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https://git-scm.com/book/be/v2/Git-on-the-Server-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Першыя крокі 1.1 About Version Control 1.2 A Short History of Git 1.3 What is Git? 1.4 The Command Line 1.5 Installing Git 1.6 First-Time Git Setup 1.7 Getting Help 1.8 Падсумаваньне 2. Git Basics 2.1 Getting a Git Repository 2.2 Recording Changes to the Repository 2.3 Viewing the Commit History 2.4 Undoing Things 2.5 Working with Remotes 2.6 Tagging 2.7 Git Aliases 2.8 Summary 3. Git Branching 3.1 Branches in a Nutshell 3.2 Basic Branching and Merging 3.3 Branch Management 3.4 Branching Workflows 3.5 Remote Branches 3.6 Rebasing 3.7 Summary 4. Git on the Server 4.1 The Protocols 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Generating Your SSH Public Key 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Summary 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Distributed Workflows 5.2 Contributing to a Project 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Дадатак A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git in IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git in Sublime Text A1.6 Git in Bash A1.7 Git in Zsh A1.8 Git in PowerShell A1.9 Summary A2. Дадатак B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Дадатак C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 4.8 Git on the Server - GitLab GitLab GitWeb is pretty simplistic though. If you’re looking for a modern, fully featured Git server, there are several open source solutions out there that you can install instead. As GitLab is one of the popular ones, we’ll cover installing and using it as an example. This is harder than the GitWeb option and will require more maintenance, but it is a fully featured option. Installation GitLab is a database-backed web application, so its installation is more involved than some other Git servers. Fortunately, this process is well-documented and supported. GitLab strongly recommends installing GitLab on your server via the official Omnibus GitLab package. The other installation options are: GitLab Helm chart, for use with Kubernetes. Dockerized GitLab packages for use with Docker. From the source files. Cloud provider such as AWS, Google Cloud Platform, Azure, OpenShift and Digital Ocean. For more information read the GitLab Community Edition (CE) readme . Administration GitLab’s administration interface is accessed over the web. Simply point your browser to the hostname or IP address where GitLab is installed, and log in as the admin user. The default username is admin@local.host , and the default password is 5iveL!fe (which you must change right away). After you’ve logged in, click the “Admin area” icon in the menu at the top right. Малюнак 50. The “Admin area” item in the GitLab menu Users Everybody using your GitLab server must have an user account. User accounts are quite simple, they mainly contain personal information attached to login data. Each user account has a namespace , which is a logical grouping of projects that belong to that user. If the user jane had a project named project, that project’s url would be http://server/jane/project . Малюнак 51. The GitLab user administration screen You can remove a user account in two ways: “Blocking” a user prevents them from logging into the GitLab instance, but all of the data under that user’s namespace will be preserved, and commits signed with that user’s email address will still link back to their profile. “Destroying” a user, on the other hand, completely removes them from the database and filesystem. All projects and data in their namespace is removed, and any groups they own will also be removed. This is obviously a much more permanent and destructive action, and you will rarely need it. Groups A GitLab group is a collection of projects, along with data about how users can access those projects. Each group has a project namespace (the same way that users do), so if the group training has a project materials, its url would be http://server/training/materials . Малюнак 52. The GitLab group administration screen Each group is associated with a number of users, each of which has a level of permissions for the group’s projects and the group itself. These range from “Guest” (issues and chat only) to “Owner” (full control of the group, its members, and its projects). The types of permissions are too numerous to list here, but GitLab has a helpful link on the administration screen. Projects A GitLab project roughly corresponds to a single Git repository. Every project belongs to a single namespace, either a user or a group. If the project belongs to a user, the owner of the project has direct control over who has access to the project; if the project belongs to a group, the group’s user-level permissions will take effect. Every project has a visibility level, which controls who has read access to that project’s pages and repository. If a project is Private , the project’s owner must explicitly grant access to specific users. An Internal project is visible to any logged-in user, and a Public project is visible to anyone. Note that this controls both git fetch access as well as access to the web UI for that project. Hooks GitLab includes support for hooks, both at a project or system level. For either of these, the GitLab server will perform an HTTP POST with some descriptive JSON whenever relevant events occur. This is a great way to connect your Git repositories and GitLab instance to the rest of your development automation, such as CI servers, chat rooms, or deployment tools. Basic Usage The first thing you’ll want to do with GitLab is create a new project. You can do this by clicking on the “+” icon on the toolbar. You’ll be asked for the project’s name, which namespace it should belong to, and what its visibility level should be. Most of what you specify here isn’t permanent, and can be changed later through the settings interface. Click “Create Project”, and you’re done. Once the project exists, you’ll probably want to connect it with a local Git repository. Each project is accessible over HTTPS or SSH, either of which can be used to configure a Git remote. The URLs are visible at the top of the project’s home page. For an existing local repository, this command will create a remote named gitlab to the hosted location: $ git remote add gitlab https://server/namespace/project.git If you don’t have a local copy of the repository, you can simply do this: $ git clone https://server/namespace/project.git The web UI provides access to several useful views of the repository itself. Each project’s home page shows recent activity, and links along the top will lead you to views of the project’s files and commit log. Working Together The simplest way of working together on a GitLab project is by giving each user direct push access to the Git repository. You can add a user to a project by going to the “Members” section of that project’s settings, and associating the new user with an access level (the different access levels are discussed a bit in Groups ). By giving a user an access level of “Developer” or above, that user can push commits and branches directly to the repository. Another, more decoupled way of collaboration is by using merge requests. This feature enables any user that can see a project to contribute to it in a controlled way. Users with direct access can simply create a branch, push commits to it, and open a merge request from their branch back into master or any other branch. Users who don’t have push permissions for a repository can “fork” it to create their own copy, push commits to their copy, and open a merge request from their fork back to the main project. This model allows the owner to be in full control of what goes into the repository and when, while allowing contributions from untrusted users. Merge requests and issues are the main units of long-lived discussion in GitLab. Each merge request allows a line-by-line discussion of the proposed change (which supports a lightweight kind of code review), as well as a general overall discussion thread. Both can be assigned to users, or organized into milestones. This section is focused mainly on the Git-related features of GitLab, but as a mature project, it provides many other features to help your team work together, such as project wikis and system maintenance tools. One benefit to GitLab is that, once the server is set up and running, you’ll rarely need to tweak a configuration file or access the server via SSH; most administration and general usage can be done through the in-browser interface. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=en_CA | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 � | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/sl/v2/Osnove-Git-Pregled-zgodovine-potrditev | Git - Pregled zgodovine potrditev About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Začetek 1.1 O nadzoru različic 1.2 Kratka zgodovina Gita 1.3 Kaj je Git? 1.4 Ukazna vrstica 1.5 Namestitev Gita 1.6 Prva nastavitev Gita 1.7 Pridobivanje pomoči 1.8 Povzetek 2. Osnove Git 2.1 Pridobivanje repozitorija Git 2.2 Snemanje sprememb v repozitorij 2.3 Pregled zgodovine potrditev 2.4 Razveljavljanje stvari 2.5 Delo z daljavami 2.6 Označevanje 2.7 Aliasi Git 2.8 Povzetek 3. Veje Git 3.1 Veje na kratko 3.2 Osnove vej in združevanja 3.3 Upravljanje vej 3.4 Poteki dela z vejami 3.5 Oddaljene veje 3.6 Ponovno baziranje 3.7 Povzetek 4. Git na strežniku 4.1 Protokoli 4.2 Pridobitev Gita na strežniku 4.3 Generiranje vaših javnih ključev SSH 4.4 Nastavitev strežnika 4.5 Prikriti proces Git 4.6 Pametni HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Možnosti gostovanja pri tretjih ponudnikih 4.10 Povzetek 5. Porazdeljeni Git 5.1 Porazdeljeni poteki dela 5.2 Prispevek k projektu 5.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 5.4 Povzetek 6. GitHub 6.1 Namestitev in konfiguracija računa 6.2 Prispevek k projektu 6.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 6.4 Upravljanje organizacije 6.5 Skriptni GitHub 6.6 Povzetek 7. Orodja Git 7.1 Izbira revizije 7.2 Interaktivno pripravljanje 7.3 Shranjevanje na varno (angl. stashing) in čiščenje 7.4 Podpisovanje vašega dela 7.5 Iskanje 7.6 Prepisovanje zgodovine 7.7 Demistifikacija ponastavitve 7.8 Napredno združevanje 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Razhroščevanje z Gitom 7.11 Podmoduli 7.12 Povezovanje v pakete 7.13 Zamenjava 7.14 Shramba poverilnic 7.15 Povzetek 8. Prilagoditev Gita 8.1 Konfiguracija Git 8.2 Atributi Git 8.3 Kljuke Git 8.4 Primer pravilnika, ki ga uveljavlja Git 8.5 Povzetek 9. Git in ostali sistemi 9.1 Git kot odjemalec 9.2 Migracija na Git 9.3 Povzetek 10. Notranjost Gita 10.1 Napeljava in keramika 10.2 Objekti Git 10.3 Reference Git 10.4 Packfiles (datoteke zmanjšanih podatkov) 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Protokoli prenosa 10.7 Vzdrževanje in obnovitev podatkov 10.8 Spremenljivke okolja 10.9 Povzetek A1. Dodatek A: Git v drugih okoljih A1.1 Grafični vmesniki A1.2 Git v Visual Studio A1.3 Git v Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git v IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git v Sublime Text A1.6 Git v Bashu A1.7 Git v Zsh A1.8 Git v Powershellu A1.9 Povzetek A2. Dodatek B: Vdelava Gita v vašo aplikacijo A2.1 Git v ukazni vrstici A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Dodatek C: Ukazi Git A3.1 Nastavitev in konfiguracija A3.2 Pridobivanje in ustvarjanje projektov A3.3 Osnove posnetkov A3.4 Veje in združevanje A3.5 Deljenje in posodabljanje projektov A3.6 Pregled in primerjava A3.7 Razhroščevanje A3.8 Popravljanje A3.9 E-pošta A3.10 Zunanji sistemi A3.11 Administracija A3.12 Orodja za sisteme napeljave 2nd Edition 2.3 Osnove Git - Pregled zgodovine potrditev Pregled zgodovine potrditev Ko ste ustvarili nekaj potrditev, ali če ste klonirali repozitorij z obstoječo zgodovino potrditev, boste verjetno želeli pogledati nazaj, da vidite, kaj se je zgodilo. Najosnovnejše in najbolj zmogljivo orodje za to je ukaz git log . Ti primeri uporabljajo zelo enostaven projekt imenovan »simplegit«. Da pridobite projekt, poženite: $ git clone https://github.com/schacon/simplegit-progit Ko poženete git log v tem projektu, bi morali dobiti izpis, ki je videti nekako takole: $ git log commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 Change version number commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 Remove unnecessary test commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 Initial commit Privzeto brez argumentov git log izpiše potrditve, ki so bile narejene v tem repozitoriju v obratnem kronološkem vrstnem redu — to je, najnovejše potrditve se prikažejo prve. Kot vidite, ta ukaz izpiše vsako potrditev z njeno kontrolno vsoto SHA-1, avtorjevim imenom in e-pošto, napisanim datumom in sporočilom potrditve. Na voljo je veliko število raznolikih možnosti ukaza git log , da prikaže točno to, kar iščete. Tukaj bomo prikazali nekaj najbolj popularnih. Ena najbolj uporabnih možnosti je -p ali --patch , ki prikaže razlike (izpis popravkov ) uvedene v vsaki potrditvi. Lahko uporabite tudi -2 , ki omeji izpis na samo zadnja dva vnosa: $ git log -p -2 commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 Change version number diff --git a/Rakefile b/Rakefile index a874b73..8f94139 100644 --- a/Rakefile +++ b/Rakefile @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ require 'rake/gempackagetask' spec = Gem::Specification.new do |s| s.platform = Gem::Platform::RUBY s.name = "simplegit" - s.version = "0.1.0" + s.version = "0.1.1" s.author = "Scott Chacon" s.email = "schacon@gee-mail.com" s.summary = "A simple gem for using Git in Ruby code." commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 Remove unnecessary test diff --git a/lib/simplegit.rb b/lib/simplegit.rb index a0a60ae..47c6340 100644 --- a/lib/simplegit.rb +++ b/lib/simplegit.rb @@ -18,8 +18,3 @@ class SimpleGit end end - -if $0 == __FILE__ - git = SimpleGit.new - puts git.show -end Ta možnost prikaže enake informacije vendar z razliko, ki neposredno sledi vsakemu vnosu. To je zelo uporabno za pregled kode ali za hitro brskanje, kaj se je zgodilo med serijo potrditev, ki jih je dodal sodelavec. Z git log lahko uporabite tudi možnosti serije povzetkov. Na primer, če želite videti nekaj skrajšanih statistik za vsako potrditev, lahko uporabite možnost --stat : $ git log --stat commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 Change version number Rakefile | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 Remove unnecessary test lib/simplegit.rb | 5 ----- 1 file changed, 5 deletions(-) commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 Initial commit README | 6 ++++++ Rakefile | 23 +++++++++++++++++++++++ lib/simplegit.rb | 25 +++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 files changed, 54 insertions(+) Kot lahko vidite, možnost --stat izpiše pod vsakim vnosom potrditve seznam spremenjenih datotek, koliko datotek je bilo spremenjenih in koliko vrstic v teh datotekah je bilo dodanih ali odstranjenih. Na konec doda tudi povzetek informacij. Druga resnično uporabna možnost je --pretty . Ta možnost spremeni izpis dnevnika v druge oblike od privzetih. Za uporabo imate nekaj vnaprej vgrajenih možnosti. Vrednost oneline za to možnost izpiše vsako potrditev na eno vrstico, kar je uporabno, če gledate veliko potrditev. Poleg tega, vrednosti short , full in fuller prikažejo izpis v skoraj enaki obliki, vendar z več ali manj informacijami: $ git log --pretty=oneline ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Change version number 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Remove unnecessary test a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Initial commit Najbolj zanimiva vrednost možnosti je format , ki vam omogoča določiti lastno obliko izpisa dnevnika. To je posebej uporabno, ko generirate izpis za strojno prevajanje — ker določate obliko eksplicitno, veste, da se ne bo spremenila s posodobitvami Git: $ git log --pretty=format:"%h - %an, %ar : %s" ca82a6d - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : Change version number 085bb3b - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : Remove unnecessary test a11bef0 - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : Initial commit Uporabni specifikatorji za git log --pretty=format izpiše seznam nekaj bolj uporabnih specifikatorjev, ki jih sprejme format . Tabela 1. Uporabni specifikatorji za git log --pretty=format Specifikator Opis izpisa %H Zgoščena vrednost potrditve %h Okrajšana zgoščena vrednost potrditve %T Zgoščena vrednost drevesa %t Okrajšana zgoščena vrednost drevesa %P Nadrejene zgoščene vrednosti %p Okrajšane nadrejene zgoščene vrednosti %an Ime avtorja %ae E-pošta avtorja %ad Datum avtorja (format spoštuje --date=option ) %ar Datum avtorja, relativno %cn Ime potrjevalca %ce E-pošta potrjevalca %cd Datum potrjevalca %cr Datum potrjevalca, relativno %s Zadeva Lahko se sprašujete, kaj je razlika med avtorjem in potrjevalcem . Avtor (angl. author ) je oseba, ki je prvotno napisala delo, potrjevalec (angl. commiter ) je pa oseba, ki je zadnja dodala delo. Torej, če ste poslali programski popravek projektu in eden izmed osrednjih članov ekipe doda ta popravek, oba dobita zasluge — vi kot avtor in osrednji član kot potrjevalec. To razlikovanje bomo pokrili nekoliko podrobneje v poglavju Porazdeljeni Git . Vrednosti možnosti oneline in format sta posebej uporabni z drugimi možnostmi log imenovanimi --graph . Ta možnost doda lep manjši graf ASCII, ki prikazuje vašo vejo in zgodovino združevanj: $ git log --pretty=format:"%h %s" --graph * 2d3acf9 Ignore errors from SIGCHLD on trap * 5e3ee11 Merge branch 'master' of https://github.com/dustin/grit.git |\ | * 420eac9 Add method for getting the current branch * | 30e367c Timeout code and tests * | 5a09431 Add timeout protection to grit * | e1193f8 Support for heads with slashes in them |/ * d6016bc Require time for xmlschema * 11d191e Merge branch 'defunkt' into local Ta tip izpisa bo postal bolj zanimiv, ko bomo šli skozi razvejanje in združevanje v naslednjem poglavju. To so samo nekatere enostavne možnosti oblike izpisa za git log — jih je pa še veliko več. Pogoste možnosti za git log izpisuje možnosti, ki smo jih pokrili do sedaj kot tudi nekatere ostale pogoste možnosti oblikovanja, ki so lahko uporabne skupaj s tem, kako spremenijo izpis ukaza log . Tabela 2. Pogoste možnosti za git log Možnost Opis -p Prikaži programski popravek, ki je bil uveden v vsaki potrditvi. --stat Prikaži statistiko za spremenjene datoteke v vsaki potrditvi. --shortstat Prikaži samo vrstice sprememb/vstavkov/izbrisov iz ukaza --stat . --name-only Prikaži seznam spremenjenih datotek za informacijo potrditve. --name-status Prikaži seznam datotek, na katere je informacija tudi vplivala z dodajanjem/spremembo/izbrisom. --abbrev-commit Prikaži samo prvih nekaj znakov kontrolne vsote SHA-1 namesto vseh 40. --relative-date Prikaži datum v relativni obliki (na primer, »2 weeks ago«) namesto uporabe polne oblike datuma. --graph Prikaži graf ASCII zgodovine veje in združevanja poleg izpisa dnevnika. --pretty Prikaži potrditve v drugi obliki. Vrednosti možnosti vključujejo oneline , short , full , fuller in format (kjer lahko določite svojo lastno obliko). --oneline Bližnjica za skupaj uporabljeno --pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit . Omejevanje izpisa dnevnika Poleg možnosti oblike izpisa, git log sprejme tudi vrsto uporabnih možnosti omejevanja; to so možnosti, ki vam omogočajo prikazati samo podskupek potrditev. Eno tako možnost ste že videli — možnost -2 , ki prikaže samo zadnji dve potrditvi. V bistvu lahko naredite -<n> , kjer je n katerokoli celo število za prikaz zadnjih n potrditev. V resnici tega zelo verjetno ne boste uporabljali pogostokrat, ker Git privzeto preusmeri vse izpise skozi oštevilčenje strani, tako da vidite samo eno stran izpisa dnevnika naenkrat. Vendar pa so možnosti časovnega omejevanja, kot sta --since in --until , zelo uporabne. Na primer ta ukaz dobi seznam potrditev, ki so bile narejene v zadnjih dveh tednih: $ git log --since=2.weeks Ta ukaz deluje z veliko oblikami — lahko določite določen datum, kot je »2008-01-15«, ali relativni datum, kot je »2 years 1 day 3 minutes ago«. Seznam potrditev lahko tudi filtrirate, da se prilega nekaterim merilom. Možnost --author vam omogoča filtrirati po določenem avtorju in možnost --grep vam omogoča iskati za ključnimi besedami v sporočilih potrditev. Opomba Določite lahko eno instanco obeh meril iskanja --author in --grep , kar bo omejilo izpis potrditev na tiste, ki se prilegajo katerim koli vzorcem --author in katerim koli vzorcem --grep ; vendar pa dodajanje možnosti --all-match nadalje omeji izpis na samo tiste potrditve, ki se prilegajo vsem vzorcem --grep . Drug resnično uporaben filter je možnost -S (pogovorno imenovana kot Gitova možnost »krampa in lopate«), ki vzame niz in prikaže samo tiste potrditve, ki so spremenili število pojavljanj tega niza. Na primer, če ste želeli najti zadnjo potrditev, ki je dodala ali odstranila referenco določeni funkciji, lahko kličete: $ git log -S function_name Zadnja resnično uporabna možnost za podati ukazu git log kot filter, je pot. Če določite direktorij ali ime datoteke, lahko omejite izpis dnevnika na potrditve, ki so uvedle spremembe tem datotekam. To je vedno zadnja možnost in je v splošnem dodana predhodno z dvema pomišljajema ( -- ), da loči poti od ostalih možnosti: $ git log -- path/to/file V Možnosti za omejitev izpisa git log bomo za vašo referenco izpisali te možnosti skupaj s še nekaj pogostih ostalih. Tabela 3. Možnosti za omejitev izpisa git log Možnost Opis -<n> Prikaži samo zadnjih n potrditev. --since , --after Omeji potrditve na tiste, ki so bile narejene po določenem datumu. --until , --before Omeji potrditve na samo tiste, ki so bile narejene pred določenim datumom. --author Prikaži samo potrditve, kjer se vnos avtorja prilega določenemu nizu. --committer Prikaži samo potrditve, kjer se vnos potrditelja prilega določenemu nizu. --grep Prikaži samo potrditve, kjer sporočilo vsebuje niz. -S Prikaži samo potrditve, ki odstranjujejo ali dodajajo kodo, ki se prilega nizu. Na primer, če želite videti, katere potrditve, ki so spremenile datoteke testiranja v zgodovini izvorne kode Git, je naredil Junio Hamano v mesecu oktobru 2008 in niso bile potrditve združevanja, lahko poženete nekaj takega: $ git log --pretty="%h - %s" --author='Junio C Hamano' --since="2008-10-01" \ --before="2008-11-01" --no-merges -- t/ 5610e3b - Fix testcase failure when extended attributes are in use acd3b9e - Enhance hold_lock_file_for_{update,append}() API f563754 - demonstrate breakage of detached checkout with symbolic link HEAD d1a43f2 - reset --hard/read-tree --reset -u: remove unmerged new paths 51a94af - Fix "checkout --track -b newbranch" on detached HEAD b0ad11e - pull: allow "git pull origin $something:$current_branch" into an unborn branch Ta ukaz prikaže 6 od skoraj 40000 potrditev v zgodovini izvorne kode Git, ki se prilegajo tem merilom. Namig Preprečitev prikaza potrditev združevanj Odvisno od uporabljenega delovnega načina v vašem repozitoriju je možno, da je zajeten delež potrditev v vašem dnevniku zgodovine zgolj potrditev združevanj, kar običajno ni preveč informativno. Da preprečite prikaz potrditev združevanj, ki delajo nered v vaši zgodovini dnevnika, enostavno dodajte ukazu log možnost --no-merges . prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/uz/v2/Distributed-Git-Maintaining-a-Project | Git - Maintaining a Project About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Иш бошланиши 1.1 Талқинларни бошқариш ҳақида 1.2 Git нинг қисқача тарихи 1.3 Git асоси 1.4 Командалар сатри 1.5 Git ни ўрнатиш 1.6 Git да биринчи созлашлар 1.7 Қандай ёрдам олиш мумкин? 1.8 Хулосалар 2. Git асослари 2.1 Git омборини яратиш 2.2 Ўзгаришларни омборга ёзиш 2.3 Фиксирлашлар тарихини кўриш 2.4 Ўзгаришларни бекор қилиш 2.5 Узоқ масофадаги омборлар билан ишлаш 2.6 Тамғалаш 2.7 Git да таҳаллуслар 2.8 Хулоса 3. Git да тармоқланиш 3.1 Тармоқланиш ҳақида икки оғиз сўз 3.2 Тармоқланиш ва бирлашиш асослари 3.3 Тармоқларни бошқариш 3.4 Иш жараёнларини тармоқлаш 3.5 Узоқ масофадаги тармоқлар 3.6 Қайта асосланиш 3.7 Хулосалар 4. Git серверда 4.1 The Protocols 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Sizning SSH ochiq (public) kalitingizni generatsiyalash 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Хулосалар 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Distributed Workflows 5.2 Contributing to a Project 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Qism modullar (Submodule) 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Appendix A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Summary A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distributed Git - Maintaining a Project Maintaining a Project In addition to knowing how to effectively contribute to a project, you’ll likely need to know how to maintain one. This can consist of accepting and applying patches generated via format-patch and e-mailed to you, or integrating changes in remote branches for repositories you’ve added as remotes to your project. Whether you maintain a canonical repository or want to help by verifying or approving patches, you need to know how to accept work in a way that is clearest for other contributors and sustainable by you over the long run. Working in Topic Branches When you’re thinking of integrating new work, it’s generally a good idea to try it out in a topic branch – a temporary branch specifically made to try out that new work. This way, it’s easy to tweak a patch individually and leave it if it’s not working until you have time to come back to it. If you create a simple branch name based on the theme of the work you’re going to try, such as ruby_client or something similarly descriptive, you can easily remember it if you have to abandon it for a while and come back later. The maintainer of the Git project tends to namespace these branches as well – such as sc/ruby_client , where sc is short for the person who contributed the work. As you’ll remember, you can create the branch based off your master branch like this: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Or, if you want to also switch to it immediately, you can use the checkout -b option: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Now you’re ready to add your contributed work into this topic branch and determine if you want to merge it into your longer-term branches. Applying Patches from E-mail If you receive a patch over e-mail that you need to integrate into your project, you need to apply the patch in your topic branch to evaluate it. There are two ways to apply an e-mailed patch: with git apply or with git am . Applying a Patch with apply If you received the patch from someone who generated it with the git diff or a Unix diff command (which is not recommended; see the next section), you can apply it with the git apply command. Assuming you saved the patch at /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , you can apply the patch like this: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch This modifies the files in your working directory. It’s almost identical to running a patch -p1 command to apply the patch, although it’s more paranoid and accepts fewer fuzzy matches than patch. It also handles file adds, deletes, and renames if they’re described in the git diff format, which patch won’t do. Finally, git apply is an “apply all or abort all” model where either everything is applied or nothing is, whereas patch can partially apply patchfiles, leaving your working directory in a weird state. git apply is overall much more conservative than patch . It won’t create a commit for you – after running it, you must stage and commit the changes introduced manually. You can also use git apply to see if a patch applies cleanly before you try actually applying it – you can run git apply --check with the patch: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply If there is no output, then the patch should apply cleanly. This command also exits with a non-zero status if the check fails, so you can use it in scripts if you want. Applying a Patch with am If the contributor is a Git user and was good enough to use the format-patch command to generate their patch, then your job is easier because the patch contains author information and a commit message for you. If you can, encourage your contributors to use format-patch instead of diff to generate patches for you. You should only have to use git apply for legacy patches and things like that. To apply a patch generated by format-patch , you use git am . Technically, git am is built to read an mbox file, which is a simple, plain-text format for storing one or more e-mail messages in one text file. It looks something like this: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 This is the beginning of the output of the format-patch command that you saw in the previous section. This is also a valid mbox e-mail format. If someone has e-mailed you the patch properly using git send-email, and you download that into an mbox format, then you can point git am to that mbox file, and it will start applying all the patches it sees. If you run a mail client that can save several e-mails out in mbox format, you can save entire patch series into a file and then use git am to apply them one at a time. However, if someone uploaded a patch file generated via format-patch to a ticketing system or something similar, you can save the file locally and then pass that file saved on your disk to git am to apply it: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function You can see that it applied cleanly and automatically created the new commit for you. The author information is taken from the e-mail’s From and Date headers, and the message of the commit is taken from the Subject and body (before the patch) of the e-mail. For example, if this patch was applied from the mbox example above, the commit generated would look something like this: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 The Commit information indicates the person who applied the patch and the time it was applied. The Author information is the individual who originally created the patch and when it was originally created. But it’s possible that the patch won’t apply cleanly. Perhaps your main branch has diverged too far from the branch the patch was built from, or the patch depends on another patch you haven’t applied yet. In that case, the git am process will fail and ask you what you want to do: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". This command puts conflict markers in any files it has issues with, much like a conflicted merge or rebase operation. You solve this issue much the same way – edit the file to resolve the conflict, stage the new file, and then run git am --resolved to continue to the next patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem If you want Git to try a bit more intelligently to resolve the conflict, you can pass a -3 option to it, which makes Git attempt a three-way merge. This option isn’t on by default because it doesn’t work if the commit the patch says it was based on isn’t in your repository. If you do have that commit – if the patch was based on a public commit – then the -3 option is generally much smarter about applying a conflicting patch: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. In this case, this patch had already been applied. Without the -3 option, it looks like a conflict. If you’re applying a number of patches from an mbox, you can also run the am command in interactive mode, which stops at each patch it finds and asks if you want to apply it: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all This is nice if you have a number of patches saved, because you can view the patch first if you don’t remember what it is, or not apply the patch if you’ve already done so. When all the patches for your topic are applied and committed into your branch, you can choose whether and how to integrate them into a longer-running branch. Checking Out Remote Branches If your contribution came from a Git user who set up their own repository, pushed a number of changes into it, and then sent you the URL to the repository and the name of the remote branch the changes are in, you can add them as a remote and do merges locally. For instance, if Jessica sends you an e-mail saying that she has a great new feature in the ruby-client branch of her repository, you can test it by adding the remote and checking out that branch locally: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client If she e-mails you again later with another branch containing another great feature, you can fetch and check out because you already have the remote setup. This is most useful if you’re working with a person consistently. If someone only has a single patch to contribute once in a while, then accepting it over e-mail may be less time consuming than requiring everyone to run their own server and having to continually add and remove remotes to get a few patches. You’re also unlikely to want to have hundreds of remotes, each for someone who contributes only a patch or two. However, scripts and hosted services may make this easier – it depends largely on how you develop and how your contributors develop. The other advantage of this approach is that you get the history of the commits as well. Although you may have legitimate merge issues, you know where in your history their work is based; a proper three-way merge is the default rather than having to supply a -3 and hope the patch was generated off a public commit to which you have access. If you aren’t working with a person consistently but still want to pull from them in this way, you can provide the URL of the remote repository to the git pull command. This does a one-time pull and doesn’t save the URL as a remote reference: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Determining What Is Introduced Now you have a topic branch that contains contributed work. At this point, you can determine what you’d like to do with it. This section revisits a couple of commands so you can see how you can use them to review exactly what you’ll be introducing if you merge this into your main branch. It’s often helpful to get a review of all the commits that are in this branch but that aren’t in your master branch. You can exclude commits in the master branch by adding the --not option before the branch name. This does the same thing as the master..contrib format that we used earlier. For example, if your contributor sends you two patches and you create a branch called contrib and applied those patches there, you can run this: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better To see what changes each commit introduces, remember that you can pass the -p option to git log and it will append the diff introduced to each commit. To see a full diff of what would happen if you were to merge this topic branch with another branch, you may have to use a weird trick to get the correct results. You may think to run this: $ git diff master This command gives you a diff, but it may be misleading. If your master branch has moved forward since you created the topic branch from it, then you’ll get seemingly strange results. This happens because Git directly compares the snapshots of the last commit of the topic branch you’re on and the snapshot of the last commit on the master branch. For example, if you’ve added a line in a file on the master branch, a direct comparison of the snapshots will look like the topic branch is going to remove that line. If master is a direct ancestor of your topic branch, this isn’t a problem; but if the two histories have diverged, the diff will look like you’re adding all the new stuff in your topic branch and removing everything unique to the master branch. What you really want to see are the changes added to the topic branch – the work you’ll introduce if you merge this branch with master. You do that by having Git compare the last commit on your topic branch with the first common ancestor it has with the master branch. Technically, you can do that by explicitly figuring out the common ancestor and then running your diff on it: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db However, that isn’t convenient, so Git provides another shorthand for doing the same thing: the triple-dot syntax. In the context of the diff command, you can put three periods after another branch to do a diff between the last commit of the branch you’re on and its common ancestor with another branch: $ git diff master...contrib This command shows you only the work your current topic branch has introduced since its common ancestor with master. That is a very useful syntax to remember. Integrating Contributed Work When all the work in your topic branch is ready to be integrated into a more mainline branch, the question is how to do it. Furthermore, what overall workflow do you want to use to maintain your project? You have a number of choices, so we’ll cover a few of them. Merging Workflows One simple workflow merges your work into your master branch. In this scenario, you have a master branch that contains basically stable code. When you have work in a topic branch that you’ve done or that someone has contributed and you’ve verified, you merge it into your master branch, delete the topic branch, and then continue the process. If we have a repository with work in two branches named ruby_client and php_client that looks like History with several topic branches. and merge ruby_client first and then php_client next, then your history will end up looking like After a topic branch merge. . Figure 73. History with several topic branches. Figure 74. After a topic branch merge. That is probably the simplest workflow, but it can possibly be problematic if you’re dealing with larger or more stable projects where you want to be really careful about what you introduce. If you have a more important project, you might want to use a two-phase merge cycle. In this scenario, you have two long-running branches, master and develop , in which you determine that master is updated only when a very stable release is cut and all new code is integrated into the develop branch. You regularly push both of these branches to the public repository. Each time you have a new topic branch to merge in ( Before a topic branch merge. ), you merge it into develop ( After a topic branch merge. ); then, when you tag a release, you fast-forward master to wherever the now-stable develop branch is ( After a project release. ). Figure 75. Before a topic branch merge. Figure 76. After a topic branch merge. Figure 77. After a project release. This way, when people clone your project’s repository, they can either check out master to build the latest stable version and keep up to date on that easily, or they can check out develop, which is the more cutting-edge stuff. You can also continue this concept, having an integrate branch where all the work is merged together. Then, when the codebase on that branch is stable and passes tests, you merge it into a develop branch; and when that has proven itself stable for a while, you fast-forward your master branch. Large-Merging Workflows The Git project has four long-running branches: master , next , and pu (proposed updates) for new work, and maint for maintenance backports. When new work is introduced by contributors, it’s collected into topic branches in the maintainer’s repository in a manner similar to what we’ve described (see Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. ). At this point, the topics are evaluated to determine whether they’re safe and ready for consumption or whether they need more work. If they’re safe, they’re merged into next , and that branch is pushed up so everyone can try the topics integrated together. Figure 78. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. If the topics still need work, they’re merged into pu instead. When it’s determined that they’re totally stable, the topics are re-merged into master and are then rebuilt from the topics that were in next but didn’t yet graduate to master . This means master almost always moves forward, next is rebased occasionally, and pu is rebased even more often: Figure 79. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches. When a topic branch has finally been merged into master , it’s removed from the repository. The Git project also has a maint branch that is forked off from the last release to provide backported patches in case a maintenance release is required. Thus, when you clone the Git repository, you have four branches that you can check out to evaluate the project in different stages of development, depending on how cutting edge you want to be or how you want to contribute; and the maintainer has a structured workflow to help them vet new contributions. Rebasing and Cherry Picking Workflows Other maintainers prefer to rebase or cherry-pick contributed work on top of their master branch, rather than merging it in, to keep a mostly linear history. When you have work in a topic branch and have determined that you want to integrate it, you move to that branch and run the rebase command to rebuild the changes on top of your current master (or develop , and so on) branch. If that works well, you can fast-forward your master branch, and you’ll end up with a linear project history. The other way to move introduced work from one branch to another is to cherry-pick it. A cherry-pick in Git is like a rebase for a single commit. It takes the patch that was introduced in a commit and tries to reapply it on the branch you’re currently on. This is useful if you have a number of commits on a topic branch and you want to integrate only one of them, or if you only have one commit on a topic branch and you’d prefer to cherry-pick it rather than run rebase. For example, suppose you have a project that looks like this: Figure 80. Example history before a cherry-pick. If you want to pull commit e43a6 into your master branch, you can run $ git cherry-pick e43a6fd3e94888d76779ad79fb568ed180e5fcdf Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) This pulls the same change introduced in e43a6 , but you get a new commit SHA-1 value, because the date applied is different. Now your history looks like this: Figure 81. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch. Now you can remove your topic branch and drop the commits you didn’t want to pull in. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called “rerere” that can help. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” – it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . Tagging Your Releases When you’ve decided to cut a release, you’ll probably want to drop a tag so you can re-create that release at any point going forward. You can create a new tag as discussed in Git асослари . If you decide to sign the tag as the maintainer, the tagging may look something like this: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 If you do sign your tags, you may have the problem of distributing the public PGP key used to sign your tags. The maintainer of the Git project has solved this issue by including their public key as a blob in the repository and then adding a tag that points directly to that content. To do this, you can figure out which key you want by running gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Then, you can directly import the key into the Git database by exporting it and piping that through git hash-object , which writes a new blob with those contents into Git and gives you back the SHA-1 of the blob: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Now that you have the contents of your key in Git, you can create a tag that points directly to it by specifying the new SHA-1 value that the hash-object command gave you: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 If you run git push --tags , the maintainer-pgp-pub tag will be shared with everyone. If anyone wants to verify a tag, they can directly import your PGP key by pulling the blob directly out of the database and importing it into GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import They can use that key to verify all your signed tags. Also, if you include instructions in the tag message, running git show <tag> will let you give the end user more specific instructions about tag verification. Generating a Build Number Because Git doesn’t have monotonically increasing numbers like v123 or the equivalent to go with each commit, if you want to have a human-readable name to go with a commit, you can run git describe on that commit. Git gives you the name of the nearest tag with the number of commits on top of that tag and a partial SHA-1 value of the commit you’re describing: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c This way, you can export a snapshot or build and name it something understandable to people. In fact, if you build Git from source code cloned from the Git repository, git --version gives you something that looks like this. If you’re describing a commit that you have directly tagged, it gives you the tag name. The git describe command favors annotated tags (tags created with the -a or -s flag), so release tags should be created this way if you’re using git describe , to ensure the commit is named properly when described. You can also use this string as the target of a checkout or show command, although it relies on the abbreviated SHA-1 value at the end, so it may not be valid forever. For instance, the Linux kernel recently jumped from 8 to 10 characters to ensure SHA-1 object uniqueness, so older git describe output names were invalidated. Preparing a Release Now you want to release a build. One of the things you’ll want to do is create an archive of the latest snapshot of your code for those poor souls who don’t use Git. The command to do this is git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz If someone opens that tarball, they get the latest snapshot of your project under a project directory. You can also create a zip archive in much the same way, but by passing the --format=zip option to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip You now have a nice tarball and a zip archive of your project release that you can upload to your website or e-mail to people. The Shortlog It’s time to e-mail your mailing list of people who want to know what’s happening in your project. A nice way of quickly getting a sort of changelog of what has been added to your project since your last release or e-mail is to use the git shortlog command. It summarizes all the commits in the range you give it; for example, the following gives you a summary of all the commits since your last release, if your last release was named v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 You get a clean summary of all the commits since v1.0.1, grouped by author, that you can e-mail to your list. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/fa/v2/%da%af%db%8c%d8%aa-%d8%aa%d9%88%d8%b2%db%8c%d8%b9%e2%80%8c%d8%b4%d8%af%d9%87-Distributed-git-%d9%86%da%af%d9%87%d8%af%d8%a7%d8%b1%db%8c-%db%8c%da%a9-%d9%be%d8%b1%d9%88%da%98%d9%87-Maintaining-a-Project | Git - نگهداری یک پروژه (Maintaining a Project) About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. شروع به کار (getting started) 1.1 درباره ورژن کنترل (About Version Control) 1.2 تاریخچه کوتاهی از گیت (A Short History of Git) 1.3 گیت چیست؟ (What is Git) 1.4 نصب گیت (Installing Git) 1.5 ستاپ اولیه گیت (First-Time Git Setup) 1.6 دریافت کمک (Getting Help) 1.7 خلاصه (summary) 2. مقدمات گیت (git basics chapter) 2.1 گرفتن یک مخزن گیت (Getting a Git Repository) 2.2 ثبت تغییرات در مخزن (Recording Changes to the Repository) 2.3 مشاهده تاریخچه کامیتها (Viewing the Commit History) 2.4 بازگرداندن تغییرات (Undoing Things) 2.5 کار کردن با ریموت ها (Working with Remotes) 2.6 تگ کردن (Tagging) 2.7 نام مستعار گیت (Git Aliases) 2.8 خلاصه (summary) 3. انشعابگیری در گیت (Git Branching) 3.1 شاخهها در یک نگاه (Branches in a Nutshell) 3.2 شاخهبندی و ادغام پایهای (Basic Branching and Merging) 3.3 مدیریت شاخهها (Branch Management) 3.4 روندهای کاری شاخهها (Branching Workflows) 3.5 شاخههای راه دور (Remote Branches) 3.6 بازپایهگذاری (Rebasing) 3.7 خلاصه (Summary) 4. گیت روی سرور (Git on the server) 4.1 پروتکلها (The Protocols) 4.2 راهاندازی گیت روی یک سرور (Getting Git on a Server) 4.3 ایجاد کلید عمومی SSH شما (Generating Your SSH Public Key) 4.4 نصب و راهاندازی سرور (Setting up server) 4.5 سرویسدهنده گیت (Git Daemon) 4.6 HTTP هوشمند (Smart HTTP) 4.7 گیتوب (GitWeb) 4.8 گیتلب (GitLab) 4.9 گزینههای میزبانی شخص ثالث (Third Party Hosted Options) 4.10 خلاصه (Summary) 5. گیت توزیعشده (Distributed git) 5.1 جریانهای کاری توزیعشده (Distributed Workflows) 5.2 مشارکت در یک پروژه (Contributing to a Project) 5.3 نگهداری یک پروژه (Maintaining a Project) 5.4 خلاصه (Summary) 6. گیت هاب (GitHub) 6.1 راهاندازی و پیکربندی حساب کاربری (Account Setup and Configuration) 6.2 مشارکت در یک پروژه (Contributing to a Project) 6.3 نگهداری یک پروژه (Maintaining a Project) 6.4 مدیریت یک سازمان (Managing an organization) 6.5 اسکریپتنویسی در گیتهاب (Scripting GitHub) 6.6 خلاصه (Summary) 7. ابزارهای گیت (Git Tools) 7.1 انتخاب بازبینی (Revision Selection) 7.2 مرحلهبندی تعاملی (Interactive Staging) 7.3 ذخیره موقت و پاکسازی (Stashing and Cleaning) 7.4 امضای کارهای شما (Signing Your Work) 7.5 جستجو (Searching) 7.6 بازنویسی تاریخچه (Rewriting History) 7.7 بازنشانی به زبان ساده (Reset Demystified) 7.8 ادغام پیشرفته (Advanced Merging) 7.9 بازاستفاده خودکار از حل تضادها (Rerere) 7.10 اشکالزدایی با گیت (Debugging with Git) 7.11 سابماژول ها (Submodules) 7.12 بستهبندی (Bundling) 7.13 جایگزینی (Replace) 7.14 ذخیرهسازی اطلاعات ورود (Credential Storage) 7.15 خلاصه (Summary) 8. سفارشیسازی Git (Customizing Git) 8.1 پیکربندی گیت (Git Configuration) 8.2 ویژگیهای گیت (Git Attributes) 8.3 هوکهای گیت (Git Hooks) 8.4 یک نمونه سیاست اعمال شده توسط گیت (An Example Git-Enforced Policy) 8.5 خلاصه (Summary) 9. گیت و سیستمهای دیگر (Git and Other Systems) 9.1 گیت بهعنوان کلاینت (Git as a Client) 9.2 مهاجرت به گیت (Migrating to Git) 9.3 خلاصه (Summary) 10. مباحث درونی گیت (Git Internals) 10.1 ابزارها و دستورات سطح پایین (Plumbing and Porcelain) 10.2 اشیا گیت (Git Objects) 10.3 مراجع گیت (Git References) 10.4 فایلهای بسته (Packfiles) 10.5 نگاشت (The Refspec) 10.6 پروتکلهای انتقال (Transfer Protocols) 10.7 نگهداری و بازیابی دادهها (Maintenance and Data Recovery) 10.8 متغیرهای محیطی (Environment Variables) 10.9 خلاصه (Summary) A1. پیوست A: گیت در محیطهای دیگر (Git in Other Environments) A1.1 رابط های گرافیکی (Graphical Interfaces) A1.2 گیت در ویژوال استودیو (Git in Visual Studio) A1.3 گیت در Visual Studio Code (Git in Visual Studio Code) A1.4 گیت در IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine (Git in IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine) A1.5 گیت در Sublime Text (Git in Sublime Text) A1.6 گیت در بش (Git in Bash) A1.7 گیت در Zsh (Git in Zsh) A1.8 گیت در PowerShell (Git in PowerShell) A1.9 خلاصه (Summary) A2. پیوست B: گنجاندن گیت در برنامههای شما (Embedding Git in your Applications) A2.1 خط فرمان گیت (Command-line Git) A2.2 کتابخانهٔ گیت به زبان سی (Libgit2) A2.3 کتابخانه گیت برای زبان جاوا (JGit) A2.4 کتابخانه گیت برای زبان گو (go-git) A2.5 کتابخانه گیت پایتون (Dulwich) A3. پیوست C: دستورات گیت (Git Commands) A3.1 تنظیم و پیکربندی (Setup and Config) A3.2 گرفتن و ایجاد پروژهها (Getting and Creating Projects) A3.3 نمونهبرداری پایهای (Basic Snapshotting) A3.4 انشعابگیری و ادغام (Branching and Merging) A3.5 بهاشتراکگذاری و بهروزرسانی پروژهها (Sharing and Updating Projects) A3.6 بازرسی و مقایسه (Inspection and Comparison) A3.7 عیبیابی (Debugging) A3.8 اعمال تغییرات به صورت پچ (Patching) A3.9 ایمیل (Email) A3.10 سیستمهای خارجی (External Systems) A3.11 مدیریت (Administration) A3.12 دستورات سطح پایین گیت (Plumbing Commands) 2nd Edition 5.3 گیت توزیعشده (Distributed git) - نگهداری یک پروژه (Maintaining a Project) نگهداری یک پروژه (Maintaining a Project) علاوه بر دانستن نحوه مشارکت مؤثر در یک پروژه، احتمالاً باید بدانید چگونه آن را نگهداری کنید. این کار میتواند شامل پذیرش و اعمال اصلاحاتی باشد که از طریق format-patch ایجاد شده و به شما ایمیل شدهاند، یا ادغام تغییرات در شاخههای راه دور برای مخازنی که به عنوان ریموت به پروژه خود اضافه کردهاید. چه شما مسئول نگهداری یک مخزن رسمی باشید و چه بخواهید با تأیید یا تصویب اصلاحات کمک کنید، باید بدانید چگونه کار را به گونهای بپذیرید که برای سایر مشارکتکنندگان واضح باشد و در درازمدت برای شما پایدار بماند. کار در شاخههای موضوعی (Working in Topic Branches) وقتی قصد دارید کاری جدید را ادغام کنید، معمولاً بهتر است آن را در یک شاخه موضوعی امتحان کنید — شاخهای موقتی که به طور خاص برای آزمایش آن کار جدید ایجاد میشود. به این ترتیب، میتوانید به راحتی یک اصلاحیه را به صورت جداگانه تنظیم کنید و اگر کار نمیکند آن را کنار بگذارید تا وقتی که وقت داشته باشید دوباره به آن برگردید. اگر نام سادهای برای شاخه بر اساس موضوع کاری که میخواهید امتحان کنید انتخاب کنید، مانند ruby_client یا چیزی مشابه که توصیفی باشد، به راحتی میتوانید آن را به خاطر بسپارید اگر مجبور شوید برای مدتی آن را رها کنید و بعداً برگردید. نگهدارنده پروژه Git معمولاً این شاخهها را نیز با نامگذاری فضا (namespace) مشخص میکند — مثلاً sc/ruby_client که در آن sc مخفف نام شخصی است که کار را ارائه داده است. همانطور که به یاد دارید، میتوانید شاخه را بر اساس شاخه master خود اینگونه ایجاد کنید: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master یا اگر میخواهید بلافاصله به آن سوئیچ کنید، میتوانید از گزینه checkout -b استفاده کنید: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master حالا آمادهاید که کار ارسالی را که دریافت کردهاید به این شاخه موضوعی اضافه کنید و تصمیم بگیرید که آیا میخواهید آن را به شاخههای بلندمدت خود ادغام کنید یا خیر. اعمال اصلاحات از طریق ایمیل (Applying Patches from Email) اگر اصلاحیهای از طریق ایمیل دریافت کردید که باید آن را در پروژه خود ادغام کنید، لازم است ابتدا آن اصلاحیه را در شاخه موضوعی خود اعمال کنید تا آن را ارزیابی نمایید. دو روش برای اعمال اصلاحیه ایمیلی وجود دارد: با git apply یا با git am . اعمال یک پچ با apply (Applying a Patch with apply ) اگر اصلاحیه را از کسی دریافت کردید که آن را با git diff یا نسخهای از دستور یونیکس diff ایجاد کرده است (که توصیه نمیشود؛ بخش بعدی را ببینید)، میتوانید آن را با فرمان git apply اعمال کنید. فرض کنیم اصلاحیه را در مسیر /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch ذخیره کردهاید، میتوانید به این صورت اعمالش کنید: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch این کار فایلها را در دایرکتوری کاری شما تغییر میدهد. این تقریباً مشابه اجرای دستور patch -p1 برای اعمال اصلاحیه است، با این تفاوت که git apply محتاطتر است و تطابقهای مبهم کمتری را میپذیرد. همچنین اگر افزودن، حذف یا تغییر نام فایلها در فرمت git diff توصیف شده باشد، آن را مدیریت میکند، کاری که patch انجام نمیدهد. در نهایت، git apply یک مدل "همه را اعمال کن یا همه را لغو کن" است، یعنی یا همه اصلاحات اعمال میشوند یا هیچکدام، در حالی که patch ممکن است اصلاحات را به صورت ناقص اعمال کند و دایرکتوری کاری شما را در وضعیت نامناسبی قرار دهد. در مجموع، git apply بسیار محافظهکارانهتر از patch است. این فرمان برای شما کامیت ایجاد نمیکند — بعد از اجرای آن باید تغییرات را به صورت دستی استیج و کامیت کنید. همچنین میتوانید از git apply استفاده کنید تا ببینید آیا اصلاحیه به صورت تمیز اعمال میشود یا خیر، قبل از اینکه واقعاً آن را اعمال کنید — میتوانید با گزینه --check این کار را انجام دهید: $ git apply --check 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply اگر خروجیای نداشت، یعنی اصلاحیه باید بهخوبی اعمال شود. این فرمان همچنین در صورت شکست بررسی، با کد خطای غیر صفر خارج میشود، بنابراین میتوانید آن را در اسکریپتها به کار ببرید. اعمال پچ با am (Applying a Patch with am ) اگر مشارکتکننده از کاربران گیت باشد و به اندازه کافی حرفهای باشد که از فرمان format-patch برای تولید پچ خود استفاده کند، کار شما آسانتر خواهد بود چون پچ شامل اطلاعات نویسنده و پیام کامیت برای شما است. اگر میتوانید، مشارکتکنندگان خود را تشویق کنید تا به جای استفاده از diff ، برای تولید پچها از format-patch استفاده کنند. شما معمولاً فقط برای پچهای قدیمی و موارد مشابه نیاز دارید از git apply استفاده کنید. برای اعمال پچی که با format-patch تولید شده است، از git am استفاده میکنید (نام فرمان am به این دلیل است که برای «اعمال مجموعهای از پچها از یک صندوق پستی» به کار میرود). از نظر فنی، git am برای خواندن فایل mbox طراحی شده است، که یک فرمت ساده و متنی برای ذخیرهسازی یک یا چند ایمیل در یک فایل متنی است. این فرمت چیزی شبیه به این است: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 این ابتدای خروجی فرمان git format-patch است که در بخش قبل دیدید؛ همچنین نمایانگر یک فرمت ایمیل معتبر mbox است. اگر کسی پچ را به درستی از طریق git send-email برای شما ایمیل کرده باشد و شما آن را در قالب mbox دانلود کنید، میتوانید به git am اشاره کنید که آن فایل mbox را بخواند و شروع به اعمال همه پچهای موجود در آن کند. اگر از یک کلاینت ایمیل استفاده میکنید که میتواند چند ایمیل را در قالب mbox ذخیره کند، میتوانید کل سری پچها را در یک فایل ذخیره کرده و سپس با git am آنها را یکییکی اعمال کنید. با این حال، اگر کسی فایل پچی که با git format-patch تولید شده را در یک سیستم تیکتینگ یا مشابه آن بارگذاری کرده باشد، میتوانید آن فایل را به صورت محلی ذخیره کرده و سپس آن فایل ذخیره شده روی دیسک را به git am بدهید تا اعمال شود: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: Add limit to log function میبینید که پچ بهصورت تمیز اعمال شده و به طور خودکار کامیت جدیدی برای شما ساخته است. اطلاعات نویسنده از سربرگهای From و Date ایمیل گرفته شده و پیام کامیت نیز از Subject و متن ایمیل (قبل از پچ) استخراج میشود. برای مثال، اگر این پچ از نمونه mbox بالا اعمال شده باشد، کامیت تولید شده چیزی شبیه به این خواهد بود: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 اطلاعات Commit فردی را نشان میدهد که پچ را اعمال کرده و زمان اعمال آن را، اطلاعات Author فردی را که پچ را در اصل ایجاد کرده و زمان ایجاد آن را نشان میدهد. اما ممکن است پچ بهصورت تمیز اعمال نشود. شاید شاخه اصلی شما خیلی از شاخهای که پچ بر اساس آن ساخته شده فاصله گرفته باشد، یا پچ به پچ دیگری وابسته باشد که هنوز آن را اعمال نکردهاید. در این صورت، فرآیند git am شکست میخورد و از شما میپرسد که چه کاری میخواهید انجام دهید: $ git am 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". این فرمان، مارکرهای تداخل را در فایلهای دارای مشکل قرار میدهد، مشابه زمانی که در یک عملیات ادغام یا بازپایهگذاری (rebase) به تداخل برخورد میکنید. شما این مشکل را به همان روش حل میکنید — فایل را ویرایش کرده و تداخل را برطرف میکنید، فایل جدید را استیج میکنید، و سپس دستور git am --resolved را اجرا میکنید تا به پچ بعدی بروید: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: See if this helps the gem اگر میخواهید گیت کمی هوشمندانهتر تلاش کند تا تداخل را حل کند، میتوانید گزینه -3 را به آن بدهید که باعث میشود گیت یک ادغام سهطرفه انجام دهد. این گزینه به طور پیشفرض فعال نیست چون در صورتی که کامیتی که پچ گفته بر اساس آن ساخته شده در مخزن شما نباشد، کار نمیکند. اگر آن کامیت را دارید — یعنی اگر پچ بر اساس یک کامیت عمومی ساخته شده — گزینه -3 معمولاً در اعمال پچهای دارای تداخل هوشمندانهتر عمل میکند: $ git am -3 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. در این حالت، بدون گزینه -3 پچ به عنوان تداخل در نظر گرفته میشد. اما چون گزینه -3 استفاده شده، پچ بهصورت تمیز اعمال شده است. اگر تعدادی پچ از یک فایل mbox اعمال میکنید، میتوانید فرمان am را در حالت تعاملی (interactive) اجرا کنید که در هر پچ متوقف شده و از شما میپرسد آیا میخواهید آن را اعمال کنید یا خیر: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- See if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all این حالت برای زمانی که چند پچ ذخیره شده دارید مفید است، چون میتوانید ابتدا پچ را ببینید اگر یادآوری نمیکنید چیست، یا اگر قبلاً آن را اعمال کردهاید، از اعمال دوباره آن صرفنظر کنید. وقتی همه پچهای مربوط به موضوع شما اعمال و کامیت شدند، میتوانید تصمیم بگیرید که آیا و چگونه آنها را در شاخهای با عمر طولانیتر ادغام کنید. بررسی شاخههای ریموت (Checking Out Remote Branches) اگر مشارکت شما از طرف یک کاربر گیت باشد که مخزن خودش را راهاندازی کرده، تعدادی تغییر را در آن پوش کرده و سپس URL مخزن و نام شاخه ریموتی که تغییرات در آن هستند را برای شما ارسال کرده است، میتوانید آن را به عنوان یک ریموت اضافه کرده و ادغامها را به صورت محلی انجام دهید. برای مثال، اگر جسیکا ایمیلی برای شما بفرستد و بگوید که یک ویژگی عالی جدید در شاخه ruby-client مخزن خودش دارد، میتوانید با اضافه کردن ریموت و چکاوت آن شاخه به صورت محلی آن را تست کنید: $ git remote add jessica https://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client اگر او بعداً دوباره برای شما ایمیل بزند و شاخهای دیگر با ویژگی دیگری عالی ارسال کند، میتوانید مستقیماً با استفاده از `fetch` و سپس `checkout` آن را دریافت کنید چون قبلاً تنظیم ریموت را انجام دادهاید. این روش بیشتر وقتی مفید است که شما به طور مداوم با یک نفر کار میکنید. اگر کسی فقط گهگاه یک پچ ارسال میکند، پذیرش آن از طریق ایمیل ممکن است کمتر وقتگیر باشد تا اینکه از همه بخواهید سرور خود را راهاندازی کنند و به طور مداوم ریموتها را اضافه و حذف کنید تا چند پچ دریافت کنید. همچنین احتمالاً نمیخواهید صدها ریموت داشته باشید که هر کدام فقط مربوط به کسی باشد که یک یا دو پچ ارسال کرده است. با این حال، اسکریپتها و سرویسهای میزبانی شده میتوانند این کار را آسانتر کنند — این بستگی زیادی به نحوه توسعه شما و توسعهدهندگان شما دارد. مزیت دیگر این روش این است که تاریخچه کامیتها را نیز به دست میآورید. اگرچه ممکن است با مشکلات ادغام منطقی روبرو شوید، اما میدانید که کار آنها بر اساس کجای تاریخچه شماست؛ ادغام سهطرفه مناسب به طور پیشفرض انجام میشود و نیازی نیست که گزینه -3 را بدهید و امیدوار باشید پچ بر اساس یک کامیت عمومی تولید شده که به آن دسترسی دارید. اگر با فردی به طور مداوم کار نمیکنید ولی همچنان میخواهید به این شکل از او pull کنید، میتوانید آدرس URL مخزن ریموت را به دستور git pull بدهید. این کار یک بار pull انجام میدهد و URL را به عنوان ریموت ذخیره نمیکند: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. تشخیص تغییرات ایجاد شده (Determining What Is Introduced) حالا شما یک شاخه موضوعی دارید که کارهای ارسالی را شامل میشود. در این مرحله میتوانید تصمیم بگیرید که با آن چه کاری انجام دهید. این بخش چند دستور را مرور میکند تا ببینید چگونه میتوانید دقیقاً بررسی کنید چه چیزی را قرار است با ادغام این شاخه به شاخه اصلی خود وارد کنید. معمولاً مفید است که تمام کامیتهایی که در این شاخه هستند ولی در شاخه master شما نیستند را بررسی کنید. میتوانید با افزودن گزینه --not قبل از نام شاخه، کامیتهای موجود در شاخه master را حذف کنید. این کار همان کاری را انجام میدهد که فرمت master..contrib که قبلاً استفاده کردیم انجام میداد. برای مثال، اگر همکارتان دو پچ برای شما فرستاده و شما شاخهای به نام contrib ساخته و آنها را روی آن اعمال کردهاید، میتوانید این دستور را اجرا کنید: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 See if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 Update gemspec to hopefully work better برای دیدن تغییراتی که هر کامیت معرفی میکند، به یاد داشته باشید که میتوانید گزینه -p را به git log بدهید تا تفاوتهای مربوط به هر کامیت به خروجی اضافه شود. برای دیدن تفاوت کامل اینکه اگر این شاخه موضوعی را با شاخهای دیگر ادغام کنید چه اتفاقی میافتد، ممکن است مجبور شوید از یک ترفند عجیب استفاده کنید تا نتایج صحیح را بگیرید. ممکن است فکر کنید این دستور را اجرا کنید: $ git diff master این دستور یک diff به شما میدهد ولی ممکن است گمراهکننده باشد. اگر شاخه master شما از زمان ایجاد شاخه موضوعی پیش رفته باشد، نتایج به نظر عجیب میرسند. این به این دلیل است که گیت مستقیماً اسنپشات آخرین کامیت شاخه موضوعی را با اسنپشات آخرین کامیت شاخه master مقایسه میکند. برای مثال، اگر شما در شاخه master یک خط به فایلی اضافه کرده باشید، مقایسه مستقیم اسنپشاتها باعث میشود شاخه موضوعی به نظر برسد که آن خط را حذف میکند. اگر master یک جد مستقیم شاخه موضوعی شما باشد، این مشکل نیست؛ اما اگر دو تاریخچه متفاوت شده باشند، diff طوری به نظر میرسد که شما دارید همه چیز جدید شاخه موضوعی را اضافه میکنید و همه چیز منحصر به فرد شاخه master را حذف میکنید. آنچه واقعاً میخواهید ببینید، تغییراتی است که به شاخه موضوعی اضافه شده است — کاری که اگر این شاخه را با master ادغام کنید وارد میکنید. این کار را با این روش انجام میدهید که گیت آخرین کامیت شاخه موضوعی شما را با اولین جد مشترک آن با شاخه master مقایسه کند. از نظر فنی، میتوانید با یافتن صریح جد مشترک و سپس اجرای diff روی آن این کار را انجام دهید: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db یا به صورت خلاصهتر: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) با این حال، هیچکدام از این روشها خیلی راحت نیستند، پس گیت یک میانبر دیگر برای انجام همین کار ارائه میدهد: نحو سهنقطهای. در زمینه دستور git diff ، میتوانید سه نقطه بعد از نام شاخه دیگر قرار دهید تا diff بین آخرین کامیت شاخهای که روی آن هستید و جد مشترک آن با شاخه دیگر گرفته شود: $ git diff master...contrib این دستور فقط کاری که شاخه موضوعی شما پس از جد مشترکش با master انجام داده را نشان میدهد. این نحو بسیار مفیدی است که باید به خاطر بسپارید. ادغام کارهای ارسالی (Integrating Contributed Work) وقتی همه کارهای شاخه موضوعی شما آماده ادغام به شاخه اصلیتر شدند، سوال این است که چگونه این کار را انجام دهید. علاوه بر این، چه روش کاری کلی را میخواهید برای مدیریت پروژه خود استفاده کنید؟ شما چندین گزینه دارید، پس چند مورد از آنها را بررسی میکنیم. روشهای ادغام (Merging Workflows) یکی از روشهای پایهای کار این است که تمام تغییرات را مستقیماً در شاخهی master خود ادغام کنید. در این حالت، شاخهی master شما عمدتاً شامل کد پایدار است. وقتی کاری در یک شاخهی موضوعی انجام دادهاید که فکر میکنید تمام شده است، یا کاری که شخص دیگری انجام داده و شما بررسی کردهاید، آن را به شاخهی master خود ادغام میکنید، سپس آن شاخهی موضوعی که تازه ادغام شده را حذف میکنید و این روند را تکرار میکنید. برای مثال، اگر مخزنی داشته باشیم که کار در دو شاخه به نامهای ruby_client و php_client انجام شده و وضعیت آن مانند History with several topic branches باشد، و ابتدا ruby_client سپس php_client را ادغام کنیم، تاریخچهی شما به شکل After a topic branch merge خواهد بود. نمودار 72. History with several topic branches نمودار 73. After a topic branch merge این احتمالاً سادهترین روش کاری است، اما ممکن است در پروژههای بزرگتر یا پایدارتر که میخواهید واقعاً مراقب تغییراتی باشید که وارد میکنید، مشکلساز شود. اگر پروژهی مهمتری دارید، ممکن است بخواهید از چرخهی ادغام دو مرحلهای استفاده کنید. در این حالت، دو شاخهی بلندمدت دارید، master و develop ، که در آن تعیین شده است فقط وقتی نسخهی بسیار پایداری منتشر میشود، master بهروزرسانی شود و تمام کدهای جدید در شاخهی develop ادغام شوند. شما هر دو شاخه را به طور منظم به مخزن عمومی ارسال میکنید. هر بار که شاخهی موضوعی جدیدی برای ادغام دارید ( Before a topic branch merge )، آن را به develop ادغام میکنید ( After a topic branch merge ). سپس، وقتی یک نسخه منتشر میکنید، شاخهی master را به محل شاخهی develop که حالا پایدار است، بهصورت fast-forward میبرید ( After a project release ). نمودار 74. Before a topic branch merge نمودار 75. After a topic branch merge نمودار 76. After a project release به این ترتیب، وقتی افراد مخزن پروژهی شما را کلون میکنند، میتوانند یا شاخهی master را چکاوت کنند تا آخرین نسخهی پایدار را بسازند و بهراحتی بهروز بمانند، یا شاخهی develop را که محتویات پیشرفتهتر و جدیدتری دارد، بررسی کنند. شما میتوانید این مفهوم را با داشتن یک شاخهی integrate که تمام کارها در آنجا ادغام میشود، گسترش دهید. سپس وقتی کد روی آن شاخه پایدار و تستها را پاس کرد، آن را به شاخهی develop ادغام میکنید؛ و وقتی آن شاخه برای مدتی پایدار بود، شاخهی master خود را fast-forward میکنید. روندهای کاری ادغام بزرگ (Large-Merging Workflows) پروژهی Git چهار شاخهی بلندمدت دارد: master ، next ، و seen (قبلاً "pu" به معنای بهروزرسانیهای پیشنهادی) برای کارهای جدید، و maint برای پشتیبانی و نگهداری. وقتی کار جدیدی توسط مشارکتکنندگان ارائه میشود، در شاخههای موضوعی در مخزن نگهدارنده جمعآوری میشود، مشابه آنچه شرح داده شد (نگاه کنید به Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches ). در این مرحله، موضوعها ارزیابی میشوند تا مشخص شود آیا امن و آمادهی استفاده هستند یا نیاز به کار بیشتری دارند. اگر امن باشند، به شاخهی next ادغام میشوند و آن شاخه به مخزن عمومی ارسال میشود تا همه بتوانند موضوعها را به صورت یکپارچه امتحان کنند. نمودار 77. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches اگر موضوعها هنوز نیاز به کار دارند، به شاخهی seen ادغام میشوند. وقتی مشخص شود کاملاً پایدار هستند، موضوعها دوباره به master ادغام میشوند. شاخههای next و seen سپس از روی master بازسازی میشوند. این یعنی شاخهی master تقریباً همیشه جلو میرود، next گاهی بازبیس میشود و seen حتی بیشتر بازبیس میشود. نمودار 78. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches وقتی شاخهی موضوعی نهایتاً به master ادغام شد، از مخزن حذف میشود. پروژهی Git همچنین یک شاخهی maint دارد که از آخرین نسخه فورک شده تا در صورت نیاز به انتشار نگهداری، اصلاحات به عقب منتقل شوند. بنابراین، وقتی مخزن Git را کلون میکنید، چهار شاخه دارید که میتوانید برای ارزیابی پروژه در مراحل مختلف توسعه آنها را بررسی کنید، بسته به اینکه چقدر پیشرفته بودن برایتان مهم است یا چگونه میخواهید مشارکت کنید؛ و نگهدارنده هم یک گردشکار ساختاریافته دارد تا به آنها در بررسی مشارکتهای جدید کمک کند. گردشکار پروژهی Git تخصصی است. برای درک دقیقتر میتوانید راهنمای نگهدارندهی Git را در Git Maintainer’s guide . مطالعه کنید روندهای کاری بازپایهگذاری و انتخاب گزینشی (Rebasing and Cherry-Picking Workflows) نگهدارندگان دیگر ترجیح میدهند کارهای ارائه شده را روی شاخهی master خود بازبیس یا چریپیک کنند، به جای ادغام مستقیم، تا تاریخچهای تقریباً خطی داشته باشند. وقتی کاری در شاخهی موضوعی دارید و تصمیم گرفتهاید آن را ادغام کنید، به آن شاخه میروید و فرمان بازبیس را اجرا میکنید تا تغییرات را روی شاخهی فعلی master (یا develop و غیره) بازسازی کنید. اگر این کار خوب پیش رفت، میتوانید شاخهی master را fast-forward کنید و تاریخچهی پروژه به صورت خطی باقی میماند. راه دیگر انتقال کار انجامشده از یک شاخه به شاخهی دیگر، چریپیک کردن است. چریپیک در Git مانند بازبیس برای یک کامیت است. این عمل پچ معرفی شده در یک کامیت را گرفته و سعی میکند روی شاخهای که هماکنون روی آن هستید دوباره اعمال کند. این روش زمانی مفید است که چند کامیت در شاخهی موضوعی دارید ولی میخواهید فقط یکی از آنها را ادغام کنید، یا وقتی فقط یک کامیت در شاخهی موضوعی دارید و ترجیح میدهید به جای بازبیس، آن را چریپیک کنید. برای مثال، فرض کنید پروژهای دارید که به این شکل است: نمودار 79. Example history before a cherry-pick اگر میخواهید کامیت e43a6 را به شاخهی master خود وارد کنید، میتوانید این دستور را اجرا کنید: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) این دستور همان تغییر اعمال شده در e43a6 را وارد میکند، اما یک مقدار جدید SHA-1 برای کامیت دریافت خواهید کرد، چون تاریخ اعمال آن متفاوت است. اکنون تاریخچهی شما به این شکل خواهد بود: نمودار 80. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch حالا میتوانید شاخه موضوعی خود را حذف کنید و کامیتهایی که نمیخواستید وارد شوند را کنار بگذارید. بازاستفاده خودکار از حل تضادها (Rerere) اگر زیاد عملیات ادغام (merge) و بازپایهگذاری (rebase) انجام میدهید یا شاخهی موضوعی بلندمدتی را نگهداری میکنید، گیت ویژگیای به نام “rerere” دارد که میتواند به شما کمک کند. Rerere مخفف “reuse recorded resolution” است — روشی برای کوتاهکردن فرآیند حل تعارضات به صورت دستی. وقتی rerere فعال باشد، گیت مجموعهای از تصاویر قبل و بعد از ادغامهای موفق را نگه میدارد، و اگر متوجه شود تعارضی مشابه تعارضی که قبلاً حل کردهاید رخ داده، به جای اینکه دوباره از شما بخواهد آن را حل کنید، بهطور خودکار همان حل قبلی را به کار میبرد. این ویژگی دو بخش دارد: یک تنظیم پیکربندی و یک دستور. تنظیم پیکربندی rerere.enabled است، که به اندازهای مفید است که بهتر است در تنظیمات سراسری (global) قرار بگیرد: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true از این پس هر بار که ادغامی انجام دهید و تعارضها را حل کنید، این حل تعارض در حافظه کش ذخیره میشود تا در آینده در صورت نیاز دوباره استفاده شود. اگر لازم باشد، میتوانید با استفاده از دستور git rerere با کش rerere تعامل داشته باشید. وقتی این دستور به تنهایی اجرا شود، گیت پایگاه داده حل تعارضهای خود را بررسی میکند و سعی میکند با تعارضهای فعلی مطابقت پیدا کند و آنها را حل کند (اگر rerere.enabled روی true تنظیم شده باشد این کار به صورت خودکار انجام میشود). همچنین زیردستورات مختلفی وجود دارد تا ببینید چه مواردی ثبت خواهد شد، حل تعارض خاصی را از کش پاک کنید و یا کل کش را خالی نمایید. ما در بخش بازاستفاده خودکار از حل تضادها (Rerere) به جزئیات بیشتری درباره rerere خواهیم پرداخت. برچسبگذاری نسخههای خود (Tagging Your Releases) وقتی تصمیم میگیرید یک نسخه منتشر کنید، احتمالاً میخواهید یک برچسب (tag) اختصاص دهید تا بتوانید آن نسخه را در هر زمانی در آینده دوباره ایجاد کنید. میتوانید برچسب جدیدی ایجاد کنید، همانطور که در مقدمات گیت (git basics chapter) توضیح داده شده است. اگر تصمیم دارید برچسب را به عنوان نگهدارنده امضا کنید، برچسبگذاری ممکن است چیزی شبیه به این باشد: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 اگر برچسبهای خود را امضا کنید، ممکن است با مشکل توزیع کلید عمومی PGP که برای امضای برچسبها استفاده میشود مواجه شوید. نگهدارنده پروژه گیت این مشکل را با قرار دادن کلید عمومی خود به صورت یک blob در مخزن و سپس اضافه کردن یک برچسب که مستقیماً به آن محتوا اشاره میکند، حل کرده است. برای این کار، میتوانید کلیدی که میخواهید را با اجرای دستور gpg --list-keys پیدا کنید: $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] سپس میتوانید کلید را با صادر کردن آن و عبور دادن خروجی از طریق git hash-object مستقیماً در پایگاه داده گیت وارد کنید، که یک blob جدید با این محتویات در گیت مینویسد و مقدار SHA-1 آن blob را به شما برمیگرداند: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 حالا که محتویات کلید شما در گیت است، میتوانید برچسبی بسازید که مستقیماً به آن اشاره کند با مشخص کردن مقدار SHA-1 جدیدی که دستور hash-object به شما داده است: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 اگر دستور git push --tags را اجرا کنید، برچسب maintainer-pgp-pub با همه به اشتراک گذاشته خواهد شد. اگر کسی بخواهد برچسبی را تأیید کند، میتواند کلید PGP شما را با استخراج مستقیم blob از پایگاه داده و وارد کردن آن در GPG به صورت مستقیم وارد کند: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import آنها میتوانند از آن کلید برای تأیید تمام برچسبهای امضا شده شما استفاده کنند. همچنین، اگر دستورالعملهایی در پیام برچسب درج کنید، اجرای git show <tag> به کاربر نهایی اجازه میدهد دستورالعملهای خاصتری درباره تأیید برچسب دریافت کند. تولید شماره ساخت (Generating a Build Number) چون گیت شمارههایی که به صورت پیوسته افزایش یابند مانند 'v123' یا معادل آن برای هر کامیت ندارد، اگر بخواهید نامی قابل خواندن برای انسان همراه با کامیت داشته باشید، میتوانید دستور git describe را روی آن کامیت اجرا کنید. در پاسخ، گیت رشتهای تولید میکند که شامل نام آخرین برچسبی است که قبل از آن کامیت وجود داشته، به همراه تعداد کامیتهایی که از آن برچسب گذشته است، و در نهایت بخشی از مقدار SHA-1 کامیتی که توصیف میشود (با پیشوند حرف "g" که مخفف Git است): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c به این ترتیب، میتوانید یک تصویر فوری (snapshot) یا نسخهای بسازید و آن را به گونهای نامگذاری کنید که برای دیگران قابل فهم باشد. در واقع، اگر گیت را از کد منبعی که از مخزن گیت کلون شده بسازید، دستور `git --version` چیزی شبیه به این به شما میدهد. اگر شما یک کامیت را که مستقیماً تگ زدهاید توضیح دهید، فقط نام تگ را نشان میدهد. به طور پیشفرض، دستور git describe به تگهای حاشیهنویسی شده (annotated tags) نیاز دارد (تگهایی که با فلگهای -a یا -s ساخته شدهاند)؛ اگر میخواهید از تگهای سبکوزن (lightweight tags) یا غیرحاشیهنویسی شده نیز استفاده کنید، گزینه --tags را به دستور اضافه کنید. شما همچنین میتوانید این رشته را به عنوان هدف دستور git checkout یا git show استفاده کنید، اگرچه این روش به مقدار کوتاهشده SHA-1 در انتها وابسته است، پس ممکن است همیشه معتبر نباشد. برای مثال، هسته لینوکس اخیراً تعداد کاراکترهای SHA-1 را از ۸ به ۱۰ افزایش داده است تا یکتایی اشیاء SHA-1 را تضمین کند، بنابراین نامهای خروجی قدیمی git describe نامعتبر شدهاند. آمادهسازی نسخه انتشار (Preparing a Release) حالا میخواهید نسخهای منتشر کنید. یکی از کارهایی که میخواهید انجام دهید، ایجاد یک آرشیو از آخرین تصویر فوری کدتان برای آن دسته از افراد است که از گیت استفاده نمیکنند. دستور این کار git archive است: $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz اگر کسی آن فایل tar را باز کند، آخرین تصویر پروژه شما را در دایرکتوریای به نام project دریافت میکند. شما همچنین میتوانید به روشی مشابه یک آرشیو zip ایجاد کنید، اما با افزودن گزینه --format=zip به دستور git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip اکنون شما یک فایل tar و یک آرشیو zip زیبا از نسخه پروژهتان دارید که میتوانید آن را در وبسایت خود بارگذاری کنید یا برای دیگران ایمیل کنید. گزارش کوتاه (The Shortlog) وقت آن است که به فهرست ایمیل افرادی که میخواهند بدانند در پروژه شما چه خبر است اطلاع دهید. یک روش خوب برای به دست آوردن سریع نوعی گزارش تغییرات (changelog) از آنچه از آخرین انتشار یا ایمیل شما به پروژه اضافه شده، استفاده از دستور git shortlog است. این دستور خلاصهای از تمام کامیتها در بازهای که به آن میدهید ارائه میدهد؛ برای مثال، دستور زیر خلاصهای از تمام کامیتها از زمان آخرین انتشار شما، اگر آخرین انتشار ش | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/be/v2/Distributed-Git-Maintaining-a-Project | Git - Maintaining a Project About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Першыя крокі 1.1 About Version Control 1.2 A Short History of Git 1.3 What is Git? 1.4 The Command Line 1.5 Installing Git 1.6 First-Time Git Setup 1.7 Getting Help 1.8 Падсумаваньне 2. Git Basics 2.1 Getting a Git Repository 2.2 Recording Changes to the Repository 2.3 Viewing the Commit History 2.4 Undoing Things 2.5 Working with Remotes 2.6 Tagging 2.7 Git Aliases 2.8 Summary 3. Git Branching 3.1 Branches in a Nutshell 3.2 Basic Branching and Merging 3.3 Branch Management 3.4 Branching Workflows 3.5 Remote Branches 3.6 Rebasing 3.7 Summary 4. Git on the Server 4.1 The Protocols 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Generating Your SSH Public Key 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Summary 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Distributed Workflows 5.2 Contributing to a Project 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Дадатак A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git in IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git in Sublime Text A1.6 Git in Bash A1.7 Git in Zsh A1.8 Git in PowerShell A1.9 Summary A2. Дадатак B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Дадатак C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distributed Git - Maintaining a Project Maintaining a Project In addition to knowing how to contribute effectively to a project, you’ll likely need to know how to maintain one. This can consist of accepting and applying patches generated via format-patch and emailed to you, or integrating changes in remote branches for repositories you’ve added as remotes to your project. Whether you maintain a canonical repository or want to help by verifying or approving patches, you need to know how to accept work in a way that is clearest for other contributors and sustainable by you over the long run. Working in Topic Branches When you’re thinking of integrating new work, it’s generally a good idea to try it out in a topic branch — a temporary branch specifically made to try out that new work. This way, it’s easy to tweak a patch individually and leave it if it’s not working until you have time to come back to it. If you create a simple branch name based on the theme of the work you’re going to try, such as ruby_client or something similarly descriptive, you can easily remember it if you have to abandon it for a while and come back later. The maintainer of the Git project tends to namespace these branches as well — such as sc/ruby_client , where sc is short for the person who contributed the work. As you’ll remember, you can create the branch based off your master branch like this: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Or, if you want to also switch to it immediately, you can use the checkout -b option: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Now you’re ready to add the contributed work that you received into this topic branch and determine if you want to merge it into your longer-term branches. Applying Patches from Email If you receive a patch over email that you need to integrate into your project, you need to apply the patch in your topic branch to evaluate it. There are two ways to apply an emailed patch: with git apply or with git am . Applying a Patch with apply If you received the patch from someone who generated it with git diff or some variation of the Unix diff command (which is not recommended; see the next section), you can apply it with the git apply command. Assuming you saved the patch at /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , you can apply the patch like this: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch This modifies the files in your working directory. It’s almost identical to running a patch -p1 command to apply the patch, although it’s more paranoid and accepts fewer fuzzy matches than patch. It also handles file adds, deletes, and renames if they’re described in the git diff format, which patch won’t do. Finally, git apply is an “apply all or abort all” model where either everything is applied or nothing is, whereas patch can partially apply patchfiles, leaving your working directory in a weird state. git apply is overall much more conservative than patch . It won’t create a commit for you — after running it, you must stage and commit the changes introduced manually. You can also use git apply to see if a patch applies cleanly before you try actually applying it — you can run git apply --check with the patch: $ git apply --check 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply If there is no output, then the patch should apply cleanly. This command also exits with a non-zero status if the check fails, so you can use it in scripts if you want. Applying a Patch with am If the contributor is a Git user and was good enough to use the format-patch command to generate their patch, then your job is easier because the patch contains author information and a commit message for you. If you can, encourage your contributors to use format-patch instead of diff to generate patches for you. You should only have to use git apply for legacy patches and things like that. To apply a patch generated by format-patch , you use git am (the command is named am as it is used to "apply a series of patches from a mailbox"). Technically, git am is built to read an mbox file, which is a simple, plain-text format for storing one or more email messages in one text file. It looks something like this: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 This is the beginning of the output of the git format-patch command that you saw in the previous section; it also represents a valid mbox email format. If someone has emailed you the patch properly using git send-email , and you download that into an mbox format, then you can point git am to that mbox file, and it will start applying all the patches it sees. If you run a mail client that can save several emails out in mbox format, you can save entire patch series into a file and then use git am to apply them one at a time. However, if someone uploaded a patch file generated via git format-patch to a ticketing system or something similar, you can save the file locally and then pass that file saved on your disk to git am to apply it: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: Add limit to log function You can see that it applied cleanly and automatically created the new commit for you. The author information is taken from the email’s From and Date headers, and the message of the commit is taken from the Subject and body (before the patch) of the email. For example, if this patch was applied from the mbox example above, the commit generated would look something like this: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 The Commit information indicates the person who applied the patch and the time it was applied. The Author information is the individual who originally created the patch and when it was originally created. But it’s possible that the patch won’t apply cleanly. Perhaps your main branch has diverged too far from the branch the patch was built from, or the patch depends on another patch you haven’t applied yet. In that case, the git am process will fail and ask you what you want to do: $ git am 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". This command puts conflict markers in any files it has issues with, much like a conflicted merge or rebase operation. You solve this issue much the same way — edit the file to resolve the conflict, stage the new file, and then run git am --resolved to continue to the next patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: See if this helps the gem If you want Git to try a bit more intelligently to resolve the conflict, you can pass a -3 option to it, which makes Git attempt a three-way merge. This option isn’t on by default because it doesn’t work if the commit the patch says it was based on isn’t in your repository. If you do have that commit — if the patch was based on a public commit — then the -3 option is generally much smarter about applying a conflicting patch: $ git am -3 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. In this case, without the -3 option the patch would have been considered as a conflict. Since the -3 option was used the patch applied cleanly. If you’re applying a number of patches from an mbox, you can also run the am command in interactive mode, which stops at each patch it finds and asks if you want to apply it: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- See if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all This is nice if you have a number of patches saved, because you can view the patch first if you don’t remember what it is, or not apply the patch if you’ve already done so. When all the patches for your topic are applied and committed into your branch, you can choose whether and how to integrate them into a longer-running branch. Checking Out Remote Branches If your contribution came from a Git user who set up their own repository, pushed a number of changes into it, and then sent you the URL to the repository and the name of the remote branch the changes are in, you can