allows you to host static websites directly from your GitHub repository. Activation is trivial: Go to Settings > Pages in your repository. Select your main branch (or the branch containing your web content) as the source. Choose the /root folder (or a /docs folder if you prefer) as the location of your web files. Click Save . And just like that, your index.html file (and any linked assets) becomes publicly accessible at a URL like https://your-username.github.io/your-repository-name/ . Simple, effective, and free! 🚀 Option 2: Netlify (the final choice for this project!) # For this project, I ultimately opted for Netlify due to its flexibility, ease of managing custom domains, and integrated continuous deployment. It also allows me to host the project directly under my Datalaria domain ( https://datalaria.com/apps/weather/ ). Steps to deploy on Netlify: Connect Your Repository : Log in to Netlify. Click “Add new site” then “Import an existing project”. Connect your GitHub account and select your Weather Service project repository. Deployment Configuration : Owner : Your GitHub account. Branch to deploy : main (or the branch where your frontend code resides). Base directory : Leave this empty if your index.html and assets are in the root of the repository, or specify a subfolder if applicable (e.g., /frontend ). Build command : Leave it empty, as our frontend is purely static with no build step required (no frameworks like React/Vue). Publish directory : . (or the subfolder containing your static files, e.g., /frontend ). Deploy Site : Click “Deploy site”. Netlify will fetch your repository, deploy it, and provide you with a random URL. Custom Domain (Optional but recommended) : To use a domain like datalaria.com/apps/weather/ : Go to Site settings > Domain management > Domains > Add a custom domain . Follow the steps to add your domain and configure it with your provider’s DNS (by adding CNAME or A records). For the specific path ( /apps/weather/ ), you would typically configure a “subfolder” or “base URL” within your application if it’s not directly at the root of the domain. In this case, our index.html is designed to be served from a subpath. Netlify handles this transparently once the site is deployed and your domain is configured. It’s that simple! Each git push to your configured branch will trigger a new deployment on Netlify, keeping your dashboard always up-to-date. The Frontend Tech Stack: HTML, CSS, and JavaScript (with a little help) # For this dashboard, I opted for a lightweight approach: plain HTML for structure, a bit of CSS for styling, and “vanilla” JavaScript (without complex frameworks) for interactivity. To handle specific tasks, I incorporated two fantastic libraries: PapaParse.js : The fastest in-browser CSV parser for JavaScript. It’s the bridge between our raw CSV files and the JavaScript data structures we need for visualization. Chart.js : A powerful and flexible JavaScript charting library that makes creating beautiful, responsive, and interactive charts incredibly easy. The Dashboard Logic: Bringing Data to Life in index.html # Our index.html acts as the main canvas, orchestrating the fetching, parsing, and rendering of weather data. 1. Dynamic City Loading # In stead of hardcoding a list of cities, we want our dashboard to automatically update if we add new cities in the backend. We achieve this by fetching a simple ciudades.txt file (containing one city name per line) and dynamically populating a <select> dropdown element using JavaScript’s fetch API. const citySelector = document . getElementById ( 'citySelector' ); let myChart = null ; // Global variable to store the Chart.js instance async function loadCityList () { try { const response = await fetch ( 'ciudades.txt' ); const text = await response . text (); // Filter out empty lines from the text file const cities = text . split ( '\n' ). filter ( line => line . trim () !== '' ); cities . forEach ( city => { const option = document . createElement ( 'option' ); option . value = city ; option . textContent = city ; citySelector . appendChild ( option ); }); // Load the first city by default when the page initializes if ( cities . length > 0 ) { loadAndDrawData ( cities [ 0 ]); } } catch ( error ) { console . error ( 'Error loading city list:' , error ); // Optional: Display a user-friendly error message } } // Trigger city loading when the DOM is fully loaded document . addEventListener ( 'DOMContentLoaded' , loadCityList ); 2. Reacting to User Selection # When a user selects a city from the dropdown, we need to respond immediately. An addEventListener on the <select> element detects the change event and calls our main function to fetch and draw the data for the newly selected city. citySelector . addEventListener ( 'change' , ( event ) => { const selectedCity = event . target . value ; loadAndDrawData ( selectedCity ); }); 3. Fetching, Parsing, and Drawing Data # This is the central function where everything comes to life. It is responsible for: Constructing the URL for the specific city’s CSV file (e.g., data/Leon.csv ). Using Papa.parse to download and process the CSV content directly in the browser. PapaParse handles asynchronous fetching and parsing, making it incredibly easy. Extracting relevant labels (dates) and data (temperatures) from the parsed CSV for Chart.js. Crucial! : Before drawing a new chart, we must destroy the previous Chart.js instance ( if (myChart) { myChart.destroy(); } ). Forgetting this step leads to overlapping charts and performance issues! 💥 Creating a new Chart() instance with the updated data. Additionally, it calls a function to load and display the AI prediction for that city, seamlessly integrating it into the dashboard. function loadAndDrawData ( city ) { const csvUrl = `datos/ ${ city } .csv` ; // Note the 'datos/' folder from Part 1 const ctx = document . getElementById ( 'weatherChart' ). getContext ( '2d' ); Papa . parse ( csvUrl , { download : true , // Tells PapaParse to download the file header : true , // Treats the first row as headers skipEmptyLines : true , complete : function ( results ) { const weatherData = results . data ; // Extract labels (dates) and data (temperatures) const labels = weatherData . map ( row => row . fecha_hora . split ( ' ' )[ 0 ]); // Extract only the date const maxTemp = weatherData . map ( row => parseFloat ( row . temp_max_c )); const minTemp = weatherData . map ( row => parseFloat ( row . temp_min_c )); // Destroy the previous chart instance if it exists to prevent overlaps if ( myChart ) { myChart . destroy (); } // Create a new Chart.js instance myChart = new Chart ( ctx , { type : 'line' , data : { labels : labels , datasets : [{ label : `Max Temp (°C) - ${ city } ` , data : maxTemp , borderColor : 'rgb(255, 99, 132)' , tension : 0.1 }, { label : `Min Temp (°C) - ${ city } ` , data : minTemp , borderColor : 'rgb(54, 162, 235)' , tension : 0.1 }] }, options : { // Chart options for responsiveness, title, etc. responsive : true , maintainAspectRatio : false , scales : { y : { beginAtZero : false } }, plugins : { legend : { position : 'top' }, title : { display : true , text : `Historical Weather Data for ${ city } ` } } } }); // Load and display AI prediction loadPrediction ( city ); }, error : function ( err , file ) { console . error ( "Error parsing CSV:" , err , file ); // Optional: display a user-friendly error message on the dashboard if ( myChart ) { myChart . destroy (); } // Clear chart if loading fails } }); } 4. Displaying AI Predictions # The integration of AI predictions (which we’ll delve into in Part 3) is also managed from the frontend. The backend generates a predicciones.json file, and our JavaScript simply fetches this JSON, finds the prediction for the selected city, and displays it. async function loadPrediction ( city ) { const predictionElement = document . getElementById ( 'prediction' ); try { const response = await fetch ( 'predicciones.json' ); const predictions = await response . json (); if ( predictions && predictions [ city ]) { predictionElement . textContent = `Max Temp. Prediction for tomorrow: ${ predictions [ city ]. toFixed ( 1 ) } °C` ; } else { predictionElement . textContent = 'Prediction not available.' ; } } catch ( error ) { console . error ( 'Error loading predictions:' , error ); predictionElement . textContent = 'Error loading prediction.' ; } } Conclusion (Part 2) # We’ve transformed raw data into an engaging and interactive experience! By combining static hosting from GitHub Pages or Netlify, “vanilla” JavaScript for logic, PapaParse.js for CSV handling, and Chart.js for beautiful visualizations, we’ve built a powerful frontend that is both free and highly effective. The dashboard now provides immediate insight into the historical weather patterns of any selected city. But what about the future? In the third and final part of this series , we’ll delve into the exciting world of Machine Learning to add a predictive layer to our service. We’ll explore how to use historical data to forecast tomorrow’s weather, turning our service into a true weather “oracle.” Stay tuned! References and Links of Interest: # Complete Web Service : You can see the final project in action here: https://datalaria.com/apps/weather/ Project GitHub Repository : Explore the source code and project structure in my repository: https://github.com/Dalaez/app_weather PapaParse.js : Fast in-browser CSV parser for JavaScript: https://www.papaparse.com/ Chart.js : Simple, yet flexible JavaScript charting for designers & developers: https://www.chartjs.org/ GitHub Pages : Official documentation on how to host your sites: https://docs.github.com/en/pages Netlify : Official Netlify website: https://www.netlify.com/ Javascript Frontend Github Pages Html Css Papaparse Chartjs Serverless Data-Visualization Netlify © 2026 Datalaria · Powered by Hugo & PaperMod	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Geovane Oliveira Posted on Jan 8 Protecting an EC2 hosted web application with AWS WAF in practice # architecture # aws # devops # security Web applications on EC2 are everywhere. And honestly, a lot of them are just sitting there exposed to the internet with nothing more than a Security Group between them and every bot, scanner, and attacker out there. This article walks through building a straightforward architecture to answer one specific question: How do you protect a web application on EC2 from common web attacks without touching the application code? We'll use AWS WAF for Layer 7 protection, Security Groups for network control, and AWS Certificate Manager for encrypted transport, all at minimal cost and complexity. Understanding network layers before adding security controls Before jumping into AWS services, let's get clear on how network communication actually works. The OSI model helps here, but we'll keep it practical. Layer 3 – Network layer Deals with IP addresses. This is about knowing where traffic is coming from and where it's headed. Layer 4 – Transport layer Deals with ports and protocols. This controls how connections get established, think TCP on port 80 or 443. Together, these two layers answer questions like: Who's sending this traffic? Which port are they using? Should this connection even be allowed? Layer 7 – Application layer This is where HTTP and HTTPS live. It understands URLs, headers, query strings, request bodies and the actual content of what's being sent. Layer 7 answers a different kind of question: What is the user actually trying to do? Here's the thing: most web attacks happen at Layer 7, not at the network level. Understanding this distinction is critical. What a Security Group is and how it works Security Groups are probably the first security control you run into in AWS. They're virtual firewalls that control network level access to things like EC2 instances and load balancers. A Security Group evaluates traffic based on: Source IP address Destination port Protocol From the OSI perspective, Security Groups operate at Layer 3 (Network) and Layer 4 (Transport). Key characteristics: Stateful – if traffic is allowed in, the response is automatically allowed out Allow only – you can't write deny rules, only allow rules Everything else is denied by default Example rules: Allow inbound TCP traffic on port 80 from anywhere (0.0.0.0/0) Allow SSH on port 22 only from your office IP Deny everything else (implicit) Security Groups are essential. They're your first line of defense. What Security Groups cannot protect against But here's the limitation: Security Groups don't understand HTTP or HTTPS content at all. They can't: Inspect URLs Analyze query strings Detect SQL injection attempts Catch Cross Site Scripting (XSS) Identify malicious payloads in request bodies From a Security Group's perspective, if port 80 is open and the source IP is allowed, the request gets through no matter what's actually inside that request. This is a fundamental limitation when you're trying to protect web applications. Why application layer protection is required Web attacks are application layer problems. That means you need Layer 7 inspection. This is where AWS WAF comes in. AWS WAF is a fully managed Web Application Firewall that inspects HTTP and HTTPS requests before they ever reach your application. It looks at: URL paths Headers Query strings Request bodies Based on rules you define (or use AWS Managed Rules), it can: Allow requests Block requests Count requests for monitoring The best part? No agents on your EC2 instances. No changes to your application code. Why an Application Load Balancer is part of the design: AWS WAF can't attach directly to an EC2 instance. It needs to be associated with one of these: Application Load Balancer API Gateway CloudFront For this architecture, the Application Load Balancer serves as: The public entry point The integration point for AWS WAF The boundary between the internet and your compute layer Even if you're only running a single EC2 instance, this design mirrors what you'd see in production environments. Architecture overview The architecture below shows the scenario we are going to discuss in this article. Figure 1: Conceptual architecture for protecting an EC2-hosted web application using AWS WAF attached to an internet-facing Application Load Balancer The flow works like this: Internet traffic hits the Application Load Balancer AWS WAF inspects HTTP requests at Layer 7 Allowed requests get forwarded to the EC2 instance Security Groups restrict network level access between components Architecture components: Amazon EC2 – Runs a simple Nginx web application in a public subnet Application Load Balancer – Exposes the application to the internet and routes traffic to EC2 AWS WAF – Inspects and filters HTTP requests before they reach the application AWS Certificate Manager – Provides free SSL/TLS certificates for HTTPS encryption Systems Manager Session Manager – Provides secure, SSH free access to EC2 instances via IAM Auto Scaling Group – Maintains a single EC2 instance (and makes it easy to scale later if needed) Security Groups – Enforce strict Layer 3 and Layer 4 access rules Each component protects a specific layer. There's no redundancy or overlap. Setting up the infrastructure Let's walk through the key configuration steps. I'll focus on the security specific settings that matter most. Step 1: Creating the Application Load Balancer First, we need to set up the ALB that will serve as our public entry point. Figure 2: Application Load Balancer basic configuration Key settings to configure: Scheme : Internet facing IP address type : IPv4 Listeners : HTTP (port 80) and HTTPS (port 443) Availability Zones : Select at least two for high availability The ALB needs to be in a public subnet since it's receiving traffic directly from the internet. Step 2: Configuring Security Groups Security Groups control network level access. We need two distinct groups here. ALB Security Group: Figure 3: Security Group rules for the Application Load Balancer Inbound rules: Allow HTTP (port 80) from 0.0.0.0/0 Allow HTTPS (port 443) from 0.0.0.0/0 EC2 Security Group: Figure 4: Security Group rules for the EC2 instance Inbound rules: Allow HTTP (port 80) only from the ALB Security Group Note: Unlike traditional setups, we're not opening SSH port 22. Access to the instance for management purposes is handled through AWS Systems Manager Session Manager, which uses IAM authentication and doesn't require any inbound ports to be open. This is crucial: the EC2 instance never accepts traffic directly from the internet. Only the ALB can reach it on port 80, and administrative access is through SSM Session Manager only. Step 3: Creating the AWS WAF Web ACL Now we add the Layer 7 protection. This is where AWS WAF comes in. Figure 5: Creating a Web ACL in AWS WAF When creating the Web ACL: Give it a descriptive name (e.g., ec2-app-protection-waf ) Select Application Load Balancer as the resource type Associate it with the ALB you created earlier Step 4: Adding AWS Managed Rules Instead of writing custom rules from scratch, we'll use AWS Managed Rule Groups. These are maintained by AWS and updated automatically. Recommended rule groups to enable: Core rule set (CRS) – Protects against common attacks like OWASP Top 10 Known bad inputs – Blocks requests with patterns associated with exploit attempts SQL database – Prevents SQL injection attacks Linux operating system – Blocks requests targeting common Linux vulnerabilities Each rule group adds a layer of protection. Start with these four since they cover the most common attack vectors. Step 5: Associating WAF with the ALB Once the Web ACL is configured, associate it with your Application Load Balancer. The association happens in one of two ways, depending on where you started the configuration. If you created the Web ACL from the WAF console, you selected the ALB during the initial setup under (Associated AWS resources). If you're adding WAF to an existing ALB, you'll find the option in the Load Balancer console under the (Integrated services) tab. From the Load Balancer perspective, you'll see a section labeled (AWS WAF) where you can attach a Web ACL. Click "Edit" and select your newly created Web ACL from the dropdown. The attachment is immediate there's no downtime, no need to restart anything. Once associated, you'll see the Web ACL name displayed in the ALB's integrated services section. You can verify the reverse connection by going back to the WAF console, selecting your Web ACL, and checking the (Associated AWS resources) tab. Your ALB should be listed there. This is the critical connection point. Every HTTP request hitting your ALB will now pass through AWS WAF inspection before reaching your EC2 instance. The WAF evaluates each request against your rule groups in order of priority, and either allows it through, blocks it with a 403 response, or counts it for monitoring purposes depending on how you've configured each rule. The inspection happens inline with minimal latency, typically adding only single digit milliseconds to request processing time. If WAF blocks a request, the connection never reaches your application layer. The request is terminated at the ALB with a 403 Forbidden response. Step 6: Configuring IAM Role for Systems Manager To enable secure, SSH free access to the EC2 instance, we attach an IAM role that allows Systems Manager Session Manager to function. Figure 7: IAM role configuration for Systems Manager access The IAM role includes the AmazonSSMManagedInstanceCore managed policy, which provides: Permission for the SSM agent to communicate with Systems Manager service Ability to retrieve commands and send outputs CloudWatch Logs integration for session logging (optional but recommended) Note on SSM Agent: If you're using Amazon Linux 2023 (as in this setup), the SSM agent comes pre installed and enabled by default. For other AMIs like Ubuntu or older Amazon Linux versions, you may need to install the agent manually. The combination of the IAM role and the pre installed agent is what enables Session Manager to work immediately after instance launch. Once attached, you can access the instance through the AWS console or CLI without opening SSH ports or managing key pairs. All sessions are authenticated through IAM and can be logged for audit purposes. Step 7: Monitoring and testing After everything is configured, you can monitor WAF activity through CloudWatch metrics. AWS WAF provides real time metrics that show how your Web ACL is performing. These metrics are automatically published to CloudWatch and typically appear within 5 to 10 minutes of activity. Key metrics to watch: AllowedRequests: Legitimate traffic getting through BlockedRequests: Malicious requests stopped by WAF CountedRequests: Requests matching rules in count mode To view these metrics: Navigate to the AWS WAF console Select your Web ACL Go to the Overview tab CloudWatch metrics will display showing request patterns over time You can also view detailed logs in CloudWatch Logs if you enable WAF logging. Transport security with HTTPS All traffic between clients and the Application Load Balancer is encrypted using TLS 1.2 or higher. The SSL certificate is provided by AWS Certificate Manager at no cost and renews automatically. Figure 10: SSL/TLS certificate from AWS Certificate Manager The ALB is configured to: Accept HTTPS connections on port 443 with a valid SSL certificate Redirect all HTTP traffic to HTTPS (301 permanent redirect) Use modern cipher suites (TLS 1.2+ only) Serve a certificate trusted by all major browsers This ensures that sensitive data cannot be intercepted or read by attackers performing man-in-the-middle attacks. The certificate is issued and managed by AWS Certificate Manager, which handles automatic renewal before expiration. Video walkthrough : For a complete hands-on demonstration of this setup, check out the video tutorial below where I walk through each step in the AWS console. [Video soon] What AWS WAF protects against in practice Using AWS Managed Rules, AWS WAF can block common attack patterns like: SQL injection attempts Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) Path traversal attacks Malformed or suspicious HTTP requests Basic automated scanners and bots Important point: AWS WAF doesn't fix insecure code. What it does is reduce your exposure by blocking known malicious patterns before they ever reach your application. What this architecture does NOT cover (and why it matters) This architecture provides solid foundational protection with network segmentation, application layer filtering, encrypted transport, and IAM based instance access. However, it's important to understand its limitations. This is a strong starting point that demonstrates core security principles, not a complete enterprise grade solution . What's missing for a production environment: Network Isolation: EC2 in public subnet (production should use private subnet, see "Ideal Architecture" below) EC2 has public IP (though no direct access is possible due to Security Groups) No VPC Endpoints for fully isolated SSM access No NAT Gateway for controlled outbound traffic from private instances Advanced DDoS Protection: No AWS Shield Advanced for sophisticated volumetric attacks No rate based rules in WAF to limit request velocity per IP No geographic restrictions (geo blocking) for region specific threats Monitoring and Threat Detection: WAF logging disabled (to minimize costs for this demo) No AWS GuardDuty for threat intelligence and anomaly detection No Security Hub for centralized security findings across services No VPC Flow Logs for network traffic analysis No CloudWatch Alarms for proactive alerting on suspicious activity Identity and Secrets Management: No AWS Secrets Manager for database credentials or API keys Session Manager logging not enabled (optional enhancement) No MFA requirement for Session Manager access Compliance and Governance: No AWS Config for continuous compliance checking No automated patch management with Systems Manager Patch Manager No backup strategy with AWS Backup No vulnerability scanning with AWS Inspector Advanced Application Protection: No AWS WAF Bot Control for sophisticated bot mitigation No reCAPTCHA challenges for suspicious activity No account takeover prevention features No fraud detection patterns Content Delivery: No CloudFront for global edge caching and additional DDoS protection No origin shielding to reduce load on the ALB Recommendation: For production, place CloudFront in front of the ALB to: Hide the ALB's DNS name from public access Add an additional WAF layer at the edge Improve global performance with caching Protect against DDoS attacks with AWS Shield Ideal architecture for production: For production workloads, the recommended architecture would place the EC2 instance in a private subnet with no public IP address and use VPC Interface Endpoints for Systems Manager connectivity. Here's what that would look like: Enhanced Network Architecture: Key differences: EC2 in private subnet - No public IP, no direct internet access VPC Interface Endpoints - Enable SSM access without internet gateway (~$21.60/month for 3 endpoints) NAT Gateway - If EC2 needs outbound internet access (~$32.40/month + data transfer) CloudFront - Global distribution and edge protection Why not include this in the current architecture? VPC Interface Endpoints cost approximately $0.01/hour per endpoint (~$7.20/month each). For Systems Manager to work in a private subnet, you need 3 endpoints: com.amazonaws.region.ssm com.amazonaws.region.ec2messages com.amazonaws.region.ssmmessages Total cost: ~$21.60/month just for the VPC Endpoints, plus additional complexity in setup and troubleshooting. For an educational article focused on WAF and application security fundamentals, this additional cost would make the architecture less accessible for learning purposes. The current implementation keeps the EC2 in a public subnet but eliminates SSH exposure entirely through Systems Manager Session Manager. While the instance has a public IP, the Security Group ensures no direct access is possible, only the ALB can reach it on port 80. This achieves approximately 90% of the security benefit of a private subnet at 0% of the additional cost, making it ideal for learning, development, and testing environments. Why this matters for your security journey: This architecture demonstrates Layer 3, 4, and 7 protection fundamentals with encrypted transport, IAM based access control, and zero SSH exposure. It's an excellent educational starting point and works well for: Development and testing environments Learning AWS security concepts and best practices Understanding the defense in depth model Proof of concepts and demos Small internal tools with limited exposure Personal projects and portfolios However, for production workloads handling real user data, PII, or serving public traffic at scale , you need the additional layers mentioned above. Security is not a single solution, it's a layered approach where each control addresses specific attack vectors and threat models. Recommended next steps: Enable Session Manager logging to CloudWatch for audit trails (minimal cost) Add rate-based rules to WAF for basic request rate limiting Enable CloudWatch logging for WAF and create alarms for blocked requests Implement GuardDuty for threat detection ($4-$10/month for light usage) Use Security Hub for centralized security findings (additional cost) Evaluate private subnet migration with VPC Endpoints when budget allows Consider CloudFront for global distribution and additional edge protection Enable automated patching with Systems Manager Patch Manager Each of these topics deserves its own deep dive, which I plan to cover in future articles as part of a comprehensive AWS security series. AWS WAF pricing is based on: Number of Web ACLs Number of rules Number of requests inspected A few things to know for this setup: AWS WAF is not included in the AWS Free Tier For low traffic environments, costs are typically minimal Costs stay predictable as long as you clean up resources after testing If you're just experimenting, expect single digit dollar amounts per month for WAF itself, assuming moderate traffic. Conclusion Security Groups and AWS WAF aren't competing solutions. They work at different layers and solve different problems. Security Groups control who can connect. AWS WAF controls what those connections are trying to do. Understanding which control applies at which layer is what makes it possible to build secure, scalable architectures, even for relatively simple workloads. Protecting a web application doesn't require complex tooling. It requires putting the right controls at the right layers. If you're running web applications on EC2 without WAF, this architecture is a solid starting point. A note on this content This article documents my learning journey with AWS security architecture. I'm sharing what I've learned and built, not claiming to be an expert. If you spot something that could be improved, or if you have a better approach, I genuinely want to hear about it. Security architecture is complex, and there are often multiple valid ways to solve the same problem. The setup I've described here prioritizes learning and understanding core concepts over production grade completeness. Real production environments would require additional layers like GuardDuty, Security Hub, comprehensive logging, and a more robust network isolation strategy. If you have feedback, corrections, or suggestions, please reach out that's how we all get better. 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Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Geovane Oliveira Follow Joined Dec 16, 2025 More from Geovane Oliveira Securing Serverless APIs with Amazon Cognito and API Gateway JWT Authorizers # aws # security # serverless # awscommunitybuilder 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://core.forem.com/om_shree_0709/october-2025-forem-core-update-hacktoberfest-momentum-pr-cleanups-and-self-hosting-tweaks-ii2#comments	October 2025 Forem Core Update: Hacktoberfest Momentum, PR Cleanups, and Self-Hosting Tweaks Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Forem Core Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Om Shree Posted on Oct 12, 2025           October 2025 Forem Core Update: Hacktoberfest Momentum, PR Cleanups, and Self-Hosting Tweaks # productivity # security # performance # javascript If you're running a self-hosted Forem instance or just digging into the code, October's shaping up as a solid month for the project. With Hacktoberfest kicking off on the 1st, the GitHub repo is seeing a nice uptick in activity folks jumping in on small fixes and docs updates. No massive releases yet, but the core team's pushing steady improvements around usability and stability. From recent PR merges to ongoing bug chats, here's a quick look at what's landed or bubbling up in the last week or so. Pull up your local setup and let's get into it. Hacktoberfest Fuels Community Contributions October's always a highlight for open-source crews, and Forem's no different. The annual event now in its 2025 edition encourages PRs across repos, and we're already seeing pulls on everything from UI tweaks to backend optimizations. A roundup post on Open Forem from October 11 called it out: even small changes like doc updates or bug squashes count toward your four-PR goal, and they're helping keep the codebase fresh. Cloudinary's even sponsoring swag for Forem-related work, tying into media handling features that power post embeds. For self-hosters, this means a chance to test-drive contributions in your own env. If you're new, the contributing guide on developers.forem.com lays it out simple: fork the repo, set up with Docker or the devcontainer, and aim for issues labeled "good first issue." One X post from a contributor highlighted how a quick PR on link embedding in quickies (short posts) went from idea to merge in days perfect for Hacktoberfest points. Jump in; it's low-pressure and directly helps scalability for bigger communities. Recent PR Merges: Bot Accounts and Link Embeds The core team's been active on the GitHub front, merging a handful of practical changes that address long-standing requests. A standout from early October: a new feature letting admins create transparent bot accounts. This one's a refactor with tests, making it easier to automate moderation or notifications without fake user profiles cluttering things up. If you've got scripts handling spam flags, this slots right in check the PR notes for setup. Another merge that's got self-hosters nodding: automatic link embedding in quickie titles. Drop a URL in a short post, and it pulls in previews without extra config. The PR description notes it's a feature addition with docs updates, fixing a gap for snappier sharing. Paired with the bot account work, it's building out better automation tools. On the dev side, a fix for devcontainer network issues means smoother local spins no more wrestling with Docker networking during setup. These aren't earth-shaking, but they add up: easier onboarding for contributors and tighter integration for hosted instances. If you're on the latest master, pull them down and test feedback's always welcome in the issues. Bug Reports and Performance Notes Bugs don't take a break, and the issues queue has a few fresh ones worth watching. A carryover from late September (issue #22362) is still open: intermittent failures in user auth flows during high-load tests. It's labeled for contributions, so if you've seen login hiccups on your setup, chime in with logs. Another from mid-September (#22343) flags slow query times on large tag lists relevant for performance tuning if your community's grown past a few thousand users. On the API front, there's chatter about delays in updating portfolio previews after edits, like cover image swaps not reflecting right away (issue #10374). Not a core blocker, but annoying for devs integrating with the API. The team's pruning old PRs to clear the inbox aiming for zero open stale ones soon which should speed up triage. X mentions from maintainers echo this: steady commits (50 in the last month), focusing on stability over splashy features. For self-hosting, keep an eye on Ruby/Rails deps recent upstream security patches might need a bump. No major vulns in Forem itself, but aligning with Rails 7.1.x helps. Self-Hosting Tips and Community Chatter Running your own Forem? The Ona (formerly Gitpod) integration got a shoutout in the repo docs spin up a full env with services pre-configured, no local hassle. Great for testing PRs without polluting your dev machine. And with the CLA in place, any contrib you merge stays open-source friendly. Core.forem.com's product category is heating up with strategic talks: inclusivity tweaks and scalability for edge cases, like handling spikes in post traffic. A mid-October roundup on Open Forem wrapped community vibes Hacktoberfest energy spilling into feature ideas like better theming or mod tools. If that's you, post there; it's feeding back into the roadmap. No big events locked in yet, but FOSDEM 2026 calls for proposals are open Forem's a fit for community-building talks. Forem's codebase feels alive this October community-driven and inching toward better reliability. Whether you're fixing a bug or just lurking issues, what's on your radar? A Hacktoberfest PR in mind, or a self-host gotcha to share? Hit the comments; let's keep the momentum going. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Some comments may only be visible to logged-in visitors. Sign in to view all comments. Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Om Shree Follow Technical Evangelist \| AI Researcher \| Simplifying Complex AI & Agent Workflows for Developers Location India Education Jaypee University Of Information Technology Pronouns He/Him Work Founder of Shreesozo Joined Feb 27, 2025 More from Om Shree Serverless Scaling: Deploying Strands + MCP on AWS # programming # ai # beginners # productivity Scaling Enterprise GenAI with MCP # ai # beginners # productivity # tutorial 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem Core — Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem Core © 2016 - 2026. Community building community Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#3-how-we-use-your-information	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. 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https://dev.to/rsionnach/shift-left-reliability-4poo#the-paradox	Shift-Left Reliability - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Rob Fox Posted on Jan 12 Shift-Left Reliability # sre # devops # cicd # platformengineering We've become exceptionally good at incident response. Modern teams restore service quickly, run thoughtful postmortems, and hold themselves accountable through corrective actions. And yet… A team ships a change that passes every test, gets all the required approvals, and still brings down checkout for 47 minutes. The postmortem conclusion? "We should have known our latency SLO was already at 94% before deploying." Many postmortems point to the same root cause: changes we introduced ourselves. Not hardware failures. Not random outages. Just software behaving exactly as we told it to. We continue to treat reliability as something to evaluate once those changes are already live. This isn't a failure of tooling or process. It's a question of when we decide whether a system is ready. The paradox We've invested heavily in observing and responding to failure - better alerting, faster incident response, thorough postmortems. Teams care deeply about reliability and spend significant time optimizing how they respond to incidents. But when in a service's lifecycle are they supposed to define reliability? Where's the innovation that happens before deployment? Where reliability decisions actually happen today I've seen multiple teams running identical technology stacks with completely different SLOs, metrics, and alerts. Nobody told them what to implement, what's best-practice or how to tune their alerts. They want to be good reliability citizens, but getting from the theory in the handbook to putting that theory into practice is not straightforward. Services regularly move into production with SLOs being created months later - or never. Dashboards are missing, insufficient, or inconsistent. "Looks fine to me" during PR reviews. Tribal knowledge. Varying levels of understanding across teams. Reliability is fundamentally bespoke and ungoverned. That's the core issue. The missing layer GitHub gave us version control for code. Terraform gave us version control for infrastructure. Security has transformed with shift-left - finding flaws as code is written, not after deployment. We're still missing version control for reliability. We need a specification that defines requirements, validates them against reality, and generates the artifacts: dashboards, SLOs, alerts, escalation policies. If the specification is validated and the artifacts created, the same tool can check in real-time whether a service is in breach - and block high-risk deployments in CI/CD. What shift-left reliability actually means Shift-left reliability doesn't mean more alerts and dashboards, more postmortems or more people in the room. It means: Spec - Define reliability requirements as code before production deployment Validate - Test those requirements against reality Enforce - Gate deployments through CI/CD Engineers don't write PromQL or Grafana JSON - they declare intent, and reliability becomes deterministic. Outcomes are predictable, consistent, transparent, and follow best practice. An executable reliability contract Keep it simple. A team creates a service.yaml file with their reliability intent: name: payment-api tier: critical type: api team: payments dependencies: - postgresql - redis Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Here is a complete service.yaml example . Tooling validates metrics, SLOs, and error budgets then generates these artifacts automatically. This is the approach I am exploring with an open-source project called NthLayer. NthLayer runs in any CI/CD pipeline - GitHub Actions, ArgoCD, Jenkins, Tekton, GitLab CI. The goal isn't to be an inflexible blocker; it's visible risk and explicit decisions. Overrides are fine when they're intentional, logged, and owned. When a deployment is attempted, the specification is evaluated against reality: $ nthlayer check-deploy - service payment-api ERROR: Deployment blocked - availability SLO at 99.2% (target: 99.95%) - error budget exhausted: -47 minutes remaining - 3 P1 incidents in last 7 days Exit code: 2 (BLOCKED) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Why now? SLOs have had 8+ years to mature and move from the Google SRE Handbook into mainstream practice. GitOps has normalized declarative configuration. Platform Engineering has matured as a discipline. The concepts are ready but the tooling has lagged behind. This is a deliberate shift in approach. Reliability is no longer up for debate during incidents. Services have defined owners with deterministic standards. We can stop reinventing the reliability wheel every time a new service is onboarded. If requirements change, update the service.yaml , run NthLayer and every service benefits from adopting the new standard. What this does not replace NthLayer doesn't replace service catalogs, developer portals, observability platforms, or incident management. It doesn't predict failures or eliminate human judgment. It's upstream of all these systems. The goal: a reliability specification, automated deployment gates and to reduce cognitive load to implement best practices. Open questions I don't have all the answers but two questions I keep returning to are: Contract Drift: What happens when the spec says 99.95% but reality has been 99.5% for months? Is the contract wrong, or is the service broken? Emergency Overrides: How should they work? Who approves? How do you prevent them from becoming the default? The timing problem Where do reliability decisions actually happen in your organization? What would it look like to decide readiness before deployment? What reliability rules do you wish you could enforce automatically? The timing problem isn't going away. The only question is whether you address it before deployment - or learn about it in the postmortem. NthLayer is open source and looking for early adopters. If you're tired of reliability being an afterthought: pip install nthlayer nthlayer init nthlayer check-deploy --service your-service Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode → github.com/rsionnach/nthlayer Star the repo, open an issue, or tell me I'm wrong. I want to hear how reliability decisions happen in your organization. Rob Fox is a Senior Site Reliability Engineer focused on platform and reliability tooling. He's exploring how reliability engineering can move earlier in the software delivery lifecycle. Find him on GitHub . Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Rob Fox Follow Sr Site Reliability Engineer. Building NthLayer, an open-source tool for shift-left reliability. Opinions are my own. github.com/rsionnach Location Dublin, Ireland Joined Jan 6, 2026 Trending on DEV Community Hot The First Week at a Startup Taught Me More Than I Expected # startup # beginners # career # learning How I Built an AI Terraform Review Agent on Serverless AWS # aws # terraform # serverless # devops How to Crack Any Software Developer Interview in 2026 (Updated for AI & Modern Hiring) # softwareengineering # programming # career # interview 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://javascript.info/operators#string-concatenation-with-binary	Basic operators, maths Sorry, Internet Explorer is not supported, please use a newer browser. EN AR عربي EN English ES Español FA فارسی FR Français ID Indonesia IT Italiano JA 日本語 KO 한국어 RU Русский TR Türkçe UK Українська UZ Oʻzbek ZH 简体中文 We want to make this open-source project available for people all around the world. Help to translate the content of this tutorial to your language! Buy EPUB/PDF Search Search Tutorial map Light theme Dark theme Share عربي English Español فارسی Français Indonesia Italiano 日本語 한국어 Русский Türkçe Українська Oʻzbek 简体中文 Tutorial The JavaScript language JavaScript Fundamentals November 14, 2022 Basic operators, maths We know many operators from school. They are things like addition + , multiplication * , subtraction - , and so on. In this chapter, we’ll start with simple operators, then concentrate on JavaScript-specific aspects, not covered by school arithmetic. Terms: “unary”, “binary”, “operand” Before we move on, let’s grasp some common terminology. An operand – is what operators are applied to. For instance, in the multiplication of 5 * 2 there are two operands: the left operand is 5 and the right operand is 2 . Sometimes, people call these “arguments” instead of “operands”. An operator is unary if it has a single operand. For example, the unary negation - reverses the sign of a number: let x = 1; x = -x; alert( x ); // -1, unary negation was applied An operator is binary if it has two operands. The same minus exists in binary form as well: let x = 1, y = 3; alert( y - x ); // 2, binary minus subtracts values Formally, in the examples above we have two different operators that share the same symbol: the negation operator, a unary operator that reverses the sign, and the subtraction operator, a binary operator that subtracts one number from another. Maths The following math operations are supported: Addition + , Subtraction - , Multiplication * , Division / , Remainder % , Exponentiation . The first four are straightforward, while % and need a few words about them. Remainder % The remainder operator % , despite its appearance, is not related to percents. The result of a % b is the remainder of the integer division of a by b . For instance: alert( 5 % 2 ); // 1, the remainder of 5 divided by 2 alert( 8 % 3 ); // 2, the remainder of 8 divided by 3 alert( 8 % 4 ); // 0, the remainder of 8 divided by 4 Exponentiation The exponentiation operator a b raises a to the power of b . In school maths, we write that as a b . For instance: alert( 2 2 ); // 2² = 4 alert( 2 3 ); // 2³ = 8 alert( 2 4 ); // 2⁴ = 16 Just like in maths, the exponentiation operator is defined for non-integer numbers as well. For example, a square root is an exponentiation by ½: alert( 4 (1/2) ); // 2 (power of 1/2 is the same as a square root) alert( 8 ** (1/3) ); // 2 (power of 1/3 is the same as a cubic root) String concatenation with binary + Let’s meet the features of JavaScript operators that are beyond school arithmetics. Usually, the plus operator + sums numbers. But, if the binary + is applied to strings, it merges (concatenates) them: let s = "my" + "string"; alert(s); // mystring Note that if any of the operands is a string, then the other one is converted to a string too. For example: alert( '1' + 2 ); // "12" alert( 2 + '1' ); // "21" See, it doesn’t matter whether the first operand is a string or the second one. Here’s a more complex example: alert(2 + 2 + '1' ); // "41" and not "221" Here, operators work one after another. The first + sums two numbers, so it returns 4 , then the next + adds the string 1 to it, so it’s like 4 + '1' = '41' . alert('1' + 2 + 2); // "122" and not "14" Here, the first operand is a string, the compiler treats the other two operands as strings too. The 2 gets concatenated to '1' , so it’s like '1' + 2 = "12" and "12" + 2 = "122" . The binary + is the only operator that supports strings in such a way. Other arithmetic operators work only with numbers and always convert their operands to numbers. Here’s the demo for subtraction and division: alert( 6 - '2' ); // 4, converts '2' to a number alert( '6' / '2' ); // 3, converts both operands to numbers Numeric conversion, unary + The plus + exists in two forms: the binary form that we used above and the unary form. The unary plus or, in other words, the plus operator + applied to a single value, doesn’t do anything to numbers. But if the operand is not a number, the unary plus converts it into a number. For example: // No effect on numbers let x = 1; alert( +x ); // 1 let y = -2; alert( +y ); // -2 // Converts non-numbers alert( +true ); // 1 alert( +"" ); // 0 It actually does the same thing as Number(...) , but is shorter. The need to convert strings to numbers arises very often. For example, if we are getting values from HTML form fields, they are usually strings. What if we want to sum them? The binary plus would add them as strings: let apples = "2"; let oranges = "3"; alert( apples + oranges ); // "23", the binary plus concatenates strings If we want to treat them as numbers, we need to convert and then sum them: let apples = "2"; let oranges = "3"; // both values converted to numbers before the binary plus alert( +apples + +oranges ); // 5 // the longer variant // alert( Number(apples) + Number(oranges) ); // 5 From a mathematician’s standpoint, the abundance of pluses may seem strange. But from a programmer’s standpoint, there’s nothing special: unary pluses are applied first, they convert strings to numbers, and then the binary plus sums them up. Why are unary pluses applied to values before the binary ones? As we’re going to see, that’s because of their higher precedence . Operator precedence If an expression has more than one operator, the execution order is defined by their precedence , or, in other words, the default priority order of operators. From school, we all know that the multiplication in the expression 1 + 2 * 2 should be calculated before the addition. That’s exactly the precedence thing. The multiplication is said to have a higher precedence than the addition. Parentheses override any precedence, so if we’re not satisfied with the default order, we can use them to change it. For example, write (1 + 2) * 2 . There are many operators in JavaScript. Every operator has a corresponding precedence number. The one with the larger number executes first. If the precedence is the same, the execution order is from left to right. Here’s an extract from the precedence table (you don’t need to remember this, but note that unary operators are higher than corresponding binary ones): Precedence Name Sign … … … 14 unary plus + 14 unary negation - 13 exponentiation ** 12 multiplication * 12 division / 11 addition + 11 subtraction - … … … 2 assignment = … … … As we can see, the “unary plus” has a priority of 14 which is higher than the 11 of “addition” (binary plus). That’s why, in the expression "+apples + +oranges" , unary pluses work before the addition. Assignment Let’s note that an assignment = is also an operator. It is listed in the precedence table with the very low priority of 2 . That’s why, when we assign a variable, like x = 2 * 2 + 1 , the calculations are done first and then the = is evaluated, storing the result in x . let x = 2 * 2 + 1; alert( x ); // 5 Assignment = returns a value The fact of = being an operator, not a “magical” language construct has an interesting implication. All operators in JavaScript return a value. That’s obvious for + and - , but also true for = . The call x = value writes the value into x and then returns it . Here’s a demo that uses an assignment as part of a more complex expression: let a = 1; let b = 2; let c = 3 - (a = b + 1); alert( a ); // 3 alert( c ); // 0 In the example above, the result of expression (a = b + 1) is the value which was assigned to a (that is 3 ). It is then used for further evaluations. Funny code, isn’t it? We should understand how it works, because sometimes we see it in JavaScript libraries. Although, please don’t write the code like that. Such tricks definitely don’t make code clearer or readable. Chaining assignments Another interesting feature is the ability to chain assignments: let a, b, c; a = b = c = 2 + 2; alert( a ); // 4 alert( b ); // 4 alert( c ); // 4 Chained assignments evaluate from right to left. First, the rightmost expression 2 + 2 is evaluated and then assigned to the variables on the left: c , b and a . At the end, all the variables share a single value. Once again, for the purposes of readability it’s better to split such code into few lines: c = 2 + 2; b = c; a = c; That’s easier to read, especially when eye-scanning the code fast. Modify-in-place We often need to apply an operator to a variable and store the new result in that same variable. For example: let n = 2; n = n + 5; n = n * 2; This notation can be shortened using the operators += and = : let n = 2; n += 5; // now n = 7 (same as n = n + 5) n = 2; // now n = 14 (same as n = n * 2) alert( n ); // 14 Short “modify-and-assign” operators exist for all arithmetical and bitwise operators: /= , -= , etc. Such operators have the same precedence as a normal assignment, so they run after most other calculations: let n = 2; n = 3 + 5; // right part evaluated first, same as n = 8 alert( n ); // 16 Increment/decrement Increasing or decreasing a number by one is among the most common numerical operations. So, there are special operators for it: Increment ++ increases a variable by 1: let counter = 2; counter++; // works the same as counter = counter + 1, but is shorter alert( counter ); // 3 Decrement -- decreases a variable by 1: let counter = 2; counter--; // works the same as counter = counter - 1, but is shorter alert( counter ); // 1 Important: Increment/decrement can only be applied to variables. Trying to use it on a value like 5++ will give an error. The operators ++ and -- can be placed either before or after a variable. When the operator goes after the variable, it is in “postfix form”: counter++ . The “prefix form” is when the operator goes before the variable: ++counter . Both of these statements do the same thing: increase counter by 1 . Is there any difference? Yes, but we can only see it if we use the returned value of ++/-- . Let’s clarify. As we know, all operators return a value. Increment/decrement is no exception. The prefix form returns the new value while the postfix form returns the old value (prior to increment/decrement). To see the difference, here’s an example: let counter = 1; let a = ++counter; // () alert(a); // 2 In the line () , the prefix form ++counter increments counter and returns the new value, 2 . So, the alert shows 2 . Now, let’s use the postfix form: let counter = 1; let a = counter++; // () changed ++counter to counter++ alert(a); // 1 In the line () , the postfix form counter++ also increments counter but returns the old value (prior to increment). So, the alert shows 1 . To summarize: If the result of increment/decrement is not used, there is no difference in which form to use: let counter = 0; counter++; ++counter; alert( counter ); // 2, the lines above did the same If we’d like to increase a value and immediately use the result of the operator, we need the prefix form: let counter = 0; alert( ++counter ); // 1 If we’d like to increment a value but use its previous value, we need the postfix form: let counter = 0; alert( counter++ ); // 0 Increment/decrement among other operators The operators ++/-- can be used inside expressions as well. Their precedence is higher than most other arithmetical operations. For instance: let counter = 1; alert( 2 * ++counter ); // 4 Compare with: let counter = 1; alert( 2 * counter++ ); // 2, because counter++ returns the "old" value Though technically okay, such notation usually makes code less readable. One line does multiple things – not good. While reading code, a fast “vertical” eye-scan can easily miss something like counter++ and it won’t be obvious that the variable increased. We advise a style of “one line – one action”: let counter = 1; alert( 2 * counter ); counter++; Bitwise operators Bitwise operators treat arguments as 32-bit integer numbers and work on the level of their binary representation. These operators are not JavaScript-specific. They are supported in most programming languages. The list of operators: AND ( & ) OR ( \| ) XOR ( ^ ) NOT ( ~ ) LEFT SHIFT ( << ) RIGHT SHIFT ( >> ) ZERO-FILL RIGHT SHIFT ( >>> ) These operators are used very rarely, when we need to fiddle with numbers on the very lowest (bitwise) level. We won’t need these operators any time soon, as web development has little use of them, but in some special areas, such as cryptography, they are useful. You can read the Bitwise Operators chapter on MDN when a need arises. Comma The comma operator , is one of the rarest and most unusual operators. Sometimes, it’s used to write shorter code, so we need to know it in order to understand what’s going on. The comma operator allows us to evaluate several expressions, dividing them with a comma , . Each of them is evaluated but only the result of the last one is returned. For example: let a = (1 + 2, 3 + 4); alert( a ); // 7 (the result of 3 + 4) Here, the first expression 1 + 2 is evaluated and its result is thrown away. Then, 3 + 4 is evaluated and returned as the result. Comma has a very low precedence Please note that the comma operator has very low precedence, lower than = , so parentheses are important in the example above. Without them: a = 1 + 2, 3 + 4 evaluates + first, summing the numbers into a = 3, 7 , then the assignment operator = assigns a = 3 , and the rest is ignored. It’s like (a = 1 + 2), 3 + 4 . Why do we need an operator that throws away everything except the last expression? Sometimes, people use it in more complex constructs to put several actions in one line. For example: // three operations in one line for (a = 1, b = 3, c = a * b; a < 10; a++) { ... } Such tricks are used in many JavaScript frameworks. That’s why we’re mentioning them. But usually they don’t improve code readability so we should think well before using them. Tasks The postfix and prefix forms importance: 5 What are the final values of all variables a , b , c and d after the code below? let a = 1, b = 1; let c = ++a; // ? let d = b++; // ? solution The answer is: a = 2 b = 2 c = 2 d = 1 let a = 1, b = 1; alert( ++a ); // 2, prefix form returns the new value alert( b++ ); // 1, postfix form returns the old value alert( a ); // 2, incremented once alert( b ); // 2, incremented once Assignment result importance: 3 What are the values of a and x after the code below? let a = 2; let x = 1 + (a = 2); solution The answer is: a = 4 (multiplied by 2) x = 5 (calculated as 1 + 4) Type conversions importance: 5 What are results of these expressions? "" + 1 + 0 "" - 1 + 0 true + false 6 / "3" "2" "3" 4 + 5 + "px" "$" + 4 + 5 "4" - 2 "4px" - 2 " -9 " + 5 " -9 " - 5 null + 1 undefined + 1 " \t \n" - 2 Think well, write down and then compare with the answer. solution "" + 1 + 0 = "10" // (1) "" - 1 + 0 = -1 // (2) true + false = 1 6 / "3" = 2 "2" * "3" = 6 4 + 5 + "px" = "9px" "$" + 4 + 5 = "$45" "4" - 2 = 2 "4px" - 2 = NaN " -9 " + 5 = " -9 5" // (3) " -9 " - 5 = -14 // (4) null + 1 = 1 // (5) undefined + 1 = NaN // (6) " \t \n" - 2 = -2 // (7) The addition with a string "" + 1 converts 1 to a string: "" + 1 = "1" , and then we have "1" + 0 , the same rule is applied. The subtraction - (like most math operations) only works with numbers, it converts an empty string "" to 0 . The addition with a string appends the number 5 to the string. The subtraction always converts to numbers, so it makes " -9 " a number -9 (ignoring spaces around it). null becomes 0 after the numeric conversion. undefined becomes NaN after the numeric conversion. Space characters are trimmed off string start and end when a string is converted to a number. Here the whole string consists of space characters, such as \t , \n and a “regular” space between them. So, similarly to an empty string, it becomes 0 . Fix the addition importance: 5 Here’s a code that asks the user for two numbers and shows their sum. It works incorrectly. The output in the example below is 12 (for default prompt values). Why? Fix it. The result should be 3 . let a = prompt("First number?", 1); let b = prompt("Second number?", 2); alert(a + b); // 12 solution The reason is that prompt returns user input as a string. So variables have values "1" and "2" respectively. let a = "1"; // prompt("First number?", 1); let b = "2"; // prompt("Second number?", 2); alert(a + b); // 12 What we should do is to convert strings to numbers before + . For example, using Number() or prepending them with + . For example, right before prompt : let a = +prompt("First number?", 1); let b = +prompt("Second number?", 2); alert(a + b); // 3 Or in the alert : let a = prompt("First number?", 1); let b = prompt("Second number?", 2); alert(+a + +b); // 3 Using both unary and binary + in the latest code. Looks funny, doesn’t it? Previous lesson Next lesson Share Tutorial map Comments read this before commenting… If you have suggestions what to improve - please submit a GitHub issue or a pull request instead of commenting. If you can't understand something in the article – please elaborate. To insert few words of code, use the <code> tag, for several lines – wrap them in <pre> tag, for more than 10 lines – use a sandbox ( plnkr , jsbin , codepen …) Chapter JavaScript Fundamentals Lesson navigation Terms: “unary”, “binary”, “operand” Maths String concatenation with binary + Numeric conversion, unary + Operator precedence Assignment Modify-in-place Increment/decrement Bitwise operators Comma Tasks (4) Comments Share Edit on GitHub © 2007—2026  Ilya Kantor about the project contact us terms of usage privacy policy	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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Navigation Channel Editors Microsoft teams Template Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Channel Editors Microsoft teams Template OpenAI Open in ChatGPT How to design simple MS Teams template using markdown editor or use JSONNET editor to replicate Microsoft’s adaptive card design. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Design Template You can design a simple text template with our default markdown editor. For advanced formatting and interactive options like buttons, images, and avatars, you can use Microsoft’s adaptive card design in JSONNET editor. Please note that the variable format for both editors will be different. We’ll cover more about it in the next sections. Design simple text template using Markdown editor You can send simple text templates using the markdown editor in teams. Variables has to be added in handlebars format. Supported markdown syntax in Teams text messages: Format Syntax Headings # Heading level 1 . Refer all heading formats here line break end a line with two or more spaces, and then type return ( only 1 continuous line break is supported ) Bold bold text or __bold text__ Italic _italic text_ or italic text Bold Italic *bold italic text* or ___bold italic text___ >Blockquotes > block quote text Lists (1) First item (2) Second item Refer more lists format here code At the command prompt, type code . Links [Duck Duck Go](https://duckduckgo.com) Adding dynamic data in markdown editor We use handlebarsjs as the template variable language in the markdown editor. You can learn about handlebarsjs here. If you are new to templates, we would recommend reading the templates documentation first to understand the basics of templating with SuprSend. To add dynamic data, first add the variable data from your event and workflow request in the Mock data . Enter the variables in JSON format as shown in the screenshot below. This JSON should be the same as passed in your workflow or event request (it is a part of the data field for workflow and properties field for event). Now, you can use your added sample by adding variables in the template. Type {{ and you’ll start getting auto-suggestions of the variables added in your sample data below the text field. You can select the variable from the dropdown or directly type it in. As a general rule, all the variables have to be entered within double curly brackets: {{variable_name}} . For URLs and links, we recommend using triple curly braces {{{url}}} .This is to avoid escaping html entities in handlebars. You can also write transformations like date-time formatting, if-else statement inside your templates using handlebar helpers . Design adaptive card template using JSONNET editor You can switch to JSONNET editor for advanced formatting and interactive options like buttons, images, and avatars. Microsoft provides support for adaptive card design to design such templates using a drag-and-drop editor. You can design your template in the adaptive card designer and copy the JSON payload from your designer into the Teams JSONNET editor. We have also created some sample templates for a quick start. You can choose one of the samples from the right side options on top of the editor to start editing. We have used some mock data in our examples. Copy-paste the mock data values in the global Mock Data button to see the preview. Please note that the variable format ${variable} used in adaptive card is not supported in the JSONNET editor. You’ll have to add the variable in JSONNET format as data.variable Adding dynamic data in JSONNET editor To add dynamic data, first add the variable data from your event and workflow request in the Mock data . Enter the variables in `JSON` format as shown in the screenshot below. This JSON should be the same as passed in your workflow or event request (it is a part of the `data` field for workflow and `properties` field for event). Once the variables are declared, you can add them in the template as data.<variable_name> . Note that you will be able to enter a variable name even when you have not declared it inside the ‘Mock data’ button. However, the preview will not load without declaring the variables in Mock Data . Hence it’s advised to always declare variables before loading the preview of the template. Below are some examples of how to enter variables in the JSONNET editor. We’ll use the sample shown in the screenshot above as a reference point. Add nested variable To enter a nested variable, enter in the format data.var1.var2.var3 . Eg. to refer to city in the example above, you need to enter data.location.city Add Variable with space and special characters in variable name If you have any space in the variable name, enclose it in square bracket data.event['first name'] or data[$brand].brand_name Add Single array element To refer to an array element, enter in format data.var[index].var2}} . Eg. to refer to product_name of the first element of the array array , enter data.array[0].product_name Add list of array items Enter in the below format to add a dynamic list of items. In the above example, variable array has a list of product items, with product_name , and product_price as array properties. Below is an example code to fetch array items in a text field list: JSONNET Copy Ask AI { "$schema" : "http://adaptivecards.io/schemas/adaptive-card.json" , "body" : [ { "text" : product.name + " at " + product.price , "type" : "TextBlock" , "wrap" : true } for product in data.products ], "type" : "AdaptiveCard" , "version" : "1.6" } You’ll need to add mock data for the variables added in your JSONNET template to view the parsed JSON template. JSON template will throw an error in case of missing mock data for a variable Preview message Click on the Load Preview button to load the message preview. You will be able to see if your template is rendering properly with the sample mock data by loading the preview of your draft version. Make sure to see the preview before publishing the template to check if the parsed JSON is valid or not. Publish the template Once finalized, you can publish the template by clicking on Publish template button on the draft version. Your template is now ready to be triggered. At the time of sending communication, if there is a variable present in the template whose value is not rendered due to mismatch or missing, SuprSend will simply discard the template and not send that particular notification to your user. Please note that the rest of the templates will still be sent. Eg. if there is an error in rendering Teams template, but email template is successfully rendered, Teams notification will not be triggered, but email notification will be triggered by SuprSend. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Testing the Template How to send a test notification from the template editor to your device for actual message preview. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/select.html#module-select	select — Waiting for I/O completion — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents select — Waiting for I/O completion /dev/poll Polling Objects Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects Polling Objects Kqueue Objects Kevent Objects Previous topic ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects Next topic selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Networking and Interprocess Communication » select — Waiting for I/O completion \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| select — Waiting for I/O completion ¶ This module provides access to the select() and poll() functions available in most operating systems, devpoll() available on Solaris and derivatives, epoll() available on Linux 2.5+ and kqueue() available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets; on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in particular, on Unix, it works on pipes). It cannot be used on regular files to determine whether a file has grown since it was last read. Note The selectors module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the select module primitives. Users are encouraged to use the selectors module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level primitives used. Availability : not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See WebAssembly platforms for more information. The module defines the following: exception select. error ¶ A deprecated alias of OSError . Changed in version 3.3: Following PEP 3151 , this class was made an alias of OSError . select. devpoll ( ) ¶ (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.) Returns a /dev/poll polling object; see section /dev/poll Polling Objects below for the methods supported by devpoll objects. devpoll() objects are linked to the number of file descriptors allowed at the time of instantiation. If your program reduces this value, devpoll() will fail. If your program increases this value, devpoll() may return an incomplete list of active file descriptors. The new file descriptor is non-inheritable . Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable. select. epoll ( sizehint = -1 , flags = 0 ) ¶ (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Return an edge polling object, which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O events. sizehint informs epoll about the expected number of events to be registered. It must be positive, or -1 to use the default. It is only used on older systems where epoll_create1() is not available; otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still checked). flags is deprecated and completely ignored. However, when supplied, its value must be 0 or select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC , otherwise OSError is raised. See the Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects section below for the methods supported by epolling objects. epoll objects support the context management protocol: when used in a with statement, the new file descriptor is automatically closed at the end of the block. The new file descriptor is non-inheritable . Changed in version 3.3: Added the flags parameter. Changed in version 3.4: Support for the with statement was added. The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable. Deprecated since version 3.4: The flags parameter. select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC is used by default now. Use os.set_inheritable() to make the file descriptor inheritable. select. poll ( ) ¶ (Not supported by all operating systems.) Returns a polling object, which supports registering and unregistering file descriptors, and then polling them for I/O events; see section Polling Objects below for the methods supported by polling objects. select. kqueue ( ) ¶ (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section Kqueue Objects below for the methods supported by kqueue objects. The new file descriptor is non-inheritable . Changed in version 3.4: The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable. select. kevent ( ident , filter = KQ_FILTER_READ , flags = KQ_EV_ADD , fflags = 0 , data = 0 , udata = 0 ) ¶ (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section Kevent Objects below for the methods supported by kevent objects. select. select ( rlist , wlist , xlist , timeout = None ) ¶ This is a straightforward interface to the Unix select() system call. The first three arguments are iterables of ‘waitable objects’: either integers representing file descriptors or objects with a parameterless method named fileno() returning such an integer: rlist : wait until ready for reading wlist : wait until ready for writing xlist : wait for an “exceptional condition” (see the manual page for what your system considers such a condition) Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty iterables is platform-dependent. (It is known to work on Unix but not on Windows.) The optional timeout argument specifies a time-out as a floating-point number in seconds. When the timeout argument is omitted or None , the function blocks until at least one file descriptor is ready. A time-out value of zero specifies a poll and never blocks. The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready: subsets of the first three arguments. When the time-out is reached without a file descriptor becoming ready, three empty lists are returned. Among the acceptable object types in the iterables are Python file objects (e.g. sys.stdin , or objects returned by open() or os.popen() ), socket objects returned by socket.socket() . You may also define a wrapper class yourself, as long as it has an appropriate fileno() method (that really returns a file descriptor, not just a random integer). Note File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are. On Windows, the underlying select() function is provided by the WinSock library, and does not handle file descriptors that don’t originate from WinSock. Changed in version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError . select. PIPE_BUF ¶ The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking to a pipe when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by select() , poll() or another interface in this module. This doesn’t apply to other kind of file-like objects such as sockets. This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512. Availability : Unix Added in version 3.2. /dev/poll Polling Objects ¶ Solaris and derivatives have /dev/poll . While select() is O ( highest file descriptor ) and poll() is O ( number of file descriptors ), /dev/poll is O ( active file descriptors ). /dev/poll behaviour is very close to the standard poll() object. devpoll. close ( ) ¶ Close the file descriptor of the polling object. Added in version 3.4. devpoll. closed ¶ True if the polling object is closed. Added in version 3.4. devpoll. fileno ( ) ¶ Return the file descriptor number of the polling object. Added in version 3.4. devpoll. register ( fd [ , eventmask ] ) ¶ Register a file descriptor with the polling object. Future calls to the poll() method will then check whether the file descriptor has any pending I/O events. fd can be either an integer, or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer. File objects implement fileno() , so they can also be used as the argument. eventmask is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to check for. The constants are the same that with poll() object. The default value is a combination of the constants POLLIN , POLLPRI , and POLLOUT . Warning Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered is not an error, but the result is undefined. The appropriate action is to unregister or modify it first. This is an important difference compared with poll() . devpoll. modify ( fd [ , eventmask ] ) ¶ This method does an unregister() followed by a register() . It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same explicitly. devpoll. unregister ( fd ) ¶ Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object. Just like the register() method, fd can be an integer or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer. Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is safely ignored. devpoll. poll ( [ timeout ] ) ¶ Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly empty list containing (fd, event) 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or errors to report. fd is the file descriptor, and event is a bitmask with bits set for the reported events for that descriptor — POLLIN for waiting input, POLLOUT to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file descriptors had any events to report. If timeout is given, it specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before returning. If timeout is omitted, -1, or None , the call will block until there is an event for this poll object. Changed in version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError . Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects ¶ https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll eventmask Constant Meaning EPOLLIN Available for read EPOLLOUT Available for write EPOLLPRI Urgent data for read EPOLLERR Error condition happened on the assoc. fd EPOLLHUP Hang up happened on the assoc. fd EPOLLET Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is Level Trigger behavior EPOLLONESHOT Set one-shot behavior. After one event is pulled out, the fd is internally disabled EPOLLEXCLUSIVE Wake only one epoll object when the associated fd has an event. The default (if this flag is not set) is to wake all epoll objects polling on a fd. EPOLLRDHUP Stream socket peer closed connection or shut down writing half of connection. EPOLLRDNORM Equivalent to EPOLLIN EPOLLRDBAND Priority data band can be read. EPOLLWRNORM Equivalent to EPOLLOUT EPOLLWRBAND Priority data may be written. EPOLLMSG Ignored. EPOLLWAKEUP Prevents sleep during event waiting. Added in version 3.6: EPOLLEXCLUSIVE was added. It’s only supported by Linux Kernel 4.5 or later. Added in version 3.14: EPOLLWAKEUP was added. It’s only supported by Linux Kernel 3.5 or later. epoll. close ( ) ¶ Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object. epoll. closed ¶ True if the epoll object is closed. epoll. fileno ( ) ¶ Return the file descriptor number of the control fd. epoll. fromfd ( fd ) ¶ Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor. epoll. register ( fd [ , eventmask ] ) ¶ Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object. epoll. modify ( fd , eventmask ) ¶ Modify a registered file descriptor. epoll. unregister ( fd ) ¶ Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object. Changed in version 3.9: The method no longer ignores the EBADF error. epoll. poll ( timeout = None , maxevents = -1 ) ¶ Wait for events. timeout in seconds (float) Changed in version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError . Polling Objects ¶ The poll() system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides better scalability for network servers that service many, many clients at the same time. poll() scales better because the system call only requires listing the file descriptors of interest, while select() builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of interest, and then afterward the whole bitmap has to be linearly scanned again. select() is O ( highest file descriptor ), while poll() is O ( number of file descriptors ). poll. register ( fd [ , eventmask ] ) ¶ Register a file descriptor with the polling object. Future calls to the poll() method will then check whether the file descriptor has any pending I/O events. fd can be either an integer, or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer. File objects implement fileno() , so they can also be used as the argument. eventmask is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to check for, and can be a combination of the constants POLLIN , POLLPRI , and POLLOUT , described in the table below. If not specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types of events. Constant Meaning POLLIN There is data to read POLLPRI There is urgent data to read POLLOUT Ready for output: writing will not block POLLERR Error condition of some sort POLLHUP Hung up POLLRDHUP Stream socket peer closed connection, or shut down writing half of connection POLLNVAL Invalid request: descriptor not open Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered is not an error, and has the same effect as registering the descriptor exactly once. poll. modify ( fd , eventmask ) ¶ Modifies an already registered fd. This has the same effect as register(fd, eventmask) . Attempting to modify a file descriptor that was never registered causes an OSError exception with errno ENOENT to be raised. poll. unregister ( fd ) ¶ Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object. Just like the register() method, fd can be an integer or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer. Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered causes a KeyError exception to be raised. poll. poll ( [ timeout ] ) ¶ Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly empty list containing (fd, event) 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or errors to report. fd is the file descriptor, and event is a bitmask with bits set for the reported events for that descriptor — POLLIN for waiting input, POLLOUT to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file descriptors had any events to report. If timeout is given, it specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before returning. If timeout is omitted, negative, or None , the call will block until there is an event for this poll object. Changed in version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError . Kqueue Objects ¶ kqueue. close ( ) ¶ Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object. kqueue. closed ¶ True if the kqueue object is closed. kqueue. fileno ( ) ¶ Return the file descriptor number of the control fd. kqueue. fromfd ( fd ) ¶ Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor. kqueue. control ( changelist , max_events [ , timeout ] ) → eventlist ¶ Low level interface to kevent changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or None max_events must be 0 or a positive integer timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is None , to wait forever Changed in version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError . Kevent Objects ¶ https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2 kevent. ident ¶ Value used to identify the event. The interpretation depends on the filter but it’s usually the file descriptor. In the constructor ident can either be an int or an object with a fileno() method. kevent stores the integer internally. kevent. filter ¶ Name of the kernel filter. Constant Meaning KQ_FILTER_READ Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there is data available to read KQ_FILTER_WRITE Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there is data available to write KQ_FILTER_AIO AIO requests KQ_FILTER_VNODE Returns when one or more of the requested events watched in fflag occurs KQ_FILTER_PROC Watch for events on a process id KQ_FILTER_NETDEV Watch for events on a network device [not available on macOS] KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL Returns whenever the watched signal is delivered to the process KQ_FILTER_TIMER Establishes an arbitrary timer kevent. flags ¶ Filter action. Constant Meaning KQ_EV_ADD Adds or modifies an event KQ_EV_DELETE Removes an event from the queue KQ_EV_ENABLE Permitscontrol() to returns the event KQ_EV_DISABLE Disablesevent KQ_EV_ONESHOT Removes event after first occurrence KQ_EV_CLEAR Reset the state after an event is retrieved KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS internal event KQ_EV_FLAG1 internal event KQ_EV_EOF Filter specific EOF condition KQ_EV_ERROR See return values kevent. fflags ¶ Filter specific flags. KQ_FILTER_READ and KQ_FILTER_WRITE filter flags: Constant Meaning KQ_NOTE_LOWAT low water mark of a socket buffer KQ_FILTER_VNODE filter flags: Constant Meaning KQ_NOTE_DELETE unlink() was called KQ_NOTE_WRITE a write occurred KQ_NOTE_EXTEND the file was extended KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB an attribute was changed KQ_NOTE_LINK the link count has changed KQ_NOTE_RENAME the file was renamed KQ_NOTE_REVOKE access to the file was revoked KQ_FILTER_PROC filter flags: Constant Meaning KQ_NOTE_EXIT the process has exited KQ_NOTE_FORK the process has called fork() KQ_NOTE_EXEC the process has executed a new process KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK internal filter flag KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK internal filter flag KQ_NOTE_TRACK follow a process across fork() KQ_NOTE_CHILD returned on the child process for NOTE_TRACK KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR unable to attach to a child KQ_FILTER_NETDEV filter flags (not available on macOS): Constant Meaning KQ_NOTE_LINKUP link is up KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN link is down KQ_NOTE_LINKINV link state is invalid kevent. data ¶ Filter specific data. kevent. udata ¶ User defined value. Table of Contents select — Waiting for I/O completion /dev/poll Polling Objects Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects Polling Objects Kqueue Objects Kevent Objects Previous topic ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects Next topic selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing This page Report a bug Show source « Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Networking and Interprocess Communication » select — Waiting for I/O completion \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| © Copyright 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Last updated on Jan 13, 2026 (06:19 UTC). Found a bug ? Created using Sphinx 8.2.3.