add them as a remote and do merges locally. For instance, if Jessica sends you an email saying that she has a great new feature in the ruby-client branch of her repository, you can test it by adding the remote and checking out that branch locally: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client If she emails you again later with another branch containing another great feature, you could directly fetch and checkout because you already have the remote setup. This is most useful if you’re working with a person consistently. If someone only has a single patch to contribute once in a while, then accepting it over email may be less time consuming than requiring everyone to run their own server and having to continually add and remove remotes to get a few patches. You’re also unlikely to want to have hundreds of remotes, each for someone who contributes only a patch or two. However, scripts and hosted services may make this easier — it depends largely on how you develop and how your contributors develop. The other advantage of this approach is that you get the history of the commits as well. Although you may have legitimate merge issues, you know where in your history their work is based; a proper three-way merge is the default rather than having to supply a -3 and hope the patch was generated off a public commit to which you have access. If you aren’t working with a person consistently but still want to pull from them in this way, you can provide the URL of the remote repository to the git pull command. This does a one-time pull and doesn’t save the URL as a remote reference: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Determining What Is Introduced Now you have a topic branch that contains contributed work. At this point, you can determine what you’d like to do with it. This section revisits a couple of commands so you can see how you can use them to review exactly what you’ll be introducing if you merge this into your main branch. It’s often helpful to get a review of all the commits that are in this branch but that aren’t in your master branch. You can exclude commits in the master branch by adding the --not option before the branch name. This does the same thing as the master..contrib format that we used earlier. For example, if your contributor sends you two patches and you create a branch called contrib and applied those patches there, you can run this: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 See if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 Update gemspec to hopefully work better To see what changes each commit introduces, remember that you can pass the -p option to git log and it will append the diff introduced to each commit. To see a full diff of what would happen if you were to merge this topic branch with another branch, you may have to use a weird trick to get the correct results. You may think to run this: $ git diff master This command gives you a diff, but it may be misleading. If your master branch has moved forward since you created the topic branch from it, then you’ll get seemingly strange results. This happens because Git directly compares the snapshots of the last commit of the topic branch you’re on and the snapshot of the last commit on the master branch. For example, if you’ve added a line in a file on the master branch, a direct comparison of the snapshots will look like the topic branch is going to remove that line. If master is a direct ancestor of your topic branch, this isn’t a problem; but if the two histories have diverged, the diff will look like you’re adding all the new stuff in your topic branch and removing everything unique to the master branch. What you really want to see are the changes added to the topic branch — the work you’ll introduce if you merge this branch with master . You do that by having Git compare the last commit on your topic branch with the first common ancestor it has with the master branch. Technically, you can do that by explicitly figuring out the common ancestor and then running your diff on it: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db or, more concisely: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) However, neither of those is particularly convenient, so Git provides another shorthand for doing the same thing: the triple-dot syntax. In the context of the git diff command, you can put three periods after another branch to do a diff between the last commit of the branch you’re on and its common ancestor with another branch: $ git diff master...contrib This command shows you only the work your current topic branch has introduced since its common ancestor with master . That is a very useful syntax to remember. Integrating Contributed Work When all the work in your topic branch is ready to be integrated into a more mainline branch, the question is how to do it. Furthermore, what overall workflow do you want to use to maintain your project? You have a number of choices, so we’ll cover a few of them. Merging Workflows One basic workflow is to simply merge all that work directly into your master branch. In this scenario, you have a master branch that contains basically stable code. When you have work in a topic branch that you think you’ve completed, or work that someone else has contributed and you’ve verified, you merge it into your master branch, delete that just-merged topic branch, and repeat. For instance, if we have a repository with work in two branches named ruby_client and php_client that looks like History with several topic branches , and we merge ruby_client followed by php_client , your history will end up looking like After a topic branch merge . Малюнак 72. History with several topic branches Малюнак 73. After a topic branch merge That is probably the simplest workflow, but it can possibly be problematic if you’re dealing with larger or more stable projects where you want to be really careful about what you introduce. If you have a more important project, you might want to use a two-phase merge cycle. In this scenario, you have two long-running branches, master and develop , in which you determine that master is updated only when a very stable release is cut and all new code is integrated into the develop branch. You regularly push both of these branches to the public repository. Each time you have a new topic branch to merge in ( Before a topic branch merge ), you merge it into develop ( After a topic branch merge ); then, when you tag a release, you fast-forward master to wherever the now-stable develop branch is ( After a project release ). Малюнак 74. Before a topic branch merge Малюнак 75. After a topic branch merge Малюнак 76. After a project release This way, when people clone your project’s repository, they can either check out master to build the latest stable version and keep up to date on that easily, or they can check out develop , which is the more cutting-edge content. You can also extend this concept by having an integrate branch where all the work is merged together. Then, when the codebase on that branch is stable and passes tests, you merge it into a develop branch; and when that has proven itself stable for a while, you fast-forward your master branch. Large-Merging Workflows The Git project has four long-running branches: master , next , and seen (formerly 'pu' — proposed updates) for new work, and maint for maintenance backports. When new work is introduced by contributors, it’s collected into topic branches in the maintainer’s repository in a manner similar to what we’ve described (see Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches ). At this point, the topics are evaluated to determine whether they’re safe and ready for consumption or whether they need more work. If they’re safe, they’re merged into next , and that branch is pushed up so everyone can try the topics integrated together. Малюнак 77. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches If the topics still need work, they’re merged into seen instead. When it’s determined that they’re totally stable, the topics are re-merged into master . The next and seen branches are then rebuilt from the master . This means master almost always moves forward, next is rebased occasionally, and seen is rebased even more often: Малюнак 78. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches When a topic branch has finally been merged into master , it’s removed from the repository. The Git project also has a maint branch that is forked off from the last release to provide backported patches in case a maintenance release is required. Thus, when you clone the Git repository, you have four branches that you can check out to evaluate the project in different stages of development, depending on how cutting edge you want to be or how you want to contribute; and the maintainer has a structured workflow to help them vet new contributions. The Git project’s workflow is specialized. To clearly understand this you could check out the Git Maintainer’s guide . Rebasing and Cherry-Picking Workflows Other maintainers prefer to rebase or cherry-pick contributed work on top of their master branch, rather than merging it in, to keep a mostly linear history. When you have work in a topic branch and have determined that you want to integrate it, you move to that branch and run the rebase command to rebuild the changes on top of your current master (or develop , and so on) branch. If that works well, you can fast-forward your master branch, and you’ll end up with a linear project history. The other way to move introduced work from one branch to another is to cherry-pick it. A cherry-pick in Git is like a rebase for a single commit. It takes the patch that was introduced in a commit and tries to reapply it on the branch you’re currently on. This is useful if you have a number of commits on a topic branch and you want to integrate only one of them, or if you only have one commit on a topic branch and you’d prefer to cherry-pick it rather than run rebase. For example, suppose you have a project that looks like this: Малюнак 79. Example history before a cherry-pick If you want to pull commit e43a6 into your master branch, you can run: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) This pulls the same change introduced in e43a6 , but you get a new commit SHA-1 value, because the date applied is different. Now your history looks like this: Малюнак 80. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch Now you can remove your topic branch and drop the commits you didn’t want to pull in. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called “rerere” that can help. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” — it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . Tagging Your Releases When you’ve decided to cut a release, you’ll probably want to assign a tag so you can re-create that release at any point going forward. You can create a new tag as discussed in Git Basics . If you decide to sign the tag as the maintainer, the tagging may look something like this: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 If you do sign your tags, you may have the problem of distributing the public PGP key used to sign your tags. The maintainer of the Git project has solved this issue by including their public key as a blob in the repository and then adding a tag that points directly to that content. To do this, you can figure out which key you want by running gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Then, you can directly import the key into the Git database by exporting it and piping that through git hash-object , which writes a new blob with those contents into Git and gives you back the SHA-1 of the blob: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Now that you have the contents of your key in Git, you can create a tag that points directly to it by specifying the new SHA-1 value that the hash-object command gave you: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 If you run git push --tags , the maintainer-pgp-pub tag will be shared with everyone. If anyone wants to verify a tag, they can directly import your PGP key by pulling the blob directly out of the database and importing it into GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import They can use that key to verify all your signed tags. Also, if you include instructions in the tag message, running git show <tag> will let you give the end user more specific instructions about tag verification. Generating a Build Number Because Git doesn’t have monotonically increasing numbers like 'v123' or the equivalent to go with each commit, if you want to have a human-readable name to go with a commit, you can run git describe on that commit. In response, Git generates a string consisting of the name of the most recent tag earlier than that commit, followed by the number of commits since that tag, followed finally by a partial SHA-1 value of the commit being described (prefixed with the letter "g" meaning Git): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c This way, you can export a snapshot or build and name it something understandable to people. In fact, if you build Git from source code cloned from the Git repository, git --version gives you something that looks like this. If you’re describing a commit that you have directly tagged, it gives you simply the tag name. By default, the git describe command requires annotated tags (tags created with the -a or -s flag); if you want to take advantage of lightweight (non-annotated) tags as well, add the --tags option to the command. You can also use this string as the target of a git checkout or git show command, although it relies on the abbreviated SHA-1 value at the end, so it may not be valid forever. For instance, the Linux kernel recently jumped from 8 to 10 characters to ensure SHA-1 object uniqueness, so older git describe output names were invalidated. Preparing a Release Now you want to release a build. One of the things you’ll want to do is create an archive of the latest snapshot of your code for those poor souls who don’t use Git. The command to do this is git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz If someone opens that tarball, they get the latest snapshot of your project under a project directory. You can also create a zip archive in much the same way, but by passing the --format=zip option to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip You now have a nice tarball and a zip archive of your project release that you can upload to your website or email to people. The Shortlog It’s time to email your mailing list of people who want to know what’s happening in your project. A nice way of quickly getting a sort of changelog of what has been added to your project since your last release or email is to use the git shortlog command. It summarizes all the commits in the range you give it; for example, the following gives you a summary of all the commits since your last release, if your last release was named v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 You get a clean summary of all the commits since v1.0.1, grouped by author, that you can email to your list. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/fr/v2/Git-distribu%c3%a9-Maintenance-d%e2%80%99un-projet | Git - Maintenance d’un projet About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Démarrage rapide 1.1 À propos de la gestion de version 1.2 Une rapide histoire de Git 1.3 Rudiments de Git 1.4 La ligne de commande 1.5 Installation de Git 1.6 Paramétrage à la première utilisation de Git 1.7 Obtenir de l’aide 1.8 Résumé 2. Les bases de Git 2.1 Démarrer un dépôt Git 2.2 Enregistrer des modifications dans le dépôt 2.3 Visualiser l’historique des validations 2.4 Annuler des actions 2.5 Travailler avec des dépôts distants 2.6 Étiquetage 2.7 Les alias Git 2.8 Résumé 3. Les branches avec Git 3.1 Les branches en bref 3.2 Branches et fusions : les bases 3.3 Gestion des branches 3.4 Travailler avec les branches 3.5 Branches de suivi à distance 3.6 Rebaser (Rebasing) 3.7 Résumé 4. Git sur le serveur 4.1 Protocoles 4.2 Installation de Git sur un serveur 4.3 Génération des clés publiques SSH 4.4 Mise en place du serveur 4.5 Démon (Daemon) Git 4.6 HTTP intelligent 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git hébergé 4.10 Résumé 5. Git distribué 5.1 Développements distribués 5.2 Contribution à un projet 5.3 Maintenance d’un projet 5.4 Résumé 6. GitHub 6.1 Configuration et paramétrage d’un compte 6.2 Contribution à un projet 6.3 Maintenance d’un projet 6.4 Gestion d’un regroupement 6.5 Écriture de scripts pour GitHub 6.6 Résumé 7. Utilitaires Git 7.1 Sélection des versions 7.2 Indexation interactive 7.3 Remisage et nettoyage 7.4 Signer votre travail 7.5 Recherche 7.6 Réécrire l’historique 7.7 Reset démystifié 7.8 Fusion avancée 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Déboguer avec Git 7.11 Sous-modules 7.12 Empaquetage (bundling) 7.13 Replace 7.14 Stockage des identifiants 7.15 Résumé 8. Personnalisation de Git 8.1 Configuration de Git 8.2 Attributs Git 8.3 Crochets Git 8.4 Exemple de politique gérée par Git 8.5 Résumé 9. Git et les autres systèmes 9.1 Git comme client 9.2 Migration vers Git 9.3 Résumé 10. Les tripes de Git 10.1 Plomberie et porcelaine 10.2 Les objets de Git 10.3 Références Git 10.4 Fichiers groupés 10.5 La refspec 10.6 Les protocoles de transfert 10.7 Maintenance et récupération de données 10.8 Les variables d’environnement 10.9 Résumé A1. Annexe A: Git dans d’autres environnements A1.1 Interfaces graphiques A1.2 Git dans Visual Studio A1.3 Git dans Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git dans IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git dans Sublime Text A1.6 Git dans Bash A1.7 Git dans Zsh A1.8 Git dans PowerShell A1.9 Résumé A2. Annexe B: Embarquer Git dans vos applications A2.1 Git en ligne de commande A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Commandes Git A3.1 Installation et configuration A3.2 Obtention et création des projets A3.3 Capture d’instantané basique A3.4 Création de branches et fusion A3.5 Partage et mise à jour de projets A3.6 Inspection et comparaison A3.7 Débogage A3.8 Patchs A3.9 Courriel A3.10 Systèmes externes A3.11 Administration A3.12 Commandes de plomberie 2nd Edition 5.3 Git distribué - Maintenance d’un projet Maintenance d’un projet En plus de savoir comment contribuer efficacement à un projet, vous aurez probablement besoin de savoir comment en maintenir un. Cela peut consister à accepter et appliquer les patchs générés via format-patch et envoyés par courriel, ou à intégrer des modifications dans des branches distantes de dépôts distants. Que vous mainteniez le dépôt de référence ou que vous souhaitiez aider en vérifiant et approuvant les patchs, vous devez savoir comment accepter les contributions d’une manière limpide pour vos contributeurs et soutenable à long terme pour vous. Travail dans des branches thématiques Quand vous vous apprêtez à intégrer des contributions, une bonne idée consiste à les essayer d’abord dans une branche thématique, une branche temporaire spécifiquement créée pour essayer cette nouveauté. De cette manière, il est plus facile de rectifier un patch à part et de le laisser s’il ne fonctionne pas jusqu’à ce que vous disposiez de temps pour y travailler. Si vous créez une simple branche nommée d’après le thème de la modification que vous allez essayer, telle que ruby_client ou quelque chose d’aussi descriptif, vous pouvez vous en souvenir simplement plus tard. Le mainteneur du projet Git a l’habitude d’utiliser des espaces de nommage pour ses branches, tels que sc/ruby_client , où sc représente les initiales de la personne qui a fourni le travail. Comme vous devez vous en souvenir, on crée une branche à partir de master de la manière suivante : $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Ou bien, si vous voulez aussi basculer immédiatement dessus, vous pouvez utiliser l’option checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Vous voilà maintenant prêt à ajouter les modifications sur cette branche thématique et à déterminer si c’est prêt à être fusionné dans les branches au long cours. Application des patchs à partir de courriel Si vous recevez un patch par courriel et que vous devez l’intégrer dans votre projet, vous devez l’appliquer dans une branche thématique pour l’évaluer. Il existe deux moyens d’appliquer un patch reçu par courriel : git apply et git am . Application d’un patch avec apply Si vous avez reçu le patch de quelqu’un qui l’a généré avec la commande git diff ou diff Unix, vous pouvez l’appliquer avec la commande git apply . Si le patch a été sauvé comme fichier /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , vous pouvez l’appliquer comme ceci : $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Les fichiers dans votre copie de travail sont modifiés. C’est quasiment identique à la commande patch -p1 qui applique directement les patchs mais en plus paranoïaque et moins tolérant sur les concordances approximatives. Les ajouts, effacements et renommages de fichiers sont aussi gérés s’ils sont décrits dans le format git diff , ce que patch ne supporte pas. Enfin, git apply fonctionne en mode « applique tout ou refuse tout » dans lequel toutes les modifications proposées sont appliquées si elles le peuvent, sinon rien n’est modifié, là où patch peut n’appliquer que partiellement les patchs, laissant le répertoire de travail dans un état intermédiaire. git apply est par-dessus tout plus paranoïaque que patch . Il ne créera pas une validation à votre place : après l’avoir lancé, vous devrez indexer et valider les modifications manuellement. Vous pouvez aussi utiliser git apply pour voir si un patch s’applique proprement avant de réellement l’appliquer — vous pouvez lancer git apply --check avec le patch : $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply S’il n’y pas de message, le patch devrait s’appliquer proprement. Cette commande se termine avec un statut non-nul si la vérification échoue et vous pouvez donc l’utiliser dans des scripts. Application d’un patch avec am Si le contributeur est un utilisateur de Git qui a été assez gentil d’utiliser la commande format-patch pour générer ses patchs, votre travail sera facilité car le patch contient alors déjà l’information d’auteur et le message de validation. Si possible, encouragez vos contributeurs à utiliser format-patch au lieu de patch pour générer les patchs qu’ils vous adressent. Vous ne devriez avoir à n’utiliser git apply que pour les vrais patchs. Pour appliquer un patch généré par format-patch , vous utilisez git am . Techniquement, git am s’attend à lire un fichier au format mbox, qui est un format texte simple permettant de stocker un ou plusieurs courriels dans un unique fichier texte. Il ressemble à ceci : From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 C’est le début de ce que la commande format-patch affiche, comme vous avez vu dans la section précédente. C’est aussi un format courriel mbox parfaitement valide. Si quelqu’un vous a envoyé par courriel un patch correctement formaté en utilisant git send-mail et que vous le téléchargez en format mbox, vous pouvez pointer git am sur ce fichier mbox et il commencera à appliquer tous les patchs contenus. Si vous utilisez un client courriel qui sait sauver plusieurs messages au format mbox, vous pouvez sauver la totalité de la série de patchs dans un fichier et utiliser git am pour les appliquer tous en une fois. Néanmoins, si quelqu’un a déposé un fichier de patch généré via format-patch sur un système de suivi de faits techniques ou quelque chose de similaire, vous pouvez toujours sauvegarder le fichier localement et le passer à git am pour l’appliquer : $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Application : add limit to log function Vous remarquez qu’il s’est appliqué proprement et a créé une nouvelle validation pour vous. L’information d’auteur est extraite des en-têtes From et Date tandis que le message de validation est repris du champ Subject et du corps (avant le patch) du message. Par exemple, si le patch est appliqué depuis le fichier mbox ci-dessus, la validation générée ressemblerait à ceci : $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 L’information Commit indique la personne qui a appliqué le patch et la date d’application. L’information Author indique la personne qui a créé le patch et la date de création. Il reste la possibilité que le patch ne s’applique pas proprement. Peut-être votre branche principale a-t’elle déjà trop divergé de la branche sur laquelle le patch a été construit, ou peut-être que le patch dépend d’un autre patch qui n’a pas encore été appliqué. Dans ce cas, le processus de git am échouera et vous demandera ce que vous souhaitez faire : $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Application : seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Le patch a échoué à 0001. Lorsque vous aurez résolu ce problème, lancez "git am --continue". Si vous préférez sauter ce patch, lancez "git am --skip" à la place. Pour restaurer la branche d'origine et stopper le patchage, lancez "git am --abort". Cette commande introduit des marqueurs de conflit dans tous les fichiers qui ont généré un problème, de la même manière qu’un conflit de fusion ou de rebasage. Vous pouvez résoudre les problèmes de manière identique — éditez le fichier pour résoudre les conflits, indexez le nouveau fichier, puis lancez git am --resolved ou git am --continue pour continuer avec le patch suivant : $ (correction du fichier) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --continue Applying: seeing if this helps the gem Si vous souhaitez que Git essaie de résoudre les conflits avec plus d’intelligence, vous pouvez passer l’option -3 qui demande à Git de tenter une fusion à trois sources. Cette option n’est pas active par défaut parce qu’elle ne fonctionne pas si le commit sur lequel le patch indique être basé n’existe pas dans votre dépôt. Si par contre, le patch est basé sur un commit public, l’option -3 est généralement beaucoup plus fine pour appliquer des patchs conflictuels : $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. Dans ce cas, je cherchais à appliquer un patch qui avait déjà été intégré. Sans l’option -3 , cela aurait ressemblé à un conflit. Si vous appliquez des patchs à partir d’un fichier mbox, vous pouvez aussi lancer la commande am en mode interactif qui s’arrête à chaque patch trouvé et vous demande si vous souhaitez l’appliquer : $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all C’est agréable si vous avez un certain nombre de patchs sauvegardés parce que vous pouvez voir les patchs pour vous rafraîchir la mémoire et ne pas les appliquer s’ils ont déjà été intégrés. Quand tous les patchs pour votre sujet ont été appliqués et validés dans votre branche, vous pouvez choisir si et comment vous souhaitez les intégrer dans une branche au long cours. Vérification des branches distantes Si votre contribution a été fournie par un utilisateur de Git qui a mis en place son propre dépôt public sur lequel il a poussé ses modifications et vous a envoyé l’URL du dépôt et le nom de la branche distante, vous pouvez les ajouter en tant que dépôt distant et réaliser les fusions localement. Par exemple, si Jessica vous envoie un courriel indiquant qu’elle a une nouvelle fonctionnalité géniale dans la branche ruby-client de son dépôt, vous pouvez la tester en ajoutant le dépôt distant et en tirant la branche localement : $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/monproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Si elle vous envoie un autre mail indiquant une autre branche contenant une autre fonctionnalité géniale, vous pouvez la récupérer et la tester simplement à partir de votre référence distante. C’est d’autant plus utile si vous travaillez en continu avec une personne. Si quelqu’un n’a qu’un seul patch à contribuer de temps en temps, l’accepter via courriel peut s’avérer moins consommateur en temps de préparation du serveur public, d’ajout et retrait de branches distantes juste pour tirer quelques patchs. Vous ne souhaiteriez sûrement pas devoir gérer des centaines de dépôts distants pour intégrer à chaque fois un ou deux patchs. Néanmoins, des scripts et des services hébergés peuvent rendre cette tâche moins ardue. Cela dépend largement de votre manière de développer et de celle de vos contributeurs. Cette approche a aussi l’avantage de vous fournir l’historique des validations. Même si vous pouvez rencontrer des problèmes de fusion légitimes, vous avez l’information dans votre historique de la base ayant servi pour les modifications contribuées. La fusion à trois sources est choisie par défaut plutôt que d’avoir à spécifier l’option -3 en espérant que le patch a été généré à partir d’un instantané public auquel vous auriez accès. Si vous ne travaillez pas en continu avec une personne mais souhaitez tout de même tirer les modifications de cette manière, vous pouvez fournir l’URL du dépôt distant à la commande git pull . Cela permet de réaliser un tirage unique sans sauver l’URL comme référence distante : $ git pull https://github.com/pourunefois/projet From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Déterminer les modifications introduites Vous avez maintenant une branche thématique qui contient les contributions. À partir de là, vous pouvez déterminer ce que vous souhaitez en faire. Cette section revisite quelques commandes qui vont vous permettre de faire une revue de ce que vous allez exactement introduire si vous fusionnez dans la branche principale. Faire une revue de tous les commits dans cette branche s’avère souvent d’une grande aide. Vous pouvez exclure les commits de la branche master en ajoutant l’option --not devant le nom de la branche. C’est équivalent au format master..contrib utilisé plus haut. Par exemple, si votre contributeur vous envoie deux patchs et que vous créez une branche appelée contrib et y appliquez ces patchs, vous pouvez lancer ceci : $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better Pour visualiser les modifications que chaque commit introduit, souvenez-vous que vous pouvez passer l’option -p à git log et elle ajoutera le diff introduit à chaque commit . Pour visualiser un diff complet de ce qui arriverait si vous fusionniez cette branche thématique avec une autre branche, vous pouvez utiliser un truc bizarre pour obtenir les résultats corrects. Vous pourriez penser à lancer ceci : $ git diff master Cette commande affiche un diff mais elle peut être trompeuse. Si votre branche master a avancé depuis que vous avez créé la branche thématique, vous obtiendrez des résultats apparemment étranges. Cela arrive parce que Git compare directement l’instantané de la dernière validation sur la branche thématique et celui de la dernière validation sur la branche master . Par exemple, si vous avez ajouté une ligne dans un fichier sur la branche master , une comparaison directe donnera l’impression que la branche thématique va retirer cette ligne. Si master est un ancêtre directe de la branche thématique, ce n’est pas un problème. Si les deux historiques ont divergé, le diff donnera l’impression que vous ajoutez toutes les nouveautés de la branche thématique et retirez tout ce qui a été fait depuis dans la branche master . Ce que vous souhaitez voir en fait, ce sont les modifications ajoutées sur la branche thématique — le travail que vous introduirez si vous fusionnez cette branche dans master . Vous obtenez ce résultat en demandant à Git de comparer le dernier instantané de la branche thématique avec son ancêtre commun à la branche master le plus récent. Techniquement, c’est réalisable en déterminant exactement l’ancêtre commun et en lançant la commande diff dessus : $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db ou de manière plus concise : $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Néanmoins, comme ce n’est pas très commode, Git fournit un raccourci pour réaliser la même chose : la syntaxe à trois points. Dans le contexte de la commande diff , vous pouvez placer trois points après une autre branche pour réaliser un diff entre le dernier instantané de la branche sur laquelle vous vous trouvez et son ancêtre commun avec une autre branche : $ git diff master...contrib Cette commande ne vous montre que les modifications que votre branche thématique a introduites depuis son ancêtre commun avec master. C’est une syntaxe très simple à retenir. Intégration des contributions Lorsque tout le travail de votre branche thématique est prêt à être intégré dans la branche principale, il reste à savoir comment le faire. De plus, il faut connaître le mode de gestion que vous souhaitez pour votre projet. Vous avez de nombreux choix et je vais en traiter quelques-uns. Modes de fusion Un mode simple fusionne votre travail dans la branche master . Dans ce scénario, vous avez une branche master qui contient le code stable. Quand vous avez des modifications prêtes dans une branche thématique, vous la fusionnez dans votre branche master puis effacez la branche thématique, et ainsi de suite. Si vous avez un dépôt contenant deux branches nommées ruby_client et php_client qui ressemble à Historique avec quelques branches thématiques. et que vous fusionnez ruby_client en premier, suivi de php_client , alors votre historique ressemblera à la fin à Après fusion des branches thématiques. . Figure 72. Historique avec quelques branches thématiques. Figure 73. Après fusion des branches thématiques. C’est probablement le mode le plus simple mais cela peut s’avérer problématique si vous avez à gérer des dépôts ou des projets plus gros pour lesquels vous devez être circonspect sur ce que vous acceptez. Si vous avez plus de développeurs ou un projet plus important, vous souhaiterez probablement utiliser un cycle de fusion à deux étapes. Dans ce scénario, vous avez deux branches au long cours, master et develop , dans lequel vous déterminez que master est mis à jour seulement lors d’une version vraiment stable et tout le nouveau code est intégré dans la branche develop . Vous poussez régulièrement ces deux branches sur le dépôt public. Chaque fois que vous avez une nouvelle branche thématique à fusionner ( Avant la fusion d’une branche thématique. ), vous la fusionnez dans develop ( Après la fusion d’une branche thématique. ). Puis, lorsque vous étiquetez une version majeure, vous mettez master à niveau avec l’état stable de develop en avance rapide ( Après une publication d’une branche thématique. ). Figure 74. Avant la fusion d’une branche thématique. Figure 75. Après la fusion d’une branche thématique. Figure 76. Après une publication d’une branche thématique. Ainsi, lorsque l’on clone le dépôt de votre projet, on peut soit extraire la branche master pour construire la dernière version stable et mettre à jour facilement ou on peut extraire la branche develop qui représente le nec plus ultra du développement. Vous pouvez aussi continuer ce concept avec une branche d’intégration où tout le travail est fusionné. Alors, quand la base de code sur cette branche est stable et que les tests passent, vous la fusionnez dans la branche develop . Quand cela s’est avéré stable pendant un certain temps, vous mettez à jour la branche master en avance rapide. Gestions avec nombreuses fusions Le projet Git dispose de quatre branches au long cours : master , next , pu ( proposed updates : propositions) pour les nouveaux travaux et maint pour les backports de maintenance. Quand une nouvelle contribution est proposée, elle est collectée dans des branches thématiques dans le dépôt du mainteneur d’une manière similaire à ce que j’ai décrit ( Série complexe de branches thématiques contribuées en parallèle. ). À ce point, les fonctionnalités sont évaluées pour déterminer si elles sont stables et prêtes à être consommées ou si elles nécessitent un peaufinage. Si elles sont stables, elles sont fusionnées dans next et cette branche est poussée sur le serveur public pour que tout le monde puisse essayer les fonctionnalités intégrées ensemble. Figure 77. Série complexe de branches thématiques contribuées en parallèle. Si les fonctionnalités nécessitent encore du travail, elles sont fusionnées plutôt dans pu . Quand elles sont considérées comme totalement stables, elles sont re-fusionnées dans master et sont alors reconstruites à partir des fonctionnalités qui résidaient dans next mais n’ont pu intégrer master . Cela signifie que master évolue quasiment toujours en mode avance rapide, tandis que next est rebasé assez souvent et pu est rebasé encore plus souvent : Figure 78. Fusion des branches thématiques dans les branches à long terme. Quand une branche thématique a finalement été fusionnée dans master , elle est effacée du dépôt. Le projet Git a aussi une branche maint qui est créée à partir de la dernière version pour fournir des patchs correctifs en cas de besoin de version de maintenance. Ainsi, quand vous clonez le dépôt de Git, vous avez quatre branches disponibles pour évaluer le projet à différentes étapes de développement, selon le niveau de développement que vous souhaitez utiliser ou pour lequel vous souhaitez contribuer. Le mainteneur a une gestion structurée qui lui permet d’évaluer et sélectionner les nouvelles contributions. Gestion par rebasage et sélection de commit D’autres mainteneurs préfèrent rebaser ou sélectionner les contributions sur le sommet de la branche master , plutôt que les fusionner, de manière à conserver un historique à peu près linéaire. Lorsque plusieurs modifications sont présentes dans une branche thématique et que vous souhaitez les intégrer, vous vous placez sur cette branche et vous lancez la commande rebase pour reconstruire les modifications à partir du sommet courant de la branche master (ou develop , ou autre). Si cela fonctionne correctement, vous pouvez faire une avance rapide sur votre branche master et vous obtenez finalement un historique de projet linéaire. L’autre moyen de déplacer des modifications introduites dans une branche vers une autre consiste à les sélectionner ou les picorer ( cherry-pick ). Un picorage dans Git ressemble à un rebasage appliqué à un commit unique. Cela consiste à prendre le patch qui a été introduit lors d’une validation et à essayer de l’appliquer sur la branche sur laquelle on se trouve. C’est très utile si on a un certain nombre de commits sur une branche thématique et que l’on veut n’en intégrer qu’un seul, ou si on n’a qu’un commit sur une branche thématique et qu’on préfère le sélectionner plutôt que de lancer rebase . Par exemple, supposons que vous ayez un projet ressemblant à ceci : Figure 79. Historique d’exemple avant une sélection. Si vous souhaitez tirer le commit e43a6 dans votre branche master , vous pouvez lancer : $ git cherry-pick e43a6fd3e94888d76779ad79fb568ed180e5fcdf Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) La même modification que celle introduite en e43a6 est tirée mais vous obtenez une nouvelle valeur de SHA-1 car les dates d’application sont différentes. À présent, votre historique ressemble à ceci : Figure 80. Historique après sélection d’un commit dans une branche thématique. Maintenant, vous pouvez effacer votre branche thématique et abandonner les commits que vous n’avez pas tirés dans master . Rerere Si vous fusionnez et rebasez beaucoup ou si vous maintenez une branche au long cours, la fonctionnalité appelée « rerere » peut s’avérer utile. Rerere signifie « ré utiliser les ré solutions en re gistrées » (“ reuse recorded resolution ”) ‑ c’est un moyen de raccourcir les résolutions manuelles de conflit. Quand rerere est actif, Git va conserver un jeu de couples d’images pré et post fusion des fichiers ayant présenté des conflits, puis s’il s’aperçoit qu’un conflit ressemble à une de ces résolutions, il va utiliser la même stratégie sans rien vous demander. Cette fonctionnalité se traite en deux phases : une étape de configuration et une commande. L’étape de configuration est rerere.enabled qui active la fonction et qu’il est facile de placer en config globale : $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Ensuite, quand vous fusionnez en résolvant des conflits, la résolution sera enregistrée dans le cache pour un usage futur. Si besoin, vous pouvez interagir avec le cache rerere au moyen de la commande git rerere . Quand elle est invoquée telle quelle, Git vérifie sa base de données de résolutions et essaie de trouver une correspondance avec les conflits en cours et les résout (bien que ce soit automatique si rerere.enabled est à true ). Il existe aussi des sous-commandes permettant de voir ce qui sera enregistré, d’effacer du cache une résolution spécifique ou d’effacer entièrement le cache. rerere est traité plus en détail dans Rerere . Étiquetage de vos publications Quand vous décidez de créer une publication de votre projet, vous souhaiterez probablement étiqueter le projet pour pouvoir recréer cette version dans le futur. Vous pouvez créer une nouvelle étiquette ( tag ) telle que décrite dans Les bases de Git . Si vous décidez de signer l’étiquette en tant que mainteneur, la commande ressemblera à ceci : $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'mon etiquette v1.5 signée' Une phrase secrète est nécessaire pour déverrouiller la clef secrète de l'utilisateur : "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" clé DSA de 1024 bits, identifiant F721C45A, créée le 2009-02-09 Si vous signez vos étiquettes, vous rencontrerez le problème de la distribution de votre clé publique PGP permettant de vérifier la signature. Le mainteneur du projet Git a résolu le problème en incluant la clé publique comme blob dans le dépôt et en ajoutant une étiquette qui pointe directement sur ce contenu. Pour faire de même, vous déterminez la clé de votre trousseau que vous voulez publier en lançant gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Ensuite, vous pouvez importer la clé directement dans la base de données Git en l’exportant de votre trousseau et en la redirigeant dans git hash-object qui écrit un nouveau blob avec son contenu dans Git et vous donne en sortie le SHA-1 du blob : $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 À présent, vous avez le contenu de votre clé dans Git et vous pouvez créer une étiquette qui pointe directement dessus en spécifiant la valeur SHA-1 que la commande hash-object vous a fournie : $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Si vous lancez git push --tags , l’étiquette maintainer-pgp-pub sera partagée publiquement. Un tiers pourra vérifier une étiquette après import direct de votre clé publique PGP, en extrayant le blob de la base de donnée et en l’important dans GPG : $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import Il pourra alors utiliser cette clé pour vérifier vos étiquettes signées. Si de plus, vous incluez des instructions d’utilisation pour la vérification de signature dans le message d’étiquetage, l’utilisateur aura accès à ces informations en lançant la commande git show <étiquette> . Génération d’un nom de révision Comme Git ne fournit pas par nature de nombres croissants tels que « r123 » à chaque validation, la commande git describe permet de générer un nom humainement lisible pour chaque commit . Git concatène le nom de l’étiquette la plus proche, le nombre de validations depuis cette étiquette et un code SHA-1 partiel du commit que l’on cherche à définir : $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c De cette manière, vous pouvez exporter un instantané ou le construire et le nommer de manière intelligible. En fait, si Git est construit à partir du source cloné depuis le dépôt Git, git --version vous donne exactement cette valeur. Si vous demandez la description d’un instantané qui a été étiqueté, le nom de l’étiquette est retourné. La commande git describe repose sur les étiquettes annotées (étiquettes créées avec les options -a ou -s ). Les étiquettes de publication doivent donc être créées de cette manière si vous souhaitez utiliser git describe pour garantir que les commits seront décrits correctement. Vous pouvez aussi utiliser ces noms comme cible lors d’une extraction ou d’une commande show , bien qu’ils reposent sur le SHA-1 abrégé et pourraient ne pas rester valides indéfiniment. Par exemple, le noyau Linux a sauté dernièrement de 8 à 10 caractères pour assurer l’unicité des objets SHA-1 et les anciens noms git describe sont par conséquent devenus invalides. Préparation d’une publication Maintenant, vous voulez publier une version. Une des étapes consiste à créer une archive du dernier instantané de votre code pour les malheureux qui n’utilisent pas Git. La commande dédiée à cette action est git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='projet/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Lorsqu’on ouvre l’archive, on obtient le dernier instantané du projet sous un répertoire projet . On peut aussi créer une archive au format zip de manière similaire en passant l’option --format=zip à la commande git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Voilà deux belles archives tar.gz et zip de votre projet prêtes à être téléchargées sur un site web ou envoyées par courriel. Shortlog Il est temps d’envoyer une annonce à la liste de diffusion des nouveautés de votre projet. Une manière simple d’obtenir rapidement une sorte de liste des modifications depuis votre dernière version ou courriel est d’utiliser la commande git shortlog . Elle résume toutes les validations dans l’intervalle que vous lui spécifiez. Par exemple, ce qui suit vous donne un résumé de toutes les validations depuis votre dernière version si celle-ci se nomme v1.0.1 : $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Vous obtenez ainsi un résumé clair de toutes les validations depuis v1.0.1, regroupées par auteur, prêt à être envoyé sur la liste de diffusion. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/gr/v2/%ce%94%ce%b9%ce%b1%ce%ba%ce%bb%ce%b1%ce%b4%cf%8e%cf%83%ce%b5%ce%b9%cf%82-%cf%83%cf%84%ce%bf-Git-%ce%91%ce%bb%ce%bb%ce%b1%ce%b3%ce%ae-%ce%b2%ce%ac%cf%83%ce%b7%cf%82-rebasing | Git - Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Ξεκινώντας με το Git 1.1 Σχετικά με τον έλεγχο εκδόσεων 1.2 Σύντομο ιστορικό του Git 1.3 Τι είναι το Git; 1.4 Η γραμμή εντολών 1.5 Εγκατάσταση του Git 1.6 Ρύθμιση του Git για πρώτη φορά 1.7 Χρησιμοποιώντας τη βοήθεια 1.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 2. Τα θεμελιώδη στοιχεία του Git 2.1 Απόκτηση αποθετηρίου Git 2.2 Καταγραφή αλλαγών στο αποθετήριο 2.3 Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών 2.4 Αναιρέσεις (undoing) 2.5 Δουλεύοντας με απομακρυσμένα αποθετήρια 2.6 Ετικέτες 2.7 Συντομεύεσεις στο Git 2.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 3. Διακλαδώσεις στο Git 3.1 Οι κλάδοι με λίγα λόγια 3.2 Βασικές έννοιες διακλαδώσεων και συγχωνεύσεων 3.3 Διαχείριση κλάδων 3.4 Ροές εργασίας με διακλαδώσεις 3.5 Απομακρυσμένοι κλάδοι 3.6 Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) 3.7 Ανακεφαλαίωση 4. Το Git στον διακομιστή 4.1 Τα πρωτόκολλα 4.2 Εγκατάσταση του Git σε διακομιστή 4.3 Δημιουργία δημόσιου κλειδιού SSH 4.4 Στήσιμο του διακομιστή 4.5 Δαίμονες του Git 4.6 Έξυπνο HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Επιλογές φιλοξενίας από τρίτους 4.10 Ανακεφαλαίωση 5. Κατανεμημένο Git 5.1 Κατανεμημένες ροές εργασίας 5.2 Συνεισφέροντας σε ένα έργο 5.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 5.4 Ανακεφαλαίωση 6. GitHub 6.1 Δημιουργία λογαριασμού και ρύθμισή του 6.2 Συνεισφορά σε έργο 6.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 6.4 Διαχείριση οργανισμώνν 6.5 Συγγραφή script στο GitHub 6.6 Ανακεφαλαίωση 7. Εργαλεία του Git 7.1 Επιλογή αναθεώρησης 7.2 Διαδραστική εργασία με το στάδιο καταχώρισης 7.3 Αποθέματα και Καθαρισμός 7.4 Υπογραφή της δουλειάς μας 7.5 Αναζήτηση 7.6 Η ιστορία ξαναγράφεται 7.7 Απομυθοποίηση της reset 7.8 Προχωρημένη Συγχώνευση 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Αποσφαλμάτωση με το Git 7.11 Υπομονάδες 7.12 Δεμάτιασμα δεδομένων 7.13 Replace 7.14 Αποθήκευση διαπιστευτηρίων 7.15 Ανακεφαλαίωση 8. Εξατομίκευση του Git 8.1 Διαμόρφωση Git 8.2 Γνωρίσματα του Git 8.3 Τα άγκιστρα του Git 8.4 Ένα παράδειγμα επιβολής πολιτικής από το Git 8.5 Ανακεφαλαίωση 9. Το Git και άλλα συστήματα 9.1 Το Git ως πελάτης 9.2 Μετανάστευση στο Git 9.3 Ανακεφαλαίωση 10. Εσωτερική λειτουργία του Git 10.1 Διοχετεύσεις και πορσελάνες 10.2 Αντικείμενα του Git 10.3 Αναφορές του Git 10.4 Πακετάρισμα αρχείων 10.5 Τα refspec 10.6 Πρωτόκολλα μεταφοράς 10.7 Διατήρηση και ανάκτηση δεδομένων 10.8 Μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος 10.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A1. Appendix A: Το Git σε άλλα περιβάλλοντα A1.1 Γραφικές διεπαφές A1.2 Το Git στο Visual Studio A1.3 Git στο Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git στο IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git στο Sublime Text A1.6 Το Git στο Bash A1.7 Το Git στο Zsh A1.8 Το Git στο Powershell A1.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A2. Appendix B: Ενσωμάτωση του Git στις εφαρμογές μας A2.1 Γραμμή εντολών Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Appendix C: Εντολές Git A3.1 Ρύθμιση και διαμόρφωση A3.2 Λήψη και δημιουργία έργων A3.3 Βασική λήψη στιγμιοτύπων A3.4 Διακλάδωση και συγχώνευση A3.5 Κοινή χρήση και ενημέρωση έργων A3.6 Επιθεώρηση και σύγκριση A3.7 Αποσφαλμάτωση A3.8 Επιθέματα A3.9 Ηλεκτρονικό ταχυδρομείο A3.10 Εξωτερικά Συστήματα A3.11 Διοίκηση A3.12 Εντολές διοχέτευσης 2nd Edition 3.6 Διακλαδώσεις στο Git - Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) Στο Git, υπάρχουν δύο βασικοί τρόποι ενσωμάτωσης αλλαγών από έναν κλάδο σε έναν άλλο: με την εντολή merge και την εντολή rebase (αλλαγή βάσης). Σε αυτή την ενότητα θα μάθουμε τι είναι η αλλαγή βάσης, πώς την κάνουμε, γιατί θεωρείται εκπληκτικό εργαλείο και σε ποιες περιπτώσεις δεν πρέπει να τη χρησιμοποιούμε. Η βασική μορφή αλλαγής βάσης Εάν επιστρέψουμε σε ένα παλαιότερο παράδειγμα από την ενότητα Συγχωνεύσεις — τα βασικά , θα δούμε ότι η δουλειά μας είχε αποκλίνει και είχαμε κάνει υποβολές σε δύο διαφορετικούς κλάδους. Figure 35. Απλό αποκλίνον ιστορικό Ο ευκολότερος τρόπος ενσωμάτωσης των κλάδων, όπως έχουμε ήδη δει, είναι η εντολή merge (συγχώνευση). Επιτελεί μια τριμερή συγχώνευση μεταξύ των δύο τελευταίων στιγμιότυπων διακλάδωσης ( C3 και`C4`) και του πιο πρόσφατου κοινού προγόνου τους ( C2 ), δημιουργώντας ένα νέο στιγμιότυπο (και μία νέα υποβολή). Figure 36. Συγχώνευση και ενσωμάτωση αποκλίνοντος ιστορικού εργασίας Ωστόσο, υπάρχει κι ένας άλλος τρόπος: μπορούμε να πάρουμε μόνον το επίθεμα (patch) με τις τροποποιήσεις που εισήχθησαν με την υποβολή C4 και να το εφαρμόσουμε ξανά στο στιγμιότυπο C3 . Στο Git, αυτό ονομάζεται αλλαγή βάσης ή επανατοποθέτηση (rebasing). Με την εντολή rebase παίρνουμε όλες τις αλλαγές που υποβλήθηκαν σε ένα κλάδο και να τις επαναλαμβάνουμε σε έναν άλλο. Για αυτό το παράδειγμα, πρώτα θα κάνουμε checkout τον κλάδο experiment και στη συνέχεια θα τον επανατοποθετούσαμε στον κλάδο master (δηλαδή, θα αλλάζαμε τη βάση του από την υποβολή C2 στην υποβολή που δείχνει ο κλάδος master ) ως εξής: $ git checkout experiment $ git rebase master First, rewinding head to replay your work on top of it... Applying: added staged command Η διαδικασία που ακολουθείται με την εντολή rebase είναι η εξής: μεταβαίνει στον κοινό πρόγονο των δύο κλάδων (εκείνου στον οποίο βρισκόμαστε και εκείνου ο οποίος θα γίνει η νέα βάση), παίρνει τις διαφορές (diff) που εισάγονται από κάθε υποβολή του κλάδου στον οποίο βρισκόμαστε, αποθηκεύει αυτές τις διαφορές σε προσωρινά αρχεία, μετατοπίζει τον τρέχοντα κλάδο στην ίδια υποβολή στην οποία βρίσκεται και ο κλάδος ο οποίος θα γίνει η νέα βάση και, τέλος, εφαρμόζει τις αλλαγές τη μία μετά την άλλη διαδοχικά. Figure 37. Αλλαγή της βάσης των τροποποιήσεων της C4 από τη C2 στη C3 Σε αυτό το σημείο, μπορούμε να επιστρέψουμε στον κλάδο master και να κάνουμε μία συγχώνευση με ταχυπροώθηση. $ git checkout master $ git merge experiment Figure 38. Ταχυπροώθηση του κλάδου master Πλέον το στιγμιότυπο στο οποίο δείχνει η υποβολή C4' είναι ακριβώς ίδιο με αυτό στο οποίο δείχνει η C5 στο παλιότερο παράδειγμα με τη συγχώνευση . Το τελικό προϊόν της ενσωμάτωσης των αλλαγών είναι ακριβώς το ίδιο, αλλά η αλλαγή της βάσης κρατά το ιστορικό πιο καθαρό. Αν εξετάσουμε το log ενός επανατοποθετημένου (σε νέα βάση) κλάδου, φαίνεται σαν το ιστορικό να είναι γραμμικό, δηλαδή σαν όλη η εργασία να συνέβη ακολουθιακά παρά το ότι αρχικά γινόταν παράλληλα. Συχνά θα κάνουμε κάτι τέτοιο για να βεβαιωθούμε ότι οι υποβολές μας εφαρμόζονται χωρίς συγκρούσεις σε έναν απομακρυσμένο κλάδο — ενδεχομένως σε ένα έργο στο οποίο συμβάλλουμε, αλλά δεν το διαχειριζόμαστε. Σε μία τέτοια περίπτωση, θα κάνουμε τη δουλειά μας σε έναν κλάδο και στη συνέχεια θα αλλάζαμε τη βάση (επανατοποθετούσαμε) της εργασίας μας στον κλάδο origin/master όταν ήμασταν έτοιμοι να υποβάλλουμε τα επιθέματά μας στο κύριο έργο. Με αυτό τον τρόπο, ο διαχειριστής του έργου δεν χρειάζεται να κάνει καμία εργασία ενσωμάτωσης — απλά μια ταχυπροώθηση ή μια καθαρή εφαρμογή. Σημειώνουμε ότι το στιγμιότυπο στο οποίο δείχνει η υποβολή στην οποία καταλήγουμε, είναι το ίδιο είτε πρόκειται για την τελευταία από τις επανατοποθετημένες υποβολές μετά από αλλαγή βάσης είτε για την τελική υποβολή συγχώνευσης μετά από μία συγχώνευση — το μόνο που είναι διαφορετικό είναι το ιστορικό. Η αλλαγή βάσης εφαρμόζει τις τροποποιήσεις μίας γραμμής εργασίας σε μία άλλη με τη σειρά που έγιναν, ενώ η συγχώνευση παίρνει τα τελικά στιγμιότυπα και τα συγχωνεύει. Μερικές ενδιαφέρουσες αλλαγές βάσης Μπορούμε επίσης να επανατοποθετήσουμε έναν κλάδο πάνω σε κάποιον κλάδο διαφορετικό από αυτόν στον οποίο βασιζόταν αρχικά. Για παράδειγμα, ας πάρουμε ένα ιστορικό όπως αυτό στο Ιστορικό με έναν θεματικό κλάδο που βασίζεται σε έναν άλλο θεματικό κλάδο . Έχουμε δημιουργήσει έναν θεματικό κλάδο ( server ) για να προσθέσουμε κάποια λειτουργικότητα από την πλευρά του διακομιστή στο έργο μας και πραγματοποιήσαμε μια υποβολή. Στη συνέχεια, δημιουργήσαμε μία ακόμα διακλάδωση για να κάνουμε τις αλλαγές από την πλευρά του πελάτη ( client ) και κάνουμε επίσης μερικές υποβολές. Τέλος, επιστρέψαμε στον κλάδο server και κάνουμε μερικές ακόμη υποβολές. Figure 39. Ιστορικό με έναν θεματικό κλάδο που βασίζεται σε έναν άλλο θεματικό κλάδο Ας υποθέσουμε ότι αποφασίζουμε να συγχωνεύσουμε τις αλλαγές από την πλευρά του πελάτη στην κεντρική γραμμή που θα δημοσιευτεί, αλλά θέλουμε να αναβάλλουμε τις αλλαγές από την πλευρά του διακομιστή μέχρι να εξεταστούν περαιτέρω. Μπορούμε να πάρουμε τις αλλαγές από τον κλάδο client που δεν βρίσκονται στον κλάδο server ( C8 και`C9`) και να τις αναπαράγουμε στον κύριο κλάδο μας χρησιμοποιώντας την επιλογή --onto της git rebase : $ git rebase --onto master server client Αυτή η εντολή ουσιαστικά λέει, “Πήγαινε στον κλάδο client , εντόπισε τα επιθέματα από τότε που απέκλινε από τον κλάδο server και εφάρμοσέ τα στον κλάδο client σαν ο κλάδος client να ήταν κλάδος που απέκλινε από τον κλάδο master ”. Είναι λίγο περίπλοκο, αλλά το αποτέλεσμα είναι μια ομορφιά. Figure 40. Αλλαγή βάσης ενός θεματικού κλάδου που βασίζεται σε έναν άλλο θεματικό κλάδο Τώρα μπορούμε να ταχυπροωθήσουμε τον κλάδο master (βλ. Ταχυπροώθηση του κλάδου master ώστε να συμπεριλάβει τις αλλαγές του κλάδου client ): $ git checkout master $ git merge client Figure 41. Ταχυπροώθηση του κλάδου master ώστε να συμπεριλάβει τις αλλαγές του κλάδου client Ας πούμε ότι τώρα αποφασίζουμε να ενσωματώσουμε και τις αλλάγες του κλάδου server . Μπορούμε να αλλάξουμε τη βάση του κλάδου server (στον κλάδο master ), χωρίς να έχουμε προηγουμένως μεταβεί σε αυτόν, εκτελώντας την εντολή git rebase <basebranch> <topicbranch> — η οποία μας μεταφέρει στον θεματικό κλάδο (σε αυτή την περίπτωση, τον server ) και εφαρμόζει τις αλλαγές του στη νέα βάση ( master ) συγχρόνως: $ git rebase master server Το αποτέλεσμα της παραπάνω εντολής φαίνεται στην Αλλαγή της βάσης του κλάδου server στον κλάδο master . Figure 42. Αλλαγή της βάσης του κλάδου server στον κλάδο master Στη συνέχεια μπορούμε να ταχυπροωθήσουμε τον κλάδο-βάση ( master ): $ git checkout master $ git merge server Μπορούμε να αφαιρέσουμε τους κλάδους client και server επειδή όλη δουλειά μας έχει ενσωματωθεί και δεν τους χρειάζόμαστε πια, κάνοντας το ιστορικό μας, μετά από όλη αυτή τη διαδικασία, να μοιάζει με το Τελικό ιστορικό υποβολών : $ git branch -d client $ git branch -d server Figure 43. Τελικό ιστορικό υποβολών Οι κίνδυνοι της αλλαγής βάσης Όμως η ευδαιμονία που μας προσφέρει η αλλαγή βάσης έχει κάποιο αντίτιμο, το οποίο μπορεί να συνοψιστεί σε μία γραμμή: Δεν αλλάζουμε τη βάση υποβολών που υπάρχουν εκτός του αποθετηρίου μας και κάποια άτομα έχουν δουλέψει πάνω σε αυτά. Αν ακολουθήσουμε αυτή τη συμβουλή, θα είστε μια χαρά. Αν δεν το κάνουμε, θα γίνουμε μισητοί σε όλη την οικουμένη και θα μας περιφρονήσουν φίλοι και συγγενείς. Όταν αλλάζουμε τη βάση ενός κλάδου, εγκαταλείπουμε τις υπάρχουσες υποβολές και δημιουργούμε νέες που είναι παρόμοιες μεν, διαφορετικές δε. Εάν ωθήσουμε υποβολές κάπου και άλλοι τις τραβήξουν και βασίσουν τη δουλειά τους σε αυτές και στη συνέχεια ξαναγράψουμε αυτές τις υποβολές με την git rebase και τις ωθήσουμε ξανά, οι συνεργάτες μας θα πρέπει να ξανασυγχωνεύσουν τη δουλειά τους και τα πράγματα θα μπλέξουν όταν προσπαθήσουμε να έλξουμε τη δουλειά τους στη δική μας. Ας δούμε ένα παράδειγμα με το οποίο η αλλαγή της βάσης κάποιας εργασίας που έχουμε ήδη κοινοποιήσει σε άλλους μπορεί να προκαλέσει προβλήματα. Ας υποθέσουμε ότι κλωνοποιούμε από έναν κεντρικό διακομιστή και στη συνέχεια κάνουμε κάποιες αλλαγές. Το ιστορικό της υποβολής μας μοιάζει με αυτό: Figure 44. Κλωνοποίηση αποθετηρίου και επεξεργασία του Τώρα, κάποιος άλλος κάνει και άλλη δουλειά που περιλαμβάνει συγχώνευση και ωθεί τη δουλειά του στον κεντρικό διακομιστή. Την ανακτούμε και συγχωνεύουμε τον νέο απομακρυσμένο κλάδο στη δουλειά μας, κάνοντας το ιστορικό μας να μοιάζει με αυτό: Figure 45. Ανάκτηση περισσότερων υποβολών και συγχώνευσή τους στην εργασία μας Στη συνέχεια, αυτός που ώθησε τη συγχωνευμένη δουλειά αποφασίζει να επιστρέψει και να αλλάξει τη βάση της εργασίας του· κάνει git push --force για να επανεγγράψει το ιστορικό στον διακομιστή. Στη συνέχεια, ανακτούμε από τον διακομιστή και φέρνουμε τις νέες υποβολές. Figure 46. Κάποιος ωθεί επανατοποθετημένες υποβολές, εγκαταλείποντας τις υποβολές στις οποίες έχουμε βασίσει τη δουλειά μας Τώρα έχουμε μπλέξει άσχημα. Εάν κάνουμε git pull , θα δημιουργήσουμε μια υποβολή συγχώνευσης που συμπεριλαμβάνει και τις δύο γραμμές του ιστορικού και το αποθετήριό μας θα μοιάζει με αυτό: Figure 47. Συγχώνευση της ίδιας εργασίας σε μία νέα υποβολή συγχώνευσης Αν το ιστορικό μας μοιάζει με το παραπάνω και τρέξουμε git log , θα δούμε δύο υποβολές που έχουν τον ίδιο συγγραφέα, ημερομηνία και μήνυμα, κάτι που μπορεί να προκαλέσει σύγχυση. Επιπλέον, αν ωθήσουμε αυτό το ιστορικό πίσω στον διακομιστή, θα επαναφέρουμε όλες εκείνες τις επανατοποθετημένες υποβολές στον κεντρικό εξυπηρετητή, κάτι που θα μπερδέψει ακόμα περισσότερο τους υπόλοιπους. Είναι αρκετά σίγουρο ότι ο άλλος προγραμματιστής δεν θέλει οι C4 και C6 να βρίσκονται στο ιστορικό· άλλωστε αυτός είναι ο λόγος για τον οποίο έκανε την αλλαγή της βάσης. Επανατοποθέτηση σε επανατοποθετημένες υποβολές Αν παρόλα αυτά, όντως βρεθούμε σε μια τέτοια κατάσταση, το Git διαθέτει κάποια μαγικά κόλπα που θα μπορούν να μας βοηθήσουν. Εάν κάποιος από την ομάδα μας ωθεί εξαναγκαστικά αλλαγές που επανεγγράφουν εργασία στην οποία βασίσαμε τη δική μας δουλειά, το πρόβλημά μας ανάγεται στο να εντοπίσουμε τι είναι δικό μας και τι έχει ξαναγραφτεί από αυτό. Το Git εκτός από το άθροισμα ελέγχου SHA-1 υπολογίζει επίσης ένα άθροισμα ελέγχου που βασίζεται ακριβώς στο επίθεμα που εισήχθη με την υποβολή. Αυτό ονομάζεται “patch-id” (ταυτότητα επιθέματος). Αν τραβήξουμε εργασία που ξαναγράφτηκε και αλλάξουμε τη βάση του δικού μας κλάδου ώστε αυτός να βασίζεται πάνω στις νέες υποβολές του συνεργάτη μας, το Git μπορεί συχνά να καταλάβει ποιες αλλαγές είναι μόνο δικές μας και να τις εφαρμόσει ξανά στον νέο κλάδο. Για παράδειγμα, αν στο προηγούμενο σενάριο, όταν βρισκόμαστε στο Κάποιος ωθεί επανατοποθετημένες υποβολές, εγκαταλείποντας τις υποβολές στις οποίες έχουμε βασίσει τη δουλειά μας αντί να κάνουμε συγχώνευση, τρέξουμε git rebase teamone/master , το Git: Θα προσδιορίσει ποια δουλειά βρίσκεται μόνον στον κλάδο μας ( C2 , C3 , C4 , C6 , C7 ) Θα προσδιορίσει ποιες υποβολές δεν είναι υποβολές συγχώνευσης ( C2 , C3 , C4 ) Θα προσδιορίσει ποιες υποβολές δεν έχουν ξαναγραφτεί στον κλάδο στόχο (μόνο οι C2 και C3 , δεδομένου ότι η C4 είναι το ίδιο επίθεμα με την C4' ) Θα εφαρμόσει αυτές τις υποβολές στον κλάδο teamone/master . Έτσι, αντί για το αποτέλεσμα που βλέπουμε στην Συγχώνευση της ίδιας εργασίας σε μία νέα υποβολή συγχώνευσης , θα καταλήγαμε σε κάτι που μοιάζει πιο πολύ με την Επανατοποθέτηση πάνω σε εξαναγκασμένα επανατοποθετημένη εργασία . Figure 48. Επανατοποθέτηση πάνω σε εξαναγκασμένα επανατοποθετημένη εργασία Αυτό θα έχει το επιθυμητό αποτέλεσμα μόνον εάν οι C4 και C4' που έφτιαξε ο συνεργάτης μας είναι σχεδόν ακριβώς το ίδιο επίθεμα. Διαφορετικά, η git rebase δεν θα είναι σε θέση να καταλάβει ότι πρόκειται για ουσιαστικά την ίδια υποβολή και θα προσθέσει ένα ακόμη επίθεμα παρόμοιο με το C4 (το οποίο πιθανότατα θα αποτύχει να εφαρμοστεί χωρίς συγκρούσεις, αφού οι αλλαγές θα έχουν, τουλάχιστον εν μέρει, εφαρμοστεί ήδη). Μπορούμε επίσης να απλοποιήσουμε τη διαδικασία τρέχοντας μία git pull --rebase αντί για κανονικό git pull . Ή θα μπορούσαμε να το κάνουμε χειροκίνητα με μία git fetch ακολουθούμενο από μία git rebase teamone/master στη συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση. Εάν χρησιμοποιούμε την git pull και θέλουμε να κάνουμε --rebase την προεπιλογή, μπορούμε να ορίσουμε την τιμή της παραμέτρου pull.rebase με κάτι σαν git config --global pull.rebase true . Αν αλλάζουμε τη βάση υποβολών που δεν έχουν φύγει ποτέ από τον υπολογιστή μας, δεν θα έχουμε προβλήματα. Εάν αλλάζουμε τη βάση υποβολών που έχουν ήδη ωθηθεί, αλλά κανένας άλλος δεν έχει εργαστεί στις δικές μας υποβολές, επίσης δεν θα έχουμε πρόβλημα. Εάν αλλάζουμε τη βάση υποβολών που έχουν ήδη ωθηθεί δημοσίως και κάποιοι άλλοι έχουν βασίσει μέρος της εργασίας τους σε αυτές τις υποβολές, τότε μπορεί να αντιμετωπίσουμε προβλήματα που θα προκαλέσουν στους συνεργάτες μας αγανάκτηση και περιφρόνηση προς το πρόσωπό μας. Αν αυτό θεωρηθεί απαραίτητο σε κάποιο σημείο, θα πρέπει να βεβαιωθούμε ότι όλοι έχουν ενημερωθεί να εκτελέσουν την git pull --rebase ώστε να καταπραΰνουμε λίγο τον πόνο που θα ακολουθήσει. Σύγκριση αλλαγής βάσης και συγχώνευσης Τώρα που έχουμε δει την αλλαγή βάσης και τη συγχώνευση σε δράση, ίσως να αναρωτηθούμε ποια διαδικασία είναι καλύτερη. Πριν απαντήσουμε σε αυτό το ερώτημα, ας θυμηθούμε τι ακριβώς είναι το ιστορικό. Μια θεώρηση του πράγματος είναι ότι το ιστορικό των υποβολών του αποθετηρίου μας είναι καταγραφή όσων πραγματικά συνέβησαν . Είναι ένα ιστορικό έγγραφο, πολύτιμο από μόνο του και δεν πρέπει να παραβιάζεται. Από αυτή τη σκοπιά, η αλλαγή του ιστορικού των υποβολών αποτελεί σχεδόν βλασφημία· λέμε ψέματα για το τι συνέβη πραγματικά. Τι γίνεται, λοιπόν, αν υπάρχει μια μπουρδουκλωμένη σειρά υποβολών συγχώνευσης; Αυτός είναι ο τρόπος με τον οποίο συνέβησαν και το αποθετήριο πρέπει να τη διατηρήσει για πάντα. Η αντίθετη άποψη είναι ότι το ιστορικό της υποβολής είναι η ένα αφήγημα του πώς έγινε το έργο μας . Δεν θα δημοσιεύαμε το προσχέδιο ενός βιβλίου, οπότε γιατί να δείξουμε όλη την τσαπατσούλικη δουλειά; Όταν εργάζομαστε σε ένα έργο, ίσως χρειαστούμε μια καταγραφή όλων λανθασμένων βημάτων και των αδιεξόδων, αλλά όταν φτάνει η ώρα να δείξουμε τη δουλειά μας στον υπόλοιπο κόσμο, ίσως θέλουμε να πούμε μια πιο συνεκτική ιστορία του πώς πήγαμε από το Α στο Β. Όσοι βρίσκονται σε αυτό το στρατόπεδο χρησιμοποιούν εργαλεία όπως rebase και filter-branch για να ξαναγράψουν τις υποβολές τους πριν αυτές συγχωνευτούν στον κύριο κλάδο. Χρησιμοποιούν εργαλεία όπως rebase και filter-branch για να αφηγηθούν την ιστορία με τρόπο που είναι ο καλύτερος για τους μελλοντικούς αναγνώστες. Τώρα, στο ερώτημα τι είναι καλύτερο, η συγχώνευση ή αλλαγή βάσης; Ας ελπίσουμε ότι βλέπετε ότι η απάντηση δεν είναι τόσο απλή. Το Git είναι ένα ισχυρό εργαλείο και μας επιτρέπει να κάνουμε πολλά πράγματα στο ιστορικό ή με το ιστορικό, αλλά κάθε ομάδα και κάθε έργο είναι διαφορετικά. Εφόσον γνωρίζουμε πώς λειτουργούν και οι δύο αυτές διαδικασίες, μπορούμε να αποφασίσουμε ποια είναι η καλύτερη σε κάθε περίσταση. Μπορούμε να συνδυάσουμε και τα δύο: να επανατοποθετούμε τοπικές αλλαγές που δεν έχουμε κοινοποιήσει σε άλλους, προκειμένου να καθαρίσουμε το ιστορικό μας, αλλά ποτέ να μην επανατοποθετούμε τίποτα που έχουμε ήδη ωθήσει κάπου. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/fr/v2/Les-bases-de-Git-Visualiser-l%e2%80%99historique-des-validations | Git - Visualiser l’historique des validations About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Démarrage rapide 1.1 À propos de la gestion de version 1.2 Une rapide histoire de Git 1.3 Rudiments de Git 1.4 La ligne de commande 1.5 Installation de Git 1.6 Paramétrage à la première utilisation de Git 1.7 Obtenir de l’aide 1.8 Résumé 2. Les bases de Git 2.1 Démarrer un dépôt Git 2.2 Enregistrer des modifications dans le dépôt 2.3 Visualiser l’historique des validations 2.4 Annuler des actions 2.5 Travailler avec des dépôts distants 2.6 Étiquetage 2.7 Les alias Git 2.8 Résumé 3. Les branches avec Git 3.1 Les branches en bref 3.2 Branches et fusions : les bases 3.3 Gestion des branches 3.4 Travailler avec les branches 3.5 Branches de suivi à distance 3.6 Rebaser (Rebasing) 3.7 Résumé 4. Git sur le serveur 4.1 Protocoles 4.2 Installation de Git sur un serveur 4.3 Génération des clés publiques SSH 4.4 Mise en place du serveur 4.5 Démon (Daemon) Git 4.6 HTTP intelligent 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git hébergé 4.10 Résumé 5. Git distribué 5.1 Développements distribués 5.2 Contribution à un projet 5.3 Maintenance d’un projet 5.4 Résumé 6. GitHub 6.1 Configuration et paramétrage d’un compte 6.2 Contribution à un projet 6.3 Maintenance d’un projet 6.4 Gestion d’un regroupement 6.5 Écriture de scripts pour GitHub 6.6 Résumé 7. Utilitaires Git 7.1 Sélection des versions 7.2 Indexation interactive 7.3 Remisage et nettoyage 7.4 Signer votre travail 7.5 Recherche 7.6 Réécrire l’historique 7.7 Reset démystifié 7.8 Fusion avancée 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Déboguer avec Git 7.11 Sous-modules 7.12 Empaquetage (bundling) 7.13 Replace 7.14 Stockage des identifiants 7.15 Résumé 8. Personnalisation de Git 8.1 Configuration de Git 8.2 Attributs Git 8.3 Crochets Git 8.4 Exemple de politique gérée par Git 8.5 Résumé 9. Git et les autres systèmes 9.1 Git comme client 9.2 Migration vers Git 9.3 Résumé 10. Les tripes de Git 10.1 Plomberie et porcelaine 10.2 Les objets de Git 10.3 Références Git 10.4 Fichiers groupés 10.5 La refspec 10.6 Les protocoles de transfert 10.7 Maintenance et récupération de données 10.8 Les variables d’environnement 10.9 Résumé A1. Annexe A: Git dans d’autres environnements A1.1 Interfaces graphiques A1.2 Git dans Visual Studio A1.3 Git dans Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git dans IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git dans Sublime Text A1.6 Git dans Bash A1.7 Git dans Zsh A1.8 Git dans PowerShell A1.9 Résumé A2. Annexe B: Embarquer Git dans vos applications A2.1 Git en ligne de commande A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Commandes Git A3.1 Installation et configuration A3.2 Obtention et création des projets A3.3 Capture d’instantané basique A3.4 Création de branches et fusion A3.5 Partage et mise à jour de projets A3.6 Inspection et comparaison A3.7 Débogage A3.8 Patchs A3.9 Courriel A3.10 Systèmes externes A3.11 Administration A3.12 Commandes de plomberie 2nd Edition 2.3 Les bases de Git - Visualiser l’historique des validations Visualiser l’historique des validations Après avoir créé plusieurs commits ou si vous avez cloné un dépôt ayant un historique de commits , vous souhaitez probablement revoir le fil des évènements. Pour ce faire, la commande git log est l’outil le plus basique et le plus puissant. Les exemples qui suivent utilisent un projet très simple nommé simplegit utilisé pour les démonstrations. Pour récupérer le projet, lancez : git clone https://github.com/schacon/simplegit-progit Lorsque vous lancez git log dans le répertoire de ce projet, vous devriez obtenir un résultat qui ressemble à ceci : $ git log commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 changed the version number commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 removed unnecessary test commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 first commit Par défaut, git log invoqué sans argument énumère en ordre chronologique inversé les commits réalisés. Cela signifie que les commits les plus récents apparaissent en premier. Comme vous le remarquez, cette commande indique chaque commit avec sa somme de contrôle SHA-1, le nom et l’e-mail de l’auteur, la date et le message du commit . git log dispose d’un très grand nombre d’options permettant de paramétrer exactement ce que l’on cherche à voir. Nous allons détailler quelques-unes des plus utilisées. Une des options les plus utiles est -p , qui montre les différences introduites entre chaque validation. Vous pouvez aussi utiliser -2 qui limite la sortie de la commande aux deux entrées les plus récentes : $ git log -p -2 commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 changed the version number diff --git a/Rakefile b/Rakefile index a874b73..8f94139 100644 --- a/Rakefile +++ b/Rakefile @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ require 'rake/gempackagetask' spec = Gem::Specification.new do |s| s.platform = Gem::Platform::RUBY s.name = "simplegit" - s.version = "0.1.0" + s.version = "0.1.1" s.author = "Scott Chacon" s.email = "schacon@gee-mail.com" s.summary = "A simple gem for using Git in Ruby code." commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 removed unnecessary test diff --git a/lib/simplegit.rb b/lib/simplegit.rb index a0a60ae..47c6340 100644 --- a/lib/simplegit.rb +++ b/lib/simplegit.rb @@ -18,8 +18,3 @@ class SimpleGit end end - -if $0 == __FILE__ - git = SimpleGit.new - puts git.show -end \ No newline at end of file Cette option affiche la même information mais avec un diff suivant directement chaque entrée. C’est très utile pour des revues de code ou pour naviguer rapidement à travers l’historique des modifications qu’un collaborateur a apportées. Vous pouvez aussi utiliser une liste d’options de résumé avec git log . Par exemple, si vous souhaitez visualiser des statistiques résumées pour chaque commit , vous pouvez utiliser l’option --stat : $ git log --stat commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 changed the version number Rakefile | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 removed unnecessary test lib/simplegit.rb | 5 ----- 1 file changed, 5 deletions(-) commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 first commit README | 6 ++++++ Rakefile | 23 +++++++++++++++++++++++ lib/simplegit.rb | 25 +++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 files changed, 54 insertions(+) Comme vous pouvez le voir, l’option --stat affiche sous chaque entrée de validation une liste des fichiers modifiés, combien de fichiers ont été changés et combien de lignes ont été ajoutées ou retirées dans ces fichiers. Elle ajoute un résumé des informations en fin de sortie. Une autre option utile est --pretty . Cette option modifie le journal vers un format différent. Quelques options incluses sont disponibles. L’option oneline affiche chaque commit sur une seule ligne, ce qui peut s’avérer utile lors de la revue d’un long journal. En complément, les options short (court), full (complet) et fuller (plus complet) montrent le résultat à peu de choses près dans le même format mais avec plus ou moins d’informations : $ git log --pretty=oneline ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 changed the version number 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 removed unnecessary test a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 first commit L’option la plus intéressante est format qui permet de décrire précisément le format de sortie. C’est spécialement utile pour générer des sorties dans un format facile à analyser par une machine — lorsqu’on spécifie intégralement et explicitement le format, on s’assure qu’il ne changera pas au gré des mises à jour de Git : $ git log --pretty=format:"%h - %an, %ar : %s" ca82a6d - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : changed the version number 085bb3b - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : removed unnecessary test a11bef0 - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : first commit Options utiles pour git log --pretty=format liste les options de formatage les plus utiles. Tableau 1. Options utiles pour git log --pretty=format Option Description du formatage %H Somme de contrôle du commit %h Somme de contrôle abrégée du commit %T Somme de contrôle de l’arborescence %t Somme de contrôle abrégée de l’arborescence %P Sommes de contrôle des parents %p Sommes de contrôle abrégées des parents %an Nom de l’auteur %ae E-mail de l’auteur %ad Date de l’auteur (au format de l’option -date=) %ar Date relative de l’auteur %cn Nom du validateur %ce E-mail du validateur %cd Date du validateur %cr Date relative du validateur %s Sujet Vous pourriez vous demander quelle est la différence entre auteur et validateur . L' auteur est la personne qui a réalisé initialement le travail, alors que le validateur est la personne qui a effectivement validé ce travail en gestion de version. Donc, si quelqu’un envoie un patch à un projet et un des membres du projet l’applique, les deux personnes reçoivent le crédit — l’écrivain en tant qu’auteur, et le membre du projet en tant que validateur. Nous traiterons plus avant de cette distinction dans le Git distribué . Les options oneline et format sont encore plus utiles avec une autre option log appelée --graph . Cette option ajoute un joli graphe en caractères ASCII pour décrire l’historique des branches et fusions : $ git log --pretty=format:"%h %s" --graph * 2d3acf9 ignore errors from SIGCHLD on trap * 5e3ee11 Merge branch 'master' of git://github.com/dustin/grit |\ | * 420eac9 Added a method for getting the current branch. * | 30e367c timeout code and tests * | 5a09431 add timeout protection to grit * | e1193f8 support for heads with slashes in them |/ * d6016bc require time for xmlschema * 11d191e Merge branch 'defunkt' into local Ces options deviendront plus intéressantes quand nous aborderons les branches et les fusions dans le prochain chapitre. Les options ci-dessus ne sont que des options simples de format de sortie de git log — il y en a de nombreuses autres. Options usuelles de git log donne une liste des options que nous avons traitées ainsi que d’autres options communément utilisées accompagnées de la manière dont elles modifient le résultat de la commande log . Tableau 2. Options usuelles de git log Option Description -p Affiche le patch appliqué par chaque commit --stat Affiche les statistiques de chaque fichier pour chaque commit --shortstat N’affiche que les ligne modifiées/insérées/effacées de l’option --stat --name-only Affiche la liste des fichiers modifiés après les informations du commit --name-status Affiche la liste des fichiers affectés accompagnés des informations d’ajout/modification/suppression --abbrev-commit N’affiche que les premiers caractères de la somme de contrôle SHA-1 --relative-date Affiche la date en format relatif (par exemple "2 weeks ago" : il y a deux semaines) au lieu du format de date complet --graph Affiche en caractères ASCII le graphe de branches et fusions en vis-à-vis de l’historique --pretty Affiche les commits dans un format alternatif. Les formats incluent oneline , short , full , fuller , et format (où on peut spécifier son propre format) --oneline Option de convenance correspondant à --pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit Limiter la longueur de l’historique En complément des options de formatage de sortie, git log est pourvu de certaines options de limitation utiles — des options qui permettent de restreindre la liste à un sous-ensemble de commits . Vous avez déjà vu une de ces options — l’option -2 qui ne montre que les deux derniers commits . En fait, on peut utiliser -<n> , où n correspond au nombre de commits que l’on cherche à visualiser en partant des plus récents. En vérité, il est peu probable que vous utilisiez cette option, parce que Git injecte par défaut sa sortie dans un outil de pagination qui permet de la visualiser page à page. Cependant, les options de limitation portant sur le temps, telles que --since (depuis) et --until (jusqu’à) sont très utiles. Par exemple, la commande suivante affiche la liste des commits des deux dernières semaines : $ git log --since=2.weeks Cette commande fonctionne avec de nombreux formats — vous pouvez indiquer une date spécifique (2008-01-05) ou une date relative au présent telle que "2 years 1 day 3 minutes ago". Vous pouvez aussi restreindre la liste aux commits vérifiant certains critères de recherche. L’option --author permet de filtrer sur un auteur spécifique, et l’option --grep permet de chercher des mots clés dans les messages de validation. Note Vous pouvez spécifier à la fois des instances --author et --grep , ce qui limitera la sortie aux commits correspondant à au moins un des critères ; cependant l’ajout de l’option --all-match limite la sortie aux seuls commits qui correspondent à la fois à tous les critères des motifs --grep . Un autre filtre vraiment utile est l’option -S qui prend une chaîne de caractères et ne retourne que les commits qui introduisent des modifications qui ajoutent ou retirent du texte comportant cette chaîne. Par exemple, si vous voulez trouver la dernière validation qui a ajouté ou retiré une référence à une fonction spécifique, vous pouvez lancer : $ git log -S nom_de_fonction La dernière option vraiment utile à git log est la spécification d’un chemin. Si un répertoire ou un nom de fichier est spécifié, le journal est limité aux commits qui ont introduit des modifications aux fichiers concernés. C’est toujours la dernière option de la commande, souvent précédée de deux tirets ( -- ) pour séparer les chemins des options précédentes. $ git log -- chemin/vers/le/fichier Le tableau Options pour limiter la sortie de git log récapitule les options que nous venons de voir ainsi que quelques autres pour référence. Tableau 3. Options pour limiter la sortie de git log Option Description -(n) N’affiche que les n derniers commits --since , --after Limite l’affichage aux commits réalisés après la date spécifiée --until , --before Limite l’affichage aux commits réalisés avant la date spécifiée --author Ne montre que les commits dont le champ auteur correspond à la chaîne passée en argument --committer Ne montre que les commits dont le champ validateur correspond à la chaîne passée en argument --grep Ne montre que les commits dont le message de validation contient la chaîne de caractères -S Ne montre que les commits dont les ajouts ou retraits contient la chaîne de caractères Par exemple, si vous souhaitez visualiser quels commits modifiant les fichiers de test dans l’historique du code source de Git ont été validés par Junio C Hamano et n’étaient pas des fusions durant le mois d’octobre 2008, vous pouvez lancer ce qui suit : $ git log --pretty="%h - %s" --author='Junio C Hamano' --since="2008-10-01" \ --before="2008-11-01" --no-merges -- t/ 5610e3b - Fix testcase failure when extended attributes are in use acd3b9e - Enhance hold_lock_file_for_{update,append}() API f563754 - demonstrate breakage of detached checkout with symbolic link HEAD d1a43f2 - reset --hard/read-tree --reset -u: remove unmerged new paths 51a94af - Fix "checkout --track -b newbranch" on detached HEAD b0ad11e - pull: allow "git pull origin $something:$current_branch" into an unborn branch À partir des 40 000 commits constituant l’historique des sources de Git, cette commande extrait les 6 qui correspondent aux critères. Astuce Empêcher l’affichage de commits de fusion En fonction du mode de gestion de votre dépôt, il est possible qu’un pourcentage certain des commits dans votre historique local soient juste des commits de fusion, ce qui n’apporte généralement que peu d’information. Pour empêcher l’affichage des commits de fusion qui encombrent le journal, ajoutez simplement l’option --no-merges . prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/uk/v2/%d0%9e%d1%81%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%b8-Git-%d0%9f%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b3%d0%bb%d1%8f%d0%b4-%d1%96%d1%81%d1%82%d0%be%d1%80%d1%96%d1%97-%d0%ba%d0%be%d0%bc%d1%96%d1%82%d1%96%d0%b2 | Git - Перегляд історії комітів About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Вступ 1.1 Про систему контролю версій 1.2 Коротка історія Git 1.3 Основи Git 1.4 Git, зазвичай, тільки додає дані 1.5 Три стани 1.6 Командний рядок 1.7 Інсталяція Git 1.8 Початкове налаштування Git 1.9 Отримання допомоги 1.10 Підсумок 2. Основи Git 2.1 Створення Git-сховища 2.2 Запис змін до репозиторія 2.3 Перегляд історії комітів 2.4 Скасування речей 2.5 Взаємодія з віддаленими сховищами 2.6 Теґування 2.7 Псевдоніми Git 2.8 Підсумок 3. Галуження в git 3.1 Гілки у кількох словах 3.2 Основи галуження та зливання 3.3 Управління гілками 3.4 Процеси роботи з гілками 3.5 Віддалені гілки 3.6 Перебазовування 3.7 Підсумок 4. Git на сервері 4.1 Протоколи 4.2 Отримання Git на сервері 4.3 Генерація вашого публічного ключа SSH 4.4 Налаштування Серверу 4.5 Демон Git 4.6 Розумний HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Варіанти стороннього хостингу 4.10 Підсумок 5. Розподілений Git 5.1 Розподілені процеси роботи 5.2 Внесення змін до проекту 5.3 Супроводжування проекту 5.4 Підсумок 6. GitHub 6.1 Створення та налаштування облікового запису 6.2 Як зробити внесок до проекту 6.3 Супроводжування проєкту 6.4 Керування організацією 6.5 Скриптування GitHub 6.6 Підсумок 7. Інструменти Git 7.1 Вибір ревізій 7.2 Інтерактивне індексування 7.3 Ховання та чищення 7.4 Підписання праці 7.5 Пошук 7.6 Переписування історії 7.7 Усвідомлення скидання (reset) 7.8 Складне злиття 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Зневадження з Git 7.11 Підмодулі 7.12 Пакування 7.13 Заміна 7.14 Збереження посвідчення (credential) 7.15 Підсумок 8. Налаштування Git 8.1 Конфігурація Git 8.2 Атрибути Git 8.3 Гаки (hooks) Git 8.4 Приклад політики користування виконуваної Git-ом 8.5 Підсумок 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git як клієнт 9.2 Міграція на Git 9.3 Підсумок 10. Git зсередини 10.1 Кухонні та парадні команди 10.2 Об’єкти Git 10.3 Посилання Git 10.4 Файли пакунки 10.5 Специфікація посилань (refspec) 10.6 Протоколи передачі 10.7 Супроводження та відновлення даних 10.8 Змінні середовища 10.9 Підсумок A1. Додаток A: Git в інших середовищах A1.1 Графічні інтерфейси A1.2 Git у Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Eclipse A1.4 Git у Bash A1.5 Git у Zsh A1.6 Git у Powershell A1.7 Підсумок A2. Додаток B: Вбудовування Git у ваші застосунки A2.1 Git з командного рядка A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A3. Додаток C: Команди Git A3.1 Налаштування та конфігурація A3.2 Отримання та створення проектів A3.3 Базове збереження відбитків A3.4 Галуження та зливання A3.5 Поширення й оновлення проектів A3.6 Огляд та порівняння A3.7 Зневаджування A3.8 Латання (patching) A3.9 Електронна пошта A3.10 Зовнішні системи A3.11 Адміністрування A3.12 Кухонні команди 2nd Edition 2.3 Основи Git - Перегляд історії комітів Перегляд історії комітів Після того як ви створили декілька комітів, або якщо ви зробили клон репозиторія з існуючою історією комітів, ви напевно забажаєте дізнатись, що було відбувалося. Найбільш могутньою утилітою для цього є команда git log . Ці приклади використовують дуже простий проект під назвою ``simplegit''. Щоб отримати цей проект, виконайте $ git clone https://github.com/schacon/simplegit-progit Якщо ви виконаєте git log у цьому проекті, ви маєте побачити щось на кшталт: $ git log commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 changed the version number commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 removed unnecessary test commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 first commit Якщо не передати жодної опції до команди git log , вона виведе зроблені коміти репозиторія у зворотному хронологічному порядку — тобто, найновіші коміти будуть показані першими. Як бачите, ця команда показує для кожного коміту його SHA-1 хеш, ім’я та пошту автора, дату запису, та повідомлення коміту. Існує величезне різноманіття опцій до команди git log щоб відобразити саме те, що ви хочете. Тут ми продемонструємо вам найпоширеніші. Дуже корисною є опція -p чи --patch , що показує різницю (вивід латки , англійською patch), привнесену при кожному коміті. Ви також можете обмежити кількість показаних записів журналу, наприклад, використати -2 , щоб переглянути лише два останні елементи: $ git log -p -2 commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 changed the version number diff --git a/Rakefile b/Rakefile index a874b73..8f94139 100644 --- a/Rakefile +++ b/Rakefile @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ require 'rake/gempackagetask' spec = Gem::Specification.new do |s| s.platform = Gem::Platform::RUBY s.name = "simplegit" - s.version = "0.1.0" + s.version = "0.1.1" s.author = "Scott Chacon" s.email = "schacon@gee-mail.com" s.summary = "A simple gem for using Git in Ruby code." commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 removed unnecessary test diff --git a/lib/simplegit.rb b/lib/simplegit.rb index a0a60ae..47c6340 100644 --- a/lib/simplegit.rb +++ b/lib/simplegit.rb @@ -18,8 +18,3 @@ class SimpleGit end end - -if $0 == __FILE__ - git = SimpleGit.new - puts git.show -end Ця опція показує ту саму інформацію та ще зміни відразу після кожного елементу. Це дуже корисно для перегляду коду або швидкого перегляду що сталося протягом декількох комітів, що їх додав співробітник. Ви можете також використати ряд підсумкових опцій з git log . Наприклад, якщо ви бажаєте побачити дещо скорочену статистику для кожного коміту, ви можете скористатись опцією --stat : $ git log --stat commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 changed the version number Rakefile | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 removed unnecessary test lib/simplegit.rb | 5 ----- 1 file changed, 5 deletions(-) commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 first commit README | 6 ++++++ Rakefile | 23 +++++++++++++++++++++++ lib/simplegit.rb | 25 +++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 files changed, 54 insertions(+) Як бачите, опція --stat друкує під кожним комітом список змінених файлів, скільки файлів було змінено, скільки рядків у кожному файлі було додано та видалено. Також видає підсумок інформації наприкінці. Інша дійсно корисна опція це --pretty . Ця опція змінює вивід — відображає його в іншому форматі. Вам доступні декілька вбудованих опцій формату. Опція oneline друкує кожен коміт в один рядок, що корисно, якщо ви дивитесь на багато комітів. На додаток, опції short , full та fuller показують вивід приблизно в такому ж форматі, але зменшують чи збільшують кількість інформації, відповідно: $ git log --pretty=oneline ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 changed the version number 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 removed unnecessary test a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 first commit Найцікавіша опція це format , що дозволяє вам визначити свій власний формат виводу. Це особливо корисно, якщо ви генеруєте вивід для розбору програмою, адже ви можете явно вказати формат, та ви будете знати, що він не зміниться у наступних версіях Git: $ git log --pretty=format:"%h - %an, %ar : %s" ca82a6d - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : changed the version number 085bb3b - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : removed unnecessary test a11bef0 - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : first commit Корисні опції для git log --pretty=format описує деякі найкорисніші опції, які приймає format . Таблиця 1. Корисні опції для git log --pretty=format Опція Опис Виводу %H Хеш коміту %h Скорочений хеш коміту %T Хеш дерева %t Скорочений хеш дерева %P Хеши батьків %p Скорочені хеши батьків %an Ім’я автора %ae Поштова адреса автора %ad Дата автора (формат враховує опцію --date=option) %ar Відносна дата автора %cn Ім’я користувача, що створив коміт %ce Поштова адреса фіксатора %cd Дата фіксатора %cr Відносна дата фіксатора %s Тема Вам може стати цікаво в чому різниця між автором та творцем коміту . Автор це людина, що спочатку зробила роботу, тоді як фіксатор — це людина, яка востаннє застосувала роботу. Отже, якщо ви відправили латку до проекту та один з програмістів ядра застосує її, ви обидва будете згадані — ви як автор, а програміст ядра як творець коміту. Ми більше про це поговоримо у Розподілений Git . Опції oneline і format особливо корисні з іншою опцією log , що називається --graph . Ця опція додає маленький гарний ASCII граф, що показує історію ваших гілок та зливань: $ git log --pretty=format:"%h %s" --graph * 2d3acf9 ignore errors from SIGCHLD on trap * 5e3ee11 Merge branch 'master' of git://github.com/dustin/grit |\ | * 420eac9 Added a method for getting the current branch. * | 30e367c timeout code and tests * | 5a09431 add timeout protection to grit * | e1193f8 support for heads with slashes in them |/ * d6016bc require time for xmlschema * 11d191e Merge branch 'defunkt' into local Цей тип виводу стане цікавішим, коли ми будемо розповідати про гілки та злиття у наступному розділі. Це тільки декілька простих опцій формату виводу git log — їх набагато більше. Розповсюджені опції git log наводить опції, про які ми вже розповідали, та деякі інші розповсюджені опції формату, що можуть бути корисними, з поясненням того, як вони змінюють вивід команди log. Таблиця 2. Розповсюджені опції git log Опція Опис -p Показує зміни файлів кожного коміту --stat Показує статистику змінених файлів для кожного коміту. --shortstat Відображає тільки рядок зміни/вставки/видалення з опції --stat. --name-only Показує список змінених файлів після інформації про коміт. --name-status Показує список змінених файлів з інформацією додано/змінено/видалено. --abbrev-commit Показує тільки перші декілька символів SHA-1 суми замість усіх 40. --relative-date Відображає дату у відносному форматі (наприклад, ``2 тижня тому'') замість використання повного формату дати. --graph Відображає ASCII граф історії гілок та зливань поряд зі звичайним виводом. --pretty Показує коміти в альтернативному форматі. Можливі значення: online, short, full, fuller та format (якому задаєте свій власний формат). --oneline Скорочення для опцій --pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit . Обмеження виводу журналу На додаток до опцій, що контролюють формат виводу, git log також приймає декілька корисний обмежувальних опцій — тобто опцій, що дозволяють вам показувати тільки підмножину комітів. Ви вже бачили одну таку опцію: -2 , що відображає тільки останні два коміти. Насправді, ви можете використати -<n> , де n це будь-яке ціле число, щоб показати останні n комітів. Однак навряд чи ви будете використовувати це часто, адже Git зазвичай передає весь свій вивід переглядачу, отже ви бачите тільки одну сторінку журналу за раз. Втім, опції обмеження по часу, такі як --since (від) та --until (до) дуже корисні. Наприклад, ця команда отримає список комітів за останні два тижні: $ git log --since=2.weeks Ця команда працює з різноманітними форматами — ви можете задати точну дату, наприклад "1991-08-24" , чи відносну дату, наприклад "2 years 1 day 3 minutes ago" . Ви також можете відсіювати список комітів, що відповідають якомусь критерію пошуку. Опція --author дозволяє вам відбирати по заданому автору, а опція --grep дозволяє вам шукати ключові слова в повідомленнях комітів. Зауваження You can specify more than one instance of both the --author and --grep search criteria, which will limit the commit output to commits that match any of the --author patterns and any of the --grep patterns; however, adding the --all-match option further limits the output to just those commits that match all --grep patterns. Ви можете додати більш ніж одну пошукову опцію --author та --grep . Тоді вивід буде обмежено тими комітами, що відповідають будь-якому з шаблонів --author чи будь-якому з шаблонів --grep . Втім, якщо додати опцію --all-match , то буде показано лише ті коміти, що відповідають усім шаблонам --grep . Інша дійсно корисна опція -S (неформально відома під назвою ``кирка'' (pickaxe)) приймає рядок та відображає лише ті коміти, що змінили кількість входжень цього рядка у зміст файлів. Наприклад, якщо ви бажаєте знайти останній коміт, що додав чи видалив посилання на певну функцію, вам варто викликати: $ git log -S function_name Остання дійсно корисна опція, яку можна передати до git log — це шлях. Якщо ви зазначите директорію або ім’я файлу, ви можете обмежити вивід до комітів, що змінювали ці файли. Це завжди остання опція та зазвичай перед нею ставлять подвійний дефіс ( -- ) щоб відділити шляхи від опцій. У Опції для обмеження виводу git log ми перелічили ці та ще декілька інших розповсюджених опцій для довідки. Таблиця 3. Опції для обмеження виводу git log Опція Опис -<n> Показати тільки останні n комітів --since , --after Обмежитись комітами, що були створені після переданої дати. --until , --before Обмежитись комітами, що були створені до переданої дати. --author Показати тільки ті коміти, автор яких збігається із переданим. --committer Показати тільки ті коміти, фіксатор яких збігається із переданим --grep Показати тільки ті коміти, повідомлення яких містить рядок. -S Показати тільки ті коміти, в яких додали або видалили рядок, що містить переданий рядок. Наприклад, якщо ви бажаєте побачити, в яких комітах були змінені тестові файли в коді Git, що були збережені Junio Hamano у жовтні 2008 року і не є комітами злиття, ви можете виконати таку команду: $ git log --pretty="%h - %s" --author=gitster --since="2008-10-01" \ --before="2008-11-01" --no-merges -- t/ 5610e3b - Fix testcase failure when extended attributes are in use acd3b9e - Enhance hold_lock_file_for_{update,append}() API f563754 - demonstrate breakage of detached checkout with symbolic link HEAD d1a43f2 - reset --hard/read-tree --reset -u: remove unmerged new paths 51a94af - Fix "checkout --track -b newbranch" on detached HEAD b0ad11e - pull: allow "git pull origin $something:$current_branch" into an unborn branch З приблизно 40000 комітів в історії коду Git, ця команда відображає тільки 6, що задовольняють цим критеріям. Підказка Приховування комітів злиття Залежно від процесу роботи у вашому сховищі, цілком можливо, що чималий відсоток комітів у вашій історії є лише комітами злиття, що зазвичай не містять цікавої інформації. Щоб вони не засмічували вивід історії журналу, просто додайте опцію --no-merges . prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://sre.google/sre-book/automation-at-google#id-LvQu7SviNCl | Google SRE - Google Automation For Reliability Chapter 7 - The Evolution of Automation at Google Table of Contents Foreword Preface Part I - Introduction 1. Introduction 2. The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE Part II - Principles 3. Embracing Risk 4. Service Level Objectives 5. Eliminating Toil 6. Monitoring Distributed Systems 7. The Evolution of Automation at Google 8. Release Engineering 9. Simplicity Part III - Practices 10. Practical Alerting 11. Being On-Call 12. Effective Troubleshooting 13. Emergency Response 14. Managing Incidents 15. Postmortem Culture: Learning from Failure 16. Tracking Outages 17. Testing for Reliability 18. Software Engineering in SRE 19. Load Balancing at the Frontend 20. Load Balancing in the Datacenter 21. Handling Overload 22. Addressing Cascading Failures 23. Managing Critical State: Distributed Consensus for Reliability 24. Distributed Periodic Scheduling with Cron 25. Data Processing Pipelines 26. Data Integrity: What You Read Is What You Wrote 27. Reliable Product Launches at Scale Part IV - Management 28. Accelerating SREs to On-Call and Beyond 29. Dealing with Interrupts 30. Embedding an SRE to Recover from Operational Overload 31. Communication and Collaboration in SRE 32. The Evolving SRE Engagement Model Part V - Conclusions 33. Lessons Learned from Other Industries 34. Conclusion Appendix A. Availability Table Appendix B. A Collection of Best Practices for Production Services Appendix C. Example Incident State Document Appendix D. Example Postmortem Appendix E. Launch Coordination Checklist Appendix F. Example Production Meeting Minutes Bibliography The Evolution of Automation at Google Written by Niall Murphy with John Looney and Michael Kacirek Edited by Betsy Beyer Besides black art, there is only automation and mechanization. Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), Spanish poet and playwright For SRE, automation is a force multiplier, not a panacea. Of course, just multiplying force does not naturally change the accuracy of where that force is applied: doing automation thoughtlessly can create as many problems as it solves. Therefore, while we believe that software-based automation is superior to manual operation in most circumstances, better than either option is a higher-level system design requiring neither of them—an autonomous system. Or to put it another way, the value of automation comes from both what it does and its judicious application. We’ll discuss both the value of automation and how our attitude has evolved over time. The Value of Automation What exactly is the value of automation? 26 Consistency Although scale is an obvious motivation for automation, there are many other reasons to use it. Take the example of university computing systems, where many systems engineering folks started their careers. Systems administrators of that background were generally charged with running a collection of machines or some software, and were accustomed to manually performing various actions in the discharge of that duty. One common example is creating user accounts; others include purely operational duties like making sure backups happen, managing server failover, and small data manipulations like changing the upstream DNS servers’ resolv.conf , DNS server zone data, and similar activities. Ultimately, however, this prevalence of manual tasks is unsatisfactory for both the organizations and indeed the people maintaining systems in this way. For a start, any action performed by a human or humans hundreds of times won’t be performed the same way each time: even with the best will in the world, very few of us will ever be as consistent as a machine. This inevitable lack of consistency leads to mistakes, oversights, issues with data quality, and, yes, reliability problems. In this domain—the execution of well-scoped, known procedures the value of consistency is in many ways the primary value of automation. A Platform Automation doesn’t just provide consistency. Designed and done properly, automatic systems also provide a platform that can be extended, applied to more systems, or perhaps even spun out for profit. 27 (The alternative, no automation, is neither cost effective nor extensible: it is instead a tax levied on the operation of a system.) A platform also centralizes mistakes . In other words, a bug fixed in the code will be fixed there once and forever, unlike a sufficiently large set of humans performing the same procedure, as discussed previously. A platform can be extended to perform additional tasks more easily than humans can be instructed to perform them (or sometimes even realize that they have to be done). Depending on the nature of the task, it can run either continuously or much more frequently than humans could appropriately accomplish the task, or at times that are inconvenient for humans. Furthermore, a platform can export metrics about its performance, or otherwise allow you to discover details about your process you didn’t know previously, because these details are more easily measurable within the context of a platform. Faster Repairs There’s an additional benefit for systems where automation is used to resolve common faults in a system (a frequent situation for SRE-created automation). If automation runs regularly and successfully enough, the result is a reduced mean time to repair (MTTR) for those common faults. You can then spend your time on other tasks instead, thereby achieving increased developer velocity because you don’t have to spend time either preventing a problem or (more commonly) cleaning up after it. As is well understood in the industry, the later in the product lifecycle a problem is discovered, the more expensive it is to fix; see Testing for Reliability . Generally, problems that occur in actual production are most expensive to fix, both in terms of time and money, which means that an automated system looking for problems as soon as they arise has a good chance of lowering the total cost of the system, given that the system is sufficiently large. Faster Action In the infrastructural situations where SRE automation tends to be deployed, humans don’t usually react as fast as machines. In most common cases, where, for example, failover or traffic switching can be well defined for a particular application, it makes no sense to effectively require a human to intermittently press a button called “Allow system to continue to run.” (Yes, it is true that sometimes automatic procedures can end up making a bad situation worse, but that is why such procedures should be scoped over well-defined domains.) Google has a large amount of automation; in many cases, the services we support could not long survive without this automation because they crossed the threshold of manageable manual operation long ago. Time Saving Finally, time saving is an oft-quoted rationale for automation. Although people cite this rationale for automation more than the others, in many ways the benefit is often less immediately calculable. Engineers often waver over whether a particular piece of automation or code is worth writing, in terms of effort saved in not requiring a task to be performed manually versus the effort required to write it. 28 It’s easy to overlook the fact that once you have encapsulated some task in automation, anyone can execute the task. Therefore, the time savings apply across anyone who would plausibly use the automation. Decoupling operator from operation is very powerful. Joseph Bironas, an SRE who led Google’s datacenter turnup efforts for a time, forcefully argued: "If we are engineering processes and solutions that are not automatable, we continue having to staff humans to maintain the system. If we have to staff humans to do the work, we are feeding the machines with the blood, sweat, and tears of human beings. Think The Matrix with less special effects and more pissed off System Administrators." The Value for Google SRE All of these benefits and trade-offs apply to us just as much as anyone else, and Google does have a strong bias toward automation. Part of our preference for automation springs from our particular business challenges: the products and services we look after are planet-spanning in scale, and we don’t typically have time to engage in the same kind of machine or service hand-holding common in other organizations. 29 For truly large services, the factors of consistency, quickness, and reliability dominate most conversations about the trade-offs of performing automation. Another argument in favor of automation, particularly in the case of Google, is our complicated yet surprisingly uniform production environment, described in The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE . While other organizations might have an important piece of equipment without a readily accessible API, software for which no source code is available, or another impediment to complete control over production operations, Google generally avoids such scenarios. We have built APIs for systems when no API was available from the vendor. Even though purchasing software for a particular task would have been much cheaper in the short term, we chose to write our own solutions, because doing so produced APIs with the potential for much greater long-term benefits. We spent a lot of time overcoming obstacles to automatic system management, and then resolutely developed that automatic system management itself. Given how Google manages its source code [Pot16] , the availability of that code for more or less any system that SRE touches also means that our mission to “own the product in production” is much easier because we control the entirety of the stack. Of course, although Google is ideologically bent upon using machines to manage machines where possible, reality requires some modification of our approach. It isn’t appropriate to automate every component of every system, and not everyone has the ability or inclination to develop automation at a particular time. Some essential systems started out as quick prototypes, not designed to last or to interface with automation. The previous paragraphs state a maximalist view of our position, but one that we have been broadly successful at putting into action within the Google context. In general, we have chosen to create platforms where we could, or to position ourselves so that we could create platforms over time. We view this platform-based approach as necessary for manageability and scalability. The Use Cases for Automation In the industry, automation is the term generally used for writing code to solve a wide variety of problems, although the motivations for writing this code, and the solutions themselves, are often quite different. More broadly, in this view, automation is “meta-software”—software to act on software. As we implied earlier, there are a number of use cases for automation. Here is a non-exhaustive list of examples: User account creation Cluster turnup and turndown for services Software or hardware installation preparation and decommissioning Rollouts of new software versions Runtime configuration changes A special case of runtime config changes: changes to your dependencies This list could continue essentially ad infinitum . Google SRE’s Use Cases for Automation In Google, we have all of the use cases just listed, and more. However, within Google SRE, our primary affinity has typically been for running infrastructure, as opposed to managing the quality of the data that passes over that infrastructure. This line isn’t totally clear—for example, we care deeply if half of a dataset vanishes after a push, and therefore we alert on coarse-grain differences like this, but it’s rare for us to write the equivalent of changing the properties of some arbitrary subset of accounts on a system. Therefore, the context for our automation is often automation to manage the lifecycle of systems, not their data: for example, deployments of a service in a new cluster. To this extent, SRE’s automation efforts are not far off what many other people and organizations do, except that we use different tools to manage it and have a different focus (as we’ll discuss). Widely available tools like Puppet, Chef, cfengine, and even Perl, which all provide ways to automate particular tasks, differ mostly in terms of the level of abstraction of the components provided to help the act of automating. A full language like Perl provides POSIX-level affordances, which in theory provide an essentially unlimited scope of automation across the APIs accessible to the system, 30 whereas Chef and Puppet provide out-of-the-box abstractions with which services or other higher-level entities can be manipulated. The trade-off here is classic: higher-level abstractions are easier to manage and reason about, but when you encounter a “leaky abstraction,” you fail systemically, repeatedly, and potentially inconsistently. For example, we often assume that pushing a new binary to a cluster is atomic; the cluster will either end up with the old version, or the new version. However, real-world behavior is more complicated: that cluster’s network can fail halfway through; machines can fail; communication to the cluster management layer can fail, leaving the system in an inconsistent state; depending on the situation, new binaries could be staged but not pushed, or pushed but not restarted, or restarted but not verifiable. Very few abstractions model these kinds of outcomes successfully, and most generally end up halting themselves and calling for intervention. Truly bad automation systems don’t even do that. SRE has a number of philosophies and products in the domain of automation, some of which look more like generic rollout tools without particularly detailed modeling of higher-level entities, and some of which look more like languages for describing service deployment (and so on) at a very abstract level. Work done in the latter tends to be more reusable and be more of a common platform than the former, but the complexity of our production environment sometimes means that the former approach is the most immediately tractable option. A Hierarchy of Automation Classes Although all of these automation steps are valuable, and indeed an automation platform is valuable in and of itself, in an ideal world, we wouldn’t need externalized automation. In fact, instead of having a system that has to have external glue logic, it would be even better to have a system that needs no glue logic at all , not just because internalization is more efficient (although such efficiency is useful), but because it has been designed to not need glue logic in the first place. Accomplishing that involves taking the use cases for glue logic—generally “first order” manipulations of a system, such as adding accounts or performing system turnup—and finding a way to handle those use cases directly within the application. As a more detailed example, most turnup automation at Google is problematic because it ends up being maintained separately from the core system and therefore suffers from “bit rot,” i.e., not changing when the underlying systems change. Despite the best of intentions, attempting to more tightly couple the two (turnup automation and the core system) often fails due to unaligned priorities, as product developers will, not unreasonably, resist a test deployment requirement for every change. Secondly, automation that is crucial but only executed at infrequent intervals and therefore difficult to test is often particularly fragile because of the extended feedback cycle. Cluster failover is one classic example of infrequently executed automation: failovers might only occur every few months, or infrequently enough that inconsistencies between instances are introduced. The evolution of automation follows a path: 1) No automation Database master is failed over manually between locations. 2) Externally maintained system-specific automation An SRE has a failover script in his or her home directory. 3) Externally maintained generic automation The SRE adds database support to a "generic failover" script that everyone uses. 4) Internally maintained system-specific automation The database ships with its own failover script. 5) Systems that don’t need any automation The database notices problems, and automatically fails over without human intervention. SRE hates manual operations, so we obviously try to create systems that don’t require them. However, sometimes manual operations are unavoidable. There is additionally a subvariety of automation that applies changes not across the domain of specific system-related configuration, but across the domain of production as a whole. In a highly centralized proprietary production environment like Google’s, there are a large number of changes that have a non–service-specific scope—e.g., changing upstream Chubby servers, a flag change to the Bigtable client library to make access more reliable, and so on—which nonetheless need to be safely managed and rolled back if necessary. Beyond a certain volume of changes, it is infeasible for production-wide changes to be accomplished manually, and at some time before that point, it’s a waste to have manual oversight for a process where a large proportion of the changes are either trivial or accomplished successfully by basic relaunch-and-check strategies. Let’s use internal case studies to illustrate some of the preceding points in detail. The first case study is about how, due to some diligent, far-sighted work, we managed to achieve the self-professed nirvana of SRE: to automate ourselves out of a job. Automate Yourself Out of a Job: Automate ALL the Things! For a long while, the Ads products at Google stored their data in a MySQL database. Because Ads data obviously has high reliability requirements, an SRE team was charged with looking after that infrastructure. From 2005 to 2008, the Ads Database mostly ran in what we considered to be a mature and managed state. For example, we had automated away the worst, but not all, of the routine work for standard replica replacements. We believed the Ads Database was well managed and that we had harvested most of the low-hanging fruit in terms of optimization and scale. However, as daily operations became comfortable, team members began to look at the next level of system development: migrating MySQL onto Google’s cluster scheduling system, Borg. We hoped this migration would provide two main benefits: Completely eliminate machine/replica maintenance: Borg would automatically handle the setup/restart of new and broken tasks. Enable bin-packing of multiple MySQL instances on the same physical machine: Borg would enable more efficient use of machine resources via Containers. In late 2008, we successfully deployed a proof of concept MySQL instance on Borg. Unfortunately, this was accompanied by a significant new difficulty. A core operating characteristic of Borg is that its tasks move around automatically. Tasks commonly move within Borg as frequently as once or twice per week. This frequency was tolerable for our database replicas, but unacceptable for our masters. At that time, the process for master failover took 30–90 minutes per instance. Simply because we ran on shared machines and were subject to reboots for kernel upgrades, in addition to the normal rate of machine failure, we had to expect a number of otherwise unrelated failovers every week. This factor, in combination with the number of shards on which our system was hosted, meant that: Manual failovers would consume a substantial amount of human hours and would give us best-case availability of 99% uptime, which fell short of the actual business requirements of the product. In order to meet our error budgets, each failover would have to take less than 30 seconds of downtime. There was no way to optimize a human-dependent procedure to make downtime shorter than 30 seconds. Therefore, our only choice was to automate failover. Actually, we needed to automate more than just failover. In 2009 Ads SRE completed our automated failover daemon, which we dubbed “Decider.” Decider could complete MySQL failovers for both planned and unplanned failovers in less than 30 seconds 95% of the time. With the creation of Decider, MySQL on Borg (MoB) finally became a reality. We graduated from optimizing our infrastructure for a lack of failover to embracing the idea that failure is inevitable, and therefore optimizing to recover quickly through automation. While automation let us achieve highly available MySQL in a world that forced up to two restarts per week, it did come with its own set of costs. All of our applications had to be changed to include significantly more failure-handling logic than before. Given that the norm in the MySQL development world is to assume that the MySQL instance will be the most stable component in the stack, this switch meant customizing software like JDBC to be more tolerant of our failure-prone environment. However, the benefits of migrating to MoB with Decider were well worth these costs. Once on MoB, the time our team spent on mundane operational tasks dropped by 95%. Our failovers were automated, so an outage of a single database task no longer paged a human. The main upshot of this new automation was that we had a lot more free time to spend on improving other parts of the infrastructure. Such improvements had a cascading effect: the more time we saved, the more time we were able to spend on optimizing and automating other tedious work. Eventually, we were able to automate schema changes, causing the cost of total operational maintenance of the Ads Database to drop by nearly 95%. Some might say that we had successfully automated ourselves out of this job. The hardware side of our domain also saw improvement. Migrating to MoB freed up considerable resources because we could schedule multiple MySQL instances on the same machines, which improved utilization of our hardware. In total, we were able to free up about 60% of our hardware. Our team was now flush with hardware and engineering resources. This example demonstrates the wisdom of going the extra mile to deliver a platform rather than replacing existing manual procedures. The next example comes from the cluster infrastructure group, and illustrates some of the more difficult trade-offs you might encounter on your way to automating all the things. Soothing the Pain: Applying Automation to Cluster Turnups Ten years ago, the Cluster Infrastructure SRE team seemed to get a new hire every few months. As it turned out, that was approximately the same frequency at which we turned up a new cluster. Because turning up a service in a new cluster gives new hires exposure to a service’s internals, this task seemed like a natural and useful training tool. The steps taken to get a cluster ready for use were something like the following: Fit out a datacenter building for power and cooling. Install and configure core switches and connections to the backbone. Install a few initial racks of servers. Configure basic services such as DNS and installers, then configure a lock service, storage, and computing. Deploy the remaining racks of machines. Assign user-facing services resources, so their teams can set up the services. Steps 4 and 6 were extremely complex. While basic services like DNS are relatively simple, the storage and compute subsystems at that time were still in heavy development, so new flags, components, and optimizations were added weekly. Some services had more than a hundred different component subsystems, each with a complex web of dependencies. Failing to configure one subsystem, or configuring a system or component differently than other deployments, is a customer-impacting outage waiting to happen. In one case, a multi-petabyte Bigtable cluster was configured to not use the first (logging) disk on 12-disk systems, for latency reasons. A year later, some automation assumed that if a machine’s first disk wasn’t being used, that machine didn’t have any storage configured; therefore, it was safe to wipe the machine and set it up from scratch. All of the Bigtable data was wiped, instantly. Thankfully we had multiple real-time replicas of the dataset, but such surprises are unwelcome. Automation needs to be careful about relying on implicit "safety" signals. Early automation focused on accelerating cluster delivery. This approach tended to rely upon creative use of SSH for tedious package distribution and service initialization problems. This strategy was an initial win, but those free-form scripts became a cholesterol of technical debt. Detecting Inconsistencies with Prodtest As the numbers of clusters grew, some clusters required hand-tuned flags and settings. As a result, teams wasted more and more time chasing down difficult-to-spot misconfigurations. If a flag that made GFS more responsive to log processing leaked into the default templates, cells with many files could run out of memory under load. Infuriating and time-consuming misconfigurations crept in with nearly every large configuration change. The creative—though brittle—shell scripts we used to configure clusters were neither scaling to the number of people who wanted to make changes nor to the sheer number of cluster permutations that needed to be built. These shell scripts also failed to resolve more significant concerns before declaring that a service was good to take customer-facing traffic, such as: Were all of the service’s dependencies available and correctly configured? Were all configurations and packages consistent with other deployments? Could the team confirm that every configuration exception was desired? Prodtest (Production Test) was an ingenious solution to these unwelcome surprises. We extended the Python unit test framework to allow for unit testing of real-world services. These unit tests have dependencies, allowing a chain of tests, and a failure in one test would quickly abort. Take the test shown in Figure 7-1 as an example. Figure 7-1. ProdTest for DNS Service, showing how one failed test aborts the subsequent chain of tests A given team’s Prodtest was given the cluster name, and it could validate that team’s services in that cluster. Later additions allowed us to generate a graph of the unit tests and their states. This functionality allowed an engineer to see quickly if their service was correctly configured in all clusters, and if not, why. The graph highlighted the failed step, and the failing Python unit test output a more verbose error message. Any time a team encountered a delay due to another team’s unexpected misconfiguration, a bug could be filed to extend their Prodtest. This ensured that a similar problem would be discovered earlier in the future. SREs were proud to be able to assure their customers that all services—both newly turned up services and existing services with new configuration—would reliably serve production traffic. For the first time, our project managers could predict when a cluster could "go live," and had a complete understanding of why each clusters took six or more weeks to go from "network-ready" to "serving live traffic." Out of the blue, SRE received a mission from senior management: In three months, five new clusters will reach network-ready on the same day. Please turn them up in one week. Resolving Inconsistencies Idempotently A "One Week Turnup" was a terrifying mission. We had tens of thousands of lines of shell script owned by dozens of teams. We could quickly tell how unprepared any given cluster was, but fixing it meant that the dozens of teams would have to file hundreds of bugs, and then we had to hope that these bugs would be promptly fixed. We realized that evolving from "Python unit tests finding misconfigurations" to "Python code fixing misconfigurations" could enable us to fix these issues faster. The unit test already knew which cluster we were examining and the specific test that was failing, so we paired each test with a fix. If each fix was written to be idempotent, and could assume that all dependencies were met, resolving the problem should have been easy—and safe—to resolve. Requiring idempotent fixes meant teams could run their "fix script" every 15 minutes without fearing damage to the cluster’s configuration. If the DNS team’s test was blocked on the Machine Database team’s configuration of a new cluster, as soon as the cluster appeared in the database, the DNS team’s tests and fixes would start working. Take the test shown in Figure 7-2 as an example. If TestDnsMonitoringConfigExists fails, as shown, we can call FixDnsMonitoringCreateConfig , which scrapes configuration from a database, then checks a skeleton configuration file into our revision control system. Then TestDnsMonitoringConfigExists passes on retry, and the TestDnsMonitoringConfigPushed test can be attempted. If the test fails, the FixDnsMonitoringPushConfig step runs. If a fix fails multiple times, the automation assumes that the fix failed and stops, notifying the user. Armed with these scripts, a small group of engineers could ensure that we could go from "The network works, and machines are listed in the database" to "Serving 1% of websearch and ads traffic" in a matter of a week or two. At the time, this seemed to be the apex of automation technology. Looking back, this approach was deeply flawed; the latency between the test, the fix, and then a second test introduced flaky tests that sometimes worked and sometimes failed. Not all fixes were naturally idempotent, so a flaky test that was followed by a fix might render the system in an inconsistent state. Figure 7-2. ProdTest for DNS Service, showing that one failed test resulted in only running one fix The Inclination to Specialize Automation processes can vary in three respects: Competence , i.e., their accuracy Latency , how quickly all steps are executed when initiated Relevance , or proportion of real-world process covered by automation We began with a process that was highly competent (maintained and run by the service owners), high-latency (the service owners performed the process in their spare time or assigned it to new engineers), and very relevant (the service owners knew when the real world changed, and could fix the automation). To reduce turnup latency, many service owning teams instructed a single "turnup team" what automation to run. The turnup team used tickets to start each stage in the turnup so that we could track the remaining tasks, and who those tasks were assigned to. If the human interactions regarding automation modules occurred between people in the same room, cluster turnups could happen in a much shorter time. Finally, we had our competent, accurate, and timely automation process! But this state didn’t last long. The real world is chaotic: software, configuration, data, etc. changed, resulting in over a thousand separate changes a day to affected systems. The people most affected by automation bugs were no longer domain experts, so the automation became less relevant (meaning that new steps were missed) and less competent (new flags might have caused automation to fail). However, it took a while for this drop in quality to impact velocity. Automation code, like unit test code, dies when the maintaining team isn’t obsessive about keeping the code in sync with the codebase it covers. The world changes around the code: the DNS team adds new configuration options, the storage team changes their package names, and the networking team needs to support new devices. By relieving teams who ran services of the responsibility to maintain and run their automation code, we created ugly organizational incentives: A team whose primary task is to speed up the current turnup has no incentive to reduce the technical debt of the service-owning team running the service in production later. A team not running automation has no incentive to build systems that are easy to automate. A product manager whose schedule is not affected by low-quality automation will always prioritize new features over simplicity and automation. The most functional tools are usually written by those who use them. A similar argument applies to why product development teams benefit from keeping at least some operational awareness of their systems in production. Turnups were again high-latency, inaccurate, and incompetent—the worst of all worlds. However, an unrelated security mandate allowed us out of this trap. Much of distributed automation relied at that time on SSH. This is clumsy from a security perspective, because people must have root on many machines to run most commands. A growing awareness of advanced, persistent security threats drove us to reduce the privileges SREs enjoyed to the absolute minimum they needed to do their jobs. We had to replace our use of sshd with an authenticated, ACL-driven, RPC-based Local Admin Daemon, also known as Admin Servers, which had permissions to perform those local changes. As a result, no one could install or modify a server without an audit trail. Changes to the Local Admin Daemon and the Package Repo were gated on code reviews, making it very difficult for someone to exceed their authority; giving someone the access to install packages would not let them view colocated logs. The Admin Server logged the RPC requestor, any parameters, and the results of all RPCs to enhance debugging and security audits. Service-Oriented Cluster-Turnup In the next iteration, Admin Servers became part of service teams’ workflows, both as related to the machine-specific Admin Servers (for installing packages and rebooting) and cluster-level Admin Servers (for actions like draining or turning up a service). SREs moved from writing shell scripts in their home directories to building peer-reviewed RPC servers with fine-grained ACLs. Later on, after the realization that turnup processes had to be owned by the teams that owned the services fully sank in, we saw this as a way to approach cluster turnup as a Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) problem: service owners would be responsible for creating an Admin Server to handle cluster turnup/turndown RPCs, sent by the system that knew when clusters were ready. In turn, each team would provide the contract (API) that the turnup automation needed, while still being free to change the underlying implementation. As a cluster reached "network-ready," automation sent an RPC to each Admin Server that played a part in turning up the cluster. We now have a low-latency, competent, and accurate process; most importantly, this process has stayed strong as the rate of change, the number of teams, and the number of services seem to double each year. As mentioned earlier, our evolution of turnup automation followed a path: Operator-triggered manual action (no automation) Operator-written, system-specific automation Externally maintained generic automation Internally maintained, system-specific automation Autonomous systems that need no human intervention While this evolution has, broadly speaking, been a success, the Borg case study illustrates another way we have come to think of the problem of automation. Borg: Birth of the Warehouse-Scale Computer Another way to understand the development of our attitude toward automation, and when and where that automation is best deployed, is to consider the history of the development of our cluster management systems. 