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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https://neon.com/blog/bitso-branching-workflow	Inside Bitso’s Branch-Based Workflow - Neon This 250+ engineer team replaced shared staging with isolated database branches for safer deploys Neon Product Database Autoscaling Automatic instance sizing Branching Faster Postgres workflows Bottomless storage With copy-on-write Instant restores Recover TBs in seconds Connection pooler Built-in with pgBouncer Ecosystem Neon API Manage infra, billing, quotas Auth Add authentication Data API PostgREST-compatible Instagres No-signup flow Migration guides Step-by-step What is Neon? Serverless Postgres, by Databricks Solutions Use cases Serverless Apps Autoscale with traffic Multi-TB Scale & restore instantly Database per Tenant Data isolation without overhead Platforms Offer Postgres to your users Dev/Test Production-like environments Agents Build full-stack AI agents For teams Startups Build with Neon Security Compliance & privacy Case studies Explore customer stories Docs Pricing Company Blog About us Careers Contact Discord 20.7k Log In Sign Up Case Studies Jan 07, 2026 Inside Bitso’s Branch-Based Workflow Database branching gives every engineer a production-like sandbox “Neon’s branching gave us the last missing piece in our RISE (Robust Isolated Staging Environment): true database isolation. The services that touched schema changes or write-heavy paths could never share a database safely. Now every sandbox gets its own isolated Postgres DB whenever required” (Joe Horsnell, Principal Platform Engineer at Bitso ) Bitso , leader in digital financial services in Latin America, runs a large engineering organization with hundreds of developers and microservices, and a mission-critical system that processes millions of transactions. As the team grew, testing changes safely became increasingly difficult, especially when multiple services and data models needed to evolve at the same time. Scaling Development Across 250+ Engineers Like many teams, Bitso first relied on a single shared development environment and a single shared staging environment. Once hundreds of engineers had to push changes simultaneously, these environments quickly became a bottleneck, with dependencies changing minute by minute and faulty deployments breaking the workflow for everyone else. Their architecture made this even harder. Bitso’s platform is built on hundreds of Java microservices communicating asynchronously through Kafka, making it impossible for a developer to reproduce the entire stack locally. The shared environments became the only place to test changes end-to-end, but they became quite unreliable. Developers often tested a collection of changes from multiple engineers in staging, then deployed a different build to production, meaning the artifact that reached customers had never truly been tested in a clean environment. Step 1: Solve Service Isolation via Signadot Bitso’s first step toward a more developer-friendly environment was adopting Signadot . With Signadot sandboxes, engineers can automatically route requests for specific services to isolated versions of those services based on their pull requests, eliminating collisions at the compute and service layer. Learn more about Bitso’s Signadot setup The Signadot team published a walkthrough of Bitso’s service-isolation architecture, including how sandboxes are provisioned and how traffic is routed. You can read it here . Even after solving service-level isolation, one major dependency remained shared across all sandboxes: the database. Step 2: Solve State Isolation with Neon For roughly half of Bitso’s services, sharing a database wasn’t an issue, as these services were read-heavy or interacted with tables that rarely changed. But for the long tail of services that required schema changes write-heavy testing destructive migrations or validation against real production-like data, a single shared database made true isolation impossible. To fully unlock sandboxed development, Bitso needed a way to give each engineer (or each PR) their own isolated, production-like Postgres instance without incurring massive operational overhead, so they turned to Neon’s branching . Production-Like Databases for Every Sandbox Branching in Neon offers a way to create new Postgres environments instantly by taking a point-in-time copy of an existing database , without duplicating data or provisioning new infrastructure. Branches behave like independent databases, but they share the same underlying storage using a copy-on-write model, making them fast to create and inexpensive to run. For Bitso, branching provided exactly what was missing in their workflow: Each Signadot sandbox can be paired with its own Neon branch, giving developers a clean environment without affecting the baseline staging data or other engineers. Engineers validate logic against real-world scenarios and edge cases, since branches inherit the exact state of the parent environment at creation time. Engineers can run destructive testing and migrations with zero risk to anyone else. When they’re done, branches simply scale back down to zero or are removed entirely via workflows that can be automated. Every layer is serverless. Neon’s serverless architecture means branches start fast, scale automatically , and incur no cost when idle , perfectly matching Signadot’s short-lived sandbox model. Bitso’s RISE Architecture This combination of service isolation through Signadot and state isolation through Neon is what allowed Bitso to build what they call RISE: a Robust Isolated Staging Environment, or a development workflow where every change is tested in a production-like environment, entirely in isolation, before being promoted. At the heart of RISE is the idea that every change should be tested in its own environment, and the exact artifact that passes those tests should be the artifact deployed to production. Signadot handles the routing: requests meant for a developer’s modified services are sent to that engineer’s sandbox, while all other requests continue hitting the baseline environment. Neon handles the state: each sandbox can be paired with its own Postgres branch, ensuring the database layer reflects the same level of isolation. The result is a workflow where every engineer gets a production-like environment by default changes are tested independently and safely deployments become predictable and repeatable staging stability no longer controls team velocity Source: Signadot Wrap Up For a company operating at Bitso’s scale, this development setup is transformative, with fewer broken environments, faster iteration, safer deploys, and a far more predictable path from development to production. If you’re exploring a similar approach, check out Signadot’s write-up , open a free Neon account , and try your first branching workflows . Posted by Carlota Soto Product Marketing Lead More articles Zero-ETL lakehouses for Postgres people George MacKerron Handling Auth in a Staging Environment Carlota Soto Reusable Prompts: The Future of Starter Templates Andre Landgraf Share: Subscribe to our changelog. No spam, guaranteed. Subscribe Share: More from Neon Postgres Jan 12, 2026 Zero-ETL lakehouses for Postgres people George MacKerron App Platform Jan 10, 2026 Handling Auth in a Staging Environment Carlota Soto AI Jan 08, 2026 Reusable Prompts: The Future of Starter Templates Andre Landgraf Neon A Databricks Company Neon status loading... 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https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#a-provide-our-services	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/amit_ambekar_c022e6732f8d	Amit Ambekar - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Follow User actions Amit Ambekar 404 bio not found Joined Joined on Apr 30, 2025 More info about @amit_ambekar_c022e6732f8d Badges Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. Got it Close Post 3 posts published Comment 1 comment written Tag 0 tags followed ✉️ December: Email Security — Your Strongest Defense Against Everyday Cyber Threats ✉️ Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Follow Dec 2 '25 ✉️ December: Email Security — Your Strongest Defense Against Everyday Cyber Threats ✉️ # email # cybersecurity # education # soc 1 reaction Comments 2 comments 3 min read Want to connect with Amit Ambekar? Create an account to connect with Amit Ambekar. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in 🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Follow Nov 28 '25 🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs # iam # cybersecurity # soc # education Comments Add Comment 2 min read 🔐 Cyber Awareness Month Special: Why Security is Everyone’s Responsibility! Beyond Roles and Job Titles... Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Follow Oct 27 '25 🔐 Cyber Awareness Month Special: Why Security is Everyone’s Responsibility! Beyond Roles and Job Titles... # cybersecurity # awareness Comments Add Comment 6 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://core.forem.com/t/security#main-content	Security - Forem Core Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Forem Core Close Security Follow Hide Hopefully not just an afterthought! Create Post submission guidelines Write as you are pleased, be mindful and keep it civil. Older #security posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 75 … 560 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu October 2025 Forem Core Update: Hacktoberfest Momentum, PR Cleanups, and Self-Hosting Tweaks Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Oct 12 '25 October 2025 Forem Core Update: Hacktoberfest Momentum, PR Cleanups, and Self-Hosting Tweaks # productivity # security # performance # javascript 20 reactions Comments 1 comment 4 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem Core — Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem Core © 2016 - 2026. Community building community Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#4-how-we-disclose-your-information	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/library/ssl.html#module-ssl	ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects Functions, Constants, and Exceptions Socket creation Context creation Exceptions Random generation Certificate handling Constants SSL Sockets SSL Contexts Certificates Certificate chains CA certificates Combined key and certificate Self-signed certificates Examples Testing for SSL support Client-side operation Server-side operation Notes on non-blocking sockets Memory BIO Support SSL session Security considerations Best defaults Manual settings Verifying certificates Protocol versions Cipher selection Multi-processing TLS 1.3 Previous topic socket — Low-level networking interface Next topic select — Waiting for I/O completion This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Networking and Interprocess Communication » ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects ¶ Source code: Lib/ssl.py This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as “Secure Sockets Layer”) encryption and peer authentication facilities for network sockets, both client-side and server-side. This module uses the OpenSSL library. This is an optional module . If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules . Note Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the operating system socket APIs. The installed version of OpenSSL may also cause variations in behavior. For example, TLSv1.3 comes with OpenSSL version 1.1.1. Warning Don’t use this module without reading the Security considerations . Doing so may lead to a false sense of security, as the default settings of the ssl module are not necessarily appropriate for your application. Availability : not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See WebAssembly platforms for more information. This section documents the objects and functions in the ssl module; for more general information about TLS, SSL, and certificates, the reader is referred to the documents in the “See Also” section at the bottom. This module provides a class, ssl.SSLSocket , which is derived from the socket.socket type, and provides a socket-like wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket with SSL. It supports additional methods such as getpeercert() , which retrieves the certificate of the other side of the connection, cipher() , which retrieves the cipher being used for the secure connection or get_verified_chain() , get_unverified_chain() which retrieves certificate chain. For more sophisticated applications, the ssl.SSLContext class helps manage settings and certificates, which can then be inherited by SSL sockets created through the SSLContext.wrap_socket() method. Changed in version 3.5.3: Updated to support linking with OpenSSL 1.1.0 Changed in version 3.6: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported. In the future the ssl module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.0. Changed in version 3.10: PEP 644 has been implemented. The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer. Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation warnings. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions ¶ Socket creation ¶ Instances of SSLSocket must be created using the SSLContext.wrap_socket() method. The helper function create_default_context() returns a new context with secure default settings. Client socket example with default context and IPv4/IPv6 dual stack: import socket import ssl hostname = 'www.python.org' context = ssl . create_default_context () with socket . create_connection (( hostname , 443 )) as sock : with context . wrap_socket ( sock , server_hostname = hostname ) as ssock : print ( ssock . version ()) Client socket example with custom context and IPv4: hostname = 'www.python.org' # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname context = ssl . SSLContext ( ssl . PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT ) context . load_verify_locations ( 'path/to/cabundle.pem' ) with socket . socket ( socket . AF_INET , socket . SOCK_STREAM , 0 ) as sock : with context . wrap_socket ( sock , server_hostname = hostname ) as ssock : print ( ssock . version ()) Server socket example listening on localhost IPv4: context = ssl . SSLContext ( ssl . PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER ) context . load_cert_chain ( '/path/to/certchain.pem' , '/path/to/private.key' ) with socket . socket ( socket . AF_INET , socket . SOCK_STREAM , 0 ) as sock : sock . bind (( '127.0.0.1' , 8443 )) sock . listen ( 5 ) with context . wrap_socket ( sock , server_side = True ) as ssock : conn , addr = ssock . accept () ... Context creation ¶ A convenience function helps create SSLContext objects for common purposes. ssl. create_default_context ( purpose = Purpose.SERVER_AUTH , * , cafile = None , capath = None , cadata = None ) ¶ Return a new SSLContext object with default settings for the given purpose . The settings are chosen by the ssl module, and usually represent a higher security level than when calling the SSLContext constructor directly. cafile , capath , cadata represent optional CA certificates to trust for certificate verification, as in SSLContext.load_verify_locations() . If all three are None , this function can choose to trust the system’s default CA certificates instead. The settings are: PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER , OP_NO_SSLv2 , and OP_NO_SSLv3 with high encryption cipher suites without RC4 and without unauthenticated cipher suites. Passing SERVER_AUTH as purpose sets verify_mode to CERT_REQUIRED and either loads CA certificates (when at least one of cafile , capath or cadata is given) or uses SSLContext.load_default_certs() to load default CA certificates. When keylog_filename is supported and the environment variable SSLKEYLOGFILE is set, create_default_context() enables key logging. The default settings for this context include VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and VERIFY_X509_STRICT . These make the underlying OpenSSL implementation behave more like a conforming implementation of RFC 5280 , in exchange for a small amount of incompatibility with older X.509 certificates. Note The protocol, options, cipher and other settings may change to more restrictive values anytime without prior deprecation. The values represent a fair balance between compatibility and security. If your application needs specific settings, you should create a SSLContext and apply the settings yourself. Note If you find that when certain older clients or servers attempt to connect with a SSLContext created by this function that they get an error stating “Protocol or cipher suite mismatch”, it may be that they only support SSL3.0 which this function excludes using the OP_NO_SSLv3 . SSL3.0 is widely considered to be completely broken . If you still wish to continue to use this function but still allow SSL 3.0 connections you can re-enable them using: ctx = ssl . create_default_context ( Purpose . CLIENT_AUTH ) ctx . options &= ~ ssl . OP_NO_SSLv3 Note This context enables VERIFY_X509_STRICT by default, which may reject pre- RFC 5280 or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation otherwise would accept. While disabling this is not recommended, you can do so using: ctx = ssl . create_default_context () ctx . verify_flags &= ~ ssl . VERIFY_X509_STRICT Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.4.4: RC4 was dropped from the default cipher string. Changed in version 3.6: ChaCha20/Poly1305 was added to the default cipher string. 3DES was dropped from the default cipher string. Changed in version 3.8: Support for key logging to SSLKEYLOGFILE was added. Changed in version 3.10: The context now uses PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER protocol instead of generic PROTOCOL_TLS . Changed in version 3.13: The context now uses VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and VERIFY_X509_STRICT in its default verify flags. Exceptions ¶ exception ssl. SSLError ¶ Raised to signal an error from the underlying SSL implementation (currently provided by the OpenSSL library). This signifies some problem in the higher-level encryption and authentication layer that’s superimposed on the underlying network connection. This error is a subtype of OSError . The error code and message of SSLError instances are provided by the OpenSSL library. Changed in version 3.3: SSLError used to be a subtype of socket.error . library ¶ A string mnemonic designating the OpenSSL submodule in which the error occurred, such as SSL , PEM or X509 . The range of possible values depends on the OpenSSL version. Added in version 3.3. reason ¶ A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred, for example CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED . The range of possible values depends on the OpenSSL version. Added in version 3.3. exception ssl. SSLZeroReturnError ¶ A subclass of SSLError raised when trying to read or write and the SSL connection has been closed cleanly. Note that this doesn’t mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been closed. Added in version 3.3. exception ssl. SSLWantReadError ¶ A subclass of SSLError raised by a non-blocking SSL socket when trying to read or write data, but more data needs to be received on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be fulfilled. Added in version 3.3. exception ssl. SSLWantWriteError ¶ A subclass of SSLError raised by a non-blocking SSL socket when trying to read or write data, but more data needs to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be fulfilled. Added in version 3.3. exception ssl. SSLSyscallError ¶ A subclass of SSLError raised when a system error was encountered while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to inspect the original errno number. Added in version 3.3. exception ssl. SSLEOFError ¶ A subclass of SSLError raised when the SSL connection has been terminated abruptly. Generally, you shouldn’t try to reuse the underlying transport when this error is encountered. Added in version 3.3. exception ssl. SSLCertVerificationError ¶ A subclass of SSLError raised when certificate validation has failed. Added in version 3.7. verify_code ¶ A numeric error number that denotes the verification error. verify_message ¶ A human readable string of the verification error. exception ssl. CertificateError ¶ An alias for SSLCertVerificationError . Changed in version 3.7: The exception is now an alias for SSLCertVerificationError . Random generation ¶ ssl. RAND_bytes ( num , / ) ¶ Return num cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. Raises an SSLError if the PRNG has not been seeded with enough data or if the operation is not supported by the current RAND method. RAND_status() can be used to check the status of the PRNG and RAND_add() can be used to seed the PRNG. For almost all applications os.urandom() is preferable. Read the Wikipedia article, Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) , to get the requirements of a cryptographically strong generator. Added in version 3.3. ssl. RAND_status ( ) ¶ Return True if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been seeded with ‘enough’ randomness, and False otherwise. You can use ssl.RAND_egd() and ssl.RAND_add() to increase the randomness of the pseudo-random number generator. ssl. RAND_add ( bytes , entropy , / ) ¶ Mix the given bytes into the SSL pseudo-random number generator. The parameter entropy (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in string (so you can always use 0.0 ). See RFC 1750 for more information on sources of entropy. Changed in version 3.5: Writable bytes-like object is now accepted. Certificate handling ¶ ssl. cert_time_to_seconds ( cert_time ) ¶ Return the time in seconds since the Epoch, given the cert_time string representing the “notBefore” or “notAfter” date from a certificate in "%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z" strptime format (C locale). Here’s an example: >>> import ssl >>> timestamp = ssl . cert_time_to_seconds ( "Jan 5 09:34:43 2018 GMT" ) >>> timestamp 1515144883 >>> from datetime import datetime >>> print ( datetime . utcfromtimestamp ( timestamp )) 2018-01-05 09:34:43 “notBefore” or “notAfter” dates must use GMT ( RFC 5280 ). Changed in version 3.5: Interpret the input time as a time in UTC as specified by ‘GMT’ timezone in the input string. Local timezone was used previously. Return an integer (no fractions of a second in the input format) ssl. get_server_certificate ( addr , ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT , ca_certs=None [ , timeout ] ) ¶ Given the address addr of an SSL-protected server, as a ( hostname , port-number ) pair, fetches the server’s certificate, and returns it as a PEM-encoded string. If ssl_version is specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to connect to the server. If ca_certs is specified, it should be a file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as used for the cafile parameter in SSLContext.load_verify_locations() . The call will attempt to validate the server certificate against that set of root certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails. A timeout can be specified with the timeout parameter. Changed in version 3.3: This function is now IPv6-compatible. Changed in version 3.5: The default ssl_version is changed from PROTOCOL_SSLv3 to PROTOCOL_TLS for maximum compatibility with modern servers. Changed in version 3.10: The timeout parameter was added. ssl. DER_cert_to_PEM_cert ( der_cert_bytes ) ¶ Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded string version of the same certificate. ssl. PEM_cert_to_DER_cert ( pem_cert_string ) ¶ Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded sequence of bytes for that same certificate. ssl. get_default_verify_paths ( ) ¶ Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL’s default cafile and capath. The paths are the same as used by SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths() . The return value is a named tuple DefaultVerifyPaths : cafile - resolved path to cafile or None if the file doesn’t exist, capath - resolved path to capath or None if the directory doesn’t exist, openssl_cafile_env - OpenSSL’s environment key that points to a cafile, openssl_cafile - hard coded path to a cafile, openssl_capath_env - OpenSSL’s environment key that points to a capath, openssl_capath - hard coded path to a capath directory Added in version 3.4. ssl. enum_certificates ( store_name ) ¶ Retrieve certificates from Windows’ system cert store. store_name may be one of CA , ROOT or MY . Windows may provide additional cert stores, too. The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples. The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either x509_asn for X.509 ASN.1 data or pkcs_7_asn for PKCS#7 ASN.1 data. Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate as a set of OIDS or exactly True if the certificate is trustworthy for all purposes. Example: >>> ssl . enum_certificates ( "CA" ) [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}), (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)] Availability : Windows. Added in version 3.4. ssl. enum_crls ( store_name ) ¶ Retrieve CRLs from Windows’ system cert store. store_name may be one of CA , ROOT or MY . Windows may provide additional cert stores, too. The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples. The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either x509_asn for X.509 ASN.1 data or pkcs_7_asn for PKCS#7 ASN.1 data. Availability : Windows. Added in version 3.4. Constants ¶ All constants are now enum.IntEnum or enum.IntFlag collections. Added in version 3.6. ssl. CERT_NONE ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_mode . Except for PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT , it is the default mode. With client-side sockets, just about any cert is accepted. Validation errors, such as untrusted or expired cert, are ignored and do not abort the TLS/SSL handshake. In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the client does not send any for client cert authentication. See the discussion of Security considerations below. ssl. CERT_OPTIONAL ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_mode . In client mode, CERT_OPTIONAL has the same meaning as CERT_REQUIRED . It is recommended to use CERT_REQUIRED for client-side sockets instead. In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client. The client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in order perform TLS client cert authentication. If the client chooses to send a certificate, it is verified. Any verification error immediately aborts the TLS handshake. Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be passed to SSLContext.load_verify_locations() . ssl. CERT_REQUIRED ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_mode . In this mode, certificates are required from the other side of the socket connection; an SSLError will be raised if no certificate is provided, or if its validation fails. This mode is not sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as it does not match hostnames. check_hostname must be enabled as well to verify the authenticity of a cert. PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT uses CERT_REQUIRED and enables check_hostname by default. With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert authentication. A client certificate request is sent to the client and the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate. Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be passed to SSLContext.load_verify_locations() . class ssl. VerifyMode ¶ enum.IntEnum collection of CERT_* constants. Added in version 3.6. ssl. VERIFY_DEFAULT ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags . In this mode, certificate revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked. By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify CRLs. Added in version 3.4. ssl. VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags . In this mode, only the peer cert is checked but none of the intermediate CA certificates. The mode requires a valid CRL that is signed by the peer cert’s issuer (its direct ancestor CA). If no proper CRL has been loaded with SSLContext.load_verify_locations , validation will fail. Added in version 3.4. ssl. VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags . In this mode, CRLs of all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked. Added in version 3.4. ssl. VERIFY_X509_STRICT ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags to disable workarounds for broken X.509 certificates. Added in version 3.4. ssl. VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags to enables proxy certificate verification. Added in version 3.10. ssl. VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags . It instructs OpenSSL to prefer trusted certificates when building the trust chain to validate a certificate. This flag is enabled by default. Added in version 3.4.4. ssl. VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN ¶ Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags . It instructs OpenSSL to accept intermediate CAs in the trust store to be treated as trust-anchors, in the same way as the self-signed root CA certificates. This makes it possible to trust certificates issued by an intermediate CA without having to trust its ancestor root CA. Added in version 3.10. class ssl. VerifyFlags ¶ enum.IntFlag collection of VERIFY_* constants. Added in version 3.6. ssl. PROTOCOL_TLS ¶ Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and server support. Despite the name, this option can select both “SSL” and “TLS” protocols. Added in version 3.6. Deprecated since version 3.10: TLS clients and servers require different default settings for secure communication. The generic TLS protocol constant is deprecated in favor of PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER . ssl. PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT ¶ Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client and server support, and configure the context client-side connections. The protocol enables CERT_REQUIRED and check_hostname by default. Added in version 3.6. ssl. PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER ¶ Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client and server support, and configure the context server-side connections. Added in version 3.6. ssl. PROTOCOL_SSLv23 ¶ Alias for PROTOCOL_TLS . Deprecated since version 3.6: Use PROTOCOL_TLS instead. ssl. PROTOCOL_SSLv3 ¶ Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol. This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the no-ssl3 option. Warning SSL version 3 is insecure. Its use is highly discouraged. Deprecated since version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default protocol PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER or PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT with SSLContext.minimum_version and SSLContext.maximum_version instead. ssl. PROTOCOL_TLSv1 ¶ Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol. Deprecated since version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. ssl. PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 ¶ Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+. Added in version 3.4. Deprecated since version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. ssl. PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 ¶ Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+. Added in version 3.4. Deprecated since version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. ssl. OP_ALL ¶ Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL implementations. This option is set by default. It does not necessarily set the same flags as OpenSSL’s SSL_OP_ALL constant. Added in version 3.2. ssl. OP_NO_SSLv2 ¶ Prevents an SSLv2 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS . It prevents the peers from choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version. Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.6: SSLv2 is deprecated ssl. OP_NO_SSLv3 ¶ Prevents an SSLv3 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS . It prevents the peers from choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version. Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.6: SSLv3 is deprecated ssl. OP_NO_TLSv1 ¶ Prevents a TLSv1 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS . It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version. Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0, use the new SSLContext.minimum_version and SSLContext.maximum_version instead. ssl. OP_NO_TLSv1_1 ¶ Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS . It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.1 as the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+. Added in version 3.4. Deprecated since version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0. ssl. OP_NO_TLSv1_2 ¶ Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS . It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.2 as the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+. Added in version 3.4. Deprecated since version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0. ssl. OP_NO_TLSv1_3 ¶ Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS . It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.3 as the protocol version. TLS 1.3 is available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later. When Python has been compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the flag defaults to 0 . Added in version 3.6.3. Deprecated since version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0. It was added to 2.7.15 and 3.6.3 for backwards compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2. ssl. OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION ¶ Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier. Do not send HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via ClientHello. This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later. Added in version 3.7. ssl. OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE ¶ Use the server’s cipher ordering preference, rather than the client’s. This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2 server sockets. Added in version 3.3. ssl. OP_SINGLE_DH_USE ¶ Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions. This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources. This option only applies to server sockets. Added in version 3.3. ssl. OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE ¶ Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions. This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources. This option only applies to server sockets. Added in version 3.3. ssl. OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT ¶ Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake to make a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection. This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later. Added in version 3.8. ssl. OP_NO_COMPRESSION ¶ Disable compression on the SSL channel. This is useful if the application protocol supports its own compression scheme. Added in version 3.3. class ssl. Options ¶ enum.IntFlag collection of OP_* constants. ssl. OP_NO_TICKET ¶ Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket. Added in version 3.6. ssl. OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF ¶ Ignore unexpected shutdown of TLS connections. This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later. Added in version 3.10. ssl. OP_ENABLE_KTLS ¶ Enable the use of the kernel TLS. To benefit from the feature, OpenSSL must have been compiled with support for it, and the negotiated cipher suites and extensions must be supported by it (a list of supported ones may vary by platform and kernel version). Note that with enabled kernel TLS some cryptographic operations are performed by the kernel directly and not via any available OpenSSL Providers. This might be undesirable if, for example, the application requires all cryptographic operations to be performed by the FIPS provider. This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later. Added in version 3.12. ssl. OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT ¶ Allow legacy insecure renegotiation between OpenSSL and unpatched servers only. Added in version 3.12. ssl. HAS_ALPN ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation TLS extension as described in RFC 7301 . Added in version 3.5. ssl. HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking subject common name and SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name is writeable. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_ECDH ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman key exchange. This should be true unless the feature was explicitly disabled by the distributor. Added in version 3.3. ssl. HAS_SNI ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Server Name Indication extension (as defined in RFC 6066 ). Added in version 3.2. ssl. HAS_NPN ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Next Protocol Negotiation as described in the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation . When true, you can use the SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() method to advertise which protocols you want to support. Added in version 3.3. ssl. HAS_SSLv2 ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0 protocol. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_SSLv3 ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0 protocol. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_TLSv1 ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0 protocol. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_TLSv1_1 ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1 protocol. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_TLSv1_2 ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2 protocol. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_TLSv1_3 ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3 protocol. Added in version 3.7. ssl. HAS_PSK ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PSK. Added in version 3.13. ssl. HAS_PHA ¶ Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PHA. Added in version 3.14. ssl. CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES ¶ List of supported TLS channel binding types. Strings in this list can be used as arguments to SSLSocket.get_channel_binding() . Added in version 3.3. ssl. OPENSSL_VERSION ¶ The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the interpreter: >>> ssl . OPENSSL_VERSION 'OpenSSL 1.0.2k 26 Jan 2017' Added in version 3.2. ssl. OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO ¶ A tuple of five integers representing version information about the OpenSSL library: >>> ssl . OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (1, 0, 2, 11, 15) Added in version 3.2. ssl. OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER ¶ The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer: >>> ssl . OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER 268443839 >>> hex ( ssl . OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER ) '0x100020bf' Added in version 3.2. ssl. ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE ¶ ssl. ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR ¶ ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* Alert Descriptions from RFC 5246 and others. The IANA TLS Alert Registry contains this list and references to the RFCs where their meaning is defined. Used as the return value of the callback function in SSLContext.set_servername_callback() . Added in version 3.4. class ssl. AlertDescription ¶ enum.IntEnum collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* constants. Added in version 3.6. Purpose. SERVER_AUTH ¶ Option for create_default_context() and SSLContext.load_default_certs() . This value indicates that the context may be used to authenticate web servers (therefore, it will be used to create client-side sockets). Added in version 3.4. Purpose. CLIENT_AUTH ¶ Option for create_default_context() and SSLContext.load_default_certs() . This value indicates that the context may be used to authenticate web clients (therefore, it will be used to create server-side sockets). Added in version 3.4. class ssl. SSLErrorNumber ¶ enum.IntEnum collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants. Added in version 3.6. class ssl. TLSVersion ¶ enum.IntEnum collection of SSL and TLS versions for SSLContext.maximum_version and SSLContext.minimum_version . Added in version 3.7. TLSVersion. MINIMUM_SUPPORTED ¶ TLSVersion. MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED ¶ The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version. These are magic constants. Their values don’t reflect the lowest and highest available TLS/SSL versions. TLSVersion. SSLv3 ¶ TLSVersion. TLSv1 ¶ TLSVersion. TLSv1_1 ¶ TLSVersion. TLSv1_2 ¶ TLSVersion. TLSv1_3 ¶ SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3. Deprecated since version 3.10: All TLSVersion members except TLSVersion.TLSv1_2 and TLSVersion.TLSv1_3 are deprecated. SSL Sockets ¶ class ssl. SSLSocket ( socket.socket ) ¶ SSL sockets provide the following methods of Socket Objects : accept() bind() close() connect() detach() fileno() getpeername() , getsockname() getsockopt() , setsockopt() gettimeout() , settimeout() , setblocking() listen() makefile() recv() , recv_into() (but passing a non-zero flags argument is not allowed) send() , sendall() (with the same limitation) sendfile() (but os.sendfile will be used for plain-text sockets only, else send() will be used) shutdown() However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects, diverge from the specification of normal, OS-level sockets. See especially the notes on non-blocking sockets . Instances of SSLSocket must be created using the SSLContext.wrap_socket() method. Changed in version 3.5: The sendfile() method was added. Changed in version 3.5: The shutdown() does not reset the socket timeout each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the shutdown. Deprecated since version 3.6: It is deprecated to create a SSLSocket instance directly, use SSLContext.wrap_socket() to wrap a socket. Changed in version 3.7: SSLSocket instances must to created with wrap_socket() . In earlier versions, it was possible to create instances directly. This was never documented or officially supported. Changed in version 3.10: Python now uses SSL_read_ex and SSL_write_ex internally. The functions support reading and writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no longer fails with a protocol violation error. SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes: SSLSocket. read ( len = 1024 , buffer = None ) ¶ Read up to len bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the result as a bytes instance. If buffer is specified, then read into the buffer instead, and return the number of bytes read. Raise SSLWantReadError or SSLWantWriteError if the socket is non-blocking and the read would block. As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to read() can also cause write operations. Changed in version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to read up to len bytes. Deprecated since version 3.6: Use recv() instead of read() . SSLSocket. write ( data ) ¶ Write data to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes written. The data argument must be an object supporting the buffer interface. Raise SSLWantReadError or SSLWantWriteError if the socket is non-blocking and the write would block. As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to write() can also cause read operations. Changed in version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to write data . Deprecated since version 3.6: Use send() instead of write() . Note The read() and write() methods are the low-level methods that read and write unencrypted, application-level data and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted, wire-level data. These methods require an active SSL connection, i.e. the handshake was completed and SSLSocket.unwrap() was not called. Normally you should use the socket API methods like recv() and send() instead of these methods. SSLSocket. do_handshake ( block = False ) ¶ Perform the SSL setup handshake. If block is true and the timeout obtained by gettimeout() is zero, the socket is set in blocking mode until the handshake is performed. Changed in version 3.4: The handshake method also performs match_hostname() when the check_hostname attribute of the socket’s context is true. Changed in version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the handshake. Changed in version 3.7: Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL during handshake. The function match_hostname() is no longer used. In case OpenSSL refuses a hostname or IP address, the handshake is aborted early and a TLS alert message is sent to the peer. SSLSocket. getpeercert ( binary_form = False ) ¶ If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the connection, return None . If the SSL handshake hasn’t been done yet, raise ValueError . If the binary_form parameter is False , and a certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a dict instance. If the certificate was not validated, the dict is empty. If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict with several keys, amongst them subject (the principal for which the certificate was issued) and issuer (the principal issuing the certificate). If a certificate contains an instance of the Subject Alternative Name extension (see RFC 3280 ), there will also be a subjectAltName key in the dictionary. The subject and issuer fields are tuples containing the sequence of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the certificate’s data structure for the respective fields, and each RDN is a sequence of name-value pairs. Here is a real-world example: { 'issuer' : ((( 'countryName' , 'IL' ),), (( 'organizationName' , 'StartCom Ltd.' ),), (( 'organizationalUnitName' , 'Secure Digital Certificate Signing' ),), (( 'commonName' , 'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA' ),)), 'notAfter' : 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT' , 'notBefore' : 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT' , 'serialNumber' : '95F0' , 'subject' : ((( 'description' , '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z' ),), (( 'countryName' , 'US' ),), (( 'stateOrProvinceName' , 'California' ),), (( 'localityName' , 'San Francisco' ),), (( 'organizationName' , 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.' ),), (( 'commonName' , '.eff.org' ),), (( 'emailAddress' , 'hostmaster@eff.org' ),)), 'subjectAltName' : (( 'DNS' , '.eff.org' ), ( 'DNS' , 'eff.org' )), 'version' : 3 } If the binary_form parameter is True , and a certificate was provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form of the entire certificate as a sequence of bytes, or None if the peer did not provide a certificate. Whether the peer provides a certificate depends on the SSL socket’s role: for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a certificate, regardless of whether validation was required; for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a certificate when requested by the server; therefore getpeercert() will return None if you used CERT_NONE (rather than CERT_OPTIONAL or CERT_REQUIRED ). See also SSLContext.check_hostname . Changed in version 3.2: The returned dictionary includes additional items such as issuer and notBefore . Changed in version 3.4: ValueError is raised when the handshake isn’t done. The returned dictionary includes additional X509v3 extension items such as crlDistributionPoints , caIssuers and OCSP URIs. Changed in version 3.9: IPv6 address strings no longer have a trailing new line. SSLSocket. get_verified_chain ( ) ¶ Returns verified certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes. If certificate verification was disabled method acts the same as get_unverified_chain() . Added in version 3.13. SSLSocket. get_unverified_chain ( ) ¶ Returns raw certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes. Added in version 3.13. SSLSocket. cipher ( ) ¶ Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret bits being used. If no connection has been established, returns None . SSLSocket. shared_ciphers ( ) ¶ Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server. Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses. shared_ciphers() returns None if no connection has been established or the socket is a client socket. Added in version 3.5. SSLSocket. compression ( ) ¶ Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or None if the connection isn’t compressed. If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression mechanism, you can use OP_NO_COMPRESSION to disable SSL-level compression. Added in version 3.3. SSLSocket. get_channel_binding ( cb_type = 'tls-unique' ) ¶ Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object. Returns None if not connected or the handshake has not been completed. The cb_type parameter allow selection of the desired channel binding type. Valid channel binding types are listed in the CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES list. Currently only the ‘tls-unique’ channel binding, defined by RFC 5929 , is supported. ValueError will be raised if an unsupported channel binding type is requested. Added in version 3.3. SSLSocket. selected_alpn_protocol ( ) ¶ Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake. If SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols() was not called, if the other party does not support ALPN, if this socket does not support any of the client’s proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not happened yet, None is returned. Added in version 3.5. SSLSocket. selected_npn_protocol ( ) ¶ Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the TLS/SSL handshake. If SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() was not called, or if the other party does not support NPN, or if the handshake has not yet happened, this will return None . Added in version 3.3. Deprecated since version 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN SSLSocket. unwrap ( ) ¶ Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket object. This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a connection to unencrypted. The returned socket should always be used for further communication with the other side of the connection, rather than the original socket. SSLSocket. verify_client_post_handshake ( ) ¶ Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client. PHA can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a server-side socket, after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA enabled on both sides, see SSLContext.post_handshake_auth . The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately. The server-side sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event and expects the client to respond with a certificate on the next read event. If any precondition isn’t met (e.g. not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled), an SSLError is raised. Note Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled. Without TLS 1.3 support, the method raises NotImplementedError . Added in version 3.8. SSLSocket. version ( ) ¶ Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection as a string, or None if no secure connection is established. As of this writing, possible return values include "SSLv2" , "SSLv3" , "TLSv1" , "TLSv1.1" and "TLSv1.2" . Recent OpenSSL versions may define more return values. Added in version 3.5. SSLSocket. pending ( ) ¶ Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read, pending on the connection. SSLSocket. context ¶ The SSLContext object this SSL socket is tied to. Added in version 3.2. SSLSocket. server_side ¶ A boolean which is True for server-side sockets and False for client-side sockets. Added in version 3.2. SSLSocket. server_hostname ¶ Hostname of the server: str type, or None for server-side socket or if the hostname was not specified in the constructor. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.7: The attribute is now always ASCII text. When server_hostname is an internationalized domain name (IDN), this attribute now stores the A-label form ( "xn--pythn-mua.org" ), rather than the U-label form ( "pythön.org" ). SSLSocket. session ¶ The SSLSession for this SSL connection. The session is available for client and server side sockets after the TLS handshake has been performed. For client sockets the session can be set before do_handshake() has been called to reuse a session. Added in version 3.6. SSLSocket. session_reused ¶ Added in version 3.6. SSL Contexts ¶ Added in version 3.2. An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL connections, such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and private key(s). It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side sockets, in order to speed up repeated connections from the same clients. class ssl. SSLContext ( protocol = None ) ¶ Create a new SSL context. You may pass protocol which must be one of the PROTOCOL_* constants defined in this module. The parameter specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use. Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and the client must adapt to the server’s choice. Most of the versions are not interoperable with the other versions. If not specified, the default is PROTOCOL_TLS ; it provides the most compatibility with other versions. Here’s a table showing which versions in a client (down the side) can connect to which versions in a server (along the top): client / server SSLv2 SSLv3 TLS [ 3 ] TLSv1 TLSv1.1 TLSv1.2 SSLv2 yes no no [ 1 ] no no no SSLv3 no yes no [ 2 ] no no no TLS ( SSLv23 ) [ 3 ] no [ 1 ] no [ 2 ] yes yes yes yes TLSv1 no no yes yes no no TLSv1.1 no no yes no yes no TLSv1.2 no no yes no no yes Footnotes [ 1 ] ( 1 , 2 ) SSLContext disables SSLv2 with OP_NO_SSLv2 by default. [ 2 ] ( 1 , 2 ) SSLContext disables SSLv3 with OP_NO_SSLv3 by default. [ 3 ] ( 1 , 2 ) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with PROTOCOL_TLS in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1. There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just TLS 1.3. See also create_default_context() lets the ssl module choose security settings for a given purpose. Changed in version 3.6: The context is created with secure default values. The options OP_NO_COMPRESSION , OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE , OP_SINGLE_DH_USE , OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE , OP_NO_SSLv2 , and OP_NO_SSLv3 (except for PROTOCOL_SSLv3 ) are set by default. The initial cipher suite list contains only HIGH ciphers, no NULL ciphers and no MD5 ciphers. Deprecated since version 3.10: SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated. The context class will either require PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER protocol in the future. Changed in version 3.10: The default cipher suites now include only secure AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and security level 2. RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC keys with less than 224 bits are prohibited. PROTOCOL_TLS , PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT , and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version. Note SSLContext only supports limited mutation once it has been used by a connection. Adding new certificates to the internal trust store is allowed, but changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS certificates may result in surprising behavior. Note SSLContext is designed to be shared and used by multiple connections. Thus, it is thread-safe as long as it is not reconfigured after being used by a connection. SSLContext objects have the following methods and attributes: SSLContext. cert_store_stats ( ) ¶ Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count of X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate revocation lists as dictionary. Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert: >>> context . cert_store_stats () {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2} Added in version 3.4. SSLContext. load_cert_chain ( certfile , keyfile = None , password = None ) ¶ Load a private key and the corresponding certificate. The certfile string must be the path to a single file in PEM format containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates needed to establish the certificate’s authenticity. The keyfile string, if present, must point to a file containing the private key. Otherwise the private key will be taken from certfile as well. See the discussion of Certificates for more information on how the certificate is stored in the certfile . The password argument may be a function to call to get the password for decrypting the private key. It will only be called if the private key is encrypted and a password is necessary. It will be called with no arguments, and it should return a string, bytes, or bytearray. If the return value is a string it will be encoded as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key. Alternatively a string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly as the password argument. It will be ignored if the private key is not encrypted and no password is needed. If the password argument is not specified and a password is required, OpenSSL’s built-in password prompting mechanism will be used to interactively prompt the user for a password. An SSLError is raised if the private key doesn’t match with the certificate. Changed in version 3.3: New optional argument password . SSLContext. load_default_certs ( purpose = Purpose.SERVER_AUTH ) ¶ Load a set of default “certification authority” (CA) certificates from default locations. On Windows it loads CA certs from the CA and ROOT system stores. On all systems it calls SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths() . In the future the method may load CA certificates from other locations, too. The purpose flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are loaded. The default settings Purpose.SERVER_AUTH loads certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server authentication (client side sockets). Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on the server side. Added in version 3.4. SSLContext. load_verify_locations ( cafile = None , capath = None , cadata = None ) ¶ Load a set of “certification authority” (CA) certificates used to validate other peers’ certificates when verify_mode is other than CERT_NONE . At least one of cafile or capath must be specified. This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in PEM or DER format. In order to make use of CRLs, SSLContext.verify_flags must be configured properly. The cafile string, if present, is the path to a file of concatenated CA certificates in PEM format. See the discussion of Certificates for more information about how to arrange the certificates in this file. The capath string, if present, is the path to a directory containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an OpenSSL specif	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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https://www.python.org/doc/essays/#site-map	Python Documentation Index \| Python.org Notice: While JavaScript is not essential for this website, your interaction with the content will be limited. Please turn JavaScript on for the full experience. Skip to content ▼ Close Python PSF Docs PyPI Jobs Community ▲ The Python Network Donate &equiv; Menu Search This Site GO A A Smaller Larger Reset Socialize LinkedIn Mastodon Chat on IRC Twitter About Applications Quotes Getting Started Help Python Brochure Downloads All releases Source code Windows macOS Android Other Platforms License Alternative Implementations Documentation Docs Audio/Visual Talks Beginner's Guide FAQ Non-English Docs PEP Index Python Books Python Essays Community Diversity Mailing Lists IRC Forums PSF Annual Impact Report Python Conferences Special Interest Groups Python Logo Python Wiki Code of Conduct Community Awards Get Involved Shared Stories Success Stories Arts Business Education Engineering Government Scientific Software Development News Python News PSF Newsletter PSF News PyCon US News News from the Community Events Python Events User Group Events Python Events Archive User Group Events Archive Submit an Event Python >>> Documentation >>> Python Essays Python Documentation Index Python Essays In this directory I place short essays (anything from 500 to 5000 words) on various Python subjects. See also a collection of presentations I have given. See also my blog at blogspot.com and my previous blog at artima.com. -- Guido van Rossum Table of contents (in mostly chronological order) Unifying types and classes in Python 2.2 (See below) Foreword for "Programming Python" (1st ed.) Written in 1996, this gives an overview of the early history and background of Python and some of my philosophy about software design and project management. See also my foreword to the 2nd edition . Implementing Graphs An elegant and perhaps not obvious way to represent graphs using Python's most fundamental and versatile data types, lists and dictionaries. An Optimization Anecdote Required reading if you find that your Python code runs too slow. Metaclass Programming in Python 1.5 Warning: reading this document may cause your brain to explode. Built-in Package Support in Python 1.5 The most official documentation for the new package features in Python 1.5. Standard Exception Classes in Python 1.5 The most official documentation for the new exception features in Python 1.5. (Updated for Python 1.5.2 by Barry Warsaw.) Glue It All Together With Python A position paper I wrote for and presented at the OMG-DARPA-MCC workshop on compositional software architectures in Monterey, California, January 6-8, 1998. What Is Python? Executive Summary A short (two paragraphs) high-level presentation of Python's virtues. Comparing Python to Other Languages Activist ammo or flame fodder? (Note: I received lots of feedback when I posted this to comp.lang.python. Unfortunately the feedback was diverted to a separate mailbox that I didn't know I had -- when I finally found it, I was a bit overwhelmed and so far have not yet found the time to update the article.) Proposed Improvements to Module Cleanup A revised version of the proposal I posted to comp.lang.python on Feb 6, 1998. This has been adopted in Python 1.5.1. Open Source Summit Trip Report My trip report of O'Reilly's Open Source Summit, essentially as posted on c.l.p. This version published in the Linux Gazette (it's an external link), in their May 1998 issue. Debugging Reference Count Problems An edited version of a posting to c.l.p on this subject, on May 27, 1998. Computer Programming for Everybody (old) A funding proposal that was accepted by DARPA in March 1999. Computer Programming for Everybody Revised, extended version of the previous proposal. Interview in Linux Journal Not quite an essay, but a stream of consciousness penned down by a journalist... More thoughts about CP4E. Interview in by Frank Willison for "Frankly Speaking" column Another stream of consciousness transcribed by a friendly listener... Not just on CP4E. Foreword for "Programming Python" (2nd ed.) The story continues... Unifying types and classes in Python 2.2 An introduction to the type/class unification effort in Python 2.2. Note that the unification work is officially labeled experimental and is subject to change in future releases of Python. Parade of the PEPs To start off Developer's Day at the Python10 conference I gave a keynote ending in what I dubbed "the parade of the PEPs". It was a brief overview of all open PEPs , where I gave my highly personal and subjective opinion for each PEP. Later, I realized that this might have been of interest to other developers. I didn't take notes at the conference, so below is a different set of comments that I created from scratch during a single two-hour sitting on March 7, 2002. I intend to occasionally update this with new comments and new PEPs. The PSF The Python Software Foundation is the organization behind Python. 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"Data Privacy Framework" means the EU-U.S. Data Privacy Framework, the Swiss-U.S. Data Privacy Framework and the UK Extension to the EU-U.S. Data Privacy Framework self-certification programs (as applicable) operated by the U.S. Department of Commerce; as may be amended, superseded, or replaced. “Data Privacy Framework Principles” means the Principles and Supplemental Principles contained in the relevant Data Privacy Framework; as may be amended, superseded, or replaced. “Data Protection Laws” means all applicable worldwide legislation relating to data protection and privacy which applies to the Processing of Personal Data under the Agreement, including without limitation European Data Protection Laws, the CCPA, and other applicable U.S. federal and state privacy laws, and the data protection and privacy laws of Australia, Canada, Singapore, India, and Japan, in each case as amended, repealed, consolidated, or replaced from time to time. “Data Subject” means the individual to whom Personal Data relates. "Europe" means the European Union, the European Economic Area and/or their member states, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. “European Data” means Customer Personal Data that is subject to the protection of European Data Protection Laws. "European Data Protection Laws" means data protection laws applicable in Europe, including: (i) Regulation 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of Personal Data and on the free movement of such data (General Data Protection Regulation) ("GDPR"); (ii) Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the processing of Personal Data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector; and (iii) applicable national implementations of (i) and (ii); or (iii) GDPR as it forms parts of the United Kingdom domestic law by virtue of Section 3 of the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 ("UK GDPR"); and (iv) Swiss Federal Data Protection Act and its Ordinance ("Swiss DPA"); in each case, as may be amended, superseded, or replaced. “Instructions” means the written, documented instructions issued by Customer to, and directing to perform a specific or general action with regard to Customer Personal Data (including, but not limited to, depersonalizing, blocking, deletion, and making available). "Permitted Affiliates" means any of your Affiliates that (i) are permitted to use the Subscription Services pursuant to the Agreement, but have not signed their own separate agreement with us and are not a “Customer” as defined under the Agreement, (ii) qualify as a Controller of Customer Personal Data or Controller Personal Data, and (iii) are subject to European Data Protection Laws. “Personal Data” means any information relating to an identified or identifiable individual where such information is protected similarly as personal data, personal information, or personally identifiable information under Data Protection Laws. “Processing” means any operation or set of operations which is performed on Personal Data, encompassing the collection, recording, organization, structuring, storage, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, disclosure by transmission, dissemination or otherwise making available, alignment or combination, restriction or erasure of Personal Data. The terms “Process,” “Processes,” and “Processed” will be construed accordingly. “Processor” means a natural or legal person, public authority, agency, or other body which Processes Personal Data on behalf of the Controller. "Restricted Transfer” means transfer of Personal Data originating from Europe to a country that does not provide an adequate level of protection within the meaning of applicable European Data Protection Laws. “Standard Contractual Clauses” means the standard contractual clauses annexed to the European Commission’s Decision (EU) 2021/914 of 4 June 2021 currently found at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec_impl/2021/914 , as may be amended, superseded, or replaced. “Sub-Processor” means any Processor engaged by us or our Affiliates to assist in fulfilling our obligations with respect to the Processing of Customer Personal Data under the Agreement. Sub-Processors may include third parties or our Affiliates but will exclude any employee or consultant. “UK Addendum” means the International Data Transfer Addendum issued by the UK Information Commissioner under section 119A(1) of the Data Protection Act 2018 currently found at https://ico.org.uk/media/for-organisations/documents/4019539/international-data-transfer-addendum.pdf , as may be amended, superseded, or replaced. 2. Customer Responsibilities a. Compliance with Laws . Within the scope of the Agreement and your use of the services, you will be responsible for complying with all requirements that apply to you under Data Protection Laws with respect to your Processing of Personal Data. In particular but without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, you acknowledge and agree that you will be solely responsible for: (i) the accuracy, quality, and legality of Customer Personal Data and the means by which you acquired such data; (ii) complying with all necessary transparency and lawfulness requirements under Data Protection Laws for the collection and use of Customer Personal Data, including providing adequate notices, obtaining any necessary consents and authorizations, and honouring opt-out preferences (particularly for use by Customer for marketing purposes); (iii) ensuring you have the right to transfer, or provide access to, the Customer Personal Data to us for Processing in accordance with the terms of the Agreement (including this DPA); (iv) complying with all laws applicable to any emails or other content created, sent, or managed through the Subscription Services (including those relating to obtaining consents to send emails, the content of emails, and email deployment practices); and (v) ensuring that your use of Controller Personal Data complies with Data Protection Laws and is strictly limited to the purposes set out in the Agreement (including this DPA). You will inform us without undue delay if you are not able to comply with your responsibilities under this 'Compliance with Laws' section or Data Protection Laws. b. Customer Instructions . You are responsible for ensuring that your Instructions to us regarding the Processing of Customer Personal Data comply with applicable laws, including Data Protection Laws. The parties agree that the Agreement (including this DPA), together with your use of the Subscription Service in accordance with the Agreement, constitute your complete Instructions to us in relation to ’s Processing of Customer Personal Data, so long as you may provide additional instructions during the Subscription Term that are consistent with the Agreement and the nature and lawful use of the Subscription Service. c. Security . You are responsible for independently determining whether the data security provided for in the Subscription Service adequately meets your obligations under Data Protection Laws. You are also responsible for your secure use of the Subscription Service, including protecting the security of Personal Data in transit to and from the Subscription Service (including to securely backup or encrypt such data). 3. Obligations as Processor a. Compliance with Instructions . We will only Process Customer Personal Data for the purposes described in this DPA or as otherwise agreed within the scope of your lawful Instructions, except where and to the extent otherwise required by applicable law. We are not responsible for compliance with any Data Protection Laws applicable to you or your industry that are not generally applicable to us. b. Conflict of Laws . If we become aware that we cannot Process Customer Personal Data in accordance with your Instructions due to a legal requirement under any applicable law, we will (i) promptly notify you of that legal requirement to the extent permitted by the applicable law; and (ii) where necessary, cease all Processing (other than merely storing and maintaining the security of the affected Customer Personal Data) until such time as you issue new Instructions with which we are able to comply. If this provision is invoked, we will not be liable to you under the Agreement for any failure to perform the applicable Subscription Services until such time as you issue new lawful Instructions with regard to the Processing. c. Security . We will implement and maintain appropriate technical and organizational measures to protect Customer Personal Data from Customer Personal Data Breaches, as described under Annex 2 to this DPA ("Security Measures"). Notwithstanding any provision to the contrary, we may modify or update the Security Measures at our discretion provided that such modification or update does not result in a material degradation in the protection offered by the Security Measures. d. Confidentiality . We will ensure that any personnel whom we authorize to Process Customer Personal Data on our behalf is subject to appropriate confidentiality obligations (whether a contractual or statutory duty) with respect to that Customer Personal Data. e. Customer Personal Data Breaches . We will notify you without undue delay after we become aware of any Customer Personal Data Breach and will provide timely information relating to the Customer Personal Data Breach as it becomes known or reasonably requested by you. At your request, we will promptly provide you with such reasonable assistance as necessary to enable you to notify relevant Customer Personal Data Breaches to competent authorities and/or affected Data Subjects, if you are required to do so under Data Protection Laws. f. Deletion or Return of Customer Personal Data . We will delete or return all Customer Data, including Customer Personal Data (including copies thereof) Processed pursuant to this DPA, on termination or expiration of your Subscription Service. This term will apply except where we are required by applicable law to retain some or all of the Customer Data, or where we have archived Customer Data on back-up systems, which data we will securely isolate and protect from any further Processing and delete in accordance with our deletion practices. You may request the deletion of your account after expiration or termination of your subscription by writing to us at support@suprsend.com. We strongly recommend retrieving your Customer Data prior to the end of your Subscription Term. 4. Data Subject Requests The Subscription Service provides you with a number of controls that you can use to retrieve, correct, delete, or restrict Customer Personal Data, which you can use to assist you in connection with your obligations under Data Protection Laws, including your obligations relating to responding to requests from Data Subjects to exercise their rights under Data Protection Laws ("Data Subject Requests"). To the extent that you are unable to independently address a Data Subject Request through the Subscription Service, then upon your written request we will provide reasonable assistance to you to respond to any Data Subject Requests or requests from data protection authorities relating to the Processing of Customer Personal Data under the Agreement. You will reimburse us for the commercially reasonable costs arising from this assistance. If a Data Subject Request or other communication regarding the Processing of Customer Personal Data under the Agreement is made directly to us, we will promptly inform you and will advise the Data Subject to submit their request to you. You will be solely responsible for responding substantively to any such Data Subject Requests or communications involving Customer Personal Data. 5. Sub-Processors You agree we may engage Sub-Processors to Process Customer Personal Data on your behalf, and we do so in two primary categories, as outlined below. Categories of Sub-Processors: We may engage Sub-Processors in the following ways: ‍ a. Category 1: CRM & Marketing Sub-Processors We may engage Sub-Processors to assist with hosting and infrastructure, including those who have access solely to personal details of our customers (e.g., email addresses) but do not have access to customer data or customer’s customer data. Examples of such Sub-Processors include HubSpot and other similar service providers. b. Category 2: Full-Data Sub-Processors We may also engage Sub-Processors to assist with IT infrastructure and other services that require access to both customer data and customer’s customer data. These Sub-Processors support the overall IT environment or cloud services and may process both sets of data. Examples of such Sub-Processors include AWS, Clickhouse, Google Cloud Platform (GCP), Aiven, and similar service providers. Opt-In Sub-Processors and Notification: We have currently appointed, as Sub-Processors, the third parties and Affiliates listed in Annex 3 to this DPA, categorized by their role in processing either customer data or both customer and customer’s customer data. If you opt in to receive notifications of Sub-Processor changes, we will notify you at least 30 days prior to any such change. This notification will specify whether the new Sub-Processor falls into Category 1 or Category 2. Objection to New Sub-Processors: We will give you the opportunity to object to the engagement of new Sub-Processors on reasonable grounds relating to the protection of Customer Personal Data within 30 days of notifying you. If you object, the parties will discuss your concerns in good faith with a view to achieving a commercially reasonable resolution. If no such resolution can be reached, we will, at our sole discretion, either not appoint the new Sub-Processor or permit you to suspend or terminate the affected Subscription Service in accordance with the termination provisions of the Agreement without liability to either party (but without prejudice to any fees incurred by you prior to suspension or termination). Data Protection Terms and Responsibilities: Where we engage Sub-Processors, we will impose data protection terms on them that provide at least the same level of protection for Customer Personal Data as those in this DPA, to the extent applicable to the nature of the services provided by such Sub-Processors. We remain responsible for each Sub-Processor’s compliance with the obligations of this DPA and for any acts or omissions by such Sub-Processor that cause us to breach any of our obligations under this DPA. ‍ 6. Data Transfers You acknowledge and agree that we may access and Process Customer Personal Data on a global basis as necessary to provide the Subscription Service in accordance with the Agreement. In particular, Customer Personal Data may be transferred to and processed by (the United States, the European Union, and other jurisdictions where Affiliates and Sub-Processors have operations). Wherever Customer Personal Data is transferred outside its country of origin, each party will ensure that such transfers comply with the requirements of Data Protection Laws, including but not limited to the applicable transfer mechanisms required under the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) for EU-based customers. 7. Demonstration of Compliance We will make all information reasonably necessary to demonstrate compliance with this DPA available to you and allow for and contribute to audits, including inspections conducted by you or your auditor in order to assess compliance with this DPA, where required by applicable law. You acknowledge and agree that you will exercise your audit rights under this DPA by instructing us to comply with the audit measures described in this 'Demonstration of Compliance' section. You acknowledge that the Subscription Service is hosted by our hosting Sub-Processors who maintain independently validated security programs (including SOC 2 and ISO 27001) and that our systems are audited annually as part of SOC 2 compliance and regularly tested by independent third-party penetration testing firms. Upon request, we will supply (on a confidential basis) our SOC 2 report and summary copies of our penetration testing report(s) to you so that you can verify our compliance with this DPA. At your written request, we will provide written responses (on a confidential basis) to all reasonable requests for information made by you necessary to confirm our compliance with this DPA, provided that you will not exercise this right more than once per calendar year unless you have reasonable grounds to suspect noncompliance with the DPA. 8. Additional Provisions for European Data a. Scope . This 'Additional Provisions for European Data' section will apply only with respect to European Data that Processes on your behalf under the Agreement. b. Roles of the Parties . When Processing European Data in accordance with your Instructions, the parties acknowledge and agree that you are acting either as the Controller, or as a Processor on behalf of another Controller, and we are the Processor under the Agreement. c. Instructions . If we believe that your Instruction infringes European Data Protection Laws (where applicable), we will inform you without delay. d. Data Protection Impact Assessments and Consultation with Supervisory Authorities . To the extent that the required information is reasonably available to us, and you do not otherwise have access to the required information, we will provide reasonable assistance to you with any data protection impact assessments, and prior consultations with supervisory authorities (for example, the French Data Protection Agency (CNIL), the Berlin Data Protection Authority (BlnBDI) and the UK Information Commissioner's Office (ICO)) or other competent data privacy authorities to the extent required by European Data Protection Laws. e. Data Transfers . will not transfer European Data to any country or recipient not recognized as providing an adequate level of protection for Customer Personal Data (within the meaning of applicable European Data Protection Laws), unless it first takes all such measures as are necessary to ensure the transfer is in compliance with applicable European Data Protection Laws. Such measures may include (without limitation) (i) transferring such data to a recipient that is covered by a suitable framework or other legally adequate transfer mechanism recognized by the relevant authorities or courts as providing an adequate level of protection for Customer Personal Data, including the Data Privacy Framework; (ii) to a recipient that has achieved binding corporate rules authorization in accordance with European Data Protection Laws; or (iii) to a recipient that has executed the Standard Contractual Clauses in each case as adopted or approved in accordance with applicable European Data Protection Laws. 9. Additional Provisions for California Personal Information a. Scope . The 'Additional Provisions for California Personal Information' section of the DPA will apply only with respect to California Personal Information that Processes on your behalf under the Agreement. b. Roles of the Parties . When processing California Personal Information in accordance with your Instructions, the parties acknowledge and agree that you are a Business and we are a Service Provider for the purposes of the CCPA. c. Responsibilities . We certify that we will Process California Personal Information as a Service Provider strictly for the purpose of performing the Subscription Services and Consulting Services under the Agreement (the "Business Purpose") or as otherwise permitted by the CCPA, including as described in the 'Usage Data' section of our Privacy Policy. Further, we certify that we will not (i) Sell or Share California Personal Information; (ii) Process California Personal Information outside the direct business relationship between the parties, unless required by applicable law; or (iii) combine California Personal Information included in Customer Data with Personal Data that we collect or receive from another source (other than information we receive from another source in connection with our obligations as a Service Provider under the Agreement). d. Compliance . We will (i) comply with the obligations applicable to us as a Service Provider under the CCPA; (ii) provide the same level of protection for California Personal Information as is required by the CCPA; and (iii) notify you if we make a determination that we can no longer meet our obligations as a Service Provider under the CCPA. e. CCPA Audits . You will have the right to take reasonable and appropriate steps to help ensure that we use California Personal Information in a manner consistent with your obligations under the CCPA. Upon notice, you will have the right to take reasonable and appropriate steps in accordance with the Agreement to stop and remediate unauthorized use of California Personal Information. f. Not a Sale . The parties acknowledge and agree that the disclosure of California Personal Information by Customer to does not form part of any monetary or other valuable consideration exchanged between the parties. 10. Controller-to-Controller Terms a. Scope . This 'Controller-to-Controller Terms' section will apply to the extent that the parties Process Controller Personal Data in connection with Customer’s uses of our enrichment products and the Tracking Code. b. Roles of the Parties . The parties acknowledge and agree that they act as Controllers of Controller Personal Data and will comply with their respective obligations under Data Protection Laws when Processing Controller Personal Data. For clarity, nothing in the Agreement or this 'Controller-to-Controller Terms' section shall restrict in any way from collecting, using, or sharing data that would otherwise Process independently of Customer's use of the Subscription Services, including our enrichment products. When processing California Personal Information in accordance with your Instructions, the parties acknowledge and agree that you are a Business and we are a Service Provider for the purposes of the CCPA. c. Compliance with Laws . Each party will ensure that the Controller Personal Data it shares or makes available to the other party has been collected in compliance with Data Protection Laws, including (i) providing adequate notices and obtaining any required consents from Data Subjects; (ii) establishing a lawful basis for its Processing of Controller Personal Data; (iii) implementing appropriate technical and organizational measures to protect Controller Personal Data; and (iv) complying with any reporting obligations concerning personal data breaches involving Controller Personal Data. As between the parties, Customer is responsible for providing all necessary notices, consents, and opt-out mechanisms for the use of the Tracking Code, and ensuring that its website discloses the use of third-party tracking technology in compliance with Data Protection Laws. If a Data Subject contacts either party to exercise their rights under Data Protection Laws, the contacted party shall either fulfil the request directly or, if this is not feasible, promptly notify and coordinate with the other party to ensure the request is fulfilled in accordance with Data Protection Laws. Customer agrees to delete enrichment outputs if Customer determines that Customer does not have any independent lawful basis (or substantively similar terms) for Processing such data under Data Protection Laws. d. Demonstration of Compliance . If either party receives any complaint, notice, or communication from a supervisory authority or other governmental authority which relates to the other party's: (i) Processing of Controller Personal Data; or (ii) potential failure to comply with Data Protection Laws with respect to the Processing of Controller Personal Data, that party shall direct the supervisory authority or governmental authority to the other party and, in the case of intertwined obligations, claims, or Controller Personal Data at issue, shall provide reasonable assistance to the other party in responding to the supervisory authority or governmental authority. e. Security . We will implement and maintain reasonable security measures to protect Controller Personal Data. All Controller Personal Data is protected using appropriate physical, technical, and organizational measures. f. CCPA Compliance . To the extent that the CCPA applies to the Processing of Controller Personal Data, each party acknowledges and agrees that: (i) such Controller Personal Data is made available to the other party solely for the limited and specified purposes set forth in the Agreement; (ii) the party receiving such Controller Personal Data shall comply with and provide the same level of privacy protection as is required by the CCPA; (iii) the party receiving such Controller Personal Data shall promptly notify the other party if it determines it can no longer meet its obligations under the CCPA; and (iv) the party providing such Controller Personal Data shall have the right, upon reasonable notice, to take reasonable and appropriate steps to ensure that the receiving party uses the Controller Personal Data in a manner consistent with its obligations under the CCPA and stop and remediate unauthorized uses of the Controller Personal Data. 11. Transfer Mechanisms Where the transfer of Customer Personal Data or Controller Personal Data between the parties involves a Restricted Transfer and European Data Protection Laws require putting in place appropriate safeguards, and Customer will comply with the following: a. Data Privacy Framework . We participate in and certifies compliance with the Data Privacy Framework. Where and to the extent the Data Privacy Framework applies, We will use the Data Privacy Framework to lawfully receive Customer Personal Data and Controller Personal Data in the United States and will provide at least the same level of protection to such data as is required by the Data Privacy Framework Principles. We will inform you if we are unable to comply with this requirement. b. Standard Contractual Clauses . If European Data Protection Laws require that appropriate safeguards are put in place (for example, if the Data Privacy Framework does not cover the transfer and/or the Data Privacy Framework is invalidated), the Standard Contractual Clauses will be incorporated by reference and form part of the Agreement as follows: (A) In relation to Customer Personal Data that Processes as a Processor (i) the Module Two terms apply to the extent Customer is a Controller and the Module Three terms apply to the extent Customer is a Processor of Customer Personal Data; (ii) in Clause 7, the optional docking clause applies; (iii) in Clause 9, Option 2 applies and changes to Sub-Processors will be notified in accordance with the ‘Sub-Processors’ section of this DPA; (iv) in Clause 11, the optional language is deleted; (v) in Clauses 17 and 18, the parties agree that the governing law and forum for disputes for the Standard Contractual Clauses will be determined in accordance with the 'Contracting Entity; Applicable Law; Notice’ section of the Jurisdiction Specific Terms or, if such section does not specify an EU Member State, the Republic of Ireland (without reference to conflicts of law principles); (vi) the Annexes of the Standard Contractual Clauses will be deemed completed with the information set out in the Annexes of this DPA; and (vii) the supervisory authority that will act as competent supervisory authority will be determined in accordance with GDPR. (B) In relation to Controller Personal Data for which and Customer are each a Controller (i) the Module One terms apply; (ii) in Clause 7, the optional docking clause applies; (iii) in Clause 11, the optional language is deleted; (iv) in Clauses 17 and 18, the parties agree that the governing law and forum for disputes for the Standard Contractual Clauses will be determined in accordance with the 'Contracting Entity; Applicable Law; Notice’ section of the Jurisdiction Specific Terms or, if such section does not specify an EU Member State, the Republic of Ireland (without reference to conflicts of law principles); (v) the Annexes of the Standard Contractual Clauses will be deemed completed with the information set out in the Annexes of this DPA; and (vi) the supervisory authority that will act as competent supervisory authority will be the Irish Data Protection Commission. (C) In relation to Customer Personal Data and Controller Personal Data that is subject to the UK GDPR, the Standard Contractual Clauses will apply in accordance with sub-section (A) and the following modifications (i) the Standard Contractual Clauses will be modified and interpreted in accordance with the UK Addendum, which will be incorporated by reference and form an integral part of the Agreement; (ii) Tables 1, 2 and 3 of the UK Addendum will be deemed completed with the information set out in the Annexes of this DPA and Table 4 will be deemed completed by selecting “neither party”; and (iii) any conflict between the terms of the Standard Contractual Clauses and the UK Addendum will be resolved in accordance with Section 10 and Section 11 of the UK Addendum. (D) In relation to Customer Personal Data and Controller Personal Data that is subject to the Swiss DPA, the Standard Contractual Clauses will apply in accordance with sub-section (A) and the following modifications (i) references to "Regulation (EU) 2016/679" will be interpreted as references to the Swiss DPA; (ii) references to "EU," "Union," and "Member State law" will be interpreted as references to Swiss law; and (iii) references to the "competent supervisory authority" and "competent courts" will be replaced with the "the Swiss Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner" and the "relevant courts in Switzerland." (E) In relation to Customer Personal Data that Processes as a Processor, you agree that by complying with our obligations under the 'Sub-Processors' section of this DPA, We fulfil its obligations under Section 9 of the Standard Contractual Clauses. For the purposes of Clause 9(c) of the Standard Contractual Clauses, you acknowledge that we may be restricted from disclosing Sub-Processor agreements but we will use reasonable efforts to require any Sub-Processor we appoint to permit it to disclose the Sub-Processor agreement to you and will provide (on a confidential basis) all information we reasonably can. You also acknowledge and agree that you will exercise your audit rights under Clause 8.9 of the Standard Contractual Clauses by instructing us to comply with the measures described in the 'Demonstration of Compliance' section of this DPA. (F) If and to the extent the Standard Contractual Clauses conflict with any provision of this DPA, the Standard Contractual Clauses will prevail to the extent of such conflict. Where the contracting entity under the Agreement is not us, such contracting entity will remain fully and solely responsible and liable to you for the performance of the Standard Contractual Clauses by us, and you will direct any instructions, claims or enquiries in relation to the Standard Contractual Clauses to such contracting entity. If cannot comply with its obligations under the Standard Contractual Clauses for any reason, and you intend to suspend or terminate the transfer of Personal Data to us, you agree to provide us with reasonable notice to enable us to cure such non-compliance and reasonably cooperate with us to identify what additional safeguards, if any, may be implemented to remedy such noncompliance. If we have not or cannot cure the non-compliance, you may suspend or terminate the affected part of the Subscription Service in accordance with the Agreement without liability to either party (but without prejudice to any fees you have incurred prior to such suspension or termination). c. Alternative Transfer Mechanism . In the event that is required to adopt an alternative transfer mechanism under European Data Protection Laws, in addition to or other than the mechanisms described above, such alternative transfer mechanism will apply automatically instead of the mechanisms described in this DPA (but only to the extent such alternative transfer mechanism complies with European Data Protection Laws), and you agree to execute such other documents or take such action as may be reasonably necessary to give legal effect such alternative transfer mechanism. 12. General Provisions a. Amendments . Notwithstanding anything else to the contrary in the Agreement and without prejudice to the ‘Compliance with Instructions’ or ‘Security’ sections of this DPA, we reserve the right to make any updates and changes to this DPA and the terms that apply in the ‘Amendment; No Waiver’ section of the General Terms will apply. b. Severability . If any individual provisions of this DPA are determined to be invalid or unenforceable, the validity and enforceability of the other provisions of this DPA will not be affected. c. Limitation of Liability. Each party and each of their Affiliates' liability, taken in aggregate, arising out of or related to this DPA (including any other data processing agreements between the parties) and the Standard Contractual Clauses, where applicable, whether in contract, tort or under any other theory of liability, will be subject to the limitations and exclusions of liability set out in the 'Limitation of Liability' section of the General Terms and any reference in such section to the liability of a party means aggregate liability of that party and all of its Affiliates under the Agreement (including this DPA). For the avoidance of doubt, if , Inc. is not a party to the Agreement, the ‘Limitation of Liability’ section of the General Terms will apply as between you and , Inc., and in such respect any references to ‘’, ‘we’, ‘us’ or ‘our’ will include both , Inc. and the entity that is a party to the Agreement. In no event will either party's liability be limited with respect to any individual's data protection rights under this DPA (including any other DPAs between the parties and the Standard Contractual Clauses, where applicable) or otherwise. d. Governing Law. This DPA will be governed by and construed in accordance with the ‘Contracting Entity; ‘Applicable Law; Notice’ sections of the Jurisdiction Specific Terms, unless required otherwise by Data Protection Laws. 13. Parties to this DPA a. Permitted Affiliates . By signing the Agreement, you enter into this DPA (including, where applicable, the Standard Contractual Clauses) on behalf of yourself and in the name and on behalf of your Permitted Affiliates. For the purposes of this DPA only, and except where indicated otherwise, the terms “Customer," “you,” and “your” will include you and such Permitted Affiliates. b. Authorization . The legal entity agreeing to this DPA as Customer represents that it is authorized to agree to and enter into this DPA for and on behalf of itself and, as applicable, each of its Permitted Affiliates. c. Remedies . The parties agree that (i) solely the Customer entity that is the contracting party to the Agreement will exercise any right or seek any remedy any Permitted Affiliate may have under this DPA on behalf of its Affiliates, and (ii) the Customer entity that is the contracting party to the Agreement will exercise any such rights under this DPA not separately for each Permitted Affiliate individually but in a combined manner for itself and all of its Permitted Affiliates together. The Customer entity that is the contracting entity is responsible for coordinating all Instructions, authorizations and communications with us under the DPA and will be entitled to make and receive any communications related to this DPA on behalf of its Permitted Affiliates. d. Other Rights . The parties agree that you will, when reviewing our compliance with this DPA pursuant to the ‘Demonstration of Compliance’ section, take all reasonable measures to limit any impact on us and our Affiliates by combining several audit requests carried out on behalf of the Customer entity that is the contracting party to the Agreement and all of its Permitted Affiliates in one single audit. Annex IA - Details of Processing - as Processor A. LIST OF PARTIES Data exporter: Name : The Customer, as defined in the Customer Terms of Service (on behalf of itself and Permitted Affiliates) Address: The Customer's address, as set out in the Order Form Contact person’s name, position, and contact details: The Customer's contact details, as set out in the Order Form and/or as set out in the Customer’s account Activities relevant to the data transferred under these Clauses: Processing of Customer Personal Data in connection with Customer's use of the Subscription Services under the Customer Terms of Service Role (controller/processor): Controller (either as the Controller; or acting in the capacity of a Controller, as a Processor, on behalf of another Controller) Data importer: Name: SuprStack Inc Address: 16192 Coastal Highway, Lewes, DE - 19958 Contact person’s name, position, and contact details: Gaurav Verma, Co-Founder, gaurav@suprsend.com Activities relevant to the data transferred under these Clauses: Processing of Customer Personal Data in connection with Customer's use of the Subscription Services under the Customer Terms of Service Role (controller/processor): Processor B. DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFER Categories of Data Subjects whose Personal Data is transferred You may submit Customer Personal Data in the course of using the Subscription Service, the extent of which is determined and controlled by you in your sole discretion, and which may include, but is not limited to Customer Personal Data relating to the following categories of Data Subjects: Your Contacts and other end users including your employees, contractors, collaborators, customers, prospects, suppliers and subcontractors. Data Subjects may also include individuals attempting to communicate with or transfer Customer Personal Data to your end users. Categories of Personal Data transferred You may submit Personal Data to the Subscription Services, the extent of which is determined and controlled by you in your sole discretion, and which may include but is not limited to the following categories of Personal Data: ‍ 1. Contact Information (as defined in the General Terms). 2. Any other Personal Data submitted by, sent to, or received by you, or your end users, via the Subscription Service. Sensitive Data Transferred and Applied Restrictions or Safeguards The processing of Sensitive Data is subject to the scope limitations, restrictions, and safeguards mutually agreed upon by the parties, as reflected in the Agreement. Frequency of the Transfer Continuous Nature of the Processing Customer Personal Data will be Processed in accordance with the Agreement (including this DPA) and may be subject to the following Processing activities: ‍ 1. Storage and other Processing necessary to provide, maintain and improve the Subscription Services provided to you; and/or 2. Disclosure in accordance with the Agreement (including this DPA) and/or as compelled by applicable laws. Purpose of the Transfer and Further Processing We will Process Customer Personal Data as necessary to provide the Subscription Services pursuant to the Agreement, as further specified in the Order Form, and as further instructed by you in your use of the Subscription Services. Period for which Personal Data will be retained Subject to the 'Deletion or Return of Customer Personal Data' section of this DPA, we will Process Customer Personal Data for the duration of the Agreement, unless otherwise agreed in writing. Annex 1B - Details of Processing - as Controller A. LIST OF PARTIES Data exporter/importer: Name: The Customer, as defined in the Customer Terms of Service (on behalf of itself and Permitted Affiliates) Address: The Customer's address, as set out in the Order Form Contact person’s name, position, and contact details: The Customer’s contact details, as set out in the Order Form and/or as set out in the Customer’s account Activities relevant to the data transferred under these Clauses: Processing of Controller Personal Data in connection with Customer’s use of enrichment products and the Tracking Code Role (controller/processor): Controller B. DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFER Categories of Data Subjects whose Personal Data is transferred Individuals associated with a company or other institution Categories of Personal Data transferred Professional data, which may include, but is not limited to, first and last name, business email address, business employer, business role, professional title, IP address, online identifiers, and other similar information Sensitive Data Transferred and Applied Restrictions or Safeguards The parties do not anticipate the transfer of sensitive data. Frequency of the Transfer Continuous Nature of the Processing Controller Personal Data will be Processed in accordance with the Agreement and may be subject to the following Processing activities: (1) storage and other Processing of Website Data (such as IP addresses and other online identifiers) and Professional Enrichment Data (such as business email addresses) by necessary to provide, maintain, append, improve, and develop ’s commercial dataset and the Subscription Services; and/or (2) disclosure in accordance with the Agreement and/or as compelled by applicable laws. Purpose of the Transfer and Further Processing Controller Personal Data will be transferred for the purposes contemplated in the Agreement, including to provide Customer with business information and to provide, maintain, append, improve, enhance, and develop’s commercial dataset and the Subscription Services. Period for which Personal Data will be Retained: Controller Personal Data will be Processed and retained by the parties in accordance with their respective data retention policies or as otherwise set out under the Agreement. Annex 2 - Security Measures We currently observe the Security Measures described in this Annex 2. All capitalized terms not otherwise defined herein will have the meanings as set forth in the General Terms. a. Information Security Policy We maintain and adhere to an internal, written Information Security Policy. b. Access Control i) Preventing Unauthorized Product Access Outsourced processing: We host our Service with outsourced cloud infrastructure providers. Additionally, we maintain contractual relationships with vendors in order to provide the Service in accordance with our DPA. We rely on contractual agreements, privacy policies, and vendor compliance programs in order to protect data processed or stored by these vendors. Physical and environmental security: We host our product infrastructure with multi-tenant, outsourced infrastructure providers. We do not own or maintain hardware located at the outsourced infrastructure providers’ data centers. Production servers and client-facing applications are logically and physically secured from our internal corporate information systems. The infrastructure providers' physical and environmental security controls are audited for SOC 2 Type II and ISO 27001 compliance, among other certifications. Authentication: We implement a uniform password policy for our customer products. Customers who interact with the products via the user interface must authenticate before accessing Customer Personal Data in their account. Authorization: Customer Data is stored in multi-tenant storage systems accessible to Customers via only application user interfaces and application programming interfaces. Customers are not allowed direct access to the underlying application infrastructure. The authorization model in each of our products is designed to ensure that only the appropriately assigned individuals can access relevant features, views, and customization options. Authorization to data sets is performed through validating the user’s permissions against the attributes associated with each data set. Application Programming Interface (API) access: Public product APIs may be accessed using authorization or private app tokens. ii) Preventing Unauthorized Product Use We implement industry standard access controls and detection capabilities for the internal networks that support its products. Access controls: Network access control mechanisms are designed to prevent network traffic using unauthorized protocols from reaching the product infrastructure. The technical measures implemented differ between infrastructure providers and include Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) implementations, security group assignment, and traditional firewall rules. Intrusion detection and prevention: We implement a Web Application Firewall (WAF) solution to protect hosted customer websites and other internet-accessible applications. The WAF is designed to identify and prevent attacks against publicly available network services. Static code analysis:	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://javascript.info/import-export	Export and Import Sorry, Internet Explorer is not supported, please use a newer browser. EN AR عربي EN English ES Español FA فارسی FR Français ID Indonesia IT Italiano JA 日本語 KO 한국어 RU Русский TR Türkçe UK Українська UZ Oʻzbek ZH 简体中文 We want to make this open-source project available for people all around the world. Help to translate the content of this tutorial to your language! Buy EPUB/PDF Search Search Tutorial map Light theme Dark theme Share عربي English Español فارسی Français Indonesia Italiano 日本語 한국어 Русский Türkçe Українська Oʻzbek 简体中文 Tutorial The JavaScript language Modules January 18, 2023 Export and Import Export and import directives have several syntax variants. In the previous article we saw a simple use, now let’s explore more examples. Export before declarations We can label any declaration as exported by placing export before it, be it a variable, function or a class. For instance, here all exports are valid: // export an array export let months = ['Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar','Apr', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']; // export a constant export const MODULES_BECAME_STANDARD_YEAR = 2015; // export a class export class User { constructor(name) { this.name = name; } } No semicolons after export class/function Please note that export before a class or a function does not make it a function expression . It’s still a function declaration, albeit exported. Most JavaScript style guides don’t recommend semicolons after function and class declarations. That’s why there’s no need for a semicolon at the end of export class and export function : export function sayHi(user) { alert(`Hello, ${user}!`); } // no ; at the end Export apart from declarations Also, we can put export separately. Here we first declare, and then export: // 📁 say.js function sayHi(user) { alert(`Hello, ${user}!`); } function sayBye(user) { alert(`Bye, ${user}!`); } export {sayHi, sayBye}; // a list of exported variables …Or, technically we could put export above functions as well. Import * Usually, we put a list of what to import in curly braces import {...} , like this: // 📁 main.js import {sayHi, sayBye} from './say.js'; sayHi('John'); // Hello, John! sayBye('John'); // Bye, John! But if there’s a lot to import, we can import everything as an object using import * as <obj> , for instance: // 📁 main.js import * as say from './say.js'; say.sayHi('John'); say.sayBye('John'); At first sight, “import everything” seems such a cool thing, short to write, why should we ever explicitly list what we need to import? Well, there are few reasons. Explicitly listing what to import gives shorter names: sayHi() instead of say.sayHi() . Explicit list of imports gives better overview of the code structure: what is used and where. It makes code support and refactoring easier. Don’t be afraid to import too much Modern build tools, such as webpack and others, bundle modules together and optimize them to speedup loading. They also remove unused imports. For instance, if you import * as library from a huge code library, and then use only few methods, then unused ones will not be included into the optimized bundle. Import “as” We can also use as to import under different names. For instance, let’s import sayHi into the local variable hi for brevity, and import sayBye as bye : // 📁 main.js import {sayHi as hi, sayBye as bye} from './say.js'; hi('John'); // Hello, John! bye('John'); // Bye, John! Export “as” The similar syntax exists for export . Let’s export functions as hi and bye : // 📁 say.js ... export {sayHi as hi, sayBye as bye}; Now hi and bye are official names for outsiders, to be used in imports: // 📁 main.js import * as say from './say.js'; say.hi('John'); // Hello, John! say.bye('John'); // Bye, John! Export default In practice, there are mainly two kinds of modules. Modules that contain a library, pack of functions, like say.js above. Modules that declare a single entity, e.g. a module user.js exports only class User . Mostly, the second approach is preferred, so that every “thing” resides in its own module. Naturally, that requires a lot of files, as everything wants its own module, but that’s not a problem at all. Actually, code navigation becomes easier if files are well-named and structured into folders. Modules provide a special export default (“the default export”) syntax to make the “one thing per module” way look better. Put export default before the entity to export: // 📁 user.js export default class User { // just add "default" constructor(name) { this.name = name; } } There may be only one export default per file. …And then import it without curly braces: // 📁 main.js import User from './user.js'; // not {User}, just User new User('John'); Imports without curly braces look nicer. A common mistake when starting to use modules is to forget curly braces at all. So, remember, import needs curly braces for named exports and doesn’t need them for the default one. Named export Default export export class User {...} export default class User {...} import {User} from ... import User from ... Technically, we may have both default and named exports in a single module, but in practice people usually don’t mix them. A module has either named exports or the default one. As there may be at most one default export per file, the exported entity may have no name. For instance, these are all perfectly valid default exports: export default class { // no class name constructor() { ... } } export default function(user) { // no function name alert(`Hello, ${user}!`); } // export a single value, without making a variable export default ['Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar','Apr', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']; Not giving a name is fine, because there is only one export default per file, so import without curly braces knows what to import. Without default , such an export would give an error: export class { // Error! (non-default export needs a name) constructor() {} } The “default” name In some situations the default keyword is used to reference the default export. For example, to export a function separately from its definition: function sayHi(user) { alert(`Hello, ${user}!`); } // same as if we added "export default" before the function export {sayHi as default}; Or, another situation, let’s say a module user.js exports one main “default” thing, and a few named ones (rarely the case, but it happens): // 📁 user.js export default class User { constructor(name) { this.name = name; } } export function sayHi(user) { alert(`Hello, ${user}!`); } Here’s how to import the default export along with a named one: // 📁 main.js import {default as User, sayHi} from './user.js'; new User('John'); And, finally, if importing everything * as an object, then the default property is exactly the default export: // 📁 main.js import * as user from './user.js'; let User = user.default; // the default export new User('John'); A word against default exports Named exports are explicit. They exactly name what they import, so we have that information from them; that’s a good thing. Named exports force us to use exactly the right name to import: import {User} from './user.js'; // import {MyUser} won't work, the name must be {User} …While for a default export, we always choose the name when importing: import User from './user.js'; // works import MyUser from './user.js'; // works too // could be import Anything... and it'll still work So team members may use different names to import the same thing, and that’s not good. Usually, to avoid that and keep the code consistent, there’s a rule that imported variables should correspond to file names, e.g: import User from './user.js'; import LoginForm from './loginForm.js'; import func from '/path/to/func.js'; ... Still, some teams consider it a serious drawback of default exports. So they prefer to always use named exports. Even if only a single thing is exported, it’s still exported under a name, without default . That also makes re-export (see below) a little bit easier. Re-export “Re-export” syntax export ... from ... allows to import things and immediately export them (possibly under another name), like this: export {sayHi} from './say.js'; // re-export sayHi export {default as User} from './user.js'; // re-export default Why would that be needed? Let’s see a practical use case. Imagine, we’re writing a “package”: a folder with a lot of modules, with some of the functionality exported outside (tools like NPM allow us to publish and distribute such packages, but we don’t have to use them), and many modules are just “helpers”, for internal use in other package modules. The file structure could be like this: auth/ index.js user.js helpers.js tests/ login.js providers/ github.js facebook.js ... We’d like to expose the package functionality via a single entry point. In other words, a person who would like to use our package, should import only from the “main file” auth/index.js . Like this: import {login, logout} from 'auth/index.js' The “main file”, auth/index.js exports all the functionality that we’d like to provide in our package. The idea is that outsiders, other programmers who use our package, should not meddle with its internal structure, search for files inside our package folder. We export only what’s necessary in auth/index.js and keep the rest hidden from prying eyes. As the actual exported functionality is scattered among the package, we can import it into auth/index.js and export from it: // 📁 auth/index.js // import login/logout and immediately export them import {login, logout} from './helpers.js'; export {login, logout}; // import default as User and export it import User from './user.js'; export {User}; ... Now users of our package can import {login} from "auth/index.js" . The syntax export ... from ... is just a shorter notation for such import-export: // 📁 auth/index.js // re-export login/logout export {login, logout} from './helpers.js'; // re-export the default export as User export {default as User} from './user.js'; ... The notable difference of export ... from compared to import/export is that re-exported modules aren’t available in the current file. So inside the above example of auth/index.js we can’t use re-exported login/logout functions. Re-exporting the default export The default export needs separate handling when re-exporting. Let’s say we have user.js with the export default class User and would like to re-export it: // 📁 user.js export default class User { // ... } We can come across two problems with it: export User from './user.js' won’t work. That would lead to a syntax error. To re-export the default export, we have to write export {default as User} , as in the example above. export * from './user.js' re-exports only named exports, but ignores the default one. If we’d like to re-export both named and default exports, then two statements are needed: export * from './user.js'; // to re-export named exports export {default} from './user.js'; // to re-export the default export Such oddities of re-exporting a default export are one of the reasons why some developers don’t like default exports and prefer named ones. Summary Here are all types of export that we covered in this and previous articles. You can check yourself by reading them and recalling what they mean: Before declaration of a class/function/…: export [default] class/function/variable ... Standalone export: export {x [as y], ...} . Re-export: export {x [as y], ...} from "module" export * from "module" (doesn’t re-export default). export {default [as y]} from "module" (re-export default). Import: Importing named exports: import {x [as y], ...} from "module" Importing the default export: import x from "module" import {default as x} from "module" Import all: import * as obj from "module" Import the module (its code runs), but do not assign any of its exports to variables: import "module" We can put import/export statements at the top or at the bottom of a script, that doesn’t matter. So, technically this code is fine: sayHi(); // ... import {sayHi} from './say.js'; // import at the end of the file In practice imports are usually at the start of the file, but that’s only for more convenience. Please note that import/export statements don’t work if inside {...} . A conditional import, like this, won’t work: if (something) { import {sayHi} from "./say.js"; // Error: import must be at top level } …But what if we really need to import something conditionally? Or at the right time? Like, load a module upon request, when it’s really needed? We’ll see dynamic imports in the next article. Previous lesson Next lesson Share Tutorial map Comments read this before commenting… If you have suggestions what to improve - please submit a GitHub issue or a pull request instead of commenting. If you can't understand something in the article – please elaborate. To insert few words of code, use the <code> tag, for several lines – wrap them in <pre> tag, for more than 10 lines – use a sandbox ( plnkr , jsbin , codepen …) Chapter Modules Lesson navigation Export before declarations Export apart from declarations Import * Import “as” Export “as” Export default Re-export Summary Comments Share Edit on GitHub © 2007—2026  Ilya Kantor about the project contact us terms of usage privacy policy	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. 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We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Career Follow Hide This tag is for anything relating to careers! Job offers, workplace conflict, interviews, resumes, promotions, etc. Create Post submission guidelines All articles and discussions should relate to careers in some way. Pretty much everything on dev.to is about our careers in some way. Ideally, though, keep the tag related to getting, leaving, or maintaining a career or job. about #career A career is the field in which you work, while a job is a position held in that field. Related tags include #resume and #portfolio as resources to enhance your #career Older #career posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 75 … 833 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu I Debug Code Like I Debug Life (Spoiler: Both Throw Exceptions) Alyssa Alyssa Alyssa Follow Jan 13 I Debug Code Like I Debug Life (Spoiler: Both Throw Exceptions) # discuss # career # programming # beginners 18 reactions Comments 8 comments 2 min read Why "Ownership" is the Best Certification: Building Infrastructure for an AWS Legend Ali-Funk Ali-Funk Ali-Funk Follow Jan 12 Why "Ownership" is the Best Certification: Building Infrastructure for an AWS Legend # aws # community # career # cloud 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Applying First-Principles Questioning to a Real Company Interview Question Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Follow Jan 13 Applying First-Principles Questioning to a Real Company Interview Question # career # interview # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 3 min read How to Question Any System Design Problem (With Live Interview Walkthrough) Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Follow Jan 13 How to Question Any System Design Problem (With Live Interview Walkthrough) # architecture # career # interview # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 4 min read I Fired the "One-Click" AI Builders: How I Built a React Portfolio with Gemini (Without Knowing React) Aaditya Thakur Aaditya Thakur Aaditya Thakur Follow Jan 13 I Fired the "One-Click" AI Builders: How I Built a React Portfolio with Gemini (Without Knowing React) # ai # webdev # career # beginners Comments Add Comment 3 min read What are your goals for the week? #161 Chris Jarvis Chris Jarvis Chris Jarvis Follow Jan 12 What are your goals for the week? #161 # discuss # career # productivity Comments Add Comment 1 min read 7 Small Workflow Tweaks That Actually Helped My Developer Productivity Johannes Millan Johannes Millan Johannes Millan Follow Jan 12 7 Small Workflow Tweaks That Actually Helped My Developer Productivity # productivity # beginners # career # programming 5 reactions Comments 1 comment 2 min read I'm Open Sourcing Two SaaS Apps and Everything I'll Work on This Year Ben Ben Ben Follow Jan 12 I'm Open Sourcing Two SaaS Apps and Everything I'll Work on This Year # career # devjournal # opensource # saas Comments Add Comment 3 min read Why Your Job Isn’t Disappearing—But Your Tasks Are (Part 3: The Career) synthaicode synthaicode synthaicode Follow Jan 12 Why Your Job Isn’t Disappearing—But Your Tasks Are (Part 3: The Career) # ai # career # management # softwaredevelopment 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read My 2026 Roadmap: How I’m Future-Proofing My Fullstack Career in the Age of AI Aleksandr Fomin Aleksandr Fomin Aleksandr Fomin Follow Jan 12 My 2026 Roadmap: How I’m Future-Proofing My Fullstack Career in the Age of AI # ai # learning # career # careerdevelopment Comments Add Comment 4 min read I realized I was wasting hours applying to “dead” LinkedIn jobs — so I built a tiny fix Salaria Labs Salaria Labs Salaria Labs Follow Jan 12 I realized I was wasting hours applying to “dead” LinkedIn jobs — so I built a tiny fix # buildinpublic # career # productivity # sideprojects Comments Add Comment 2 min read From Writing Code to Teaching AI: The Rise of the AI-Assisted Developer Amit Shrivastava Amit Shrivastava Amit Shrivastava Follow Jan 12 From Writing Code to Teaching AI: The Rise of the AI-Assisted Developer # ai # aiinpractice # career # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 3 min read C#.NET - day 07 Sabin Sim Sabin Sim Sabin Sim Follow Jan 12 C#.NET - day 07 # programming # learning # csharp # career 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read How to Write a Resume That Gets Interviews (Not Rejections) Resumemind Resumemind Resumemind Follow Jan 12 How to Write a Resume That Gets Interviews (Not Rejections) # career # interview # tutorial Comments Add Comment 3 min read How I Built a Manual Resume Review System with Spring Boot & Angular Resumemind Resumemind Resumemind Follow Jan 12 How I Built a Manual Resume Review System with Spring Boot & Angular # showdev # angular # career # springboot Comments Add Comment 3 min read What am I doing wrong? Soufiane Amt Soufiane Amt Soufiane Amt Follow Jan 12 What am I doing wrong? # career # webdev # careerdevelopment # programming Comments Add Comment 2 min read Python Selenium and Its Architecture, Significance of the python virtual environment NandithaShri S.k NandithaShri S.k NandithaShri S.k Follow Jan 12 Python Selenium and Its Architecture, Significance of the python virtual environment # webdev # beginners # python # career Comments Add Comment 3 min read The Creator's Paradox in the AI Era: How to Stay Generative When Everything Gets Scraped Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Narnaiezzsshaa Truong Follow Jan 11 The Creator's Paradox in the AI Era: How to Stay Generative When Everything Gets Scraped # discuss # ai # productivity # career Comments Add Comment 2 min read More Than a Bootcamp: Why I Chose the German 'Umschulung' Path into Tech Ali-Funk Ali-Funk Ali-Funk Follow Jan 11 More Than a Bootcamp: Why I Chose the German 'Umschulung' Path into Tech # watercooler # career # devops # beginners Comments Add Comment 3 min read Sharing: How to Build Competitiveness and Soft Skills, and Write a Good Resume Evan Lin Evan Lin Evan Lin Follow Jan 11 Sharing: How to Build Competitiveness and Soft Skills, and Write a Good Resume # learning # beginners # writing # career Comments Add Comment 9 min read Sharing a Good Book: Iwata Asks - The Legendary Life of the Nintendo Savior, From Genius Programmer to President Evan Lin Evan Lin Evan Lin Follow Jan 11 Sharing a Good Book: Iwata Asks - The Legendary Life of the Nintendo Savior, From Genius Programmer to President # learning # gamedev # leadership # career Comments Add Comment 9 min read Sharing a Good Book: Zhang Xiaolong, the WeChat Legend Evan Lin Evan Lin Evan Lin Follow Jan 11 Sharing a Good Book: Zhang Xiaolong, the WeChat Legend # discuss # leadership # product # career Comments Add Comment 10 min read From Stack Overflow to AI Agents: Why I Stopped Fighting and Started Orchestrating in 2025 Carlos Chao(El Frontend) Carlos Chao(El Frontend) Carlos Chao(El Frontend) Follow Jan 11 From Stack Overflow to AI Agents: Why I Stopped Fighting and Started Orchestrating in 2025 # webdev # ai # productivity # career Comments Add Comment 3 min read Golang Interfaces for Inheritance: A LINEbot Example Evan Lin Evan Lin Evan Lin Follow Jan 11 Golang Interfaces for Inheritance: A LINEbot Example # gratitude # fullstack # webdev # career Comments Add Comment 3 min read The Microsoft System Design Interview Resources That Actually Helped Me Land the Job Dev Loops Dev Loops Dev Loops Follow Jan 12 The Microsoft System Design Interview Resources That Actually Helped Me Land the Job # career # systemdesign # productivity # developers Comments Add Comment 4 min read loading... trending guides/resources Join the New Year, New You Portfolio Challenge: $3,000 in Prizes + Feedback from Google AI Team (... 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https://docs.python.org/3/license.html#cfuhash	History and License — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents History and License History of the software Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software Mersenne Twister Sockets Asynchronous socket services Cookie management Execution tracing UUencode and UUdecode functions XML Remote Procedure Calls test_epoll Select kqueue SipHash24 strtod and dtoa OpenSSL expat libffi zlib cfuhash libmpdec W3C C14N test suite mimalloc asyncio Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) Zstandard bindings Previous topic Copyright This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » History and License \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| History and License ¶ History of the software ¶ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl ) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us ) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see https://www.python.org/psf/ ) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible. Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ¶ Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the Zero-Clause BSD license . Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software for an incomplete list of these licenses. PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0 ¶ BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. This License Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third party. As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions granted on that web page. 7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement. CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1 ¶ 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191 ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement, Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1 is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle): 1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013". 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1. 4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. CNRI MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions. 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CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 ¶ Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ¶ Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ¶ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. Mersenne Twister ¶ The _random C extension underlying the random module includes code based on a download from http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html . The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space) Sockets ¶ The socket module uses the functions, getaddrinfo() , and getnameinfo() , which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/ . Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Asynchronous socket services ¶ The test.support.asynchat and test.support.asyncore modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Cookie management ¶ The http.cookies module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Execution tracing ¶ The trace module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. UUencode and UUdecode functions ¶ The uu codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard XML Remote Procedure Calls ¶ The xmlrpc.client module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. test_epoll ¶ The test.test_epoll module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Select kqueue ¶ The select module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. SipHash24 ¶ The file Python/pyhash.c contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: <MIT License> Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. </MIT License> Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c) strtod and dtoa ¶ The file Python/dtoa.c , which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c . The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * **************************************************************/ OpenSSL ¶ The modules hashlib , posix and ssl use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS expat ¶ The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat : Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. libffi ¶ The _ctypes C extension underlying the ctypes module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured --with-system-libffi : Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. 