31 Like MySQL on Borg, which demonstrated the success of converting manual operations to automatic ones, and the cluster turnup process, which demonstrated the downside of not thinking carefully enough about where and how automation was implemented, developing cluster management also ended up demonstrating another lesson about how automation should be done. Like our previous two examples, something quite sophisticated was created as the eventual result of continuous evolution from simpler beginnings. Google’s clusters were initially deployed much like everyone else’s small networks of the time: racks of machines with specific purposes and heterogeneous configurations. Engineers would log in to some well-known “master” machine to perform administrative tasks; “golden” binaries and configuration lived on these masters. As we had only one colo provider, most naming logic implicitly assumed that location. As production grew, and we began to use multiple clusters, different domains (cluster names) entered the picture. It became necessary to have a file describing what each machine did, which grouped machines under some loose naming strategy. This descriptor file, in combination with the equivalent of a parallel SSH, allowed us to reboot (for example) all the search machines in one go. Around this time, it was common to get tickets like “search is done with machine x1 , crawl can have the machine now.” Automation development began. Initially automation consisted of simple Python scripts for operations such as the following: Service management: keeping services running (e.g., restarts after segfaults) Tracking what services were supposed to run on which machines Log message parsing: SSHing into each machine and looking for regexps Automation eventually mutated into a proper database that tracked machine state, and also incorporated more sophisticated monitoring tools. With the union set of the automation available, we could now automatically manage much of the lifecycle of machines: noticing when machines were broken, removing the services, sending them to repair, and restoring the configuration when they came back from repair. But to take a step back, this automation was useful yet profoundly limited, due to the fact that abstractions of the system were relentlessly tied to physical machines. We needed a new approach, hence Borg [Ver15] was born: a system that moved away from the relatively static host/port/job assignments of the previous world, toward treating a collection of machines as a managed sea of resources. Central to its success—and its conception—was the notion of turning cluster management into an entity for which API calls could be issued, to some central coordinator. This liberated extra dimensions of efficiency, flexibility, and reliability: unlike the previous model of machine “ownership,” Borg could allow machines to schedule, for example, batch and user-facing tasks on the same machine. This functionality ultimately resulted in continuous and automatic operating system upgrades with a very small amount of constant 32 effort—effort that does not scale with the total size of production deployments. Slight deviations in machine state are now automatically fixed; brokenness and lifecycle management are essentially no-ops for SRE at this point. Thousands of machines are born, die, and go into repairs daily with no SRE effort. To echo the words of Ben Treynor Sloss: by taking the approach that this was a software problem, the initial automation bought us enough time to turn cluster management into something autonomous, as opposed to automated. We achieved this goal by bringing ideas related to data distribution, APIs, hub-and-spoke architectures, and classic distributed system software development to bear upon the domain of infrastructure management. An interesting analogy is possible here: we can make a direct mapping between the single machine case and the development of cluster management abstractions. In this view, rescheduling on another machine looks a lot like a process moving from one CPU to another: of course, those compute resources happen to be at the other end of a network link, but to what extent does that actually matter? Thinking in these terms, rescheduling looks like an intrinsic feature of the system rather than something one would “automate”—humans couldn’t react fast enough anyway. Similarly in the case of cluster turnup: in this metaphor, cluster turnup is simply additional schedulable capacity, a bit like adding disk or RAM to a single computer. However, a single-node computer is not, in general, expected to continue operating when a large number of components fail. The global computer is—it must be self-repairing to operate once it grows past a certain size, due to the essentially statistically guaranteed large number of failures taking place every second. This implies that as we move systems up the hierarchy from manually triggered, to automatically triggered, to autonomous, some capacity for self-introspection is necessary to survive. Reliability Is the Fundamental Feature Of course, for effective troubleshooting, the details of internal operation that the introspection relies upon should also be exposed to the humans managing the overall system. Analogous discussions about the impact of automation in the noncomputer domain—for example, in airplane flight 33 or industrial applications—often point out the downside of highly effective automation: 34 human operators are progressively more relieved of useful direct contact with the system as the automation covers more and more daily activities over time. Inevitably, then, a situation arises in which the automation fails, and the humans are now unable to successfully operate the system. The fluidity of their reactions has been lost due to lack of practice, and their mental models of what the system should be doing no longer reflect the reality of what it is doing. 35 This situation arises more when the system is nonautonomous—i.e., where automation replaces manual actions, and the manual actions are presumed to be always performable and available just as they were before. Sadly, over time, this ultimately becomes false: those manual actions are not always performable because the functionality to permit them no longer exists. We, too, have experienced situations where automation has been actively harmful on a number of occasions—see Automation: Enabling Failure at Scale —but in Google’s experience, there are more systems for which automation or autonomous behavior are no longer optional extras. As you scale, this is of course the case, but there are still strong arguments for more autonomous behavior of systems irrespective of size. Reliability is the fundamental feature, and autonomous, resilient behavior is one useful way to get that. Recommendations You might read the examples in this chapter and decide that you need to be Google-scale before you have anything to do with automation whatsoever. This is untrue, for two reasons: automation provides more than just time saving, so it’s worth implementing in more cases than a simple time-expended versus time-saved calculation might suggest. But the approach with the highest leverage actually occurs in the design phase: shipping and iterating rapidly might allow you to implement functionality faster, yet rarely makes for a resilient system. Autonomous operation is difficult to convincingly retrofit to sufficiently large systems, but standard good practices in software engineering will help considerably: having decoupled subsystems, introducing APIs, minimizing side effects, and so on. Automation: Enabling Failure at Scale Google runs over a dozen of its own large datacenters, but we also depend on machines in many third-party colocation facilities (or "colos"). Our machines in these colos are used to terminate most incoming connections, or as a cache for our own Content Delivery Network, in order to lower end-user latency. At any point in time, a number of these racks are being installed or decommissioned; both of these processes are largely automated. One step during decommission involves overwriting the full content of the disk of all the machines in the rack, after which point an independent system verifies the successful erase. We call this process "Diskerase." Once upon a time, the automation in charge of decommissioning a particular rack failed, but only after the Diskerase step had completed successfully. Later, the decommission process was restarted from the beginning, to debug the failure. On that iteration, when trying to send the set of machines in the rack to Diskerase, the automation determined that the set of machines that still needed to be Diskerased was (correctly) empty. Unfortunately, the empty set was used as a special value, interpreted to mean "everything." This means the automation sent almost all the machines we have in all colos to Diskerase. Within minutes, the highly efficient Diskerase wiped the disks on all machines in our CDN, and the machines were no longer able to terminate connections from users (or do anything else useful). We were still able to serve all the users from our own datacenters, and after a few minutes the only effect visible externally was a slight increase in latency. As far as we could tell, very few users noticed the problem at all, thanks to good capacity planning (at least we got that right!). Meanwhile, we spent the better part of two days reinstalling the machines in the affected colo racks; then we spent the following weeks auditing and adding more sanity checks—including rate limiting—into our automation, and making our decommission workflow idempotent. 26 For readers who already feel they precisely understand the value of automation, skip ahead to The Value for Google SRE . However, note that our description contains some nuances that might be useful to keep in mind while reading the rest of the chapter. 27 The expertise acquired in building such automation is also valuable in itself; engineers both deeply understand the existing processes they have automated and can later automate novel processes more quickly. 28 See the following XKCD cartoon: https://xkcd.com/1205/ . 29 See, for example, https://blog.engineyard.com/2014/pets-vs-cattle . 30 Of course, not every system that needs to be managed actually provides callable APIs for management—forcing some tooling to use, e.g., CLI invocations or automated website clicks. 31 We have compressed and simplified this history to aid understanding. 32 As in a small, unchanging number. 33 See, e.g., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_France_Flight_447 . 34 See, e.g., [Bai83] and [Sar97] . 35 This is yet another good reason for regular practice drills; see Disaster Role Playing . Previous Chapter 6 - Monitoring Distributed Systems Next Chapter 8 - Release Engineering Copyright © 2017 Google, Inc. Published by O'Reilly Media, Inc. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
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https://www.linkedin.com/products/leadsquared-marketing-automation/?trk=products_seo_search#main-content | LeadSquared Marketing Automation | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn LeadSquared in Asan Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Join now Sign in LeadSquared Marketing Automation Marketing Automation Software by LeadSquared See who's skilled in this Add as skill Learn more Report this product About LeadSquared is an end-to-end marketing automation software, helping 1000+ businesses worldwide push leads faster down the sales funnel and build meaningful prospect relationships. With LeadSquared, businesses can: • Reduce lead leakage to zero with landing pages, connectors, APIs and more • Understand intent with 360-degree user profile, behavior, activity + social tracking and more • Identify a user’s intent to buy with tracking and trigger engagement actions • Pre-build user behavior + engagement flows for important actions, like pricing page view • Send relevant content right when users want it to encourage sales actions • Trigger engagement across all channels and devices – emails, text messages, social, phone calls, portals and more • Get prescriptive insights across lead sources, engagement campaigns, user journeys and more • Increase CLV & reactivate dead leads via cross-sell signal capture and triggered campaigns • Connect all systems to a single front-end for all marketing. Media Products media viewer No more previous content Your Guide to Marketing Automation Key topics covered: 1. For sales teams - Learn how to automate daily processes like creating tasks, posting activities & assigning leads 2. For marketing teams - Learn how to automate daily tasks like sending campaigns, designing behavior-based workflows & creating marketing reports 3. Industry-specific best practices & use cases End-to-end Marketing Automation Software Make meaningful prospect conversation a standard across all channels No more next content Featured customers of LeadSquared Marketing Automation Practo Hospitals and Health Care 141,137 followers Universal Sompo General Insurance Co. Ltd. Insurance 52,656 followers Similar products Marketing Cloud Marketing Cloud Marketing Automation Software Zoho Campaigns Zoho Campaigns Marketing Automation Software Freshmarketer Freshmarketer Marketing Automation Software HCL Unica HCL Unica Marketing Automation Software Brevo (formerly Sendinblue) Brevo (formerly Sendinblue) Marketing Automation Software RD Station Marketing RD Station Marketing Marketing Automation Software Sign in to see more Show more Show less LeadSquared products Lead Management Lead Management Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software LeadSquared Converse LeadSquared Converse Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software LeadSquared CRM LeadSquared CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software LeadSquared Customer Portal LeadSquared Customer Portal Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software LeadSquared Mobile CRM LeadSquared Mobile CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software LeadSquared Sales Execution CRM LeadSquared Sales Execution CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software LeadSquared Sales Performance Suite LeadSquared Sales Performance Suite Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Show more Show less LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines English (English) Language | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/uk/v2/Git-%d0%bd%d0%b0-%d1%81%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b2%d0%b5%d1%80%d1%96-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Вступ 1.1 Про систему контролю версій 1.2 Коротка історія Git 1.3 Основи Git 1.4 Git, зазвичай, тільки додає дані 1.5 Три стани 1.6 Командний рядок 1.7 Інсталяція Git 1.8 Початкове налаштування Git 1.9 Отримання допомоги 1.10 Підсумок 2. Основи Git 2.1 Створення Git-сховища 2.2 Запис змін до репозиторія 2.3 Перегляд історії комітів 2.4 Скасування речей 2.5 Взаємодія з віддаленими сховищами 2.6 Теґування 2.7 Псевдоніми Git 2.8 Підсумок 3. Галуження в git 3.1 Гілки у кількох словах 3.2 Основи галуження та зливання 3.3 Управління гілками 3.4 Процеси роботи з гілками 3.5 Віддалені гілки 3.6 Перебазовування 3.7 Підсумок 4. Git на сервері 4.1 Протоколи 4.2 Отримання Git на сервері 4.3 Генерація вашого публічного ключа SSH 4.4 Налаштування Серверу 4.5 Демон Git 4.6 Розумний HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Варіанти стороннього хостингу 4.10 Підсумок 5. Розподілений Git 5.1 Розподілені процеси роботи 5.2 Внесення змін до проекту 5.3 Супроводжування проекту 5.4 Підсумок 6. GitHub 6.1 Створення та налаштування облікового запису 6.2 Як зробити внесок до проекту 6.3 Супроводжування проєкту 6.4 Керування організацією 6.5 Скриптування GitHub 6.6 Підсумок 7. Інструменти Git 7.1 Вибір ревізій 7.2 Інтерактивне індексування 7.3 Ховання та чищення 7.4 Підписання праці 7.5 Пошук 7.6 Переписування історії 7.7 Усвідомлення скидання (reset) 7.8 Складне злиття 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Зневадження з Git 7.11 Підмодулі 7.12 Пакування 7.13 Заміна 7.14 Збереження посвідчення (credential) 7.15 Підсумок 8. Налаштування Git 8.1 Конфігурація Git 8.2 Атрибути Git 8.3 Гаки (hooks) Git 8.4 Приклад політики користування виконуваної Git-ом 8.5 Підсумок 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git як клієнт 9.2 Міграція на Git 9.3 Підсумок 10. Git зсередини 10.1 Кухонні та парадні команди 10.2 Об’єкти Git 10.3 Посилання Git 10.4 Файли пакунки 10.5 Специфікація посилань (refspec) 10.6 Протоколи передачі 10.7 Супроводження та відновлення даних 10.8 Змінні середовища 10.9 Підсумок A1. Додаток A: Git в інших середовищах A1.1 Графічні інтерфейси A1.2 Git у Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Eclipse A1.4 Git у Bash A1.5 Git у Zsh A1.6 Git у Powershell A1.7 Підсумок A2. Додаток B: Вбудовування Git у ваші застосунки A2.1 Git з командного рядка A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A3. Додаток C: Команди Git A3.1 Налаштування та конфігурація A3.2 Отримання та створення проектів A3.3 Базове збереження відбитків A3.4 Галуження та зливання A3.5 Поширення й оновлення проектів A3.6 Огляд та порівняння A3.7 Зневаджування A3.8 Латання (patching) A3.9 Електронна пошта A3.10 Зовнішні системи A3.11 Адміністрування A3.12 Кухонні команди 2nd Edition 4.8 Git на сервері - GitLab GitLab Проте GitWeb дуже простий. Якщо ви шукаєте більш сучасний Git сервер з багатшим функціоналом, існує декілька рішень з відкритим кодом, які ви можете встановити замість GitWeb. Оскільки GitLab є одним з найпопулярніших, ми розглянемо його інсталяцію та використання як приклад. Це трохи складніше, ніж варіант GitWeb, та напевно вимагає більше роботи, проте пропонує набагато більший функціонал. Інсталяція GitLab є веб програмою, що використовує базу даних для зберігання даних, отже його інсталяція вимагає більше знань, ніж деякі інші сервери Git. На щастя, є дуже детальний опис цього процесу. Є декілька методів, як ви можете досягнути інсталяції GitLab. Щоб швидко отримати щось працююче, ви можете завантажити відбиток віртуальної машини чи інсталятор в один клік з https://bitnami.com/stack/gitlab , та підправити конфігурацію до особливих потреб вашого середовища. Ще одна приємна деталь, що її додала Bitnami, це екран входу (до якого можна перейти, набравши alt+→;). Він повідомляє вам IP адресу та логін/пароль до GitLab. Екран входу віртуальної машини Bitnami GitLab. image::images/bitnami.png[Екран входу віртуальної машини Bitnami GitLab.] За іншою інформацією звертайтеся до GitLab Community Edition readme, що можна знайти за адресою https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/tree/master . Там ви знайдете підтримку щодо інсталяції GitLab за допомогою рецептів Chef, віртуальної машини на Digital Ocean, та з RPM або DEB пакетів (які, на момент написання, у бета-версії). Є також ``неофіційне'' керівництво по запуску GitLab з нестандартними операційними системами та базами даних, скрипт інсталяції повністю вручну, та багато іншого. Адміністрування GitLab пропонує веб-інтерфейс для адміністрування. Просто направте ваш оглядач на ім’я хоста або IP адресу, де ви встановили GitLab, та заходьте як користувач admin. Після інсталяції ім’я користувача admin@local.host , а пароль 5iveL!fie (який вас попросять змінити щойно ви зайдете). Після входу, натисніть іконку меню ``Admin area'' нагорі праворуч. Рисунок 50. Пункт ``Admin area'' в меню GitLab. Користувачі Користувачі в GitLab є обліковими записами, що відповідають людям. Облікові записи не дуже складні. Переважно це збір персональної інформації, прив’язаний до даних логіну. Кожен користувач має простір імен , що є логічним групуванням проектів, що належать цьому користувачу. Якщо користувач hanna мала проект під назвою project, то url цього проекту буде: http://server/hanna/project . Рисунок 51. Екран адміністрування користувачів GitLab. Видалити користувача можна двома методами. ``Блокування'' користувача не дає їм заходити на ваш GitLab, проте усі дані з їх простіру імен буде збережено, та фіксації з поштовою адресою цього користувача будуть продовжувати вказувати на його профіль. ``Винищення'' користувача, з іншого боку, повністю видаляє їх з бази даних та файлової системи. Усі проекти та дані в їх просторі імен видаляються, та будь-які групи, що їм належать, також будуть видалені. Це вочевидь більш деструктивна та незмінна дія, тому її використовують зрідка. Групи Група в GitLoab --- це збірка проектів, разом з даними про доступ користувачів до цих проектів. Кожна група має простір імен проекту (так само, як користувачі), отже якщо група training має проект materials, його url буде http://server/training/materials . Рисунок 52. Екран адміністрування груп GitLab. Кожна група пов’язана з декількома користувачами, кожен з яких має свій рівень доступу до проектів групи та до самої групи. Вони різняться від Guest'' (гість, тільки завдання (issues) та чат) до Owner'' (власник, повний контроль над групою, її користувачами та проектами). Типи прав доступу занадто чисельні щоб наводити їх тут, проте GitLab пропонує корисне посилання на екрані адміністрування. Проекти Проект GitLab приблизно відповідає одному сховищу Git. Кожен проект належить до одного простору імен, що може належати користувачу або групі. Якщо проект належить користувачу, власник проекту має прямий контроль над правами доступу до проекту. Якщо проект належить групі, права доступу групи рівня користувачів також будуть враховані. Кожен проект також має рівень доступу до перегляду, який контролює в кого є права на читання сторінок та сховища проекту. Якщо проект Private (приватний), то власник проекту має окремо надати права кожному користувачу. Internal (внутрішній) проект може бачити будь-який користувач, що здійснив вхід, а Public (публічний) проект може переглядати будь-хто. Завважте, що це контролює і доступ до команди git fetch , і доступ до сторінок веб-інтерфейсу цього проекту. Хуки GitLab також підтримує хуки, як на рівні проекту, так і на рівні системи. Для кожного з них, сервер GitLab виконає HTTP POST з детальним описом у форматі JSON, щоразу трапляється якась релевантна подія. Це чудовий спосіб з’єднати ваші сховища Git та вашу копію GitLab з рештою ваших інструментів розробки, наприклад сервери безперервної інтеграції, кімнати чатів або утиліти розгортання. Базове користування Щойно ви встановите GitLab, ви забажаєте створити новий проект. Щоб це здійснити, вам треба клікнути на значок +'' з панелі інструментів. У вас запитають назву проекту, до якого простору імен він має належати, та який в нього має бути рівень доступу до перегляду. Більшість заданих тут значень легко змінити потім за допомогою інтерфейсу налаштувань. Натисніть Create Project'' (створити проект) коли ви будете готові. Після створення проекту, ви напевно захочете з’єднати його з локальним сховищем Git. Кожен проект є доступним через HTTPS чи SSH, їх обох можна використати для додавання видаленого Git сховища. Ви можете побачити URL’и нагорі домашньої сторінки проекту. Щоб додати видалене сховище під назвою gitlab до вже існуючого локального сховища: $ git remote add gitlab https://server/namespace/project.git Якщо у вас немає локальної копію сховища, ви можете просто виконати: $ git clone https://server/namespace/project.git Веб інтерфейс надає доступ до декількох корисних представлень сховища. Домашня сторінка кожного проекту показує нещодавню діяльність, та посилання нагорі проведуть вас до переглядів файлів проекту та журналу фіксацій. Співпраця Найпростіший метод працювати над проектом GitLab разом - це надати іншому користувачу безпосередній доступ на викладання до сховища Git. Ви можете додати користувача до проекту, якщо перейдете до секції Members'' налаштувань цього проекту, та задасте новому користувачу рівень доступу (різні рівні доступу трошки розглянуті в Групи ). Якщо ви дасте користувачу рівень доступу Developer'' або вищій, то користувач зможе безкарно викладати фіксації та гілки безпосередньо до сховища. Інший, менш зчеплений шлях співпраці - це використання запитів на злиття ( merge requests ). Він дозволяє будь-якому користувачу, що бачить ваш проект, робити внесок до нього під вашим наглядом. Користувачі з безпосереднім доступом можуть просто створити гілку, викласти до неї зміни, та відкрити запит на злиття з їхньої гілки назад до master чи будь-якої іншої гілки. Користувачі, що не мають прав викладати зміни до сховища, можуть ``форкнути'' його (створити власну копію), викласти фіксації до тієї копії, та відкрити запит на злиття з їхнього форку назад до головного проекту. Ця модель дозволяє власнику повністю контролювати, що потрапить до сховища та коли, і в той же час дозволяє приймати внески від неперевірених користувачів. Запити на злиття та завдання ( issues ) є головними предметами довгих обговорень в GitLab. Кожен запит на злиття дозволяє порядкове обговорення пропонованих змін (що підтримує легку версію перевірки коду), а також загальне обговорення всього запиту. Обидва можуть бути призначені користувачам, чи організовані у віхи ( milestone ). Ця секція переважно розглядала функціонал GitLab пов’язаний з Git, проте це зрілий проект, він пропонує багато іншого функціоналу для допомоги вашій команді, наприклад вікі проекту та утиліти по підтримці системи. Одна з переваг GitLab в тому, що після налаштування та запуску серверу, вам тільки зрідка доведеться змінювати файл конфігурації або заходити до серверу через SSH. Більшість адміністративних та загальних завдань доступні через веб інтерфейс. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/pt-br/v2/Distributed-Git-Maintaining-a-Project | Git - Maintaining a Project About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Começando 1.1 Sobre Controle de Versão 1.2 Uma Breve História do Git 1.3 O Básico do Git 1.4 A Linha de Comando 1.5 Instalando o Git 1.6 Configuração Inicial do Git 1.7 Pedindo Ajuda 1.8 Sumário 2. Fundamentos de Git 2.1 Obtendo um Repositório Git 2.2 Gravando Alterações em Seu Repositório 2.3 Vendo o histórico de Commits 2.4 Desfazendo coisas 2.5 Trabalhando de Forma Remota 2.6 Criando Tags 2.7 Apelidos Git 2.8 Sumário 3. Branches no Git 3.1 Branches em poucas palavras 3.2 O básico de Ramificação (Branch) e Mesclagem (Merge) 3.3 Gestão de Branches 3.4 Fluxo de Branches 3.5 Branches remotos 3.6 Rebase 3.7 Sumário 4. Git no servidor 4.1 Os Protocolos 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Gerando Sua Chave Pública SSH 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Sumário 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Fluxos de Trabalho Distribuídos 5.2 Contribuindo com um Projeto 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Configurando uma conta 6.2 Contribuindo em um projeto 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Funcionamento Interno do Git 10.1 Encanamento e Porcelana 10.2 Objetos do Git 10.3 Referências do Git 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Variáveis de ambiente 10.9 Sumário A1. Appendix A: Git em Outros Ambientes A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Resumo A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distributed Git - Maintaining a Project Maintaining a Project In addition to knowing how to contribute effectively to a project, you’ll likely need to know how to maintain one. This can consist of accepting and applying patches generated via format-patch and emailed to you, or integrating changes in remote branches for repositories you’ve added as remotes to your project. Whether you maintain a canonical repository or want to help by verifying or approving patches, you need to know how to accept work in a way that is clearest for other contributors and sustainable by you over the long run. Working in Topic Branches When you’re thinking of integrating new work, it’s generally a good idea to try it out in a topic branch — a temporary branch specifically made to try out that new work. This way, it’s easy to tweak a patch individually and leave it if it’s not working until you have time to come back to it. If you create a simple branch name based on the theme of the work you’re going to try, such as ruby_client or something similarly descriptive, you can easily remember it if you have to abandon it for a while and come back later. The maintainer of the Git project tends to namespace these branches as well — such as sc/ruby_client , where sc is short for the person who contributed the work. As you’ll remember, you can create the branch based off your master branch like this: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Or, if you want to also switch to it immediately, you can use the checkout -b option: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Now you’re ready to add the contributed work that you received into this topic branch and determine if you want to merge it into your longer-term branches. Applying Patches from Email If you receive a patch over email that you need to integrate into your project, you need to apply the patch in your topic branch to evaluate it. There are two ways to apply an emailed patch: with git apply or with git am . Applying a Patch with apply If you received the patch from someone who generated it with git diff or some variation of the Unix diff command (which is not recommended; see the next section), you can apply it with the git apply command. Assuming you saved the patch at /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , you can apply the patch like this: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch This modifies the files in your working directory. It’s almost identical to running a patch -p1 command to apply the patch, although it’s more paranoid and accepts fewer fuzzy matches than patch. It also handles file adds, deletes, and renames if they’re described in the git diff format, which patch won’t do. Finally, git apply is an “apply all or abort all” model where either everything is applied or nothing is, whereas patch can partially apply patchfiles, leaving your working directory in a weird state. git apply is overall much more conservative than patch . It won’t create a commit for you — after running it, you must stage and commit the changes introduced manually. You can also use git apply to see if a patch applies cleanly before you try actually applying it — you can run git apply --check with the patch: $ git apply --check 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply If there is no output, then the patch should apply cleanly. This command also exits with a non-zero status if the check fails, so you can use it in scripts if you want. Applying a Patch with am If the contributor is a Git user and was good enough to use the format-patch command to generate their patch, then your job is easier because the patch contains author information and a commit message for you. If you can, encourage your contributors to use format-patch instead of diff to generate patches for you. You should only have to use git apply for legacy patches and things like that. To apply a patch generated by format-patch , you use git am (the command is named am as it is used to "apply a series of patches from a mailbox"). Technically, git am is built to read an mbox file, which is a simple, plain-text format for storing one or more email messages in one text file. It looks something like this: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 This is the beginning of the output of the git format-patch command that you saw in the previous section; it also represents a valid mbox email format. If someone has emailed you the patch properly using git send-email , and you download that into an mbox format, then you can point git am to that mbox file, and it will start applying all the patches it sees. If you run a mail client that can save several emails out in mbox format, you can save entire patch series into a file and then use git am to apply them one at a time. However, if someone uploaded a patch file generated via git format-patch to a ticketing system or something similar, you can save the file locally and then pass that file saved on your disk to git am to apply it: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: Add limit to log function You can see that it applied cleanly and automatically created the new commit for you. The author information is taken from the email’s From and Date headers, and the message of the commit is taken from the Subject and body (before the patch) of the email. For example, if this patch was applied from the mbox example above, the commit generated would look something like this: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 The Commit information indicates the person who applied the patch and the time it was applied. The Author information is the individual who originally created the patch and when it was originally created. But it’s possible that the patch won’t apply cleanly. Perhaps your main branch has diverged too far from the branch the patch was built from, or the patch depends on another patch you haven’t applied yet. In that case, the git am process will fail and ask you what you want to do: $ git am 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". This command puts conflict markers in any files it has issues with, much like a conflicted merge or rebase operation. You solve this issue much the same way — edit the file to resolve the conflict, stage the new file, and then run git am --resolved to continue to the next patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: See if this helps the gem If you want Git to try a bit more intelligently to resolve the conflict, you can pass a -3 option to it, which makes Git attempt a three-way merge. This option isn’t on by default because it doesn’t work if the commit the patch says it was based on isn’t in your repository. If you do have that commit — if the patch was based on a public commit — then the -3 option is generally much smarter about applying a conflicting patch: $ git am -3 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. In this case, without the -3 option the patch would have been considered as a conflict. Since the -3 option was used the patch applied cleanly. If you’re applying a number of patches from an mbox, you can also run the am command in interactive mode, which stops at each patch it finds and asks if you want to apply it: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- See if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all This is nice if you have a number of patches saved, because you can view the patch first if you don’t remember what it is, or not apply the patch if you’ve already done so. When all the patches for your topic are applied and committed into your branch, you can choose whether and how to integrate them into a longer-running branch. Checking Out Remote Branches If your contribution came from a Git user who set up their own repository, pushed a number of changes into it, and then sent you the URL to the repository and the name of the remote branch the changes are in, you can add them as a remote and do merges locally. For instance, if Jessica sends you an email saying that she has a great new feature in the ruby-client branch of her repository, you can test it by adding the remote and checking out that branch locally: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client If she emails you again later with another branch containing another great feature, you could directly fetch and checkout because you already have the remote setup. This is most useful if you’re working with a person consistently. If someone only has a single patch to contribute once in a while, then accepting it over email may be less time consuming than requiring everyone to run their own server and having to continually add and remove remotes to get a few patches. You’re also unlikely to want to have hundreds of remotes, each for someone who contributes only a patch or two. However, scripts and hosted services may make this easier — it depends largely on how you develop and how your contributors develop. The other advantage of this approach is that you get the history of the commits as well. Although you may have legitimate merge issues, you know where in your history their work is based; a proper three-way merge is the default rather than having to supply a -3 and hope the patch was generated off a public commit to which you have access. If you aren’t working with a person consistently but still want to pull from them in this way, you can provide the URL of the remote repository to the git pull command. This does a one-time pull and doesn’t save the URL as a remote reference: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Determining What Is Introduced Now you have a topic branch that contains contributed work. At this point, you can determine what you’d like to do with it. This section revisits a couple of commands so you can see how you can use them to review exactly what you’ll be introducing if you merge this into your main branch. It’s often helpful to get a review of all the commits that are in this branch but that aren’t in your master branch. You can exclude commits in the master branch by adding the --not option before the branch name. This does the same thing as the master..contrib format that we used earlier. For example, if your contributor sends you two patches and you create a branch called contrib and applied those patches there, you can run this: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 See if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 Update gemspec to hopefully work better To see what changes each commit introduces, remember that you can pass the -p option to git log and it will append the diff introduced to each commit. To see a full diff of what would happen if you were to merge this topic branch with another branch, you may have to use a weird trick to get the correct results. You may think to run this: $ git diff master This command gives you a diff, but it may be misleading. If your master branch has moved forward since you created the topic branch from it, then you’ll get seemingly strange results. This happens because Git directly compares the snapshots of the last commit of the topic branch you’re on and the snapshot of the last commit on the master branch. For example, if you’ve added a line in a file on the master branch, a direct comparison of the snapshots will look like the topic branch is going to remove that line. If master is a direct ancestor of your topic branch, this isn’t a problem; but if the two histories have diverged, the diff will look like you’re adding all the new stuff in your topic branch and removing everything unique to the master branch. What you really want to see are the changes added to the topic branch — the work you’ll introduce if you merge this branch with master . You do that by having Git compare the last commit on your topic branch with the first common ancestor it has with the master branch. Technically, you can do that by explicitly figuring out the common ancestor and then running your diff on it: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db or, more concisely: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) However, neither of those is particularly convenient, so Git provides another shorthand for doing the same thing: the triple-dot syntax. In the context of the git diff command, you can put three periods after another branch to do a diff between the last commit of the branch you’re on and its common ancestor with another branch: $ git diff master...contrib This command shows you only the work your current topic branch has introduced since its common ancestor with master . That is a very useful syntax to remember. Integrating Contributed Work When all the work in your topic branch is ready to be integrated into a more mainline branch, the question is how to do it. Furthermore, what overall workflow do you want to use to maintain your project? You have a number of choices, so we’ll cover a few of them. Merging Workflows One basic workflow is to simply merge all that work directly into your master branch. In this scenario, you have a master branch that contains basically stable code. When you have work in a topic branch that you think you’ve completed, or work that someone else has contributed and you’ve verified, you merge it into your master branch, delete that just-merged topic branch, and repeat. For instance, if we have a repository with work in two branches named ruby_client and php_client that looks like History with several topic branches , and we merge ruby_client followed by php_client , your history will end up looking like After a topic branch merge . Figure 73. History with several topic branches Figure 74. After a topic branch merge That is probably the simplest workflow, but it can possibly be problematic if you’re dealing with larger or more stable projects where you want to be really careful about what you introduce. If you have a more important project, you might want to use a two-phase merge cycle. In this scenario, you have two long-running branches, master and develop , in which you determine that master is updated only when a very stable release is cut and all new code is integrated into the develop branch. You regularly push both of these branches to the public repository. Each time you have a new topic branch to merge in ( Before a topic branch merge ), you merge it into develop ( After a topic branch merge ); then, when you tag a release, you fast-forward master to wherever the now-stable develop branch is ( After a project release ). Figure 75. Before a topic branch merge Figure 76. After a topic branch merge Figure 77. After a project release This way, when people clone your project’s repository, they can either check out master to build the latest stable version and keep up to date on that easily, or they can check out develop , which is the more cutting-edge content. You can also extend this concept by having an integrate branch where all the work is merged together. Then, when the codebase on that branch is stable and passes tests, you merge it into a develop branch; and when that has proven itself stable for a while, you fast-forward your master branch. Large-Merging Workflows The Git project has four long-running branches: master , next , and seen (formerly pu — proposed updates) for new work, and maint for maintenance backports. When new work is introduced by contributors, it’s collected into topic branches in the maintainer’s repository in a manner similar to what we’ve described (see Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches ). At this point, the topics are evaluated to determine whether they’re safe and ready for consumption or whether they need more work. If they’re safe, they’re merged into next , and that branch is pushed up so everyone can try the topics integrated together. Figure 78. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches If the topics still need work, they’re merged into seen instead. When it’s determined that they’re totally stable, the topics are re-merged into master . The next and seen branches are then rebuilt from the master . This means master almost always moves forward, next is rebased occasionally, and seen is rebased even more often: Figure 79. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches When a topic branch has finally been merged into master , it’s removed from the repository. The Git project also has a maint branch that is forked off from the last release to provide backported patches in case a maintenance release is required. Thus, when you clone the Git repository, you have four branches that you can check out to evaluate the project in different stages of development, depending on how cutting edge you want to be or how you want to contribute; and the maintainer has a structured workflow to help them vet new contributions. The Git project’s workflow is specialized. To clearly understand this you could check out the Git Maintainer’s guide . Rebasing and Cherry-Picking Workflows Other maintainers prefer to rebase or cherry-pick contributed work on top of their master branch, rather than merging it in, to keep a mostly linear history. When you have work in a topic branch and have determined that you want to integrate it, you move to that branch and run the rebase command to rebuild the changes on top of your current master (or develop , and so on) branch. If that works well, you can fast-forward your master branch, and you’ll end up with a linear project history. The other way to move introduced work from one branch to another is to cherry-pick it. A cherry-pick in Git is like a rebase for a single commit. It takes the patch that was introduced in a commit and tries to reapply it on the branch you’re currently on. This is useful if you have a number of commits on a topic branch and you want to integrate only one of them, or if you only have one commit on a topic branch and you’d prefer to cherry-pick it rather than run rebase. For example, suppose you have a project that looks like this: Figure 80. Example history before a cherry-pick If you want to pull commit e43a6 into your master branch, you can run: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) This pulls the same change introduced in e43a6 , but you get a new commit SHA-1 value, because the date applied is different. Now your history looks like this: Figure 81. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch Now you can remove your topic branch and drop the commits you didn’t want to pull in. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called “rerere” that can help. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” — it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . Tagging Your Releases When you’ve decided to cut a release, you’ll probably want to assign a tag so you can re-create that release at any point going forward. You can create a new tag as discussed in [ch02-git-basics] . If you decide to sign the tag as the maintainer, the tagging may look something like this: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 If you do sign your tags, you may have the problem of distributing the public PGP key used to sign your tags. The maintainer of the Git project has solved this issue by including their public key as a blob in the repository and then adding a tag that points directly to that content. To do this, you can figure out which key you want by running gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Then, you can directly import the key into the Git database by exporting it and piping that through git hash-object , which writes a new blob with those contents into Git and gives you back the SHA-1 of the blob: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Now that you have the contents of your key in Git, you can create a tag that points directly to it by specifying the new SHA-1 value that the hash-object command gave you: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 If you run git push --tags , the maintainer-pgp-pub tag will be shared with everyone. If anyone wants to verify a tag, they can directly import your PGP key by pulling the blob directly out of the database and importing it into GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import They can use that key to verify all your signed tags. Also, if you include instructions in the tag message, running git show <tag> will let you give the end user more specific instructions about tag verification. Generating a Build Number Because Git doesn’t have monotonically increasing numbers like v123 or the equivalent to go with each commit, if you want to have a human-readable name to go with a commit, you can run git describe on that commit. In response, Git generates a string consisting of the name of the most recent tag earlier than that commit, followed by the number of commits since that tag, followed finally by a partial SHA-1 value of the commit being described (prefixed with the letter "g" meaning Git): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c This way, you can export a snapshot or build and name it something understandable to people. In fact, if you build Git from source code cloned from the Git repository, git --version gives you something that looks like this. If you’re describing a commit that you have directly tagged, it gives you simply the tag name. By default, the git describe command requires annotated tags (tags created with the -a or -s flag); if you want to take advantage of lightweight (non-annotated) tags as well, add the --tags option to the command. You can also use this string as the target of a git checkout or git show command, although it relies on the abbreviated SHA-1 value at the end, so it may not be valid forever. For instance, the Linux kernel recently jumped from 8 to 10 characters to ensure SHA-1 object uniqueness, so older git describe output names were invalidated. Preparing a Release Now you want to release a build. One of the things you’ll want to do is create an archive of the latest snapshot of your code for those poor souls who don’t use Git. The command to do this is git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz If someone opens that tarball, they get the latest snapshot of your project under a project directory. You can also create a zip archive in much the same way, but by passing the --format=zip option to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip You now have a nice tarball and a zip archive of your project release that you can upload to your website or email to people. The Shortlog It’s time to email your mailing list of people who want to know what’s happening in your project. A nice way of quickly getting a sort of changelog of what has been added to your project since your last release or email is to use the git shortlog command. It summarizes all the commits in the range you give it; for example, the following gives you a summary of all the commits since your last release, if your last release was named v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 You get a clean summary of all the commits since v1.0.1, grouped by author, that you can email to your list. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/sv/v2/Distribuerade-Git-Underh%c3%a5lla-ett-projekt | Git - Underhålla ett projekt About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Kom igång 1.1 Om versionshantering 1.2 En kort historik av Git 1.3 Vad är Git? 1.4 Kommandoraden 1.5 Installera Git 1.6 Använda Git för första gången 1.7 Få hjälp 1.8 Sammanfattning 2. Grunder i Git 2.1 Skaffa ett Git-förvar 2.2 Spara ändringar till förvaret 2.3 Visa historiken 2.4 Ångra saker 2.5 Jobba med fjärrförvar 2.6 Taggning 2.7 Git alias 2.8 Sammanfattning 3. Git förgreningar 3.1 Grenar i ett nötskal 3.2 Grundläggande förgrening och sammanslagning 3.3 Hantera grenar 3.4 Arbetsflöde med grenar 3.5 Fjärrgrenar 3.6 Grenflytt 3.7 Sammanfattning 4. Git på servern 4.1 Protokollen 4.2 Skaffa Git på en server 4.3 Generera din publika SSH-nyckel 4.4 Konvigurera servern 4.5 Git Daemonen 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Alternativ tillhandahållna av tredje part 4.10 Sammanfattning 5. Distribuerade Git 5.1 Distribuerade arbetsflöden 5.2 Medverka i ett projekt 5.3 Underhålla ett projekt 5.4 Sammanfattning 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Bilaga A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in PowerShell A1.7 Summary A2. Bilaga B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Bilaga C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distribuerade Git - Underhålla ett projekt Underhålla ett projekt Förutom att veta hur du bidrar effektivt till ett projekt, behöver du troligen kunskap om hur man underhåller ett. Det kan innebära att acceptera och tillämpa patcher som genererats via format-patch och skickats till dig via mejl, eller att integrera ändringar i fjärrgrenar. Oavsett om du underhåller ett eget arkiv eller vill hjälpa till med att godkänna patcher, behöver du veta hur man accepterar bidrag på ett strukturerat sätt, dels för att underlätta för bidragslämnare och dels för att underhållet ska bli hållbart för dig över tid. Arbeta i ämnesgrenar När det gäller att integrera nytt arbete är det generellt en bra idé att prova hur den fungerar i en ämnesgren — det vill säga en tillfällig gren som är specifikt skapad för att prova det nya arbetet. Det gör det enkelt att justera patcherna individuellt och kunna lämna dem som inte fungerar tills bidragslämnaren har tid att återkomma med förbättringar. Om du skapar ett grennamn baserat på temat för den patch du testar, till exempel ruby_client eller liknande, kommer du enkelt påmind om syftet med grenen om du måste lämna den och komma tillbaka senare. Underhållarna av Git anger en namnrymd för dessa grenar också — till exempel sc/ruby_client , där prefixet sc är förkortningen för personen som bidrog med arbetet. Som du säkert kommer ihåg kan du skapa grenen från din master -gren på följande sätt: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Vill du byta till den direkt använder du istället checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Nu är du redo att lägga till det bidragande arbetet när du har bestämt dig för om du vill applicera förslaget i någon av dina långlivade grenar eller inte Arbeta via mejl Om du tar emot patcher som ska integreras i ditt projekt via mejl, behöver du först du applicera patchen i din ämnesgren för att kunna granska den. Det finns två sätt att applicera en mejlad patch: med git apply eller med git am . Applicera en mejlad patch med apply Om du har fått patchen av någon som genererade den med git diff eller någon variant av Unix diff -kommandot (rekommenderas inte; se mer i nästa avsnitt), kan du applicera den med git apply . Om vi utgår från att du sparade patchen på /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , ser det ut så här: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Kommandot ändrar filerna i ditt lokala arkiv. Det är nästan identiskt som att köra patch -p1 för att applicera patchen, men det accepterar inte lika luddiga matchningar som patch . Det hanterar också filer som läggs till, tas bort och döps om om de beskrivs i git diff -formatet, vilket patch inte gör. Slutligen är git apply en “applicera allt eller avbryt allt”-modell, där allt eller inget appliceras. patch kan å andra sidan applicera delar av patchfiler, men det kan lämna ditt lokala arkiv i ett lite märkligt tillstånd. Övergripande sett är git apply ett mer konservativt kommando än patch . Det kommer inte att göra en inceckning åt dig — när du har kört kommandot behöver du köa och checka in ändringarna manuellt. git apply kan också användas för att se om en patch kan läggas till utan konflikter innan du försöker applicera den — kör git apply --check följt av patchen-filen: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch misslyckades: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patchen kan inte tillämpas Om det inte finns någon utdata kan patchen integreras utan problem. Detta kommando avslutar med ett nollskilt tal om kontrollen misslyckas, så det kan användas i skript med om du vill. Applicera en mejlad patch med am Om bidragslämnaren är en van Git-användare som använde kommandot format-patch för att generera sin patch, blir ditt jobb genast enklare. Patchen innehåller då även författarinformation och ett incheckningsmeddelande. Om du har möjlighet, uppmuntra dina bidragslämnare att använda format-patch istället för diff för att generera patchar till ditt projekt. git apply borde bara användas för patchar till legacy projekt. För att applicera en patch som genererats av format-patch använder du git am (kommandot heter am eftersom det används för att "applicera en serie patchar från en mejlbox"). Tekniskt sett är git am byggt för att läsa en mbox-fil, som är ett enkelt, textbaserat format för att lagra ett eller flera e-postmeddelanden i en textfil. Det ser ut så här: Från 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 Från: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Datum: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Ämne: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Det här är början på utdata från git format-patch -kommandot som du såg i föregående avsnitt; det är också ett giltigt mbox-e-postformat. Om någon har mejlat patchen till dig på rätt sätt med git send-email och du laddar ner den i mbox-format, kan du peka git am till mbox-filen för att den ska börja applicera alla patchar den ser. Om du använder en mejlklient som kan spara flera mejl i mbox-format, kan hela patchserier sparas i en fil och sen kan du köra git am för att applicera dem en i sänder. Om någon däremot laddade upp en patchfil som genererats via git format-patch till ett ärendehanteringssystem eller liknande, kan du spara filen lokalt och sedan köra git am för att applicera den: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applicerar: add limit to log function Den applicerades utan konflikt och skapade automatiskt en ny incheckning åt dig. Informationen om författaren tas från mejlets Från - och Datum -rubriker, meddelandet i incheckningen tas från Ämne och brödtexten (innan patchen) i mejlet. Om den här patchen applicerades från mbox-exemplet ovan, skulle den genererade incheckningen se ut ungefär så här: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Författare: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Författardatum: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Incheckning: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Inchdeckningsdatum: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Incheckningsinformationen anger vem som applicerade patchen och vid vilken tidpunkt. Författarinformation anger vem som skapade den och när. Det är inte omöjligt att patchen inte kan appliceras på grund av konflikter. Kanske har din huvudgren divergerat för långt från den gren patchen byggdes från, eller så förgrenades den från en patch som du inte har applicerat än. git am -processen kommer då att misslyckas och du blir tillfrågad om hur du vill lösa konflikten: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Tillämpar: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch misslyckades: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patchen kan inte tillämpas Patchen misslyckades på 0001. När du har löst problemet, kör "git am --resolved". Om du hellre vill hoppa över patchen, kör "git am --skip" istället. För att återgå till ursprunglig gren och sluta patcha, kör "git am --abort". Det här kommandot anger i vilka berörda filer det finns konflikter, precis som vid en sammanslagning eller ombasering. Du löser det här problemet på ungefär samma sätt — redigerar filen för att lösa konflikten, köar den nya filen och kör sedan git am --resolved för att fortsätta till nästa patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Tillämpar: seeing if this helps the gem Om du vill att Git ska försöka göra en lite mer intelligent operation för att lösa konflikten kan du lägga till en -3 -flagga. Git försöker då att göra en trefältsfusion. Det är inte förvalt eftersom det inte fungerar om den incheckning som patchen förgrenades ifrån inte finns i ditt arkiv. Om patchen däremot förgrenades från en offentlig incheckning är -3 -flaggan generellt mycket smartare för att applicera en patch med konflikter: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Tillämpar: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch misslyckades: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patchen kan inte tillämpas Använder indexinfo för att återskapa ett basträd... Faller tillbaka på att patcha grundversionen och trevägssammanslagning... Inga ändringar -- Patchen har redan tillämpats. Utan -3 -flaggan skulle patchen i det här fallet ha betraktats som konfliktfylld. Med -3 -flaggan appliceras den utan problem. Om du applicerar ett helt gäng patcher från en mbox kan du också köra am -kommandot i interaktivt läge, vilket stannar processen vid varje patch för att fråga om du vill applicera den: $ git am -3 -i mbox Incheckningskroppen är: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Tillämpa? [Y]=ja/[N]=nej/[E]=redigera/[V]=visa patch/[A]=godta alla: Det här är användbart om du har många patcher för att kunna se dem först om du inte skulle komma ihåg vad någon handlar om, eller hoppa över någon som du redan har lagt till. När alla patcher har lagts till och checkats in i din gren behöver du bestämma om och hur du ska integrera dem i en långlivad gren. Checka ut fjärrgrenar Om ditt bidrag kom från en Git-användare som har checkat ut sin egen gren, skickat ett antal ändringar till den och sedan skickat URL:en till sitt repo och namnet på den grenen som ändringarna finns i till dig, kan du lägga till den som en fjärrgren och göra sammanslagning lokalt. Om Jessika till exempel skickar ett mejl och skriver att hon har en bra ny funktion i ruby-client -grenen i sitt arkiv, kan du testa den genom att lägga till den som fjärrgren och checka ut den lokalt: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Om hon mejlar dig igen med en annan gren som har en annan bra funktion kan du direkt köra fetch och checkout eftersom du redan har ställt in fjärrgrenen. Det här är mest användbart om du arbetar regelbundet med en person. Om någon bara bidrar med en patch lite då och då är det mindre tidskrävande att acceptera den via e-post än att kräva att alla kör sina egna servrar och ständigt lägga till och ta bort fjärrgrenar för att få några patcher. Du kommer sannolikt inte heller att vilja ha hundratals fjärrgrenar, där de flesta är från någon som bara bidrar med en patch eller två. Hur som helst, skript och hostade tjänster kan göra det enklare — det beror till stor del på hur du och dina bidragslämnare utvecklar. Den andra fördelen med den här metoden är att du behåller historiken för incheckningarna. Även om du kanske har sammanslagningskonflikter, så vet du var i historiken deras arbete är baserat; en korrekt trefältsfusion är standard istället för att behöva ange en -3 och hoppas att patchen genererades från en offentlig incheckning som du har tillgång till. Om du inte samarbetar kontinuerligt med en person men ändå vill dra in kod från dem på det här sättet kan du ange URL:en till fjärrarkivet när du kör git pull . Det gör en enstaka hämtning från ett fjärrarkiv utan att spara URL:en som en fjärreferens: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project Från https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Sammanslagning genomförd med strategi 'recursive'. Avgöra vad som ska integreras Nu har du en ämnesgren som innehåller ett bidrag. Du behöver nu bestämma vad du vill göra med den. I det här avsnittet går vi igenom några kommandon som du kan använda för att granska exakt vad som kommer att tillämpas om du sammanfogar den här grenen med din huvudgren. Det är ofta användbart att få en överblick över alla de incheckningar i den här grenen som inte finns i din huvudgren. Du kan utesluta incheckningar i huvudgrenen genom att lägga till --not -flaggan före grennamnet. Det gör samma sak som kommandot master..contrib som vi använde tidigare. Om din bidragslämnare skickar två patchar, du skapar en gren som heter contrib och applicerar dessa patchar där kan du köra detta: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Författare: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Datum: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Författare: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Datum: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better För att se vad varje incheckning gör, kom ihåg att du kan ange -p -flaggan till git log . Då läggs diffen till som tillämpandet av en patch ger. För att se en fullständig diff över vad som skulle hända om du sammanfogade hela ämnesgrenen med en annan gren, kan du behöva använda ett lite märkligt trick för att få korrekta resultat. Du kanske tror att du kan köra detta: $ git diff master Det här kommandot ger dig mycket riktigt en diff, men om din master -gren har flyttats framåt sedan du förgrenade ämnesgrenen från den är de något vilseledande. Detta beror på att Git direkt jämför ögonblicksbilder av den sista incheckningen på den ämnesgren du är på och ögonblicksbilden av den senaste incheckningen på master -grenen. Om du, till exempel, har lagt till en rad i en fil på master -grenen, kommer en direkt jämförelse av grenarnas ögonblicksbilder få det att se ut som att ämnesgrenen kommer att ta bort den raden. Om master -grenen inte har rört sig är det inte ett problem, men har historiken divergerat kommer diffen att se ut som att du lägger till allt nytt i din ämnesgren och tar bort allt unikt för master -grenen. Vad du verkligen vill se är ändringarna som lagts till i funktionsgrenen — resultatet av de ändringar som bblir om du slår ihop den här grenen med master . Det gör du genom att be Git jämföra den sista incheckningen på din temagren med den första gemensamma föregångaren den har med master -grenen. Tekniskt sett kan du göra det genom att explicit räkna ut den gemensamma föregångaren och sedan köra diff på den: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db Eller, mer koncist: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Hur som helst så är ingen av dessa särskilt bekväma, så Git ger en annan förkortning för att göra samma sak: trepunktssyntaxen. I kontexten git diff -kommandot kan du sätta tre punkter efter en annan gren för att göra en diff mellan den sista incheckningen på den gren du är på och dess gemensamma föregångare med en annan gren: $ git diff master...contrib Det här kommandot visar dig exakt vad som har lagts till i den här grenen sedan den delade föregångaren med master -grenen. Det är en mycket användbar syntax att lägga på minnet. Integrera kod från bidragslämnare När allt arbete i din funktionsgren är redo att slås ihop i din huvudgren är frågan hur du ska göra det. Vidare, vilken övergripande arbetsflöde vill du använda för att underhålla ditt projekt? Du har ett antal metoder att välja mellan, och vi kommer att gå igenom några av dem Arbetsflöden med sammanslagning Ett grundläggande arbetsflöde är att helt enkelt slå ihop allt arbete direkt i din master -gren. I det här scenariot har du en master -gren som innehåller stabil kod. När du har arbete i en funktionsgren som du tror att du har slutfört, eller arbete som någon annan har bidragit med och du har verifierat, slår du ihop det i din master -gren, tar bort den just sammanfogade temagrenen och upprepar. Om vi har ett arkiv med arbete i två grenar som heter ruby_client och php_client som ser ut som Historik med flera funktionsgrenar , och vi slår ihop ruby_client följt av php_client , kommer din historik att se ut som Efter en sammanslagning med en funktionsgren. . Figur 73. Historik med flera funktionsgrenar Figur 74. Efter en sammanslagning med en funktionsgren. Det här är förmodligen det enklaste arbetsflödet, men det kan bli problematiskt om du arbetar med större eller mer stabila projekt där du vill vara riktigt försiktig med vad du introducerar. Om du har ett viktigare projekt kanske du vill använda en tvåfas-sammanslagningcykel. I det scenariot har du två långlivade grenar, master och develop , där du bestämmer att master uppdateras endast när en mycket stabil version skapas och all ny kod integreras i develop -grenen. Du skickar regelbundet båda dessa grenar till det publika arkivet. Varje gång du har en ny funktionsgren att slå ihop ( Före en sammanslagning av en funktionsgren. ), slår du ihop den i develop ( Efter en sammanslagning av en funktionsgren. ); sedan, när du taggar en version, snabbspolar du master till där develop -grenen är stabil ( Efter en ny version. ). Figur 75. Före en sammanslagning av en funktionsgren. Figur 76. Efter en sammanslagning av en funktionsgren. Figur 77. Efter en ny version. På det här sättet, när folk klonar ditt projekts arkiv, kan de antingen kolla ut master för att bygga den senaste stabila versionen och enkelt hålla sig uppdaterade på den, eller kolla ut develop , som är den mer skärpta innehållet. Du kan också utöka det här konceptet genom att ha en integrate -gren där allt arbete sammanfogas. När kodbasen på den grenen är stabil och passerar tester, slår du ihop den i en develop -gren; och när den har visat sig vara stabil under en tid, snabbspolar du din master -gren. Arbetsflöde med stora sammanslagningar Git-projektet har fyra långlivade grenar: master , next och pu (proposed updates) för nytt arbete, och maint för underhållsbackportar. När nytt arbete introduceras av bidragslämnare samlas det i temagrenar i förvaltarens arkiv på ett sätt som liknar det som har beskrivits (se Hantera en komplex serie med parallella ämnesgrenar. ). Vid det här laget utvärderas temana för att avgöra om de är säkra och redo för användning eller om de behöver mer arbete. Om de är säkra slås de ihop i next , och den grenen pushas upp så att alla kan prova temana integrerade tillsammans. Figur 78. Hantera en komplex serie med parallella ämnesgrenar. Om det behövs mer arbete på en temagren slås den ihop med pu istället. När det har bestämts att de är helt stabila slås de ihop med master -grenen. next - och pu -grenarna byggs sedan om från master . Det här innebär att master nästan alltid rör sig framåt, next ombaseras ibland, och pu ombaseras ännu oftare: Figur 79. Slå ihop ämnesgrenar med långlivade integrationsgrenar. När en ämnesgren äntligen har slagits ihop med master -grenen tas den bort från arkivet. Git-projektet hr också en maint -gren som är en gren som är förgrenad från den senaste versionen för att tillhandahålla bakåtkompatibla patchar om en underhållsversion krävs. Så, när du klonar Git-arkivet har du fyra grenar som du kan kolla ut för att utvärdera projektet i olika utvecklingsstadier, beroende på hur nyskapande du vill vara eller hur du vill bidra; och förvaltaren har ett strukturerat arbetsflöde för att hjälpas åt att granska nya bidrag. Git-projektet har ett specialiserat arbetsflöde. För att förstå det bättre kan du läsa mer på Git Maintainer’s guide . Arbetsflöden med ombasering och plocka russin ur kakan När du har arbete i en temagren och har bestämt att du vill integrera det, kan du göra det på två sätt: genom att ombasera eller plocka russin ur kakan. Vissa förvaltare föredrar att ombasera eller plocka russin ur kakan för att hålla en mestadels linjär historik. När du har arbete i en temagren och har bestämt att du vill integrera det, flyttar du till den grenen och kör ombasera-kommandot för att bygga om ändringarna på din nuvarande master -gren (eller develop , och så vidare). Om det går bra kan du snabbspola din master -gren. I slutänden får du en linjär projektshistorik. Ett annat sätt att flytta in arbete från en gren till en annan är att plocka russin ur kakan. Att plocka russin ur kakan i Git är som en ombasering men för en enskild incheckning. Det tar en patch från en incheckning och försöker applicera den på den gren du är på. Detta är användbart om du har ett antal incheckningar på en temagren och du baran vill integrera en av dem, eller om du föredrar att plocka in incheckningarna en och en istället för att göra en ombasering. Om du till exempel har ett projekt som ser ut så här: Figur 80. Exempel historik före russin plockats ur kakan. Om du vill dra in incheckningen e43a6 i din master -gren kan du köra $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Avslutade en cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 filer ändrade, 17 tillagda(+), 3 borttagna(-) Det här drar in ändringarna i incheckning e43a6 in i din master -gren., men du får ett nytt SHA-1-värde för incheckningen eftersom datumet som den tillämpades är annorlunda. Din historik ser nu ut så här: Figur 81. Historik efter russinplockning av en inceckning på en funktionsgren. Nu kan du radera din funktionsgren och släppa incheckningarna som du inte vill få in. Rerere Om du gör massor av sammanslagningar och ombaseringar, eller om du underhåller en långlivad funktionsgren, har Git en funktion som heter “rerere” som kan vara användbar. Rerere står för “reuse recorded resolution” — det är ett sätt att förkorta manuell konflikthantering. När rerere är aktiverat kommer Git att behålla en uppsättning före- och efterbilder från lyckade sammanslagningar, och om det märker att det finns en konflikt som ser precis ut som en du redan har löst, kommer Git bara att använda lösningen från förra gången, utan att störa dig med den. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” — it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. Funktionen har två delar: en konfigurationsinställning och ett kommando. Konfigurationsinställningen är rerere.enabled , och det är tillräckligt användbart för att lägga i din globala konfiguration: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true När du än gör en sammanslagning som löser konflikter, kommer lösningen nu att sparas i cachen om den skulle behövas i framtiden. Om du behöver kan du interagera med rerere-cachen med hjälp av kommandot git rerere . När det används ensamt, kollar Git sin databas med lösningar och försöker hitta en matchning med eventuella aktuella konflikter och lösa dem (även om det görs automatiskt om rerere.enabled är inställt på true ). Det finns också underkommandon för att se vad som kommer att sparas, för att radera specifika lösningar från cachen och för att rensa hela cachen. Vi kommer att gå in på rerere mer i detalj i Rerere . Versionsmarkeringar När du har bestämt dig för att släppa en ny version av ditt projekt, vill du förmodligen tilldela en tagg så att du kan återskapa den versionen när som helst framöver. Du kan skapa en ny tagg som diskuterats i Grunder i Git . Om du bestämmer dig för att signera taggen som underhållare ser taggningen ut så här: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Om du signerar dina taggar kan du få problem med att distribuera den offentliga PGP-nyckeln som används för att signera dina taggar. Förvaltaren för Git-projektet har löst detta problem genom att inkludera sin offentliga nyckel som en blob i arkivet och sedan lägga till en tagg som pekar direkt på det innehållet. För att göra detta kan du ta reda på vilken nyckel du vill använda genom att köra gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Du kan då importera nyckeln direkt i Git-databasen genom att exportera den och skicka den genom git hash-object , som skriver en ny blob med de innehållen i Git och ger dig tillbaka SHA-1 för blobben: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Nu när du har innehållet i din nyckel i Git kan du skapa en tagg som pekar direkt på den genom att ange det nya SHA-1-värdet från hash-object : $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Med kommandot git push --tags kan du nu dela taggen maintainer-pgp-pub med alla. Om någon vill verifiera en tagg kan de direkt importera din PGP-nyckel genom att dra ut blobben direkt ur databasen och importera den i GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import De kan också använda den nyckeln för att verifiera alla dina signerade taggar. Om du dessutom inkluderar instruktioner i taggmeddelandet kan körning av git show <tagg> låta dig ge slutanvändaren mer specifika instruktioner om taggverifiering. Generera versionsnummer I Git finns det inget inbyggt sätt att generera löpande versionsnummer som v123 eller liknande för varje incheckning. Om du vill ha ett versionnummber som är logiskt för människor för varje incheckning, kan du köra git describe på incheckningen. Till svar genererar Git en sträng som består av namnet på den senaste taggen tidigare än den incheckningen, följt av antalet incheckningar sedan den taggen, följt av en del av SHA-1-värdet för den incheckningen (föregånget av bokstaven g som betyder Git): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c På det här sättet kan du få en sträng som är meningsfull för människor att använda som versionsnummer. Om du bygger Git från källkoden som är klonad från Git-arkivet ger git --version dig något som ser ut så här. Om du beskriver en incheckning som du direkt har taggat ger den dig helt enkelt taggnamnet. git describe -kommandot kräver annoterade taggar som standard (taggar som skapats med flaggorna -a eller -s ); om du vill dra nytta av lättviktiga (icke-annoterade) taggar också, lägg till --tags -flaggan till kommandot. Du kan också använda den här strängen som mål för ett git checkout - eller git show -kommando, även om det förlitar sig på det förkortade SHA-1-värdet i slutet, så det kanske inte är giltigt för evigt. Till exempel hoppade Linux-kärnan nyligen från 8 till 10 tecken för att säkerställa SHA-1-objektens unicitet, så äldre git describe -utdata namn ogiltigförklarades. Förbereda ett släpp Nu vill du släppa en ny version. En av de saker du vill göra är att skapa ett arkiv av den senaste ögonblicksbilden av din kod för de arma själar som inte använder Git. Kommandot för att göra detta är git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Om någon öppnar det arkivet får de den senaste ögonblicksbilden av ditt projekt i en projektkatalog. Du kan också skapa ett zip-arkiv ungefär på samma sätt men genom att ange --format=zip -flaggan till git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Nu har du en snyggt arkiv och en zipkatalog av ditt projekts släpp som du kan ladda upp till din webbplats eller mejla till folk. Shortlog Det är dags att mejla till din mejllista med personer som vill veta vad som händer i ditt projekt. Ett trevligt sätt att snabbt få en slags ändringslogg över vad som har lagts till i ditt projekt sedan ditt senaste släpp eller mejl är att använda kommandot git shortlog . Det sammanfattar alla incheckningar i det intervall du ger det; till exempel ger följande en sammanfattning av alla incheckningar sedan ditt senaste släpp, om ditt senaste släpp hette v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Du får en enhetlig sammanfattning av samtliga incheckningar sedan v1.0.1, grupperade efter författare, som du kan skicka till din mejllista. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/gr/v2/%ce%9a%ce%b1%cf%84%ce%b1%ce%bd%ce%b5%ce%bc%ce%b7%ce%bc%ce%ad%ce%bd%ce%bf-Git-%ce%a3%cf%85%ce%bd%cf%84%ce%ae%cf%81%ce%b7%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b5%ce%bd%cf%8c%cf%82-%ce%ad%cf%81%ce%b3%ce%bf%cf%85 | Git - Συντήρηση ενός έργου About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Ξεκινώντας με το Git 1.1 Σχετικά με τον έλεγχο εκδόσεων 1.2 Σύντομο ιστορικό του Git 1.3 Τι είναι το Git; 1.4 Η γραμμή εντολών 1.5 Εγκατάσταση του Git 1.6 Ρύθμιση του Git για πρώτη φορά 1.7 Χρησιμοποιώντας τη βοήθεια 1.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 2. Τα θεμελιώδη στοιχεία του Git 2.1 Απόκτηση αποθετηρίου Git 2.2 Καταγραφή αλλαγών στο αποθετήριο 2.3 Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών 2.4 Αναιρέσεις (undoing) 2.5 Δουλεύοντας με απομακρυσμένα αποθετήρια 2.6 Ετικέτες 2.7 Συντομεύεσεις στο Git 2.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 3. Διακλαδώσεις στο Git 3.1 Οι κλάδοι με λίγα λόγια 3.2 Βασικές έννοιες διακλαδώσεων και συγχωνεύσεων 3.3 Διαχείριση κλάδων 3.4 Ροές εργασίας με διακλαδώσεις 3.5 Απομακρυσμένοι κλάδοι 3.6 Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) 3.7 Ανακεφαλαίωση 4. Το Git στον διακομιστή 4.1 Τα πρωτόκολλα 4.2 Εγκατάσταση του Git σε διακομιστή 4.3 Δημιουργία δημόσιου κλειδιού SSH 4.4 Στήσιμο του διακομιστή 4.5 Δαίμονες του Git 4.6 Έξυπνο HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Επιλογές φιλοξενίας από τρίτους 4.10 Ανακεφαλαίωση 5. Κατανεμημένο Git 5.1 Κατανεμημένες ροές εργασίας 5.2 Συνεισφέροντας σε ένα έργο 5.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 5.4 Ανακεφαλαίωση 6. GitHub 6.1 Δημιουργία λογαριασμού και ρύθμισή του 6.2 Συνεισφορά σε έργο 6.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 6.4 Διαχείριση οργανισμώνν 6.5 Συγγραφή script στο GitHub 6.6 Ανακεφαλαίωση 7. Εργαλεία του Git 7.1 Επιλογή αναθεώρησης 7.2 Διαδραστική εργασία με το στάδιο καταχώρισης 7.3 Αποθέματα και Καθαρισμός 7.4 Υπογραφή της δουλειάς μας 7.5 Αναζήτηση 7.6 Η ιστορία ξαναγράφεται 7.7 Απομυθοποίηση της reset 7.8 Προχωρημένη Συγχώνευση 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Αποσφαλμάτωση με το Git 7.11 Υπομονάδες 7.12 Δεμάτιασμα δεδομένων 7.13 Replace 7.14 Αποθήκευση διαπιστευτηρίων 7.15 Ανακεφαλαίωση 8. Εξατομίκευση του Git 8.1 Διαμόρφωση Git 8.2 Γνωρίσματα του Git 8.3 Τα άγκιστρα του Git 8.4 Ένα παράδειγμα επιβολής πολιτικής από το Git 8.5 Ανακεφαλαίωση 9. Το Git και άλλα συστήματα 9.1 Το Git ως πελάτης 9.2 Μετανάστευση στο Git 9.3 Ανακεφαλαίωση 10. Εσωτερική λειτουργία του Git 10.1 Διοχετεύσεις και πορσελάνες 10.2 Αντικείμενα του Git 10.3 Αναφορές του Git 10.4 Πακετάρισμα αρχείων 10.5 Τα refspec 10.6 Πρωτόκολλα μεταφοράς 10.7 Διατήρηση και ανάκτηση δεδομένων 10.8 Μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος 10.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A1. Appendix A: Το Git σε άλλα περιβάλλοντα A1.1 Γραφικές διεπαφές A1.2 Το Git στο Visual Studio A1.3 Git στο Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git στο IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git στο Sublime Text A1.6 Το Git στο Bash A1.7 Το Git στο Zsh A1.8 Το Git στο Powershell A1.