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If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu cfuhash ¶ The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. libmpdec ¶ The _decimal C extension underlying the decimal module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured --with-system-libmpdec : Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. W3C C14N test suite ¶ The C14N 2.0 test suite in the test package ( Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/ ) was retrieved from the W3C website at https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. mimalloc ¶ MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. asyncio ¶ Parts of the asyncio module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16 , which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ¶ The file Python/qsbr.c is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c . The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following con	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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Report Abuse Krishna Pravin Posted on May 14, 2020 • Edited on May 29, 2020           for loop vs .map() for making multiple API calls # javascript # api # async Promise / async-await is used for making API calls. const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Assuming I have a list of ids of todo items and I want the title of all them then I shall use the below snippet inside an async function const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] for ( const id of todoIdList ) { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This same can be written with any of these for , for...in , for...of loops. Assuming each API request arbitrarily takes 100ms exactly, the total time taken for getting the details of four todo items will have to be greater than 400ms if we use any of the above-mentioned loops. This execution time can be drastically reduced by using .map() . const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] await Promise . all ( todoIdList . map ( async ( id ) => { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) }) ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Adding timers const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] console . time ( ' for {} ' ); for ( const id of todoIdList ) { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) } console . timeEnd ( ' for {} ' ); console . time ( ' .map() ' ); await Promise . all ( todoIdList . map ( async ( id ) => { const response = await fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) const todo = await response . json () console . log ( todo . title ) }) ) console . timeEnd ( ' .map() ' ); Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode The Reason for loop for loop goes to the next iteration only after the whole block's execution is completed. In the above scenario only after both the promises(await) gets resolved , for loop moves to the next iteration and makes the API call for the next todo item. .map() .map() moves on to the next item as soon as a promise is returned . It does not wait until the promise is resolved. In the above scenario, .map() does not wait until the response for todo items comes from the server. It makes all the API calls one by one and for each API call it makes, a respective promise is returned. Promise.all waits until all of these promises are resolved. async/await is syntactic sugar for Promises It will be more clear if the same code is written without async/await const todoIdList = [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] console . time ( ' .map() ' ) Promise . all ( todoIdList . map ( id => { return new Promise (( resolve ) => { fetch ( `https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/ ${ id } ` ) . then ( response => { return new Promise (() => { response . json () . then ( todo => { console . log ( todo . title ) resolve () }) }) }) }) }) ) . then (() => { console . timeEnd ( ' .map() ' ); }) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode It is not possible to mimic the respective code for for loop by replacing async/await with Promises because, the control which triggers the next iteration will have to written within the .then() block. This piece of code will have to be created within the JS engine. All the snippets are working code, you can try it directly in the browser console. Note: snippets need to be enclosed within an async function except for the last one use Axios or any other suitable library if fetch is not available. Let me know if there is an even better and easy/short way of making API calls. Also, do not forget to mention any mistakes I've made or tips, suggestions to improve this content. Top comments (6) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand   Quinn Quinn Quinn Follow Joined Jun 28, 2021 • Jun 28 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Not really a fair comparison. Map is creating a new array of promises then asynchronously executing them. To do this with a for loop you would do something like this: const todoIdList = [1, 2, 3, 4] const promiseList = [] for (const id of todoIdList) { const response = fetch( https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/${id} ) promiseList.push(response.json()) } const responses = Promise.all(promiseList) Like comment: Like comment: 5  likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand   Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. Tech IT Work Software Engineer - Full Stack at Gyanmatrix Technologies Joined Jun 10, 2019 • Jul 26 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This approach looks good. Pushing the promises into an array within for loop will achieve concurrency. But when we have a need for more than one await inside the block, it will not work. In the above code, response.json() won't work because response is a promise, it won't have json() method. Like comment: Like comment: 1  like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand   Yogendra Yogendra Yogendra Follow Location Bengaluru, India Work Web Developer at LayerIV Joined Sep 25, 2020 • Jan 31 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is quite great. But, could you tell me what is the optimum way to resolve multiple promises and get their statuses, as Promise.all() fails as soon as any of the Promise rejects? I heard of Promise.allSettled() but is only available in recent versions of ES. Thanks!! Like comment: Like comment: 2  likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand   Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. Tech IT Work Software Engineer - Full Stack at Gyanmatrix Technologies Joined Jun 10, 2019 • Feb 9 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Shim: npmjs.com/package/promise.allsettled Polyfill: logic24by7.com/promise-allsettled-... Like comment: Like comment: Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand   Rajesh Moka Rajesh Moka Rajesh Moka Follow I am a front end developer. I like building stuff with react. Location India Work Front End Developer at Tata Consultancy Services Joined May 27, 2020 • Jan 20 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This is a great article. I had trouble understanding the last example without async await but with promises. I knew promise.all takes promises array as an argument, but why did we write promise in each fetch call? Can u explain a little Like comment: Like comment: 1  like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand   Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. Tech IT Work Software Engineer - Full Stack at Gyanmatrix Technologies Joined Jun 10, 2019 • Jan 29 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide The last example(using promise) is the same as the previous one(using await). We have a promise inside fetch because parsing response as json response.json() returns a promise. For each API call, Promise.all() will first wait for the API call's response to arrive, and then it will wait for the json parsing to complete. When Promise.all takes an array of promises, it will wait for all the inner promises as well to get resolved. Like comment: Like comment: 1  like Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Krishna Pravin Follow Location Bangalore, India Education B. 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https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.format	Built-in Types — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Table of Contents Built-in Types Truth Value Testing Boolean Operations — and , or , not Comparisons Numeric Types — int , float , complex Bitwise Operations on Integer Types Additional Methods on Integer Types Additional Methods on Float Additional Methods on Complex Hashing of numeric types Boolean Type - bool Iterator Types Generator Types Sequence Types — list , tuple , range Common Sequence Operations Immutable Sequence Types Mutable Sequence Types Lists Tuples Ranges Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary Text Sequence Type — str String Methods Formatted String Literals (f-strings) Debug specifier Conversion specifier Format specifier Template String Literals (t-strings) printf -style String Formatting Binary Sequence Types — bytes , bytearray , memoryview Bytes Objects Bytearray Objects Bytes and Bytearray Operations printf -style Bytes Formatting Memory Views Set Types — set , frozenset Mapping Types — dict Dictionary view objects Context Manager Types Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias , Union Generic Alias Type Standard Generic Classes Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects Union Type Other Built-in Types Modules Classes and Class Instances Functions Methods Code Objects Type Objects The Null Object The Ellipsis Object The NotImplemented Object Internal Objects Special Attributes Integer string conversion length limitation Affected APIs Configuring the limit Recommended configuration Previous topic Built-in Constants Next topic Built-in Exceptions This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| previous \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Built-in Types \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| Built-in Types ¶ The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the interpreter. The principal built-in types are numerics, sequences, mappings, classes, instances and exceptions. Some collection classes are mutable. The methods that add, subtract, or rearrange their members in place, and don’t return a specific item, never return the collection instance itself but None . Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular, practically all objects can be compared for equality, tested for truth value, and converted to a string (with the repr() function or the slightly different str() function). The latter function is implicitly used when an object is written by the print() function. Truth Value Testing ¶ Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an if or while condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below. By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either a __bool__() method that returns False or a __len__() method that returns zero, when called with the object. [ 1 ] If one of the methods raises an exception when called, the exception is propagated and the object does not have a truth value (for example, NotImplemented ). Here are most of the built-in objects considered false: constants defined to be false: None and False zero of any numeric type: 0 , 0.0 , 0j , Decimal(0) , Fraction(0, 1) empty sequences and collections: '' , () , [] , {} , set() , range(0) Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return 0 or False for false and 1 or True for true, unless otherwise stated. (Important exception: the Boolean operations or and and always return one of their operands.) Boolean Operations — and , or , not ¶ These are the Boolean operations, ordered by ascending priority: Operation Result Notes x or y if x is true, then x , else y (1) x and y if x is false, then x , else y (2) not x if x is false, then True , else False (3) Notes: This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second argument if the first one is false. This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second argument if the first one is true. not has a lower priority than non-Boolean operators, so not a == b is interpreted as not (a == b) , and a == not b is a syntax error. Comparisons ¶ There are eight comparison operations in Python. They all have the same priority (which is higher than that of the Boolean operations). Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily; for example, x < y <= z is equivalent to x < y and y <= z , except that y is evaluated only once (but in both cases z is not evaluated at all when x < y is found to be false). This table summarizes the comparison operations: Operation Meaning < strictly less than <= less than or equal > strictly greater than >= greater than or equal == equal != not equal is object identity is not negated object identity Unless stated otherwise, objects of different types never compare equal. The == operator is always defined but for some object types (for example, class objects) is equivalent to is . The < , <= , > and >= operators are only defined where they make sense; for example, they raise a TypeError exception when one of the arguments is a complex number. Non-identical instances of a class normally compare as non-equal unless the class defines the __eq__() method. Instances of a class cannot be ordered with respect to other instances of the same class, or other types of object, unless the class defines enough of the methods __lt__() , __le__() , __gt__() , and __ge__() (in general, __lt__() and __eq__() are sufficient, if you want the conventional meanings of the comparison operators). The behavior of the is and is not operators cannot be customized; also they can be applied to any two objects and never raise an exception. Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, in and not in , are supported by types that are iterable or implement the __contains__() method. Numeric Types — int , float , complex ¶ There are three distinct numeric types: integers , floating-point numbers , and complex numbers . In addition, Booleans are a subtype of integers. Integers have unlimited precision. Floating-point numbers are usually implemented using double in C; information about the precision and internal representation of floating-point numbers for the machine on which your program is running is available in sys.float_info . Complex numbers have a real and imaginary part, which are each a floating-point number. To extract these parts from a complex number z , use z.real and z.imag . (The standard library includes the additional numeric types fractions.Fraction , for rationals, and decimal.Decimal , for floating-point numbers with user-definable precision.) Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions and operators. Unadorned integer literals (including hex, octal and binary numbers) yield integers. Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an exponent sign yield floating-point numbers. Appending 'j' or 'J' to a numeric literal yields an imaginary number (a complex number with a zero real part) which you can add to an integer or float to get a complex number with real and imaginary parts. The constructors int() , float() , and complex() can be used to produce numbers of a specific type. Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has operands of different numeric types, the operand with the “narrower” type is widened to that of the other, where integer is narrower than floating point. Arithmetic with complex and real operands is defined by the usual mathematical formula, for example: x + complex ( u , v ) = complex ( x + u , v ) x * complex ( u , v ) = complex ( x * u , x * v ) A comparison between numbers of different types behaves as though the exact values of those numbers were being compared. [ 2 ] All numeric types (except complex) support the following operations (for priorities of the operations, see Operator precedence ): Operation Result Notes Full documentation x + y sum of x and y x - y difference of x and y x * y product of x and y x / y quotient of x and y x // y floored quotient of x and y (1)(2) x % y remainder of x / y (2) -x x negated +x x unchanged abs(x) absolute value or magnitude of x abs() int(x) x converted to integer (3)(6) int() float(x) x converted to floating point (4)(6) float() complex(re, im) a complex number with real part re , imaginary part im . im defaults to zero. (6) complex() c.conjugate() conjugate of the complex number c divmod(x, y) the pair (x // y, x % y) (2) divmod() pow(x, y) x to the power y (5) pow() x y x to the power y (5) Notes: Also referred to as integer division. For operands of type int , the result has type int . For operands of type float , the result has type float . In general, the result is a whole integer, though the result’s type is not necessarily int . The result is always rounded towards minus infinity: 1//2 is 0 , (-1)//2 is -1 , 1//(-2) is -1 , and (-1)//(-2) is 0 . Not for complex numbers. Instead convert to floats using abs() if appropriate. Conversion from float to int truncates, discarding the fractional part. See functions math.floor() and math.ceil() for alternative conversions. float also accepts the strings “nan” and “inf” with an optional prefix “+” or “-” for Not a Number (NaN) and positive or negative infinity. Python defines pow(0, 0) and 0 0 to be 1 , as is common for programming languages. The numeric literals accepted include the digits 0 to 9 or any Unicode equivalent (code points with the Nd property). See the Unicode Standard for a complete list of code points with the Nd property. All numbers.Real types ( int and float ) also include the following operations: Operation Result math.trunc(x) x truncated to Integral round(x[, n]) x rounded to n digits, rounding half to even. If n is omitted, it defaults to 0. math.floor(x) the greatest Integral <= x math.ceil(x) the least Integral >= x For additional numeric operations see the math and cmath modules. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types ¶ Bitwise operations only make sense for integers. The result of bitwise operations is calculated as though carried out in two’s complement with an infinite number of sign bits. The priorities of the binary bitwise operations are all lower than the numeric operations and higher than the comparisons; the unary operation ~ has the same priority as the other unary numeric operations ( + and - ). This table lists the bitwise operations sorted in ascending priority: Operation Result Notes x \| y bitwise or of x and y (4) x ^ y bitwise exclusive or of x and y (4) x & y bitwise and of x and y (4) x << n x shifted left by n bits (1)(2) x >> n x shifted right by n bits (1)(3) ~x the bits of x inverted Notes: Negative shift counts are illegal and cause a ValueError to be raised. A left shift by n bits is equivalent to multiplication by pow(2, n) . A right shift by n bits is equivalent to floor division by pow(2, n) . Performing these calculations with at least one extra sign extension bit in a finite two’s complement representation (a working bit-width of 1 + max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length()) or more) is sufficient to get the same result as if there were an infinite number of sign bits. Additional Methods on Integer Types ¶ The int type implements the numbers.Integral abstract base class . In addition, it provides a few more methods: int. bit_length ( ) ¶ Return the number of bits necessary to represent an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading zeros: >>> n = - 37 >>> bin ( n ) '-0b100101' >>> n . bit_length () 6 More precisely, if x is nonzero, then x.bit_length() is the unique positive integer k such that 2(k-1) <= abs(x) < 2k . Equivalently, when abs(x) is small enough to have a correctly rounded logarithm, then k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2)) . If x is zero, then x.bit_length() returns 0 . Equivalent to: def bit_length ( self ): s = bin ( self ) # binary representation: bin(-37) --> '-0b100101' s = s . lstrip ( '-0b' ) # remove leading zeros and minus sign return len ( s ) # len('100101') --> 6 Added in version 3.1. int. bit_count ( ) ¶ Return the number of ones in the binary representation of the absolute value of the integer. This is also known as the population count. Example: >>> n = 19 >>> bin ( n ) '0b10011' >>> n . bit_count () 3 >>> ( - n ) . bit_count () 3 Equivalent to: def bit_count ( self ): return bin ( self ) . count ( "1" ) Added in version 3.10. int. to_bytes ( length = 1 , byteorder = 'big' , * , signed = False ) ¶ Return an array of bytes representing an integer. >>> ( 1024 ) . to_bytes ( 2 , byteorder = 'big' ) b'\x04\x00' >>> ( 1024 ) . to_bytes ( 10 , byteorder = 'big' ) b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00' >>> ( - 1024 ) . to_bytes ( 10 , byteorder = 'big' , signed = True ) b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00' >>> x = 1000 >>> x . to_bytes (( x . bit_length () + 7 ) // 8 , byteorder = 'little' ) b'\xe8\x03' The integer is represented using length bytes, and defaults to 1. An OverflowError is raised if the integer is not representable with the given number of bytes. The byteorder argument determines the byte order used to represent the integer, and defaults to "big" . If byteorder is "big" , the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte array. If byteorder is "little" , the most significant byte is at the end of the byte array. The signed argument determines whether two’s complement is used to represent the integer. If signed is False and a negative integer is given, an OverflowError is raised. The default value for signed is False . The default values can be used to conveniently turn an integer into a single byte object: >>> ( 65 ) . to_bytes () b'A' However, when using the default arguments, don’t try to convert a value greater than 255 or you’ll get an OverflowError . Equivalent to: def to_bytes ( n , length = 1 , byteorder = 'big' , signed = False ): if byteorder == 'little' : order = range ( length ) elif byteorder == 'big' : order = reversed ( range ( length )) else : raise ValueError ( "byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'" ) return bytes (( n >> i * 8 ) & 0xff for i in order ) Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.11: Added default argument values for length and byteorder . classmethod int. from_bytes ( bytes , byteorder = 'big' , * , signed = False ) ¶ Return the integer represented by the given array of bytes. >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \x00\x10 ' , byteorder = 'big' ) 16 >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \x00\x10 ' , byteorder = 'little' ) 4096 >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \xfc\x00 ' , byteorder = 'big' , signed = True ) -1024 >>> int . from_bytes ( b ' \xfc\x00 ' , byteorder = 'big' , signed = False ) 64512 >>> int . from_bytes ([ 255 , 0 , 0 ], byteorder = 'big' ) 16711680 The argument bytes must either be a bytes-like object or an iterable producing bytes. The byteorder argument determines the byte order used to represent the integer, and defaults to "big" . If byteorder is "big" , the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte array. If byteorder is "little" , the most significant byte is at the end of the byte array. To request the native byte order of the host system, use sys.byteorder as the byte order value. The signed argument indicates whether two’s complement is used to represent the integer. Equivalent to: def from_bytes ( bytes , byteorder = 'big' , signed = False ): if byteorder == 'little' : little_ordered = list ( bytes ) elif byteorder == 'big' : little_ordered = list ( reversed ( bytes )) else : raise ValueError ( "byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'" ) n = sum ( b << i * 8 for i , b in enumerate ( little_ordered )) if signed and little_ordered and ( little_ordered [ - 1 ] & 0x80 ): n -= 1 << 8 * len ( little_ordered ) return n Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.11: Added default argument value for byteorder . int. as_integer_ratio ( ) ¶ Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original integer and has a positive denominator. The integer ratio of integers (whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and 1 as the denominator. Added in version 3.8. int. is_integer ( ) ¶ Returns True . Exists for duck type compatibility with float.is_integer() . Added in version 3.12. Additional Methods on Float ¶ The float type implements the numbers.Real abstract base class . float also has the following additional methods. classmethod float. from_number ( x ) ¶ Class method to return a floating-point number constructed from a number x . If the argument is an integer or a floating-point number, a floating-point number with the same value (within Python’s floating-point precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python float, an OverflowError will be raised. For a general Python object x , float.from_number(x) delegates to x.__float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__() . Added in version 3.14. float. as_integer_ratio ( ) ¶ Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the original float. The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive denominator. Raises OverflowError on infinities and a ValueError on NaNs. float. is_integer ( ) ¶ Return True if the float instance is finite with integral value, and False otherwise: >>> ( - 2.0 ) . is_integer () True >>> ( 3.2 ) . is_integer () False Two methods support conversion to and from hexadecimal strings. Since Python’s floats are stored internally as binary numbers, converting a float to or from a decimal string usually involves a small rounding error. In contrast, hexadecimal strings allow exact representation and specification of floating-point numbers. This can be useful when debugging, and in numerical work. float. hex ( ) ¶ Return a representation of a floating-point number as a hexadecimal string. For finite floating-point numbers, this representation will always include a leading 0x and a trailing p and exponent. classmethod float. fromhex ( s ) ¶ Class method to return the float represented by a hexadecimal string s . The string s may have leading and trailing whitespace. Note that float.hex() is an instance method, while float.fromhex() is a class method. A hexadecimal string takes the form: [ sign ] [ '0x' ] integer [ '.' fraction ] [ 'p' exponent ] where the optional sign may by either + or - , integer and fraction are strings of hexadecimal digits, and exponent is a decimal integer with an optional leading sign. Case is not significant, and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in either the integer or the fraction. This syntax is similar to the syntax specified in section 6.4.4.2 of the C99 standard, and also to the syntax used in Java 1.5 onwards. In particular, the output of float.hex() is usable as a hexadecimal floating-point literal in C or Java code, and hexadecimal strings produced by C’s %a format character or Java’s Double.toHexString are accepted by float.fromhex() . Note that the exponent is written in decimal rather than hexadecimal, and that it gives the power of 2 by which to multiply the coefficient. For example, the hexadecimal string 0x3.a7p10 represents the floating-point number (3 + 10./16 + 7./16*2) 2.010 , or 3740.0 : >>> float . fromhex ( '0x3.a7p10' ) 3740.0 Applying the reverse conversion to 3740.0 gives a different hexadecimal string representing the same number: >>> float . hex ( 3740.0 ) '0x1.d380000000000p+11' Additional Methods on Complex ¶ The complex type implements the numbers.Complex abstract base class . complex also has the following additional methods. classmethod complex. from_number ( x ) ¶ Class method to convert a number to a complex number. For a general Python object x , complex.from_number(x) delegates to x.__complex__() . If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to __float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__() . Added in version 3.14. Hashing of numeric types ¶ For numbers x and y , possibly of different types, it’s a requirement that hash(x) == hash(y) whenever x == y (see the __hash__() method documentation for more details). For ease of implementation and efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including int , float , decimal.Decimal and fractions.Fraction ) Python’s hash for numeric types is based on a single mathematical function that’s defined for any rational number, and hence applies to all instances of int and fractions.Fraction , and all finite instances of float and decimal.Decimal . Essentially, this function is given by reduction modulo P for a fixed prime P . The value of P is made available to Python as the modulus attribute of sys.hash_info . CPython implementation detail: Currently, the prime used is P = 231 - 1 on machines with 32-bit C longs and P = 2*61 - 1 on machines with 64-bit C longs. Here are the rules in detail: If x = m / n is a nonnegative rational number and n is not divisible by P , define hash(x) as m invmod(n, P) % P , where invmod(n, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P . If x = m / n is a nonnegative rational number and n is divisible by P (but m is not) then n has no inverse modulo P and the rule above doesn’t apply; in this case define hash(x) to be the constant value sys.hash_info.inf . If x = m / n is a negative rational number define hash(x) as -hash(-x) . If the resulting hash is -1 , replace it with -2 . The particular values sys.hash_info.inf and -sys.hash_info.inf are used as hash values for positive infinity or negative infinity (respectively). For a complex number z , the hash values of the real and imaginary parts are combined by computing hash(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag) , reduced modulo 2sys.hash_info.width so that it lies in range(-2(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2*(sys.hash_info.width - 1)) . Again, if the result is -1 , it’s replaced with -2 . To clarify the above rules, here’s some example Python code, equivalent to the built-in hash, for computing the hash of a rational number, float , or complex : import sys , math def hash_fraction ( m , n ): """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n. Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive. Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)). """ P = sys . hash_info . modulus # Remove common factors of P. (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.) while m % P == n % P == 0 : m , n = m // P , n // P if n % P == 0 : hash_value = sys . hash_info . inf else : # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P. hash_value = ( abs ( m ) % P ) pow ( n , P - 2 , P ) % P if m < 0 : hash_value = - hash_value if hash_value == - 1 : hash_value = - 2 return hash_value def hash_float ( x ): """Compute the hash of a float x.""" if math . isnan ( x ): return object . __hash__ ( x ) elif math . isinf ( x ): return sys . hash_info . inf if x > 0 else - sys . hash_info . inf else : return hash_fraction ( * x . as_integer_ratio ()) def hash_complex ( z ): """Compute the hash of a complex number z.""" hash_value = hash_float ( z . real ) + sys . hash_info . imag * hash_float ( z . imag ) # do a signed reduction modulo 2sys.hash_info.width M = 2 ( sys . hash_info . width - 1 ) hash_value = ( hash_value & ( M - 1 )) - ( hash_value & M ) if hash_value == - 1 : hash_value = - 2 return hash_value Boolean Type - bool ¶ Booleans represent truth values. The bool type has exactly two constant instances: True and False . The built-in function bool() converts any value to a boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section Truth Value Testing above). For logical operations, use the boolean operators and , or and not . When applying the bitwise operators & , \| , ^ to two booleans, they return a bool equivalent to the logical operations “and”, “or”, “xor”. However, the logical operators and , or and != should be preferred over & , \| and ^ . Deprecated since version 3.12: The use of the bitwise inversion operator ~ is deprecated and will raise an error in Python 3.16. bool is a subclass of int (see Numeric Types — int, float, complex ). In many numeric contexts, False and True behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively. However, relying on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using int() instead. Iterator Types ¶ Python supports a concept of iteration over containers. This is implemented using two distinct methods; these are used to allow user-defined classes to support iteration. Sequences, described below in more detail, always support the iteration methods. One method needs to be defined for container objects to provide iterable support: container. __iter__ ( ) ¶ Return an iterator object. The object is required to support the iterator protocol described below. If a container supports different types of iteration, additional methods can be provided to specifically request iterators for those iteration types. (An example of an object supporting multiple forms of iteration would be a tree structure which supports both breadth-first and depth-first traversal.) This method corresponds to the tp_iter slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. The iterator objects themselves are required to support the following two methods, which together form the iterator protocol : iterator. __iter__ ( ) ¶ Return the iterator object itself. This is required to allow both containers and iterators to be used with the for and in statements. This method corresponds to the tp_iter slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. iterator. __next__ ( ) ¶ Return the next item from the iterator . If there are no further items, raise the StopIteration exception. This method corresponds to the tp_iternext slot of the type structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. Python defines several iterator objects to support iteration over general and specific sequence types, dictionaries, and other more specialized forms. The specific types are not important beyond their implementation of the iterator protocol. Once an iterator’s __next__() method raises StopIteration , it must continue to do so on subsequent calls. Implementations that do not obey this property are deemed broken. Generator Types ¶ Python’s generator s provide a convenient way to implement the iterator protocol. If a container object’s __iter__() method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the __iter__() and __next__() methods. More information about generators can be found in the documentation for the yield expression . Sequence Types — list , tuple , range ¶ There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects. Additional sequence types tailored for processing of binary data and text strings are described in dedicated sections. Common Sequence Operations ¶ The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence types, both mutable and immutable. The collections.abc.Sequence ABC is provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types. This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority. In the table, s and t are sequences of the same type, n , i , j and k are integers and x is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value restrictions imposed by s . The in and not in operations have the same priorities as the comparison operations. The + (concatenation) and * (repetition) operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. [ 3 ] Operation Result Notes x in s True if an item of s is equal to x , else False (1) x not in s False if an item of s is equal to x , else True (1) s + t the concatenation of s and t (6)(7) s * n or n * s equivalent to adding s to itself n times (2)(7) s[i] i th item of s , origin 0 (3)(8) s[i:j] slice of s from i to j (3)(4) s[i:j:k] slice of s from i to j with step k (3)(5) len(s) length of s min(s) smallest item of s max(s) largest item of s Sequences of the same type also support comparisons. In particular, tuples and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements. This means that to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the two sequences must be of the same type and have the same length. (For full details see Comparisons in the language reference.) Forward and reversed iterators over mutable sequences access values using an index. That index will continue to march forward (or backward) even if the underlying sequence is mutated. The iterator terminates only when an IndexError or a StopIteration is encountered (or when the index drops below zero). Notes: While the in and not in operations are used only for simple containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences (such as str , bytes and bytearray ) also use them for subsequence testing: >>> "gg" in "eggs" True Values of n less than 0 are treated as 0 (which yields an empty sequence of the same type as s ). Note that items in the sequence s are not copied; they are referenced multiple times. This often haunts new Python programmers; consider: >>> lists = [[]] * 3 >>> lists [[], [], []] >>> lists [ 0 ] . append ( 3 ) >>> lists [[3], [3], [3]] What has happened is that [[]] is a one-element list containing an empty list, so all three elements of [[]] * 3 are references to this single empty list. Modifying any of the elements of lists modifies this single list. You can create a list of different lists this way: >>> lists = [[] for i in range ( 3 )] >>> lists [ 0 ] . append ( 3 ) >>> lists [ 1 ] . append ( 5 ) >>> lists [ 2 ] . append ( 7 ) >>> lists [[3], [5], [7]] Further explanation is available in the FAQ entry How do I create a multidimensional list? . If i or j is negative, the index is relative to the end of sequence s : len(s) + i or len(s) + j is substituted. But note that -0 is still 0 . The slice of s from i to j is defined as the sequence of items with index k such that i <= k < j . If i is omitted or None , use 0 . If j is omitted or None , use len(s) . If i or j is less than -len(s) , use 0 . If i or j is greater than len(s) , use len(s) . If i is greater than or equal to j , the slice is empty. The slice of s from i to j with step k is defined as the sequence of items with index x = i + nk such that 0 <= n < (j-i)/k . In other words, the indices are i , i+k , i+2k , i+3k and so on, stopping when j is reached (but never including j ). When k is positive, i and j are reduced to len(s) if they are greater. When k is negative, i and j are reduced to len(s) - 1 if they are greater. If i or j are omitted or None , they become “end” values (which end depends on the sign of k ). Note, k cannot be zero. If k is None , it is treated like 1 . Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object. This means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation will have a quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length. To get a linear runtime cost, you must switch to one of the alternatives below: if concatenating str objects, you can build a list and use str.join() at the end or else write to an io.StringIO instance and retrieve its value when complete if concatenating bytes objects, you can similarly use bytes.join() or io.BytesIO , or you can do in-place concatenation with a bytearray object. bytearray objects are mutable and have an efficient overallocation mechanism if concatenating tuple objects, extend a list instead for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation Some sequence types (such as range ) only support item sequences that follow specific patterns, and hence don’t support sequence concatenation or repetition. An IndexError is raised if i is outside the sequence range. Sequence Methods Sequence types also support the following methods: sequence. count ( value , / ) ¶ Return the total number of occurrences of value in sequence . sequence. index ( value[, start[, stop] ) ¶ Return the index of the first occurrence of value in sequence . Raises ValueError if value is not found in sequence . The start or stop arguments allow for efficient searching of subsections of the sequence, beginning at start and ending at stop . This is roughly equivalent to start + sequence[start:stop].index(value) , only without copying any data. Caution Not all sequence types support passing the start and stop arguments. Immutable Sequence Types ¶ The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement that is not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for the hash() built-in. This support allows immutable sequences, such as tuple instances, to be used as dict keys and stored in set and frozenset instances. Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values will result in TypeError . Mutable Sequence Types ¶ The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence types. The collections.abc.MutableSequence ABC is provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types. In the table s is an instance of a mutable sequence type, t is any iterable object and x is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value restrictions imposed by s (for example, bytearray only accepts integers that meet the value restriction 0 <= x <= 255 ). Operation Result Notes s[i] = x item i of s is replaced by x del s[i] removes item i of s s[i:j] = t slice of s from i to j is replaced by the contents of the iterable t del s[i:j] removes the elements of s[i:j] from the list (same as s[i:j] = [] ) s[i:j:k] = t the elements of s[i:j:k] are replaced by those of t (1) del s[i:j:k] removes the elements of s[i:j:k] from the list s += t extends s with the contents of t (for the most part the same as s[len(s):len(s)] = t ) s = n updates s with its contents repeated n times (2) Notes: If k is not equal to 1 , t must have the same length as the slice it is replacing. The value n is an integer, or an object implementing __index__() . Zero and negative values of n clear the sequence. Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced multiple times, as explained for s * n under Common Sequence Operations . Mutable Sequence Methods Mutable sequence types also support the following methods: sequence. append ( value , / ) ¶ Append value to the end of the sequence This is equivalent to writing seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = [value] . sequence. clear ( ) ¶ Added in version 3.3. Remove all items from sequence . This is equivalent to writing del sequence[:] . sequence. copy ( ) ¶ Added in version 3.3. Create a shallow copy of sequence . This is equivalent to writing sequence[:] . Hint The copy() method is not part of the MutableSequence ABC , but most concrete mutable sequence types provide it. sequence. extend ( iterable , / ) ¶ Extend sequence with the contents of iterable . For the most part, this is the same as writing seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = iterable . sequence. insert ( index , value , / ) ¶ Insert value into sequence at the given index . This is equivalent to writing sequence[index:index] = [value] . sequence. pop ( index = -1 , / ) ¶ Retrieve the item at index and also removes it from sequence . By default, the last item in sequence is removed and returned. sequence. remove ( value , / ) ¶ Remove the first item from sequence where sequence[i] == value . Raises ValueError if value is not found in sequence . sequence. reverse ( ) ¶ Reverse the items of sequence in place. This method maintains economy of space when reversing a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side-effect, it returns None . Lists ¶ Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by application). class list ( iterable = () , / ) ¶ Lists may be constructed in several ways: Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: [] Using square brackets, separating items with commas: [a] , [a, b, c] Using a list comprehension: [x for x in iterable] Using the type constructor: list() or list(iterable) The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable ’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar to iterable[:] . For example, list('abc') returns ['a', 'b', 'c'] and list( (1, 2, 3) ) returns [1, 2, 3] . If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty list, [] . Many other operations also produce lists, including the sorted() built-in. Lists implement all of the common and mutable sequence operations. Lists also provide the following additional method: sort ( * , key = None , reverse = False ) ¶ This method sorts the list in place, using only < comparisons between items. Exceptions are not suppressed - if any comparison operations fail, the entire sort operation will fail (and the list will likely be left in a partially modified state). sort() accepts two arguments that can only be passed by keyword ( keyword-only arguments ): key specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each list element (for example, key=str.lower ). The key corresponding to each item in the list is calculated once and then used for the entire sorting process. The default value of None means that list items are sorted directly without calculating a separate key value. The functools.cmp_to_key() utility is available to convert a 2.x style cmp function to a key function. reverse is a boolean value. If set to True , then the list elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed. This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of space when sorting a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side effect, it does not return the sorted sequence (use sorted() to explicitly request a new sorted list instance). The sort() method is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that compare equal — this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by department, then by salary grade). For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see Sorting Techniques . CPython implementation detail: While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation of Python makes the list appear empty for the duration, and raises ValueError if it can detect that the list has been mutated during a sort. Thread safety Reading a single element from a list is atomic : lst [ i ] # list.__getitem__ The following methods traverse the list and use atomic reads of each item to perform their function. That means that they may return results affected by concurrent modifications: item in lst lst . index ( item ) lst . count ( item ) All of the above methods/operations are also lock-free. They do not block concurrent modifications. Other operations that hold a lock will not block these from observing intermediate states. All other operations from here on block using the per-object lock. Writing a single item via lst[i] = x is safe to call from multiple threads and will not corrupt the list. The following operations return new objects and appear atomic to other threads: lst1 + lst2 # concatenates two lists into a new list x * lst # repeats lst x times into a new list lst . copy () # returns a shallow copy of the list Methods that only operate on a single elements with no shifting required are atomic : lst . append ( x ) # append to the end of the list, no shifting required lst . pop () # pop element from the end of the list, no shifting required The clear() method is also atomic . Other threads cannot observe elements being removed. The sort() method is not atomic . Other threads cannot observe intermediate states during sorting, but the list appears empty for the duration of the sort. The following operations may allow lock-free operations to observe intermediate states since they modify multiple elements in place: lst . insert ( idx , item ) # shifts elements lst . pop ( idx ) # idx not at the end of the list, shifts elements lst = x # copies elements in place The remove() method may allow concurrent modifications since element comparison may execute arbitrary Python code (via __eq__() ). extend() is safe to call from multiple threads. However, its guarantees depend on the iterable passed to it. If it is a list , a tuple , a set , a frozenset , a dict or a dictionary view object (but not their subclasses), the extend operation is safe from concurrent modifications to the iterable. Otherwise, an iterator is created which can be concurrently modified by another thread. The same applies to inplace concatenation of a list with other iterables when using lst += iterable . Similarly, assigning to a list slice with lst[i:j] = iterable is safe to call from multiple threads, but iterable is only locked when it is also a list (but not its subclasses). Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are never atomic. For example: # NOT atomic: read-modify-write lst [ i ] = lst [ i ] + 1 # NOT atomic: check-then-act if lst : item = lst . pop () # NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying for item in lst : process ( item ) # another thread may modify lst Consider external synchronization when sharing list instances across threads. See Python support for free threading for more information. Tuples ¶ Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the enumerate() built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a set or dict instance). class tuple ( iterable = () , / ) ¶ Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways: Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: () Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: a, or (a,) Separating items with commas: a, b, c or (a, b, c) Using the tuple() built-in: tuple() or tuple(iterable) The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable ’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example, tuple('abc') returns ('a', 'b', 'c') and tuple( [1, 2, 3] ) returns (1, 2, 3) . If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, () . Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses. The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example, f(a, b, c) is a function call with three arguments, while f((a, b, c)) is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument. Tuples implement all of the common sequence operations. For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than access by index, collections.namedtuple() may be a more appropriate choice than a simple tuple object. Ranges ¶ The range type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is commonly used for looping a specific number of times in for loops. class range ( stop , / ) ¶ class range ( start , stop , step = 1 , / ) The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in int or any object that implements the __index__() special method). If the step argument is omitted, it defaults to 1 . If the start argument is omitted, it defaults to 0 . If step is zero, ValueError is raised. For a positive step , the contents of a range r are determined by the formula r[i] = start + stepi where i >= 0 and r[i] < stop . For a negative step , the contents of the range are still determined by the formula r[i] = start + step*i , but the constraints are i >= 0 and r[i] > stop . A range object will be empty if r[0] does not meet the value constraint. Ranges do support negative indices, but these are interpreted as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by the positive indices. Ranges containing absolute values larger than sys.maxsize are permitted but some features (such as len() ) may raise OverflowError . Range examples: >>> list ( range ( 10 )) [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] >>> list ( range ( 1 , 11 )) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] >>> list ( range ( 0 , 30 , 5 )) [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25] >>> list ( range ( 0 , 10 , 3 )) [0, 3, 6, 9] >>> list ( range ( 0 , - 10 , - 1 )) [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9] >>> list ( range ( 0 )) [] >>> list ( range ( 1 , 0 )) [] Ranges implement all of the common sequence operations except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range objects can only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern and repetition and concatenation will usually violate that pattern). start ¶ The value of the start parameter (or 0 if the parameter was not supplied) stop ¶ The value of the stop parameter step ¶ The value of the step parameter (or 1 if the parameter was not supplied) The advantage of the range type over a regular list or tuple is that a range object will always take the same (small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range it represents (as it only stores the start , stop and step values, calculating individual items and subranges as needed). Range objects implement the collections.abc.Sequence ABC, and provide features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and support for negative indices (see Sequence Types — list, tuple, range ): >>> r = range ( 0 , 20 , 2 ) >>> r range(0, 20, 2) >>> 11 in r False >>> 10 in r True >>> r . index ( 10 ) 5 >>> r [ 5 ] 10 >>> r [: 5 ] range(0, 10, 2) >>> r [ - 1 ] 18 Testing range objects for equality with == and != compares them as sequences. That is, two range objects are considered equal if they represent the same sequence of values. (Note that two range objects that compare equal might have different start , stop and step attributes, for example range(0) == range(2, 1, 3) or range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2) .) Changed in version 3.2: Implement the Sequence ABC. Support slicing and negative indices. Test int objects for membership in constant time instead of iterating through all items. Changed in version 3.3: Define ‘==’ and ‘!=’ to compare range objects based on the sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on object identity). Added the start , stop and step attributes. See also The linspace recipe shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating-point applications. Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary ¶ The following table summarizes the text and binary sequence types methods by category. Category str methods bytes and bytearray methods Formatting str.format() str.format_map() f-strings printf-style String Formatting printf-style Bytes Formatting Searching and Replacing str.find() str.rfind() bytes.find() bytes.rfind() str.index() str.rindex() bytes.index() bytes.rindex() str.startswith() bytes.startswith() str.endswith() bytes.endswith() str.count() bytes.count() str.replace() bytes.replace() Splitting and Joining str.split() str.rsplit() bytes.split() bytes.rsplit() str.splitlines() bytes.splitlines() str.partition() bytes.partition() str.rpartition() bytes.rpartition() str.join() bytes.join() String Classification str.isalpha() bytes.isalpha() str.isdecimal() str.isdigit() bytes.isdigit() str.isnumeric() str.isalnum() bytes.isalnum() str.isidentifier() str.islower() bytes.islower() str.isupper() bytes.isupper() str.istitle() bytes.istitle() str.isspace() bytes.isspace() str.isprintable() Case Manipulation str.lower() bytes.lower() str.upper() bytes.upper() str.casefold() str.capitalize() bytes.capitalize() str.title() bytes.title() str.swapcase() bytes.swapcase() Padding and Stripping str.ljust() str.rjust() bytes.ljust() bytes.rjust() str.center() bytes.center() str.expandtabs() bytes.expandtabs() str.strip() bytes.strip() str.lstrip() str.rstrip() bytes.lstrip() bytes.rstrip() Translation and Encoding str.translate() bytes.translate() str.maketrans() bytes.maketrans() str.encode() bytes.decode() Text Sequence Type — str ¶ Textual data in Python is handled with str objects, or strings . Strings are immutable sequences of Unicode code points. String literals are written in a variety of ways: Single quotes: 'allows embedded "double" quotes' Double quotes: "allows embedded 'single' quotes" Triple quoted: '''Three single quotes''' , """Three double quotes""" Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated whitespace will be included in the string literal. String literals that are part of a single expression and have only whitespace between them will be implicitly converted to a single string literal. That is, ("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs" . See String and Bytes literals for more about the various forms of string literal	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#8-supplemental-disclosures-for-california-residents	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://gg.forem.com/t/indiegames	Indiegames - Gamers Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Gamers Forem Close # indiegames Follow Hide Quirky passion projects with extra heart Create Post Older #indiegames posts 1 2 3 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Sea of Stars: Pixelated Compassion in an Age of Exhaustion Juno Threadborne Juno Threadborne Juno Threadborne Follow Nov 11 '25 Sea of Stars: Pixelated Compassion in an Age of Exhaustion # gamedesign # gamedev # kindness # indiegames 4 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read How Narrative Design Helps Indie Games Compete with AAA Titles Mitch Mitch Mitch Follow Nov 7 '25 How Narrative Design Helps Indie Games Compete with AAA Titles # gamedev # indie # indiegames 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read The Locked Door: Finding Hope in the 'Good Ending' of No, I'm not a human Christopher Brown Christopher Brown Christopher Brown Follow Sep 30 '25 The Locked Door: Finding Hope in the 'Good Ending' of No, I'm not a human # horrorgames # indiegames # puzzlegames Comments Add Comment 3 min read Peak developers would rather you pirate its game than play Roblox "microtransaction-riddled ripoff slop" Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 12 '25 Peak developers would rather you pirate its game than play Roblox "microtransaction-riddled ripoff slop" # indiegames # pcgaming # multiplayer # platformers Comments Add Comment 1 min read Peak developers would rather you pirate its game than play Roblox "microtransaction-riddled ripoff slop" Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 8 '25 Peak developers would rather you pirate its game than play Roblox "microtransaction-riddled ripoff slop" # pcgaming # indiegames # platformers # coop 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 8 '25 GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship # pcgaming # gamedeals # indiegames # singleplayer Comments Add Comment 1 min read Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 8 '25 Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals # steam # pcgaming # indiegames # gaminghardware Comments Add Comment 1 min read Itch begins "re-indexing" free adult NSFW content, as it seeks alternative payment processors Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 8 '25 Itch begins "re-indexing" free adult NSFW content, as it seeks alternative payment processors # indie # indiegames # pcgaming # steam Comments Add Comment 1 min read Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 7 '25 Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals # steam # pcgaming # indiegames # indie Comments Add Comment 1 min read Peak developers would rather you pirate its game than play Roblox "microtransaction-riddled ripoff slop" Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 7 '25 Peak developers would rather you pirate its game than play Roblox "microtransaction-riddled ripoff slop" # indiegames # pcgaming # platformers # coop Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘Even the visuals and systems are pretty much the same': Hideo Kojima says too many games are similar these days Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 7 '25 ‘Even the visuals and systems are pretty much the same': Hideo Kojima says too many games are similar these days # gamedev # indiegames # playstation # singleplayer Comments Add Comment 1 min read Itch begins "re-indexing" free adult NSFW content, as it seeks alternative payment processors Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 7 '25 Itch begins "re-indexing" free adult NSFW content, as it seeks alternative payment processors # indie # indiegames # pcgaming # gamedev Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘Even the visuals and systems are pretty much the same': Hideo Kojima says too many games are similar these days Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 ‘Even the visuals and systems are pretty much the same': Hideo Kojima says too many games are similar these days # gamedev # indiegames # singleplayer # pcgaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Itch begins "re-indexing" free adult NSFW content, as it seeks alternative payment processors Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 Itch begins "re-indexing" free adult NSFW content, as it seeks alternative payment processors # pcgaming # indiegames # indie # steam Comments Add Comment 1 min read Itch.io are seeking out new payment processors who are more comfortable with adult material Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 Itch.io are seeking out new payment processors who are more comfortable with adult material # pcgaming # steam # indie # indiegames Comments Add Comment 1 min read Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals # pcgaming # steam # indiegames # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship # pcgaming # gamedeals # indiegames # retrogaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read MachineGames financials reveals Indiana Jones developer has 6% profit margin Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 29 '25 MachineGames financials reveals Indiana Jones developer has 6% profit margin # gamedev # browsergames # indiegames # pcgaming 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Nintendo Rewrites Patent Mid-Case in Ongoing Lawsuit Against Palworld Dev Pocketpair — but Why? Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 29 '25 Nintendo Rewrites Patent Mid-Case in Ongoing Lawsuit Against Palworld Dev Pocketpair — but Why? # nintendo # openworld # survivalgames # indiegames Comments Add Comment 1 min read Mastercard, Visa Under Fire As Petition To 'Not Police' Legal Content Blows Up Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 29 '25 Mastercard, Visa Under Fire As Petition To 'Not Police' Legal Content Blows Up # steam # pcgaming # gamedev # indiegames Comments Add Comment 1 min read Visa and Mastercard are getting overwhelmed by gamer fury over censorship Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 29 '25 Visa and Mastercard are getting overwhelmed by gamer fury over censorship # steam # pcgaming # indie # indiegames Comments Add Comment 1 min read Valve confirms credit card companies pressured it to delist certain adult games from Steam Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 21 '25 Valve confirms credit card companies pressured it to delist certain adult games from Steam # steam # pcgaming # indiegames # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Nintendo Is Reportedly Cracking Down On "Sexual Content" On The eShop Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 21 '25 Nintendo Is Reportedly Cracking Down On "Sexual Content" On The eShop # nintendo # nintendoswitch # indiegames # gaminghardware Comments Add Comment 1 min read The Only Official John Wick Video Game Is Being Pulled From All Platforms 6 Years After Release Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 18 '25 The Only Official John Wick Video Game Is Being Pulled From All Platforms 6 Years After Release # indiegames # strategygames # singleplayer # pcgaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Peak went from a canceled game that couldn't get funding to selling millions on Steam Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 16 '25 Peak went from a canceled game that couldn't get funding to selling millions on Steam # indiegames # steam # coop # survivalgames Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... trending guides/resources Sea of Stars: Pixelated Compassion in an Age of Exhaustion How Narrative Design Helps Indie Games Compete with AAA Titles 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Gamers Forem — An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://popcorn.forem.com/t/talkshows	Talkshows - Popcorn Movies and TV Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Popcorn Movies and TV Close # talkshows Follow Hide Talk and late-night shows Create Post Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu As Stephen Colbert Signs Off For 'Late Show' Summer Hiatus, He Says: “Netflix, Call Me I'm Available In June” TV News TV News TV News Follow Aug 12 '25 As Stephen Colbert Signs Off For 'Late Show' Summer Hiatus, He Says: “Netflix, Call Me I'm Available In June” # talkshows # tv # netflix # streaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read New Comedy Central Boss George Cheeks Is Noncommittal on Jon Stewart's ‘Daily Show' Future TV News TV News TV News Follow Aug 12 '25 New Comedy Central Boss George Cheeks Is Noncommittal on Jon Stewart's ‘Daily Show' Future # tv # talkshows # comedy # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read Stephen Colbert's 'Late Show' Ratings Surge Continues, Beats Fallon and Kimmel Combined TV News TV News TV News Follow Aug 12 '25 Stephen Colbert's 'Late Show' Ratings Surge Continues, Beats Fallon and Kimmel Combined # tv # talkshows # analysis # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read Stephen Colbert's 'The Late Show' Sets Ratings Record in Wake of Cancellation TV News TV News TV News Follow Aug 5 '25 Stephen Colbert's 'The Late Show' Sets Ratings Record in Wake of Cancellation # talkshows # streamingstats # tv # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read 'The Daily Show' Is Taking Five Weeks Off TV News TV News TV News Follow Aug 5 '25 'The Daily Show' Is Taking Five Weeks Off # tv # comedy # talkshows # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Late Show With Stephen Colbert' Ending Next Year With CBS Retiring Late-Night Franchise TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 22 '25 ‘The Late Show With Stephen Colbert' Ending Next Year With CBS Retiring Late-Night Franchise # tv # talkshows # celebrities # hollywood Comments Add Comment 1 min read Is Colbert's Ouster Really Just a ‘Financial Decision'? TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 22 '25 Is Colbert's Ouster Really Just a ‘Financial Decision'? # tv # talkshows # streaming # scandals Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Daily Show' Adds Josh Johnson to Host Lineup TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 22 '25 ‘The Daily Show' Adds Josh Johnson to Host Lineup # tv # talkshows # comedy # casting Comments Add Comment 1 min read Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 22 '25 Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" # tv # talkshows # comedy # hollywood Comments Add Comment 1 min read CBS Claims ‘The Late Show with Stephen Colbert' Is Losing $40 Million a Year TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 22 '25 CBS Claims ‘The Late Show with Stephen Colbert' Is Losing $40 Million a Year # tv # talkshows # streamingstats # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read Is Colbert's Ouster Really Just a ‘Financial Decision'? TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 21 '25 Is Colbert's Ouster Really Just a ‘Financial Decision'? # analysis # tv # talkshows # streaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 21 '25 ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High # tv # talkshows # comedy # analysis Comments Add Comment 1 min read CBS Claims ‘The Late Show with Stephen Colbert' Is Losing $40 Million a Year TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 21 '25 CBS Claims ‘The Late Show with Stephen Colbert' Is Losing $40 Million a Year # tv # talkshows # celebrities # streaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 21 '25 Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" # talkshows # tv # comedy # filmindustry Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Late Show With Stephen Colbert' Ending Next Year With CBS Retiring Late-Night Franchise TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 21 '25 ‘The Late Show With Stephen Colbert' Ending Next Year With CBS Retiring Late-Night Franchise # tv # talkshows # comedy # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 18 '25 Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" # comedy # talkshows # tv # hollywood 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 18 '25 ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High # tv # comedy # talkshows # celebrities Comments Add Comment 1 min read Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 18 '25 Jon Stewart on Potential ‘Daily Show' Cancellation After Skydance Merger: "Been Kicked Out of Shittier Establishments" # comedy # talkshows # tv # hollywood Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Late Show With Stephen Colbert' Ending Next Year With CBS Retiring Late-Night Franchise TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 18 '25 ‘The Late Show With Stephen Colbert' Ending Next Year With CBS Retiring Late-Night Franchise # tv # talkshows # celebrities # hollywood Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 16 '25 ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High # tv # talkshows # comedy # analysis Comments Add Comment 1 min read ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High TV News TV News TV News Follow Jul 15 '25 ‘The Daily Show' Hits A Ten-Year Ratings High # tv # comedy # talkshows # streamingstats Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Popcorn Movies and TV — Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Popcorn Movies and TV © 2016 - 2026. Let's watch something great! Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://nextjs.org	Next.js by Vercel - The React Framework Skip to content Search documentation... Search... ⌘K Showcase Docs Blog Templates Enterprise Search documentation... Search... ⌘K Deploy Learn The React Framework for the Web Used by some of the world's largest companies, Next.js enables you to create high-quality web applications with the power of React components. Get Started Learn Next.js ▲ ~ npx create-next-app@latest What's in Next.js? Everything you need to build great products on the web. Data Fetching Make your React component async and await your data. Next.js supports both server and client data fetching. Server Actions Run server code by calling a function. Skip the API. Then, easily revalidate cached data and update your UI in one network roundtrip. Advanced Routing & Nested Layouts Create routes using the file system, including support for more advanced routing patterns and UI layouts. CSS Support Style your application with your favorite tools, including support for CSS Modules, Tailwind CSS, and popular community libraries. Route Handlers Build API endpoints to securely connect with third-party services for handling auth or listening for webhooks. Middleware Take control of the incoming request. Use code to define routing and access rules for authentication, experimentation, and internationalization. React Server Components Add components without sending additional client-side JavaScript. Built on the latest React features. Client and Server Rendering Flexible rendering and caching options, including Incremental Static Regeneration (ISR), on a per-page level. React Server Components Add components without sending additional client-side JavaScript. Built on the latest React features. Data Fetching Make your React component async and await your data. Next.js supports both server and client data fetching. Server Actions Run server code by calling a function. Skip the API. Then, easily revalidate cached data and update your UI in one network roundtrip. Advanced Routing & Nested Layouts Create routes using the file system, including support for more advanced routing patterns and UI layouts. CSS Support Style your application with your favorite tools, including support for CSS Modules, Tailwind CSS, and popular community libraries. Route Handlers Build API endpoints to securely connect with third-party services for handling auth or listening for webhooks. Middleware Take control of the incoming request. Use code to define routing and access rules for authentication, experimentation, and internationalization. Client and Server Rendering Flexible rendering and caching options, including Incremental Static Regeneration (ISR), on a per-page level. React Server Components Add components without sending additional client-side JavaScript. Built on the latest React features. Data Fetching Make your React component async and await your data. Next.js supports both server and client data fetching. Server Actions Run server code by calling a function. Skip the API. Then, easily revalidate cached data and update your UI in one network roundtrip. Advanced Routing & Nested Layouts Create routes using the file system, including support for more advanced routing patterns and UI layouts. CSS Support Style your application with your favorite tools, including support for CSS Modules, Tailwind CSS, and popular community libraries. Route Handlers Build API endpoints to securely connect with third-party services for handling auth or listening for webhooks. Middleware Take control of the incoming request. Use code to define routing and access rules for authentication, experimentation, and internationalization. Client and Server Rendering Flexible rendering and caching options, including Incremental Static Regeneration (ISR), on a per-page level. Next.js 16 The power of full-stack to the frontend. Read the release notes. Built on a foundation of fast, production-grade tooling Powered By React The library for web and native user interfaces. Next.js is built on the latest React features, including Server Components and Actions. Turbopack An incremental bundler optimized for JavaScript and TypeScript, written in Rust , and built into Next.js. Speedy Web Compiler An extensible Rust based platform for the next generation of fast developer tools, and can be used for both compilation and minification. Get started in seconds Deploy Next.js to Vercel Starter Ecommerce Blog AI Portfolio SaaS Multi-tenant Apps Realtime Apps Documentation Virtual Event Web3 Vercel is a frontend cloud from the creators of Next.js, making it easy to get started with Next.js quickly. Jumpstart your Next.js development with pre-built solutions from Vercel and our community. Deploy a Template on Vercel Next.js Boilerplate A Next.js starter from create-next-app. Image Gallery Starter An image gallery built on Next.js and Cloudinary. Next.js Commerce An all-in-one starter kit for high-performance ecommerce sites. The framework of choice when it matters Audible Sonos Dice Notion Today ProductHunt Nike Washington Post Sonos Audible Nike Notion ProductHunt Washington Post For performance , efficiency and developer experience . Next.js is trusted by some of the biggest names on the web. View the Next.js Showcase Customer Testimonials “ With Next.js, we now consistently average 0.09 or lower for Cumulative Layout Shift, placing our site in the top tier for user experience and Core Web Vitals. ” Senior Software Engineer , Frontend “ Our UI for Frame.io responds to user input within 100ms and all animations run at a consistent 60fps with Next.js. ” Charlton Roberts , Product Engineering “ Next.js has been a game-changer for our agency work and team collaboration. Its powerful features have allowed us to build high-performance websites quickly and efficiently like never before. ” Daniel Lopes , Frontend Developer Resources Docs Support Policy Learn Showcase Blog Team Analytics Next.js Conf Previews Evals More Next.js Commerce Contact Sales Community GitHub Releases Telemetry Governance About Vercel Next.js + Vercel Open Source Software GitHub Bluesky X Legal Privacy Policy Cookie Preferences Subscribe to our newsletter Stay updated on new releases and features, guides, and case studies. Subscribe © 2026 Vercel, Inc. Original 1440px 375px Built-in Optimizations Automatic Image, Font, and Script Optimizations for improved UX and Core Web Vitals. Dynamic HTML Streaming Instantly stream UI from the server, integrated with the App Router and React Suspense. Next.js 16 The power of full-stack to the frontend. Read the release notes. Built-in Optimizations Automatic Image, Font, and Script Optimizations for improved UX and Core Web Vitals. Dynamic HTML Streaming Instantly stream UI from the server, integrated with the App Router and React Suspense. Next.js 16 The power of full-stack to the frontend. Read the release notes. Built-in Optimizations Automatic Image, Font, and Script Optimizations for improved UX and Core Web Vitals. Dynamic HTML Streaming Instantly stream UI from the server, integrated with the App Router and React Suspense.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://gg.forem.com/t/gamedeals	Gamedeals - Gamers Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Gamers Forem Close # gamedeals Follow Hide Sales, bundles, and discounts galore Create Post Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Gen Z Is Cutting Back On Video Game Purchases. Like, Really Cutting Back Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 12 '25 Gen Z Is Cutting Back On Video Game Purchases. Like, Really Cutting Back # gaminghardware # nintendoswitch # sportsgames # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 8 '25 GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship # pcgaming # gamedeals # indiegames # singleplayer Comments Add Comment 1 min read Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 Valve point to Mastercard restrictions as the payment firm deny influencing adult game removals # pcgaming # steam # indiegames # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Aug 5 '25 GOG's Freedom To Buy Campaign Gives Away Controversial Games For Free To Protest Censorship # pcgaming # gamedeals # indiegames # retrogaming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Nintendo's Infamously Expensive Street Fighter 6 Amiibo Have Already Hit Clearance Racks At Walmart Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 29 '25 Nintendo's Infamously Expensive Street Fighter 6 Amiibo Have Already Hit Clearance Racks At Walmart # nintendo # fightinggames # gamedeals # gameaccessories Comments Add Comment 1 min read Valve confirms credit card companies pressured it to delist certain adult games from Steam Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 21 '25 Valve confirms credit card companies pressured it to delist certain adult games from Steam # steam # pcgaming # indiegames # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Nintendo Is Reportedly Cracking Down On "Sexual Content" On The eShop Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 18 '25 Nintendo Is Reportedly Cracking Down On "Sexual Content" On The eShop # nintendo # nintendoswitch # gaminghardware # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Nintendo Is Reportedly Cracking Down On "Sexual Content" On The eShop Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 16 '25 Nintendo Is Reportedly Cracking Down On "Sexual Content" On The eShop # nintendo # nintendoswitch # indiegames # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read IGN: Every Live Action Superman Movie Trailer \| 1948 - 2025 Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 10 '25 IGN: Every Live Action Superman Movie Trailer \| 1948 - 2025 # retrogaming # trivia # gaminghardware # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Video games spending by young Americans is dropping sharply, report suggests Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 9 '25 Video games spending by young Americans is dropping sharply, report suggests # xbox # nintendo # gaminghardware # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Video games spending by young Americans is dropping sharply, report suggests Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 8 '25 Video games spending by young Americans is dropping sharply, report suggests # xbox # nintendoswitch # gaminghardware # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Video games spending by young Americans is dropping sharply, report suggests Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 7 '25 Video games spending by young Americans is dropping sharply, report suggests # xbox # nintendoswitch # gaminghardware # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read Nintendo announces Switch price increases in Canada, amid US trade tension \| VGC Gaming News Gaming News Gaming News Follow Jul 1 '25 Nintendo announces Switch price increases in Canada, amid US trade tension \| VGC # nintendo # nintendoswitch # gaminghardware # gamedeals Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Gamers Forem — An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/nodejs-sdk	Integrate Node SDK - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection Developer Resources Overview Updates and Versioning Versioning and Support Policy SDK Changelog Authentication API Keys and Secrets Service Token Best Practices for Key & Token Management MCP Overview BETA Quickstart Tool List Building with LLMs Security Security SDKs and APIs SDKs SDK Overview SuprSend Backend SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK Manage Users Objects Send and Track Events Trigger Workflow from API Tenants Lists Broadcast Java SDK Go SDK SuprSend Client SDK Management API REST API Postman Collection Features Validate Trigger Payload Type Safety Testing Testing the Template Test Mode Monitoring and Logging Logs Data Out Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Node.js SDK Integrate Node SDK OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Install & Initialize SuprSend NodeJS SDK using your workspace credentials for sending notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Installation npm yarn Copy Ask AI npm install @suprsend/node-sdk@latest Initialization javascript Copy Ask AI const { Suprsend } = require ( "@suprsend/node-sdk" ); const supr_client = new Suprsend ( "WORKSPACE KEY" , "WORKSPACE SECRET" ); Replace WORKSPACE KEY and WORKSPACE SECRET with your workspace values. You will find them on SuprSend Dashboard Developers -> API Keys page. Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Users Create, update, & manage user profiles and communication channels using NodeJS SDK methods. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Installation Initialization	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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https://dev.to/yogendra3236	Yogendra - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Yogendra 404 bio not found Location Bengaluru, India Joined Joined on Sep 25, 2020 github website Work Web Developer at LayerIV More info about @yogendra3236 Badges Five Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least five years. Got it Close Four Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least four years. Got it Close Three Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least three years. Got it Close Two Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least two years. Got it Close One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close Post 0 posts published Comment 4 comments written Tag 11 tags followed Want to connect with Yogendra? Create an account to connect with Yogendra. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/uk/3/	3.14.2 Documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Завантажити Завантажте ці документи Документи за версіями Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Всі версії Інші ресурси Індекс PEP Посібник для початківців Список книг Аудіо/візуальні бесіди Посібник розробника Python Навігація індекс модулі \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| Python 3.14.2 documentation Ласкаво просимо! Це офіційна документація для Python 3.14.2. Documentation sections: Що нового в Python 3.14? Or all "What's new" documents since Python 2.0 Підручник Start here: a tour of Python's syntax and features Library reference Standard library and builtins Language reference Syntax and language elements Python setup and usage How to install, configure, and use Python Python HOWTO In-depth topic manuals Installing Python modules Third-party modules and PyPI.org Distributing Python modules Publishing modules for use by other people Extending and embedding For C/C++ programmers Python's C API C API reference Поширені запитання Frequently asked questions (with answers!) Deprecations Deprecated functionality Indices, glossary, and search: Global module index All modules and libraries General index All functions, classes, and terms Глосарій Terms explained Сторінка пошуку Search this documentation Complete table of contents Lists all sections and subsections Project information: Reporting issues Contributing to docs Download the documentation History and license of Python Авторське право Про документацію Завантажити Завантажте ці документи Документи за версіями Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Всі версії Інші ресурси Індекс PEP Посібник для початківців Список книг Аудіо/візуальні бесіди Посібник розробника Python « Навігація індекс модулі \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| © Авторське право 2001 Python Software Foundation. This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License. See History and License for more information. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. Please donate. Востаннє оновлено січ. 13, 2026 (07:26 UTC). Found a bug ? Created using Sphinx 8.2.3.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/amber_9b6e82e8642c395e3b2/my-first-blog-as-a-cybersecurity-beginner-learning-networking-with-wireshark-33cn#comments	My First Blog as a Cybersecurity Beginner: Learning Networking with Wireshark. - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Amber Posted on Jan 4           My First Blog as a Cybersecurity Beginner: Learning Networking with Wireshark. # beginners # networksec # career # education Hey! Its Amber👋 Welcome to my first blog .Let me introduce myself first, I am a second year Computer Science student and passionate about Cybersecurity. Here I will be sharing my personal notes and ideas while I am learning things out myself.As an introvert I hardly ask for mentorship from college professors so the only mentor I got for myself is Chat-GPT.I’m honestly excited (and a little scared) to begin this journey, so yeah — let’s start. Make sure you read till the end 😉. Firstly I started with Networking because everyone out there said learn networking concepts well if you want to get into cybersecurity so here I am. Learning networking concepts, and along with that, I explored a tool that’s actually used in the industry to capture and analyze network traffic — Wireshark . .To understand how network traffic analysis work it helped me a lot. Initially I was too confused with protocols and IP addresses So many protocols. So many IP addresses. Packets flying everywhere like chaos. random data in different Colors. but not to lie hands on this tool made it super easy for me to learn networking concepts. Now I could actually see How packets move Which protocol is doing what How communication really happens behind the scenes And in between all this what I realized is "Networking isnt about memorizing protocols, its about understanding the communication". Right now, I’m focusing on: Understanding common protocols (HTTP, TCP, DNS, etc.) Practicing more packet analysis Strengthening my networking basics before jumping deeper into cybersecurity. If you are a beginner like me and feeling overwhelmed by networking or any concept, just know that Confusion is part of the process and You don’t need to understand everything on day one. If you are already into cybersecurity or networking then do let me know Did you start with networking too? Or did you jump straight into security tools? I would love to hear how your journey started.Alright lets just keep it short for my first blog hope you all liked it. Thank You! Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Amber Follow Joined Jan 4, 2026 More from Amber DO ENGAGE WITH MY FIRST BLOG # beginners # networksec # career # education 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://zeroday.forem.com/privacy#b-information-collected-automatically	Privacy Policy - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. 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DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. 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https://docs.python.org/pt-br/3/	3.14.2 Documentation Tema Automático Claro Escuro Download Baixar esses documentos Documentação por versão Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Todas versões Outros recursos PEP Index Beginner's Guide Book List Audio/Visual Talks Python Developer’s Guide Navegação índice módulos \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » \| Tema Automático Claro Escuro \| Documentação Python 3.14.2 Seja bem-vindo! Esta é a documentação oficial do Python 3.14.2. Seções da documentação: O que há de novo no Python 3.14? Ou todos os documentos "O que há de novo" desde o Python 2.0 Tutorial Comece aqui: um passeio pela sintaxe e pelos recursos do Python Referência da biblioteca Biblioteca padrão e embutidos Referência da linguagem Sintaxe e elementos da linguagem Configurações e uso do Python Como instalar, configurar e usar o Python Python HOWTOs Manuais de tópicos detalhados Instalando módulos Python Módulos de terceiros e PyPI.org Distribuindo módulos Python Publicando módulos para uso por outras pessoas Estendendo e incorporando Para programadores de C/C++ API C do Python Referência da API C FAQs Perguntas frequentes (com respostas!) Descontinuações Funcionalidade descontinuada Índices, glossário e pesquisa: Índice global de módulos Todos os módulos e todas as bibliotecas Índice geral Todas funções, classes e termos Glossário Termos explicados Página de busca Busque nessa documentação Conteúdo completo Lista todas seções e subseções Informações do projeto: Relatando problemas Contribuindo para a documentação Baixar a documentação História e licença do Python Direitos autorais Sobre a documentação Download Baixar esses documentos Documentação por versão Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) Todas versões Outros recursos PEP Index Beginner's Guide Book List Audio/Visual Talks Python Developer’s Guide « Navegação índice módulos \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » \| Tema Automático Claro Escuro \| © Direitos autorais 2001 Python Software Foundation. Esta página está licenciada sob a Licença da Python Software Foundation Versão 2. Exemplos, receitas e outros códigos na documentação são licenciados adicionalmente sob a licença BSD Zero Clause. Consulte Histórico e licença para obter mais informações. A Python Software Foundation é uma corporação sem fins lucrativos. Por favor, faça sua doação. Última atualização em jan. 13, 2026 (07:11 UTC). Encontrou um erro ? Criado usando o Sphinx 8.2.3.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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https://docs.python.org/ro/3/	3.14.2 Documentation Tema Automată Luminoasă Întunecată Download Download these documents Docs by version Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) All versions Other resources PEP Index Beginner's Guide Book List Audio/Visual Talks Python Developer’s Guide Navigație index module \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » \| Tema Automată Luminoasă Întunecată \| Python 3.14.2 documentație Bine ați venit! Aceasta este documentația oficială pentru Python 3.14.2. Secțiunile documentației: Ce este nou în Python 3.14? Sau toate documentele cu "Ce este nou" de la Python 2.0 și până astăzi Un tutorial Porniți de aici: să facem cunoștință cu sintaxa și cu puterile Python-ului Referința bibliotecii Biblioteca standard și predefinitele Referința limbajului Sintaxă și elemente de limbaj Setările și utilizarea Python-ului Cum să instalăm, să configurăm și să întrebuințăm Python-ul CUM-SE-FACE-ASTA în Python Manuale detaliate privind diferite subiecte Instalarea modulelor Python Module ale unor terțe părți și PyPI.org Distribuirea modulelor Python Cum trebuie publicate modulele pentru a fi folosite de către alți oameni Extinderi și scufundări Pentru programatorii în C/C++ API-ul (IPA) C al Python-ului Referința API-ului C FAQ/IFF Întrebări frecvent formulate (și răspunsuri la ele!) Ieșiri din uz Funcționalități ieșite din uz Indecși, glosar și pagină de căutare: Indexul global al modulelor Toate modulele și bibliotecile Indexul general Toate funcțiile, clasele și termenii Glosarul Explicația termenilor Pagina de căutare Căutare în documentația de față Tabla de materii completă Lista tuturor secțiunilor și a subsecțiunilor Informații despre proiect: Cum se raportează erorile Cum se contribuie la documentație De unde se descarcă documentația Istoricul și licența Python-ului Drepturi de autor Despre această documentație Download Download these documents Docs by version Python 3.15 (in development) Python 3.14 (stable) Python 3.13 (stable) Python 3.12 (security-fixes) Python 3.11 (security-fixes) Python 3.10 (security-fixes) Python 3.9 (EOL) Python 3.8 (EOL) Python 3.7 (EOL) Python 3.6 (EOL) Python 3.5 (EOL) Python 3.4 (EOL) Python 3.3 (EOL) Python 3.2 (EOL) Python 3.1 (EOL) Python 3.0 (EOL) Python 2.7 (EOL) Python 2.6 (EOL) All versions Other resources PEP Index Beginner's Guide Book List Audio/Visual Talks Python Developer’s Guide « Navigație index module \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » \| Tema Automată Luminoasă Întunecată \| © Drepturi de autor 2001 Python Software Foundation. Pagina de față este licențiată cu Versiunea 2 a Python Software Foundation License (Licența fundației Python dedicată software-ului). Exemplele, rețetele și alte fragmente de cod din documentație sunt licențiate suplimentar cu Zero Clause BSD License (Licența de clauză zero a BSD-ului). Vedeți Istoric și licență pentru mai multe informații. Python Software Foundation (PSF, Fundația Python dedicată software-ului) este o corporație non-profit. Vă rugăm să donați. Ultima modificare în ian. 13, 2026 (07:13 UTC). Ați găsit o greșeală ? Creat cu Sphinx 8.2.3.	2026-01-13T08:49:03
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Amber Amber Amber Follow Jan 4 My First Blog as a Cybersecurity Beginner: Learning Networking with Wireshark. # beginners # networksec # career # education 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read 🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Follow Nov 28 '25 🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs # iam # cybersecurity # soc # education Comments Add Comment 2 min read ✉️ December: Email Security — Your Strongest Defense Against Everyday Cyber Threats ✉️ Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Amit Ambekar Follow Dec 2 '25 ✉️ December: Email Security — Your Strongest Defense Against Everyday Cyber Threats ✉️ # email # cybersecurity # education # soc 1 reaction Comments 2 comments 3 min read WhatsApp malware campaign targeting Chrome credential vaults Puneet Jena Puneet Jena Puneet Jena Follow Nov 16 '25 WhatsApp malware campaign targeting Chrome credential vaults # discuss # education # news Comments Add Comment 2 min read Why Cyber Awareness Matters More Than Expensive Security Tools Ankit rai Ankit rai Ankit rai Follow Dec 18 '25 Why Cyber Awareness Matters More Than Expensive Security Tools # discuss # education 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read algebraic_cipher_types Alex Towell Alex Towell Alex Towell Follow Dec 17 '25 algebraic_cipher_types # education # networksec 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read IT Asset Management-Vulnerabilities and Patches. 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WhatsApp malware campaign targeting Chrome credential vaults How Hackers Read Your Messages Without Touching Your Phone: What You Need to Know How to Recognize a Real vs Fake Cybersecurity Alert algebraic_cipher_types Why Cyber Awareness Matters More Than Expensive Security Tools 🔍 November: Strengthening Identity & Access Management (IAM) for SMBs 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Gamers Forem Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. 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The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. 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If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Gamers Forem — An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Gamers Forem © 2025 - 2026. We're a place where gamers unite, level up, and share epic adventures. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://docs.python.org/3/contents.html	Python Documentation contents — Python 3.14.2 documentation Theme Auto Light Dark Next topic What’s New in Python This page Report a bug Show source Navigation index modules \| next \| Python » 3.14.2 Documentation » Python Documentation contents \| Theme Auto Light Dark \| Python Documentation contents ¶ What’s New in Python What’s new in Python 3.14 Summary – Release highlights New features PEP 649 & PEP 749 : Deferred evaluation of annotations PEP 734 : Multiple interpreters in the standard library PEP 750 : Template string literals PEP 768 : Safe external debugger interface A new type of interpreter Free-threaded mode improvements Improved error messages PEP 784 : Zstandard support in the standard library Asyncio introspection capabilities Concurrent safe warnings control Other language changes Built-ins Command line and environment PEP 758: Allow except and except* expressions without brackets PEP 765: Control flow in finally blocks Incremental garbage collection Default interactive shell New modules Improved modules argparse ast asyncio calendar concurrent.futures configparser contextvars ctypes curses datetime decimal difflib dis errno faulthandler fnmatch fractions functools getopt getpass graphlib heapq hmac http imaplib inspect io json linecache logging.handlers math mimetypes multiprocessing operator os os.path pathlib pdb pickle platform pydoc re socket ssl struct symtable sys sys.monitoring sysconfig tarfile threading tkinter turtle types typing unicodedata unittest urllib uuid webbrowser zipfile Optimizations asyncio base64 bdb difflib gc io pathlib pdb textwrap uuid zlib Removed argparse ast asyncio email importlib.abc itertools pathlib pkgutil pty sqlite3 urllib Deprecated New deprecations Pending removal in Python 3.15 Pending removal in Python 3.16 Pending removal in Python 3.17 Pending removal in Python 3.18 Pending removal in Python 3.19 Pending removal in future versions CPython bytecode changes Pseudo-instructions C API changes Python configuration C API New features in the C API Limited C API changes Removed C APIs Deprecated C APIs Pending removal in Python 3.15 Pending removal in Python 3.16 Pending removal in Python 3.18 Pending removal in future versions Build changes build-details.json Discontinuation of PGP signatures Free-threaded Python is officially supported Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler Porting to Python 3.14 Changes in the Python API Changes in annotations ( PEP 649 and PEP 749 ) Implications for annotated code Implications for readers of __annotations__ Related changes from __future__ import annotations Changes in the C API Notable changes in 3.14.1 What’s New In Python 3.13 Summary – Release Highlights New Features A better interactive interpreter Improved error messages Free-threaded CPython An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler Defined mutation semantics for locals() Support for mobile platforms Other Language Changes New Modules Improved Modules argparse array ast asyncio base64 compileall concurrent.futures configparser copy ctypes dbm dis doctest email enum fractions glob importlib io ipaddress itertools marshal math mimetypes mmap multiprocessing os os.path pathlib pdb queue random re shutil site sqlite3 ssl statistics subprocess sys tempfile time tkinter traceback types typing unicodedata venv warnings xml zipimport Optimizations Removed Modules And APIs PEP 594: Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library 2to3 builtins configparser importlib.metadata locale opcode optparse pathlib re tkinter.tix turtle typing unittest urllib webbrowser New Deprecations Pending removal in Python 3.14 Pending removal in Python 3.15 Pending removal in Python 3.16 Pending removal in Python 3.17 Pending removal in Python 3.18 Pending removal in Python 3.19 Pending removal in future versions CPython Bytecode Changes C API Changes New Features Changed C APIs Limited C API Changes Removed C APIs Deprecated C APIs Pending removal in Python 3.14 Pending removal in Python 3.15 Pending removal in Python 3.16 Pending removal in Python 3.18 Pending removal in future versions Build Changes Porting to Python 3.13 Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Regression Test Changes What’s New In Python 3.12 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python PEP 709: Comprehension inlining Improved Error Messages New Features Related to Type Hints PEP 692: Using TypedDict for more precise *kwargs typing PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing Other Language Changes New Modules Improved Modules array asyncio calendar csv dis fractions importlib.resources inspect itertools math os os.path pathlib platform pdb random shutil sqlite3 statistics sys tempfile threading tkinter tokenize types typing unicodedata unittest uuid Optimizations CPython bytecode changes Demos and Tools Deprecated Pending removal in Python 3.13 Pending removal in Python 3.14 Pending removal in Python 3.15 Pending removal in Python 3.16 Pending removal in Python 3.17 Pending removal in future versions Removed asynchat and asyncore configparser distutils ensurepip enum ftplib gzip hashlib importlib imp io locale smtpd sqlite3 ssl unittest webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zipimport Others Porting to Python 3.12 Changes in the Python API Build Changes C API Changes New Features Porting to Python 3.12 Deprecated Pending removal in Python 3.14 Pending removal in Python 3.15 Pending removal in Python 3.16 Pending removal in future versions Removed What’s New In Python 3.11 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 657: Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks PEP 654: Exception Groups and except PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes Windows py.exe launcher improvements New Features Related to Type Hints PEP 646: Variadic generics PEP 655: Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required PEP 673: Self type PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type PEP 681: Data class transforms PEP 563 may not be the future Other Language Changes Other CPython Implementation Changes New Modules Improved Modules asyncio contextlib dataclasses datetime enum fcntl fractions functools gzip hashlib IDLE and idlelib inspect locale logging math operator os pathlib re shutil socket sqlite3 string sys sysconfig tempfile threading time tkinter traceback typing unicodedata unittest venv warnings zipfile Optimizations Faster CPython Faster Startup Frozen imports / Static code objects Faster Runtime Cheaper, lazy Python frames Inlined Python function calls PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter Misc FAQ How should I write my code to utilize these speedups? Will CPython 3.11 use more memory? I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why? Is there a JIT compiler? About CPython bytecode changes New opcodes Replaced opcodes Changed/removed opcodes Deprecated Language/Builtins Modules Standard Library Pending Removal in Python 3.12 Removed Porting to Python 3.11 Build Changes C API Changes New Features Porting to Python 3.11 Deprecated Pending Removal in Python 3.12 Removed Notable changes in 3.11.4 tarfile Notable changes in 3.11.5 OpenSSL What’s New In Python 3.10 Summary – Release highlights New Features Parenthesized context managers Better error messages SyntaxErrors IndentationErrors AttributeErrors NameErrors PEP 626: Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching Syntax and operations Declarative approach Simple pattern: match to a literal Behavior without the wildcard Patterns with a literal and variable Patterns and classes Patterns with positional parameters Nested patterns Complex patterns and the wildcard Guard Other Key Features Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option New Features Related to Type Hints PEP 604: New Type Union Operator PEP 612: Parameter Specification Variables PEP 613: TypeAlias PEP 647: User-Defined Type Guards Other Language Changes New Modules Improved Modules asyncio argparse array asynchat, asyncore, smtpd base64 bdb bisect codecs collections.abc contextlib curses dataclasses __slots__ Keyword-only fields distutils doctest encodings enum fileinput faulthandler gc glob hashlib hmac IDLE and idlelib importlib.metadata inspect itertools linecache os os.path pathlib platform pprint py_compile pyclbr shelve statistics site socket ssl sqlite3 sys _thread threading traceback types typing unittest urllib.parse xml zipimport Optimizations Deprecated Removed Porting to Python 3.10 Changes in the Python syntax Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Build Changes C API Changes PEP 652: Maintaining the Stable ABI New Features Porting to Python 3.10 Deprecated Removed Notable security feature in 3.10.7 Notable security feature in 3.10.8 Notable changes in 3.10.12 tarfile What’s New In Python 3.9 Summary – Release highlights You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code New Features Dictionary Merge & Update Operators New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections New Parser Other Language Changes New Modules zoneinfo graphlib Improved Modules ast asyncio compileall concurrent.futures curses datetime distutils fcntl ftplib gc hashlib http IDLE and idlelib imaplib importlib inspect ipaddress math multiprocessing nntplib os pathlib pdb poplib pprint pydoc random signal smtplib socket time sys tracemalloc typing unicodedata venv xml Optimizations Deprecated Removed Porting to Python 3.9 Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Build Changes C API Changes New Features Porting to Python 3.9 Removed Notable changes in Python 3.9.1 typing macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support Notable changes in Python 3.9.2 collections.abc urllib.parse Notable changes in Python 3.9.3 Notable changes in Python 3.9.5 urllib.parse Notable security feature in 3.9.14 Notable changes in 3.9.17 tarfile What’s New In Python 3.8 Summary – Release highlights New Features Assignment expressions Positional-only parameters Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files Debug build uses the same ABI as release build f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers Other Language Changes New Modules Improved Modules ast asyncio builtins collections cProfile csv curses ctypes datetime functools gc gettext gzip IDLE and idlelib inspect io itertools json.tool logging math mmap multiprocessing os os.path pathlib pickle plistlib pprint py_compile shlex shutil socket ssl statistics sys tarfile threading tokenize tkinter time typing unicodedata unittest venv weakref xml xmlrpc Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.8 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Demos and Tools Notable changes in Python 3.8.1 Notable changes in Python 3.8.2 Notable changes in Python 3.8.3 Notable changes in Python 3.8.8 Notable changes in Python 3.8.9 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support Notable changes in Python 3.8.10 urllib.parse Notable changes in Python 3.8.12 Changes in the Python API Notable security feature in 3.8.14 Notable changes in 3.8.17 tarfile What’s New In Python 3.7 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode PEP 553: Built-in breakpoint() PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ PEP 560: Core Support for typing module and Generic Types PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations Python Development Mode (-X dev) Other Language Changes New Modules contextvars dataclasses importlib.resources Improved Modules argparse asyncio binascii calendar collections compileall concurrent.futures contextlib cProfile crypt datetime dbm decimal dis distutils enum functools gc hmac http.client http.server idlelib and IDLE importlib io ipaddress itertools locale logging math mimetypes msilib multiprocessing os pathlib pdb py_compile pydoc queue re signal socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl string subprocess sys time tkinter tracemalloc types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib.parse uu uuid warnings xml xml.etree xmlrpc.server zipapp zipfile C API Changes Build Changes Optimizations Other CPython Implementation Changes Deprecated Python Behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods aifc asyncio collections dbm enum gettext importlib locale macpath threading socket ssl sunau sys wave Deprecated functions and types of the C API Platform Support Removals API and Feature Removals Module Removals Windows-only Changes Porting to Python 3.7 Changes in Python Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Windows-only Changes Other CPython implementation changes Notable changes in Python 3.7.1 Notable changes in Python 3.7.2 Notable changes in Python 3.7.6 Notable changes in Python 3.7.10 Notable changes in Python 3.7.11 Notable security feature in 3.7.14 What’s New In Python 3.6 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 498: Formatted string literals PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order New dict implementation PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython PYTHONMALLOC environment variable DTrace and SystemTap probing support Other Language Changes New Modules secrets Improved Modules array ast asyncio binascii cmath collections concurrent.futures contextlib datetime decimal distutils email encodings enum faulthandler fileinput hashlib http.client idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect json logging math multiprocessing os pathlib pdb pickle pickletools pydoc random re readline rlcompleter shlex site sqlite3 socket socketserver ssl statistics struct subprocess sys telnetlib time timeit tkinter traceback tracemalloc typing unicodedata unittest.mock urllib.request urllib.robotparser venv warnings winreg winsound xmlrpc.client zipfile zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods asynchat asyncore dbm distutils grp importlib os re ssl tkinter venv xml Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated Build Options Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.6 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Notable changes in Python 3.6.4 Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 Notable changes in Python 3.6.7 Notable changes in Python 3.6.10 Notable changes in Python 3.6.13 Notable changes in Python 3.6.14 What’s New In Python 3.5 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray PEP 484 - Type Hints PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization Other Language Changes New Modules typing zipapp Improved Modules argparse asyncio bz2 cgi cmath code collections collections.abc compileall concurrent.futures configparser contextlib csv curses dbm difflib distutils doctest email enum faulthandler functools glob gzip heapq http http.client idlelib and IDLE imaplib imghdr importlib inspect io ipaddress json linecache locale logging lzma math multiprocessing operator os pathlib pickle poplib re readline selectors shutil signal smtpd smtplib sndhdr socket ssl Memory BIO Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support Other Changes sqlite3 subprocess sys sysconfig tarfile threading time timeit tkinter traceback types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib wsgiref xmlrpc xml.sax zipfile Other module-level changes Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python Behavior Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.5 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Notable changes in Python 3.5.4 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target What’s New In Python 3.4 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations Bootstrapping pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable Improvements to Codec Handling PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Other Language Changes New Modules asyncio ensurepip enum pathlib selectors statistics tracemalloc Improved Modules abc aifc argparse audioop base64 collections colorsys contextlib dbm dis doctest email filecmp functools gc glob hashlib hmac html http idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect ipaddress logging marshal mmap multiprocessing operator os pdb pickle plistlib poplib pprint pty pydoc re resource select shelve shutil smtpd smtplib socket sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sunau sys tarfile textwrap threading traceback types urllib unittest venv wave weakref xml.etree zipfile CPython Implementation Changes PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm PEP 436: Argument Clinic Other Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Significant Optimizations Deprecated Deprecations in the Python API Deprecated Features Removed Operating Systems No Longer Supported API and Feature Removals Code Cleanups Porting to Python 3.4 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Changed in 3.4.3 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients What’s New In Python 3.3 Summary – Release highlights PEP 405: Virtual Environments PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation Features API changes PEP 393: Flexible String Representation Functionality Performance and resource usage PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator PEP 409: Suppressing exception context PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary PEP 362: Function Signature Object PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation SimpleNamespace Using importlib as the Implementation of Import New APIs Visible Changes Other Language Changes A Finer-Grained Import Lock Builtin functions and types New Modules faulthandler ipaddress lzma Improved Modules abc array base64 binascii bz2 codecs collections contextlib crypt curses datetime decimal Features API changes email Policy Framework Provisional Policy with New Header API Other API Changes ftplib functools gc hmac http html imaplib inspect io itertools logging math mmap multiprocessing nntplib os pdb pickle pydoc re sched select shlex shutil signal smtpd smtplib socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sys tarfile tempfile textwrap threading time types unittest urllib webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated features Porting to Python 3.3 Porting Python code Porting C code Building C extensions Command Line Switch Changes What’s New In Python 3.2 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules email elementtree functools itertools collections threading datetime and time math abc io reprlib logging csv contextlib decimal and fractions ftp popen select gzip and zipfile tarfile hashlib ast os shutil sqlite3 html socket ssl nntp certificates imaplib http.client unittest random poplib asyncore tempfile inspect pydoc dis dbm ctypes site sysconfig pdb configparser urllib.parse mailbox turtledemo Multi-threading Optimizations Unicode Codecs Documentation IDLE Code Repository Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.2 What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbling Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Ordering Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101 : A New Approach To String Formatting Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Porting To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 The Future for Python 2.x Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings Python 3.1 Features PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging PEP 3106: Dictionary Views PEP 3137: The memoryview Object Other Language Changes Interpreter Changes Optimizations New and Improved Modules New module: importlib New module: sysconfig ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Updated module: unittest Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 Build and C API Changes Capsules Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.7 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases Two new environment variables for debug mode PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 Bootstrapping pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New and Improved Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript Object Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Deprecations and Removals Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Porting to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes package The ElementTree package The hashlib package The sqlite3 package The wsgiref package Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encodings PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logging Package PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes String Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: __future__ Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warning Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment String Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Porting to 2.0 Extending/Embedding Changes Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements Changelog Python next Windows Tools/Demos Tests Library Documentation Core and Builtins C API Build Python 3.14.2 final Security Library Core and Builtins Library Python 3.14.1 final Windows Tools/Demos Tests Security Library IDLE Documentation Core and Builtins Library Core and Builtins Library Core and Builtins Library Core and Builtins Library Core and Builtins Library Core and Builtins Library Core and Builtins C API Build Python 3.14.0 final macOS Windows Tools/Demos Security Library Python 3.14.0 release candidate 3 Windows Tools/Demos Security Library Core and 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Tests Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.0 alpha 3 Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 2 Core and Builtins Library Build C API Windows Python 3.5.0 alpha 1 Core and Builtins Library IDLE Build C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows The Python Tutorial 1. Whetting Your Appetite 2. Using the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Passing 2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Text 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements 4.5. else Clauses on Loops 4.6. pass Statements 4.7. match Statements 4.8. Defining Functions 4.9. More on Defining Functions 4.9.1. Default Argument Values 4.9.2. Keyword Arguments 4.9.3. Special parameters 4.9.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments 4.9.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters 4.9.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments 4.9.3.4. Function Examples 4.9.3.5. Recap 4.9.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.9.5. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.9.6. Lambda Expressions 4.9.7. Documentation Strings 4.9.8. Function Annotations 4.10. Intermezzo: Coding Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Looping Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4. Packages 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package 6.4.2. Intra-package References 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting 7.1.1. Formatted String Literals 7.1.2. The String format() Method 7.1.3. Manual String Formatting 7.1.4. Old string formatting 7.2. Reading and Writing Files 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handling Exceptions 8.4. Raising Exceptions 8.5. Exception Chaining 8.6. User-defined Exceptions 8.7. Defining Clean-up Actions 8.8. Predefined Clean-up Actions 8.9. Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions 8.10. Enriching Exceptions with Notes 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class Objects 9.3.3. Instance Objects 9.3.4. Method Objects 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Iterators 9.9. Generators 9.10. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operating System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. String Pattern Matching 10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 11.1. Output Formatting 11.2. Templating 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-threading 11.5. Logging 11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists 11.8. Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic 12. Virtual Environments and Packages 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments 12.3. Managing Packages with pip 13. What Now? 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 15. Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 15.1. Representation Error 16. Appendix 16.1. Interactive Mode 16.1.1. Error Handling 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File 16.1.4. The Customization Modules Python Setup and Usage 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.1.4. Controlling color 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Using Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.1.1. Installing IDLE 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.2. Building Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Custom OpenSSL 3. Configure Python 3.1. Build Requirements 3.1.1. Requirements for optional modules 3.2. Generated files 3.2.1. configure script 3.3. Configure Options 3.3.1. General Options 3.3.2. C compiler options 3.3.3. Linker options 3.3.4. Options for third-party dependencies 3.3.5. WebAssembly Options 3.3.6. Install Options 3.3.7. Performance options 3.3.8. Python Debug Build 3.3.9. Debug options 3.3.10. Linker options 3.3.11. Libraries options 3.3.12. Security Options 3.3.13. macOS Options 3.3.14. iOS Options 3.3.15. Cross Compiling Options 3.4. Python Build System 3.4.1. Main files of the build system 3.4.2. Main build steps 3.4.3. Main Makefile targets 3.4.3.1. make 3.4.3.2. make platform 3.4.3.3. make profile-opt 3.4.3.4. make clean 3.4.3.5. make distclean 3.4.3.6. make install 3.4.3.7. make test 3.4.3.8. make ci 3.4.3.9. make buildbottest 3.4.3.10. make regen-all 3.4.4. C extensions 3.5. Compiler and linker flags 3.5.1. Preprocessor flags 3.5.2. Compiler flags 3.5.3. Linker flags 4. Using Python on Windows 4.1. Python install manager 4.1.1. Installation 4.1.2. Basic use 4.1.3. Command help 4.1.4. Listing runtimes 4.1.5. Installing runtimes 4.1.6. Offline installs 4.1.7. Uninstalling runtimes 4.1.8. Configuration 4.1.9. Shebang lines 4.1.10. Advanced installation 4.1.11. Administrative configuration 4.1.12. Installing free-threaded binaries 4.1.13. Troubleshooting 4.2. The embeddable package 4.2.1. Python application 4.2.2. Embedding Python 4.3. The nuget.org packages 4.3.1. Free-threaded packages 4.4. Alternative bundles 4.5. Supported Windows versions 4.6. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation 4.7. UTF-8 mode 4.8. Finding modules 4.9. Additional modules 4.9.1. PyWin32 4.9.2. cx_Freeze 4.10. Compiling Python on Windows 4.11. The full installer (deprecated) 4.11.1. Installation steps 4.11.2. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation 4.11.3. Installing without UI 4.11.4. Installing without downloading 4.11.5. Modifying an install 4.11.6. Installing free-threaded binaries 4.12. Python launcher for Windows (deprecated) 4.12.1. Getting started 4.12.1.1. From the command-line 4.12.1.2. Virtual environments 4.12.1.3. From a script 4.12.1.4. From file associations 4.12.2. Shebang lines 4.12.3. Arguments in shebang lines 4.12.4. Customization 4.12.4.1. Customization via INI files 4.12.4.2. Customizing default Python versions 4.12.5. Diagnostics 4.12.6. Dry run 4.12.7. Install on demand 4.12.8. Return codes 5. Using Python on macOS 5.1. Using Python for macOS from python.org 5.1.1. Installation steps 5.1.2. How to run a Python script 5.2. Alternative Distributions 5.3. Installing Additional Python Packages 5.4. GUI Programming 5.5. Advanced Topics 5.5.1. Installing Free-threaded Binaries 5.5.2. Installing using the command line 5.5.3. Distributing Python Applications 5.5.4. App Store Compliance 5.6. Other Resources 6. Using Python on Android 6.1. Adding Python to an Android app 6.2. Building a Python package for Android 7. Using Python on iOS 7.1. Python at runtime on iOS 7.1.1. iOS version compatibility 7.1.2. Platform identification 7.1.3. Standard library availability 7.1.4. Binary extension modules 7.1.5. Compiler stub binaries 7.2. Installing Python on iOS 7.2.1. Tools for building iOS apps 7.2.2. Adding Python to an iOS project 7.2.3. Testing a Python package 7.3. App Store Compliance 7.3.1. Incompatible code in the standard library 7.3.2. Privacy manifests 8. Editors and IDEs 8.1. IDLE — Python editor and shell 8.2. Other Editors and IDEs The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 1.2.1. Lexical and Syntactic definitions 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.1.10. End marker 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords) 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Soft Keywords 2.3.3. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names 2.4. Literals 2.5. String and Bytes literals 2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings 2.5.2. String prefixes 2.5.3. Formal grammar 2.5.4. Escape sequences 2.5.4.1. Ignored end	2026-01-13T08:49:03
https://dev.to/djuleayo	djuleayo - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Forem Close Follow User actions djuleayo Building graph-first systems, dynamically constructed parsers. Into DX, and composable automation. I write about real system design problems — not trends Joined Joined on Jul 25, 2025 Personal website https://www.djuleayo.com github website Education BCS CS Work Lead Software Engineer More info about @djuleayo Badges Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. Got it Close Post 6 posts published Comment 1 comment written Tag 7 tags followed Service as Architecture Reversal djuleayo djuleayo djuleayo Follow Jan 12 Service as Architecture Reversal # discuss # architecture # webdev Comments Add Comment 3 min read Want to connect with djuleayo? Create an account to connect with djuleayo. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in Truth of IT, AI and sense djuleayo djuleayo djuleayo Follow Jan 10 Truth of IT, AI and sense # discuss # ai # automation Comments Add Comment 4 min read TS API Spec djuleayo djuleayo djuleayo Follow Dec 20 '25 TS API Spec # tooling # api # typescript # opensource Comments Add Comment 7 min read You Should Not Outsource Your Topological Sort djuleayo djuleayo djuleayo Follow Dec 20 '25 You Should Not Outsource Your Topological Sort # algorithms # architecture # computerscience Comments Add Comment 4 min read Recursive "parser/grammar" type TS metaprogramming djuleayo djuleayo djuleayo Follow Jul 25 '25 Recursive "parser/grammar" type TS metaprogramming Comments Add Comment 3 min read FP vs IP and Microservices vs Monoliths are the same argument djuleayo djuleayo djuleayo Follow Dec 20 '25 FP vs IP and Microservices vs Monoliths are the same argument Comments Add Comment 8 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:04
https://dev.to/algorithm_architech	Adyasha Mohanty - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Adyasha Mohanty talks in bits believe in queue DS life is abstract data type Joined Joined on Feb 25, 2024 More info about @algorithm_architech Badges One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close Post 0 posts published Comment 1 comment written Tag 10 tags followed Want to connect with Adyasha Mohanty? Create an account to connect with Adyasha Mohanty. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:04
https://tatanotes.com/blog/ai-accessibility-visual-disabilities	TataNotes – Web Accessibility Personal Blog AI in Assistive Technologies for People with Visual Impairments – TataNotes Skip to main content TataNotes… …all about a11y Blog About me News AI in Assistive Technologies for People with Visual Impairments Apps powered by AI that assist people with total or partial vision loss are available now. Reading time: around 1 min Publication date January 12, 2026 The other day, I watched a report on NHK WORLD JAPAN BIZ STREAM program about digital AIs and found out about Eye Navi app, which helps people with visual impairments to see and navigate the world around them. The app uses a smartphone camera to collect information about the environment and then processes it using AI to provide the user with an audio description: The system provides audible notification of the presence or absence of pedestrians, car stops, and other obstacles to walking, as well as the color of pedestrian signals. — Eye Navi Unfortunately, the app is currently only available in Japan, but while researching this topic, I found similar apps available in other countries: Be My Eyes - a free app that connects blind or low vision users who want support with volunteers and companies across the world through live video and AI. Lookout by Google - using your phone’s camera, this app makes it easier to get more information about the world around you and allows you to do everyday tasks more efficiently like reading text and documents, sorting mail, etc. Lookout is available only on Android devices. Seeing AI by Microsoft - a free app that describes the world around you. It helps with everyday tasks, such as reading, describing photos, identifying products, and more. Sources BIZ STREAM “Looking through Digital AIs” Eye Navi Be My Eyes Fee Tatyana Bayramova © 2024–present Important: All rights reserved	2026-01-13T08:49:04
https://dev.to/behruamm	Behram - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Behram Ex-Data Scientist documenting the reality of building AI agent SaaS as a solo founder in the UK. Raw technical logs, AI leverage, and the path to profitability. Location Birmingham,UK Joined Joined on Nov 7, 2024 github website twitter website More info about @behruamm Badges One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close Currently learning DevOps Post 1 post published Comment 0 comments written Tag 13 tags followed How I built a "Magic Move" animation engine for Excalidraw from scratch published Behram Behram Behram Follow Jan 12 How I built a "Magic Move" animation engine for Excalidraw from scratch published # react # animation # webdev # opensource 9 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:04
https://zeroday.forem.com/subforems/new#main-content	Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Information Subforems are New and Experimental Subforems are a new feature that allows communities to create focused spaces within the larger Forem ecosystem. These networks are designed to empower our community to build intentional community around what they care about and the ways they awant to express their interest. Some subforems will be run communally, and others will be run by you . What Subforems Should Exist? What kind of Forem are you envisioning? 🤔 A general Forem that should exist in the world Think big! What community is the world missing? A specific interest Forem I'd like to run myself You have a passion and want to build a community around it. A company-run Forem for our product or ecosystem For customer support, developer relations, or brand engagement. ✓ Thank you for your response. ✓ Thank you for completing the survey! Give us the elevator pitch! What is your Forem about, and what general topics would it cover? 💡 ✓ Thank you for your response. ✓ Thank you for your response. ✓ Thank you for completing the survey! ← Previous Next → Survey completed 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account	2026-01-13T08:49:04

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