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A2. Appendix B: Ενσωμάτωση του Git στις εφαρμογές μας A2.1 Γραμμή εντολών Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Appendix C: Εντολές Git A3.1 Ρύθμιση και διαμόρφωση A3.2 Λήψη και δημιουργία έργων A3.3 Βασική λήψη στιγμιοτύπων A3.4 Διακλάδωση και συγχώνευση A3.5 Κοινή χρήση και ενημέρωση έργων A3.6 Επιθεώρηση και σύγκριση A3.7 Αποσφαλμάτωση A3.8 Επιθέματα A3.9 Ηλεκτρονικό ταχυδρομείο A3.10 Εξωτερικά Συστήματα A3.11 Διοίκηση A3.12 Εντολές διοχέτευσης 2nd Edition 5.3 Κατανεμημένο Git - Συντήρηση ενός έργου Συντήρηση ενός έργου Εκτός από το να γνωρίζουμε πως να συμβάλλουμε αποτελεσματικά σε ένα έργο, πιθανότατα θα χρειαστεί να ξέρουμε πως να διαχειριζόμαστε ένα αποθετήριο. Αυτό μπορεί να συνίσταται στην αποδοχή και εφαρμογή των επιθεμάτων που δημιουργούνται με το format-patch και στέλνονται με e-mail σε εμάς ή στην ενσωμάτωση αλλαγών σε απομακρυσμένους κλάδους για αποθετήρια που έχουμε προσθέσει ως απομακρυσμένα στο έργο μας. Είτε διαχειριζόμαστε ένα τυπικό αποθετήριο είτε θέλουμε να βοηθήσουμε επαληθεύοντας ή εγκρίνοντας επιθέματα, πρέπει να ξέρουμε πως να δέχομαστε την εργασία με τρόπο που είναι κατά το δυνατό ξεκάθαρος στους άλλους συνεργάτες και βιώσιμος από εμάς μακροπρόθεσμα. Εργασία σε θεματικούς κλάδους Όταν σκεφτόμαστε να ενσωματώσουμε νέα δουλειά, είναι γενικά καλή ιδέα να το δοκιμάζουμε σε έναν θεματικό κλάδο — έναν προσωρινό κλάδο ειδικά σχεδιασμένο για να δοκιμάσουμε αυτή την εργασία. Με αυτόν τον τρόπο, είναι εύκολο να τροποποιήσουμε ένα επίθεμα ξεχωριστά και να το παρατήσουμε αν δεν λειτουργεί μέχρι να έχουμε χρόνο να ξανασχολήθουμε μαζί του. Αν δημιουργήσουμε ένα απλό όνομα κλάδου με βάση το θέμα της εργασίας που πρόκειται να δοκιμάσουμε, όπως ruby_client ή κάτι παρόμοια περιγραφικό, μπορούμε εύκολα να το θυμόμαστε, ακόμα κι αν χρειαστεί να το εγκαταλείψουμε για αρκετό καιρό και να επιστρέψουμε σε αυτό αργότερα. Οι διαχειριστές έργων Git συνηθίζουν επίσης να οργανώνουν αυτούς τους κλάδους σε ονοματοχώρους (namespaces) — όπως sc/ruby_client , όπου το sc είναι συντομογραφία για τον προγραμματιστή που συνεισέφερε την εργασία. Όπως θυμόμαστε, μπορούμε να δημιουργήσουμε τον κλάδο που να βασίζεται στο master κλάδο μας ως εξής: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Εναλλακτικά, αν θέλουμε να μεταβούμε σε αυτόν αμέσως, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε την επιλογή -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Τώρα είμαστε έτοιμοι να προσθέσουμε τη συνεισφορά μας σε αυτόν τον θεματικό κλάδο και να προσδιορίσουμε αν θέλουμε να τον συγχωνεύσουμε στους μακροβιότερους κλάδους μας. Εφαρμογή επιθεμάτων από e-mail Αν λάβουμε επίθεμα μέσω e-mail και πρέπει να το ενσωματώσουμε στο έργο μας, πρέπει να το εφαρμόσουμε στον θεματικό κλάδο για να το αξιολογήσουμε. Υπάρχουν δύο τρόποι για να εφαρμόσουμε ένα επίθεμα που λάβαμε με e-mail: με git apply ή με git am . Εφαρμογή επιθέματος με git apply Εάν λάβαμε το επίθεμα από κάποιον που το δημιούργησε με την εντολή git diff ή diff του Unix (κάτι που δεν συνιστάται, όπως δούμε στην επόμενη ενότητα), μπορούμε να το εφαρμόσουμε με την εντολή git apply . Αν υποθέσουμε ότι έχουμε αποθηκεύσει το επίθεμα στον φάκελο /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , μπορούμε να το εφαρμόσουμε ως εξής: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Αυτή η εντολή τροποποιεί τα αρχεία στον κατάλογο εργασίας μας. Είναι σχεδόν πανομοιότυπη με την εκτέλεση της εντολής patch -p1 για την εφαρμογή του επιθέματος, αν και είναι πιο παρανοϊκή και δέχεται λιγότερες ασαφείς αντιστοιχίσεις από ότι η patch. Επίσης, διαχειρίζεται προσθήκες, διαγραφές και μετονομασίες αρχείων εφόσον περιγράφονται στη μορφή git diff , κάτι που δεν κάνει η patch . Τέλος, η git apply είναι ένα μοντέλο “όλα ή τίποτα” (“apply all or abort all”) όπου είτε όλες οι αλλαγές εφαρμόζονται είτε καμία, ενώ η patch μπορεί να εφαρμόσει μερικώς επιθέματα αφήνοντας τον κατάλογο εργασίας μας σε μία περίεργη κατάσταση. Η git apply είναι γενικά πολύ πιο συντηρητική από την patch . Δεν θα δημιουργήσει αυτόματα κάποια υποβολή για μας — μετά την εκτέλεσή της, θα πρέπει να βάλουμε τις αλλαγές στο στάδιο καταχώρησης και να τις υποβάλουμε οι ίδιοι χειροκίνητα. Μπορούμε επίσης να χρησιμοποιήσουμε την git apply για να διαπιστώσουμε αν ένα επίθεμα εφαρμόζεται καθαρά πριν δοκιμάσουμε την εφαρμογή του — μπορούμε να εκτελέσουμε το git apply --check με το επίθεμα: $ git apply --check 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Εάν δεν τυπωθεί κάτι, τότε το επίθεμα θα πρέπει να εφαρμοστεί χωρίς προβλήματα. Αυτή η εντολή επίσης τερματίζει με μη-μηδενική κατάσταση αν ο έλεγχος αποτύχει, οπότε μπορούμε να τη χρησιμοποιήσουμε σε scripts, αν χρειαστεί. Εφαρμογή επιθέματος με την am Εάν ο συνεισφέρων είναι χρήστης του Git και ήταν αρκετά καλός ώστε να χρησιμοποιήσει την εντολή format-patch για να δημιουργήσει το επίθεμα, τότε η εργασία μας είναι ευκολότερη διότι το επίθεμα περιέχει πληροφορίες για τον συγγραφέα και ένα μήνυμα υποβολής για εμάς. Αν είναι δυνατό, καλό είναι να ενθαρρύνουμε τους συνεργάτες μας να χρησιμοποιούν την format-patch αντί για την diff για να δημιουργούν επιθέματα για μας. Θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούμε την git apply μόνον για επιθέματα παλιού τύπου (legacy). Για να εφαρμόσουμε ένα επίθεμα που δημιουργείται με την format-patch , χρησιμοποιούμε την git am (η εντολή ονομάζεται am γιατί χρησιμοποιείται ως "εφαρμογή μιας σειράς επιθεμάτων από το mailbox"). Από τεχνικής άποψης, η git am έχει φτιαχτεί για να διαβάζει ένα αρχείο mbox, που είναι μία απλή μορφή αρχείου κειμένου για την αποθήκευση ενός ή περισσοτέρων μηνυμάτων e-mail σε ένα αρχείο κειμένου. Μοιάζει με κάτι τέτοιο: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Αυτή είναι η αρχή της εξόδου της εντολής git format-patch που είδαμε στην προηγούμενη ενότητα· επίσης είναι μια έγκυρη μορφή ηλεκτρονικού μηνύματος mbox. Εάν κάποιος μας έχει στείλει ηλεκτρονικά το επίθεμα χρησιμοποιώντας την git send-email και το κατεβάσουμε σε μορφή mbox, τότε μπορούμε να κατευθυνούμε την git am στο αρχείο mbox και αυτό θα αρχίσει να εφαρμόζει όλα τα επιθέματα που βλέπει. Εάν τρέχουμε ένα πρόγραμμα-πελάτη e-mail που μπορεί να αποθηκεύσει πολλά μηνύματα e-mail σε μορφή mbox, μπορούμε να αποθηκεύσουμε ολόκληρες σειρές επιθεμάτων σε ένα αρχείο και στη συνέχεια να χρησιμοποιήσουμε την git am για να εφαρμόσουμε το καθένα ξεχωριστά. Ωστόσο, αν κάποιος χρήστης ανέβασε ένα επίθεμα που δημιουργήθηκε με την git format-patch σε ένα σύστημα εισιτηρίων ή κάτι παρόμοιο, μπορούμε να αποθηκεύσουμε το αρχείο τοπικά και να περάσουμε το αρχείο που αποθηκεύσαμε στην git am για να το εφαρμόσουμε: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: Add limit to log function Μπορούμε να δούμε ότι το επίθεμα εφαρμόστηκε καθαρά και η νέα υποβολή δημιουργήθηκε για μας αυτόματα. Οι πληροφορίες του συγγραφέα λαμβάνονται από τις κεφαλίδες From και Date του e-mail και το μήνυμα της υποβολής λαμβάνεται από το Subject και το σώμα (πριν από το επίθεμα) του μηνύματος. Για παράδειγμα, εάν αυτή η ενημερωμένη έκδοση κώδικα εφαρμόστηκε από το παραπάνω παράδειγμα mbox, η υποβολή που θα δημιουργούνταν θα φαινόταν κάπως έτσι: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Οι πληροφορίες στο πεδίο Commit υποδεικνύουν το άτομο που εφάρμοσε το επίθεμα και την ώρα που έγινε η εφαρμογή αυτή. Οι πληροφορίες στο πεδίο Author υποδεικνύουν το άτομο που αρχικά δημιούργησε το επίθεμα και πότε δημιουργήθηκε για πρώτη φορά. Αλλά είναι πιθανό ότι το επίθεμα δεν θα εφαρμοστεί καθαρά. Ίσως ο κύριος κλάδος μας να έχει αποκλίσει πολύ από τον κλάδο από τον οποίο είχε φτιαχτεί αυτό το επίθεμα ή το επίθεμα εξαρτάται από ένα άλλο επίθεμα που δεν έχουμε εφαρμόσει ακόμα. Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, η διαδικασία με την git am θα αποτύχει και θα μας ρωτήσει τι θέλουμε να κάνουμε: $ git am 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Αυτή η εντολή τοποθετεί σημάνσεις σύγκρουσης σε όλα τα αρχεία με τα οποία αντιμετωπίζει προβλήματα, όπως μια σύγκρουση συγχώνευσης ή αλλαγής βάσης. Μπορούμε να επιλύσουμε αυτό το πρόβλημα λίγο-πολύ με τον ίδιο τρόπο — επεξεργαζόμαστε το αρχείο για να επιλύσουμε τη σύγκρουση, τοποθετούμε το νέο αρχείο στο στάδιο καταχώρησης και στη συνέχεια εκτελούμε την εντολή git am --resolved για να συνεχίσουμε στο επόμενο επίθεμα: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: See if this helps the gem Εάν θέλουμε το Git να δοκιμάσει να επιλύσει τη σύγκρουση με λίγο πιο έξυπνο τρόπο, μπορούμε να περάσουμε την επιλογή -3 στην git am , η οποία θα κάνει το Git να επιχειρήσει μια τριμερή συγχώνευση. Αυτή η επιλογή δεν είναι ενεργοποιημένη εξ ορισμού, επειδή δεν λειτουργεί εφόσον η υποβολή στην οποία λέει το επίθεμα ότι βασίζεται δεν βρίσκεται στο αποθετήριό μας. Αν έχουμε αυτή την υποβολή — για παράδειγμα αν το επίθεμα βασίστηκε σε δημόσια υποβολή — τότε η επιλογή -3 είναι γενικά πολύ πιο έξυπνη όσον αφορά στην εφαρμογή ενός συγκρουόμενου επιθέματος λογισμικού: $ git am -3 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, χωρίς την επιλογή -3 , το επίθεμα θα θεωρούνταν σύγκρουση. Αφού χρησιμοποιήθηκε η επιλογή -3 , το επίθεμα εφαρμόστηκε καθαρά. Αν εφαρμόζουμε μια σειρά από επιθέματα από ένα mbox, μπορούμε επίσης να εκτελέσουμε την εντολή am σε διαδραστική (interactive) λειτουργία, η οποία σταματά σε κάθε επίθεμα που βρίσκει και ρωτά αν θέλουμε να το εφαρμόσουμε: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- See if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all Αυτό είναι βολικό όταν έχουμε αποθηκεύσει μερικά επιθέματα, επειδή μπορούμε να τα δούμε πρώτα ή να μην τα εφαρμόσουμε εάν το έχουμε κάνει ήδη. Όταν όλα τα επιθέματα για το θέμα μας εφαρμοστούν και υποβληθούν στον κλάδο μας, μπορούμε να επιλέξουμε εάν και πως θα τα ενσωματώσουμε σε έναν μακροβιότερο κλάδο. Checkοut απομακρυσμένων κλάδων Εάν η συνεισφορά προήλθε από έναν χρήστη Git που δημιούργησε το δικό του αποθετήριο, ώθησε μερικές αλλαγές σε αυτό και έπειτα μας έστειλε τη διεύθυνση URL του αποθετηρίου και το όνομα του απομακρυσμένου κλάδου στον οποίο έγιναν οι αλλαγές, μπορούμε να το προσθέσουμε ως απομακρυσμένο και να κάνουμε συγχωνεύσεις τοπικά. Για παράδειγμα, εάν η Τζέσικα μας στείλει ένα e-mail που λέει ότι έχει μία εξαιρετική νέα λειτουργικότητα στον κλάδο ruby-client του αποθετηρίου της, μπορούμε να τη δοκιμάσουμε προσθέτοντας το αποθετήριο ως απομακρυσμένο και κάνοντας check out τον κλάδο τοπικά: $ git remote add jessica https://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Εάν η Τζέσικα ξαναστείλει e-mail αργότερα με κάποιον άλλο κλάδο που περιέχει άλλο ένα εξαιρετικό χαρακτηριστικό, μπορούμε να κάνουμε απευθείας fetch και checkout τοπικά διότι έχουμε ήδη το απομακρυσμένο αποθετήριο εγκατεστημένο. Αυτό είναι ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμο αν συνεργαζόμαστε με ένα άτομο συχνά. Εάν κάποιος συνεισφέρει ένα επίθεμα μόνο μία στις τόσες, τότε η αποδοχή του μέσω e-mail είναι ενδεχομένως λιγότερο χρονοβόρα από το να πρέπει όλοι να τρέχουν το δικό τους διακομιστή και να προσθαφαιρούν απομακρυσμένους διακομιστές συνεχώς για να πάρουν μιά χούφτα επιθέματα. Επίσης, είναι μάλλον απίθανο να θέλουμε να έχουμε εκατοντάδες απομακρυσμένους διακομιστές, έναν για καθένα που συνεισφέρει καναδυό επιθέματα μια στο τόσο. Ωστόσο, τα scripts και φιλοξενούμενες υπηρεσίες μπορεί να μας διευκολύνουν — αυτό εξαρτάται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τον τρόπο με τον οποίο εμείς και οι συνεισφέροντες αναπτύσσουμε τον κώδικά μας. Το άλλο πλεονέκτημα αυτής της προσέγγισης είναι ότι έχουμε και το ιστορικό των υποβολών. Παρόλο που ίσως έχουμε ζητήματα συγχώνευσης, γνωρίζουμε πού βρίσκεται η σχετική εργασία τους στο ιστορικό μας· μια κατάλληλη τριμερής συγχώνευση είναι η προτιμότερη επιλογή από τη χρήση της επιλογής -3 με την ελπίδα ότι το επίθεμα δημιουργήθηκε από μια δημόσια υποβολή στην οποία έχουμε πρόσβαση. Εάν δεν συνεργαζόμαστε συχνά με ένα άτομο, αλλά εξακολουθούμε να θέλουμε να ελκύσουμε (pull) από αυτόν με αυτό τον τρόπο, μπορούμε να δώσουμε τη διεύθυνση URL του απομακρυσμένου αποθετηρίου στην εντολή git pull . Αυτό κάνει ένα και μοναδικό ελκυσμό και δεν αποθηκεύει τη διεύθυνση URL ως απομακρυσμένη αναφορά: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Προσδιορισμός του τι έχει εισαχθεί Τώρα έχουμε έναν θεματικό κλάδο που περιέχει συνεισφορές. Σε αυτό το σημείο, μπορούμε να αποφασίσουμε τι θα θέλαμε να κάνουμε με αυτόν. Αυτή η ενότητα επανεξετάζει μερικές εντολές, ώστε να μπορούμε να δούμε πως μπορούμε να τις χρησιμοποιήσουμε για να ελέγξουμε τι ακριβώς θα εισάγουμε αν συγχωνεύσουμε αυτόν τον θεματικό κλάδο στον κύριο κλάδο μας. Συχνά είναι χρήσιμο να πάρουμε μια ανασκόπηση όλων των υποβολών που βρίσκονται σε αυτόν τον κλάδο, αλλά δεν βρίσκονται στον master κλάδο μας. Μπορούμε να αποκλείσουμε υποβολές στον master μας προσθέτοντας την επιλογή --not πριν από το όνομα του κλάδου. Αυτό είναι το ίδιο με τη μορφή master..contrib που χρησιμοποιήσαμε νωρίτερα. Για παράδειγμα, εάν ο συνεισφέρων μας στείλει δύο επιθέματα και δημιουργήσουμε έναν κλάδο με το όνομα contrib και εφαρμόσουμε αυτά τα επιθέματα εκεί, μπορούμε να τρέξουμε το εξής: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 See if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 Update gemspec to hopefully work better Για να δούμε τι αλλαγές εισάγει κάθε υποβολή, θυμόμαστε ότι μπορούμε να περάσουμε την επιλογή -p στο git log και θα προσαρτήσει το αποτέλεσμα της diff που εισήχθη σε κάθε υποβολή. Για να δούμε το πλήρες diff που θα παίρναμε αν συγχωνεύαμε αυτόν τον θεματικό κλάδο με ένα άλλο κλάδο, ίσως χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσουμε ένα περίεργο τέχνασμα για να έχουμε τα σωστά αποτελέσματα. Ίσως σκεφτούμε να εκτελέσουμε το εξής: $ git diff master Αυτή η εντολή μας δίνει ένα diff, αλλά μπορεί να είναι παραπλανητικό. Εάν ο κλάδος μας master έχει προχωρήσει από τότε που δημιουργήσαμε αυτόν τον θεματικό κλάδο, τότε θα πάρουμε φαινομενικά παράξενα αποτελέσματα. Αυτό συμβαίνει επειδή το Git συγκρίνει άμεσα το στιγμιότυπο της τελευταίας υποβολής του θεματικού κλάδου στον οποίο βρισκόμαστε με το στιγμιότυπο της τελευταίας υποβολής στον κλάδο master . Για παράδειγμα, αν έχουμε προσθέσει μια γραμμή σε ένα αρχείο στον κλάδο master , μια άμεση σύγκριση των στιγμιότυπων θα μοιάζει σαν ο θεματικός κλάδος να πρόκειται να καταργήσει αυτή τη γραμμή. Αν ο κλάδος master είναι άμεσος πρόγονος του θεματικού κλάδου μας, αυτό δεν είναι πρόβλημα· αλλά αν τα δύο ιστορικά έχουν αποκλίσει, η διαφορά θα μοιάζει σαν να προσθέτουμε όλα τα νέα στοιχεία στον θεματικό κλάδο και να καταργούμε ό,τι υπάρχει μόνον στον κλάδο master . Αυτό που πραγματικά θέλουμε να δούμε είναι οι αλλαγές που έχουν προστεθεί στον θεματικό κλάδο — την εργασία που θα εισάγουμε αν συγχωνεύσουμε αυτόν τον κλάδο με τον master κλάδο. Αυτό μπορούμε να το κάνουμε βάζοντας το Git να συγκρίνει την τελευταία υποβολή στον θεματικό κλάδο μας με τον πρώτο κοινό πρόγονο που έχει με τον master κλάδο. Από τεχνικής άποψης, αυτό μπορούμε να το καταφέρουμε αν εντοπίσουμε τον κοινό πρόγονο και στη συνέχεια τρέξουμε τη διαφορά diff σε αυτό: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db ή πιο συνεκτικά: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Ωστόσο, κανένα από τα δύο δεν είναι ιδιαίτερα βολικό, γι' αυτό το Git παρέχει μια άλλη συντόμευση για να κάνει το ίδιο πράγμα: τη σύνταξη με τις τρεις τελείες. Στο πλαίσιο της εντολής git diff , μπορούμε να βάλουμε τρεις τελείες μετά από ένα άλλο κλάδο για να κάνουμε ένα diff μεταξύ της τελευταίας υποβολής του κλάδου που βρισκόμαστε και του κοινού προγόνου της με έναν άλλο κλάδο: $ git diff master...contrib Αυτή η εντολή μας δείχνει μόνο τη δουλειά που έχει εισάγει ο τρέχων θεματικός κλάδος μας από τον κοινό πρόγονο του με τον master . Αυτή είναι μια πολύ χρήσιμη σύνταξη που πρέπει να θυμόμαστε. Ενσωμάτωση συνεισφερθείσας εργασίας Όταν όλη δουλειά στον θεματικό κλάδο μας είναι έτοιμη να ενσωματωθεί σε ένα πιο κεντρικό κλάδο, το ερώτημα που ανακύπτει είναι πως να το κάνουμε. Επιπλέον, ποια ροή εργασίας θέλουμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε για να συντηρήσουμε το έργο μας; Έχουμε αρκετές επιλογές και στη συνέχεια θα καλύψουμε μερικές από αυτές. Συγχώνευση ροών εργασίας Μια απλή ροή εργασίας είναι αυτή στην οποία συγχωνεύουμε την εργασία μας στον κλάδο master . Σε αυτό το σενάριο, έχουμε ένα κύριο κλάδο που περιέχει κυρίως ευσταθή κώδικα. Όταν εργαζόμαστε σε έναν θεματικό κλάδο που έχουμε φτιάξει ή τον οποίο έχει συνεισφέρει κάποιος και έχουμε επαληθεύσει, τον συγχωνεύουμε στον master μας, διαγράφουμε τον θεματικό κλάδο και στη συνέχεια συνεχίζουμε τη διαδικασία. Εάν έχουμε ένα αποθετήριο με εργασία σε δύο κλάδους που ονομάζονται ruby_client και php_client , που μοιάζει με το Ιστορικό με θεματικούς κλάδους , και συγχωνεύσουμε πρώτα τον ruby_client και στη συνέχεια τον php_client , τότε το ιστορικό μας θα καταλήξει να μοιάζει με το Ιστορικό μετά από συγχώνευση θεματικών κλάδων . Figure 72. Ιστορικό με θεματικούς κλάδους Figure 73. Ιστορικό μετά από συγχώνευση θεματικών κλάδων Αυτή είναι πιθανότατα η απλούστερη ροή εργασίας, αλλά μπορεί να είναι προβληματική αν έχουμε να κάνουμε με μεγαλύτερα ή πιο ευσταθή έργα στα οποία θέλουμε να είμαστε πολύ προσεκτικοί σχετικά με το τι εισάγουμε. Αν έχουμε ένα πιο σημαντικό έργο, ίσως θέλουμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε έναν κύκλο συγχώνευσης δύο φάσεων. Σε αυτό το σενάριο έχουμε δύο μακρόβιους κλάδους, master και develop , στους οποίους καθορίζουμε ότι ο master ενημερώνεται μόνο όταν δημιουργείται μία πολύ σταθερή έκδοση και όλος ο νέος κώδικας είναι ενσωματωμένος στον κλάδο develop . Ωθούμε και τους δύο αυτούς κλάδους τακτικά σε ένα δημόσιο αποθετήριο. Κάθε φορά που έχουμε έναν νέο θεματικό κλάδο να συγχωνεύσουμε ( Πριν από τη συγχώνευση θεματικού κλάδου. ), τον συγχωνεύουμε στον κλάδο develop ( Μετά τη συγχώνευση θεματικού κλάδου. )· τότε, όταν κάνουμε tag μια έκδοση (release), ταχυπροωθούμε τον master σε όποιον κλάδο βρίσκεται ο ευσταθής κλάδος develop ( Μετά τη δημοσιοποίηση έκδοσης. ). Figure 74. Πριν από τη συγχώνευση θεματικού κλάδου. Figure 75. Μετά τη συγχώνευση θεματικού κλάδου. Figure 76. Μετά τη δημοσιοποίηση έκδοσης. Με αυτόν τον τρόπο, όταν κάποιος κλωνοποιεί το αποθετήριο του έργου μας, μπορεί είτε να μεταβεί στον κλάδο master , να χτίσει την πιο πρόσφατη ευσταθή έκδοση και να συμβαδίζει με αυτή εύκολα, είτε να μεταβεί στον κλάδο develop , που περιέχει τις πιο πρόσφατες εξελίξεις. Μπορούμε επίσης να επεκτείνουμε αυτό το μοντέλο και να έχουμε έναν κλάδο ολοκλήρωσης integrate στο οποίο όλες οι εργασίες συγχωνεύονται. Στη συνέχεια, όταν το codebase σε αυτόν τον κλάδο είναι ευσταθές και περνάει τα τεστ, μπορούμε να το συγχωνεύσουμε σε έναν κλάδο develop · και όταν και αυτός έχει αποδειχθεί ευσταθής για κάποιο χρονικό διάστημα, τον ταχυπροωθούμε στον master κλάδο μας. Ροές εργασίας μεγάλης συγχώνευσης Το έργο Git έχει τέσσερις μακρόβιους κλάδους: τους master ,` next` και seen (παλιότερα pu — proposed updates) για νέες εργασίες και τον maint για συντήρηση backport. Όταν εισάγονται νέες εργασίες από συνεργάτες, συλλέγονται σε θεματικούς κλάδους στο αποθετήριο του διαχειριστή με τρόπο παρόμοιο με αυτόν που έχουμε περιγράψει (βλ. Διαχείριση περίπλοκης ακολουθίας παράλληλων συνεισφερθέντων θεματικών κλάδων ). Σε αυτό το σημείο, τα θέματα αξιολογούνται για να διαπιστωθεί αν είναι ασφαλή και έτοιμα προς κατανάλωση ή αν χρειάζονται περισσότερη δουλειά. Αν είναι ασφαλή, συγχωνεύονται στον κλάδο next και αυτός ο κλάδος ωθείται, ώστε όλοι να μπορούν να δοκιμάσουν τα θέματα που ενσωματώθηκαν. Figure 77. Διαχείριση περίπλοκης ακολουθίας παράλληλων συνεισφερθέντων θεματικών κλάδων Εάν τα θέματα θέλουν ακόμα δουλειά, συγχωνεύονται στον seen . Όταν διαπιστωθεί ότι είναι τελείως ευσταθή, τα θέματα επανασυγχωνεύονται στον master . Στη συνέχεια οι κλάδοι next και seen γίνονται ξανά build από τον κλάδο master . Αυτό σημαίνει ότι ο master προχωρά σχεδόν πάντα, ο next επανατοποθετείται περιστασιακά και ο seen επανατοποθετείται ακόμα πιο συχνά: Figure 78. Συγχώνευση συνεισφερθέντων θεματικών κλάδων σε μακρόβιους κλάδους ενσωμάτωσης Όταν ένας θεματικός κλάδος έχει τελικά συγχωνευτεί στον master , αφαιρείται από το αποθετήριο. Το έργο Git διαθέτει επίσης έναν κλάδο maint που αποσχίζεται (forked) από την τελευταία δημοσιευμένη έκδοση (release) ώστε να παρέχει επιθέματα backport για την περίπτωση που απαιτείται έκδοση συντήρησης. Έτσι, όταν κλωνοποιούμε το αποθετήριο Git, έχουμε τέσσερις κλάδους στους οποίους μπορούμε να μεταβούμε για να αξιολογήσουμε το έργο σε διαφορετικά στάδια ανάπτυξης, ανάλογα με το πόσο σύγχρονος θέλουμε να είμαστε ή πως θέλουμε να συνεισφέρουμε· και ο συντηρητής έχει μια δομημένη ροή εργασίας για να τους βοηθήσει να ελέγξουν νέες συνεισφορές. Η ροή εργασίας του Git είναι εξειδικευμένη. Για να το κατανοήσουμε πλήρως μπορούμε να δούμε το Git Maintainer’s guide . Ροές εργασίας με αλλαγή βάσης και ανθολόγηση Άλλοι συντηρητές προτιμούν να επανατοποθετούν (rebase) ή να ανθολογούν (cherry-pick) τις συνεισφορές στην κορυφή του master κλάδου τους, αντί να τις συγχωνεύουν, για να διατηρήσουν ένα κυρίως γραμμικό ιστορικό. Όταν εργαζόμαστε σε έναν θεματικό κλάδο και έχουμε αποφασίσει ότι θέλουμε να τον ενσωματώσουμε, μεταβαίνουμε σε αυτόν και εκτελούμε την εντολή rebase για να ξαναχτίσουμε τις αλλαγές με νέα βάση τον master (ή τον develop κ.ο.κ.) κλάδο μας. Αν αυτό λειτουργεί καλά, τότε μπορούμε να ταχυπροωθήσουμε τον κύριο κλάδο μας οπότε θα καταλήξουμε με ένα γραμμικό ιστορικό έργου. Ο άλλος τρόπος για να μετακινήσουμε εργασία που εισάγεται από τον ένα κλάδο στον άλλο είναι η ανθολόγηση (cherry-pick). Η ανθολόγηση στο Git είναι σαν μια αλλαγή βάσης μίας μόνο υποβολής. Παίρνει το επίθεμα που εισήχθη σε μια υποβολή και προσπαθεί να το ξαναεφαρμόσει στον κλάδο στον οποίο βρισκόμαστε αυτή τη στιγμή. Η ανθολόγηση είναι χρήσιμη εάν έχουμε αρκετές υποβολές σε έναν θεματικό κλάδο και θέλουμε να ενσωματώσουμε μόνο μία από αυτές ή εάν έχουμε μόνο μία υποβολή σε έναν θεματικό κλάδο και προτιμάμε να την ανθολογήσουμε αντί να αλλάξουμε τη βάση της. Για παράδειγμα, ας υποθέσουμε ότι έχουμε ένα έργο που μοιάζει με αυτό: Figure 79. Παράδειγμα ιστορικού πριν την ανθολόγηση Αν θέλουμε να ελκύσουμε την υποβολή e43a6 στον master , μπορούμε να εκτελέσουμε: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) Αυτή η εντολή τραβά την ίδια αλλαγή με αυτή που εισήχθη στην e43a6 , αλλά παίρνουμε μια νέα τιμή SHA-1 για την υποβολή επειδή η ημερομηνία κατά την οποία εφαρμόστηκε είναι διαφορετική. Τώρα το ιστορικό μας μοιάζει με αυτό: Figure 80. Ιστορικό μετά την ανθολόγηση υποβολής σε έναν θεματικό κλάδο Πλέον μπορούμε να καταργήσουμε τον θεματικό κλάδο και να εγκαταλείψουμε τις υποβολές που δεν θέλαμε να ελκύσουμε. Rerere Εάν κάνουμε πολλές συγχωνεύσεις και αλλαγές βάσης ή διατηρούμε ένα μακρόβιο θεματικό κλάδο, το Git διαθέτει μια λειτουργία που λέγεται “rerere” και η οποία μπορεί να μας βοηθήσει. Rerere σημαίνει “reuse recorded resolution” (`"επαναχρησιμοποίηση καταγεγραμμένης επίλυσης`") — είναι ένας τρόπος σύντομης αντιμετώπισης της μη-αυτόματης επίλυσης συγκρούσεων. Όταν η rerere είναι ενεργοποιημένη, το Git θα διατηρήσει ένα σύνολο εικόνων πριν και μετά από επιτυχείς συγχωνεύσεις και αν παρατηρήσει ότι υπάρχει μια σύγκρουση που μοιάζει ακριβώς με μία που έχουμε ήδη επιλύσει, θα χρησιμοποιήσει απλώς το επίθεμα από την τελευταία φορά, χωρίς να μας ενοχλήσει. Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό αποτελείται από δύο μέρη: μια παραμετροποίηση και μια εντολή. Η παραμετροποίηση είναι rerere.enabled και είναι αρκετά βολική ώστε να την έχουμε στο καθολικό μας αρχείο config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Τώρα, κάθε φορά που κάνουμε μια συγχώνευση που επιλύει διενέξεις, η επίλυση θα καταγράφεται στην κρυφή μνήμη για την περίπτωση που τη χρειαστούμε στο μέλλον. Αν χρειαστεί, μπορούμε να αλληλεπιδράσουμε με τη μνήμη cache rerere χρησιμοποιώντας την εντολή git rerere . Όταν καλείται χωρίς διακόπτες, το Git ελέγχει τη βάση δεδομένων επιλύσεων και προσπαθεί να βρει μια αντιστοίχιση με τις τρέχουσες συγκρούσεις συγχώνευσης και να τις επιλύσει (αν και αυτό γίνεται αυτόματα αν το rerere.enabled οριστεί σε true ). Υπάρχουν επίσης δευτερεύουσες εντολές για να δούμε τι θα εγγραφεί, να διαγράψουμε συγκεκριμένη ανάλυση από την προσωρινή μνήμη και να καθαρίσουμε ολόκληρη την προσωρινή μνήμη (cache). Θα καλύψουμε την rerere με περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες στην ενότητα Rerere . Δημιουργία ετικετών για τις δημοσιευμένες εκδόσεις Όταν αποφασίσουμε να δημοσιοποίησουμε μια έκδοση, πιθανώς θέλουμε να αφήσουμε μια ετικέτα ώστε να μπορούμε να δημιουργήσουμε εκ νέου αυτή την έκδοση σε οποιοδήποτε σημείο στο μέλλον. μπορούμε να δημιουργήσουμε μια νέα ετικέτα όπως περιγράφεται στην ενότητα Τα θεμελιώδη στοιχεία του Git . Αν αποφασίσουμε να υπογράψουμε την ετικέτα ως ο συντηρητής, η ετικέτα μπορεί να φαίνεται κάπως έτσι: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Εάν υπογράφουμε τις ετικέτες μας, μπορεί να έχουμε πρόβλημα όσον αφορά στη διανομή του δημόσιου κλειδιού PGP που χρησιμοποιείται για την υπογραφή των ετικετών μας. Ο συντηρητής του έργου Git έχει επιλύσει αυτό το ζήτημα συμπεριλαμβάνοντας το δημόσιο κλειδί του ως ένα blob στο αποθετήριο και στη συνέχεια προσθέτοντας μια ετικέτα που δείχνει κατευθείαν σε αυτό το περιεχόμενο. Για να το κάνουμε αυτό, πρέπει να καταλάβουμε ποιο κλειδί θέλουμε εκτελώ� | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=de_AT | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play�� | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/cs/v2/Distribuovan%c3%bd-Git-Spr%c3%a1va-projektu | Git - Správa projektu About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Úvod 1.1 Správa verzí 1.2 Stručná historie systému Git 1.3 Základy systému Git 1.4 Příkazový řádek 1.5 Instalace systému Git 1.6 První nastavení systému Git 1.7 Získání nápovědy 1.8 Shrnutí 2. Základy práce se systémem Git 2.1 Získání repozitáře Git 2.2 Nahrávání změn do repozitáře 2.3 Zobrazení historie revizí 2.4 Návrat do předchozího stavu 2.5 Práce se vzdálenými repozitáři 2.6 Používání značek 2.7 Aliasy v Gitu 2.8 Shrnutí 3. Větve v systému Git 3.1 Větve v kostce 3.2 Základy větvení a slučování 3.3 Správa větví 3.4 Postupy při práci s větvemi 3.5 Vzdálené větve 3.6 Přeskládání 3.7 Shrnutí 4. Git na serveru 4.1 Protokoly 4.2 Zprovoznění Gitu na serveru 4.3 Generování veřejného klíče SSH 4.4 Nastavení serveru 4.5 Démon Git 4.6 Chytrý HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Možnosti hostování u třetí strany 4.10 Shrnutí 5. Distribuovaný Git 5.1 Distribuované pracovní postupy 5.2 Přispívání do projektu 5.3 Správa projektu 5.4 Shrnutí 6. GitHub 6.1 Zřízení účtu a úprava konfigurace 6.2 Přispívání do projektu 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Shrnutí 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Ladění v systému Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Shrnutí 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Atributy Git 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Shrnutí 9. Git a ostatní systémy 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Shrnutí 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Balíčkové soubory 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Přenosové protokoly 10.7 Správa a obnova dat 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Shrnutí A1. Appendix A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Shrnutí A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distribuovaný Git - Správa projektu Správa projektu K znalosti toho, jak lze do projektu efektivně přispívat, budete pravděpodobně muset vědět, jak ho spravovat. Spadá sem přijímání a aplikování záplat generovaných příkazem format-patch a zaslaných elektronickou poštou, nebo integrování změn ve vzdálených větvích pro repozitáře, které jste do svého projektu přidali jako vzdálené repozitáře. Ať už spravujete obecně uznávaný repozitář, nebo chcete pomáhat při ověřování či schvalování záplat, budete muset vědět, jak přijímat práci ostatních přispěvatelů způsobem, který je pro ostatní přispěvatele co nejčistší a pro vás dlouhodobě udržitelný. Práce v tématických větvích Pokud uvažujete o integraci nové práce do projektu, je většinou dobré vyzkoušet si to v tématické větvi, tj. v dočasné větvi, kterou vytvoříte konkrétně pro vyzkoušení této práce. Tímto způsobem můžete záplatu odděleně doladit, a pokud není funkční, můžete ji nechat být až do doby, kdy najdete čas se k ní vrátit. Pokud pro větev vytvoříte jednoduchý název spojený s tématem testované práce (například ruby_client nebo něco obdobně popisného), snadno si zase vzpomenete, pokud ji na nějakou dobu opustíte a vrátíte se k až tomu později. Správce projektu v Gitu má sklony přidělovat těmto větvím také jmenný prostor — například sc/ruby_client , kde sc je zkratka pro osobu, která práci vytvořila. Jak si vzpomínáte, můžete větev založenou na své větvi master vytvořit takto: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Nebo, pokud na ni chcete rovnou přepnout, můžete použít volbu checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Teď jste připraveni svůj příspěvek do této tématické větve přidat a rozhodnout se, zda ji začleníte do své větve s delší životností. Aplikace záplat zaslaných elektronickou poštou Pokud elektronickou poštou obdržíte záplatu, kterou potřebujete integrovat do svého projektu, budete ji chtít aplikovat do tématické větve, kde ji posoudíte. Záplatu zaslanou elektronickou poštou lze aplikovat dvěma způsoby: příkazem git apply nebo příkazem git am . Aplikace záplaty příkazem apply Pokud dostanete záplatu od někoho, kdo ji vygeneroval příkazem git diff nebo unixovým příkazem diff (což se nedoporučuje — viz následující část), můžete ji aplikovat příkazem git apply . Za předpokladu, že jste záplatu uložili jako /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , můžete záplatu aplikovat následovně: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Tím se soubory ve svém pracovním adresáři změní. Je to téměř stejné, jako byste k aplikaci záplaty použili příkaz patch -p1 . Příkaz apply je ale víc paranoidní a přijímá méně přibližných shod než příkaz patch . Poradí si také s přidanými, odstraněnými a přejmenovanými soubory, jsou-li popsány ve formátu git diff , což by příkaz patch neudělal. A konečně příkaz git apply pracuje na principu „aplikuj vše, nebo zruš vše“. Buď jsou tedy aplikovány všechny soubory, nebo žádný. Naproti tomu příkaz patch může aplikovat soubory záplat jen částečně a tím zanechat váš pracovní adresář v podivném stavu. Příkaz git apply je celkově konzervativnější než příkaz patch . Tímto příkazem se nezapíše revize. Po jeho provedení budete muset připravit a zapsat provedené změny ručně. Příkaz git apply můžete použít také ke kontrole, zda bude záplata aplikována čistě ještě před tím, než skutečnou aplikaci provedete. V takovém případě pro záplatu použijte příkaz git apply --check : $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Pokud se nezobrazí žádný výstup, bude záplata aplikována čistě. Jestliže kontrola selže, vrací příkaz nenulový návratový kód, a proto ho můžete snadno používat ve skriptech. Aplikace záplaty příkazem am Pokud je přispěvatel uživatelem Gitu a byl natolik dobrý, že k vygenerování záplaty použil příkaz format-patch , budete mít usnadněnou práci, protože záplata obsahuje informace o autorovi a zprávu k revizi. Můžete-li, doporučte svým přispěvatelům, aby místo příkazu diff používali příkaz format-patch . K použití příkazu git apply byste měli být nuceni jen v případě použití starého typu záplat. K aplikaci záplaty vygenerované příkazem format-patch používejte příkaz git am . Z technického hlediska je git am navržen tak, aby četl soubor ve formátu elektronické pošty (mbox), což je jednoduchý textový formát pro uložení jedné nebo více e-mailových zpráv do jednoho textového souboru. Vypadá například takto: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Toto je začátek výstupu příkazu format-patch, který jste viděli v předchozí části. Zároveň je to také platný e-mailový formát mbox. Pokud vám někdo poslal záplatu příkazem git send-email a vy záplatu stáhnete do formátu mbox, můžete tento soubor mbox předat příkazu git am a ten začne aplikovat všechny záplaty, které najde. Jestliže spustíte poštovního klienta, který dokáže uložit několik e-mailů ve formátu mbox, můžete do jednoho souboru uložit celou sérii záplat a příkazem git am je pak aplikovat všechny najednou. Pokud však někdo nahrál soubor záplaty vygenerovaný příkazem format-patch do tiketového nebo podobného systému, můžete soubor uložit lokálně a poté jej aplikovat předáním uloženého souboru příkazu git am : $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function Jak vidíte, záplata byla aplikována čistě a automaticky byla vytvořena nová revize. Informace o autorovi jsou převzaty z hlavičkových polí e-mailu From a Date , zpráva k revizi je převzata z pole Subject a těla e-mailu (před samotnou záplatou). Pokud byla záplata aplikována například ze souboru mbox z předchozího příkladu, bude vygenerovaná revize vypadat zhruba takto: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Informace Commit uvádí osobu, která záplatu aplikovala, a čas, kdy se tak stalo. Informace Author uvádí jedince, který záplatu původně vytvořil, a kdy tak učinil. Může se ale stát, že záplata nebude aplikována čistě. Vaše hlavní větev se mohla příliš odchýlit od větve, z níž byla záplata vytvořena, nebo je záplata závislá na jiné záplatě, kterou jste ještě neaplikovali. V takovém případě proces git am selže a zeptá se vás, co chcete udělat dál: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Tento příkaz vloží značky konfliktu do všech problematických souborů — podobně jako při konfliktu u operací sloučení (merge) nebo přeskládání (rebase). Problém se řešíte v podstatě stejným způsobem. Úpravou souboru konflikt odstraňte, připravte nový soubor k zapsání a spusťte příkaz git am --resolved , čímž se přesunete k následující záplatě: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem Pokud chcete, aby se Git pokusil vyřešit konflikt inteligentněji, můžete zadat volbu -3 . Git se pokusí o třícestné sloučení. Tato možnost není nastavena jako výchozí, protože ji nelze použít v situaci, kdy revize, o níž záplata říká, že je na ní založena, není obsažena ve vašem repozitáři. Pokud ale tuto revizi k dispozici máte — záplata byla založena na veřejné revizi — vede volba -3 k mnohem inteligentnější aplikaci kolidující záplaty: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. V tomto případě už byla záplata aplikována. Bez volby -3 by to vypadalo jako konflikt. Pokud aplikujete několik záplat z jednoho souboru mbox, můžete příkaz am spustit také v interaktivním režimu, který zastaví před každou nalezenou záplatou a zeptá se vás, zda ji chcete aplikovat: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all To oceníte v situaci, kdy už máte uložených více záplat, protože pokud si nepamatujete, o co v záplatě jde, můžete si ji před aplikací prohlédnout a neaplikovat ji, pokud už jste tak učinili dříve. Až budete mít všechny záplaty aplikovány a zapsány do tématické větve, můžete se rozhodnout, zda a jak je chcete integrovat do některé z trvalejších větví. Získání vzdálených větví (checkout) Pokud váš příspěvek pochází od uživatele Gitu, který založil vlastní repozitář, odeslal do něj sérii změn a následně vám poslal adresu repozitáře (URL) a název vzdálené větve, v níž změny najdete, můžete je přidat jako vzdálené a lokálně je začlenit. Pokud vám například Jessica poslala dopis, že ve svém repozitáři ve větvi ruby-client vytvořila skvělou novou funkci, můžete si ji po přidání vzdáleného repozitáře a po získání obsahu zmíněné větve otestovat lokálně: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Pokud vám později znovu napíše, že jiná větev obsahuje další skvělou funkci, můžete tuto větev vyzvednout a získat její obsah, protože už repozitář máte nastaven jako vzdálený. Užitečné je to zejména tehdy, když s někým spolupracujete dlouhodobě. Pokud někdo přispěje jen sem tam jednou záplatou, pak bude časově výhodnější, když vám ji pošle e-mailem, než abyste všechny přispěvatele kvůli pár záplatám nutili zprovoznit si vlastní server a abyste si stále přidávali a odstraňovali vzdálené repozitáře. Asi byste taky nechtěli spravovat stovky vzdálených repozitářů — jeden pro každého, kdo přispěje jednou či dvěma záplatami. Ale skripty a hostované služby tento přístup mohou velmi usnadnit. Do velké míry tu záleží na tom, jak vy a vaši vývojáři k vývoji přistupujete. Další výhodou tohoto postupu je, že získáte rovněž historii revizí. I když můžete při slučování narazit na opodstatněné problémy, víte, z jakých historických základů jejich práce vychází. Řádné třícestné sloučení je vždy lepším řešením, než nutnost zadat volbu -3 a doufat, že byla záplata vygenerována z veřejné revize, kterou máte k dispozici. Pokud s někým nespolupracujete dlouhodobě, ale přesto od něj chcete stáhnout data tímto způsobem, můžete zadat URL vzdáleného repozitáře k příkazu git pull . Provede se jednorázové stažení a URL se neuloží jako odkaz na vzdálený repozitář: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Jak zjistit provedené změny Máte tématickou větev, která obsahuje příspěvek od jiného vývojáře. V tomto okamžiku můžete určit, co byste s ním rádi udělali. V této části si zopakujeme několik příkazů, abyste viděli, jak se dají použít k přesnému zjištění toho, co se v případě sloučení (merge) dostane do vaší hlavní větve. Často může být užitečné získat přehled o všech revizích, které jsou obsaženy v určité větvi, ale nejsou ve vaší větvi master . Revize ve větvi master lze vyloučit přidáním volby --not před název větve. Činnost je stejná jako při uvedení tvaru master..contrib , který jsme použili dříve. Pokud vám například přispěvatel pošle dvě záplaty a vy vytvoříte větev s názvem contrib , do níž tyto záplaty aplikujete, můžete spustit následující příkaz: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better Chcete-li zjistit, jaké změny byly provedeny v jednotlivých revizích, můžete k příkazu git log přidat volbu -p , která ke každé revizi připojí rozdíly ve formátu diff. Chcete-li vidět úplný výpis rozdílů, které by vznikly sloučením této tématické větve s jinou větví, budete muset pro obdržení správných výsledků použít zvláštní trik. Možná vás napadne, že byste spustili příkaz: $ git diff master Výstupem příkazu bude výpis rozdílů, ale může být zavádějící. Pokud se vaše větev master posunula vpřed od chvíle, kdy jste z ní vytvořili tématickou větev, dostanete zdánlivě nesmyslné výsledky. Je to tím, že Git přímo porovnává snímek poslední revize v tématické větvi, na které se nacházíte, se snímkem poslední revize ve větvi master . Pokud jste například do souboru ve větvi master přidali jeden řádek, přímé srovnání snímků bude vypadat, jako kdyby měla tématická větev tento řádek odstranit. Pokud je větev master přímým předkem vaší tématické větve, nebude s příkazem žádný problém. Pokud se však obě historie v nějakém bodě rozdělily, bude výpis rozdílů vypadat, jako kdybyste chtěli přidat všechny nové věci v tématické větvi a odstranit vše, co je pouze ve větvi master . To, co opravdu chcete vidět, jsou změny přidané do tématické větve — tj. práci, která se objeví v případě, že provedete začlenění této větve do větve master . Dosáhnete toho tak, že necháte Git porovnat poslední revizi z tématické větve s nejbližším společným předchůdcem sdíleným s větví master . Šlo by to udělat tak, že explicitně najdete společného předka obou větví a spustíte pro něj příkaz diff : $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db Ale není to moc praktické, a proto Git nabízí pro provedení stejné činnosti jinou zkratku: trojtečkovou syntaxi. V souvislosti s příkazem diff můžete za jméno druhé větve připsat tři tečky a pak jméno aktuální větve. Zjistí se tím změny mezi poslední revizí v aktuální větvi a společným předkem s druhou větví: $ git diff master...contrib Tento příkaz zobrazí pouze práci, která byla ve vaší aktuální tématické větvi provedena od chvíle, kdy se oddělila od hlavní větve. Tento velmi užitečný zápis stojí za zapamatování. Integrace příspěvků Když už je práce v tématické větvi připravena k integraci do některé z významnějších větví, vyvstává otázka, jak to provést. Kromě toho, jaký celkový pracovní postup chcete při správě projektu používat? Můžete si vybrat z řady možností, takže se na pár z nich podíváme. Pracovní postupy založené na slučování Jeden z jednoduchých pracovních postupů používá začleňování vaší práce do vaší větve master . V tomto scénáři máte svou větev master , která obsahuje v podstatě stabilní kód. Pokud mátě v tématické větvi nějakou práci, kterou jste vytvořili sami, nebo kterou přispěl někdo jiný a vy jste ji ověřovali, začleníte ji do své větve master (merge), odstraníte tématickou větev a pokračujete dál. Máme-li repozitář s prací ve dvou větvích pojmenovaných ruby_client a php_client , který vypadá jako na obrázku Historie s několika tématickými větvemi. , a začleníme nejprve větev ruby_client a poté php_client , bude naše historie vypadat jako na obrázku Po začlenění tématické větve. . Figure 73. Historie s několika tématickými větvemi. Figure 74. Po začlenění tématické větve. Jde nejspíš o nejjednodušší pracovní postup, ale může vést k problémům v případě, že se použije pro větší nebo stabilnější projekty, u kterých chcete být při vkládání nových věcí opravdu opatrní. U důležitějších projektů asi budete chtít použít dvoufázový cyklus slučování [ 18 ] . V tomto scénáři máte dvě větve s dlouhou životností: hlavní větev master a větev develop . Určíte, že větev master bude aktualizována, pouze když je k dispozici velmi stabilní verze. Veškerý nový kód je integrován do větve develop . Obě tyto větve pravidelně odesíláte do veřejného repozitáře. Pokaždé, když máte novou tématickou větev nachystanou k začlenění (obrázek Před začleněním tématické větve. ), začleníte ji do větve develop (obrázek Po začlenění tématické větve. ), označíte vydání (tag) a poté posunete větev master rychle vpřed do místa, kde je nyní větev develop stabilní (obrázek Po vydání nové verze projektu. ). Figure 75. Před začleněním tématické větve. Figure 76. Po začlenění tématické větve. Figure 77. Po vydání nové verze projektu. Pokud někdo při takovém přístupu naklonuje repozitář vašeho projektu, může se buď přepnout na větev master s cílem přeložit si poslední stabilní verzi a snadno ji udržovat aktuální, nebo se může přepnout na větev develop , která obsahuje nejpokročilejší funkčnost. Tento koncept můžete dále rozšířit o integrační větev, v níž budete veškerou práci slučovat. Teprve pokud je kód v této větvi stabilní a projde testováním, začleníte ho do větve develop . A až se větev develop ukáže v některém okamžiku jako stabilní, posunete rychle vpřed i svou větev master . Pracovní postupy se začleňováním velkého objemu dat Váš gitový projekt má čtyři větve s dlouhou životností: master , next a pu (proposed updates, čili navrhované úpravy) pro novou práci a maint pro přenos oprav z novějších verzí do starších (maintenance backports). Pokud přispěvatelé vytvoří novou práci, je shromažďována v tématických větvích v repozitáři správce podobným způsobem, jaký jsme popsali dříve (viz obrázek Správa komplexní série paralelně zpracovávaných příspěvků v tématických větvích. ). V této fázi jsou náměty vyhodnoceny a určí se, zda jsou bezpečné a zralé k použití, nebo zda potřebují dopracovat. Pokud jsou bezpečné, jsou začleněny do větve next a ta je odeslána do sdíleného repozitáře, aby si všichni mohli vyzkoušet výsledek jejich integrace. Figure 78. Správa komplexní série paralelně zpracovávaných příspěvků v tématických větvích. Pokud nějaké téma ještě vyžaduje dopracování, je místo toho začleněno do větve pu . Pokud se ukáže, že jsou tyto tématické větve naprosto stabilní, budou začleněny do větve master a poté budou znovu sestaveny z tématických větví, které byly ve větvi next , ale ještě se nedostaly do větve master . To znamená, že se větev master téměř vždy posouvá vpřed, větev next je čas od času přeskládána a větev pu je přeskládávána o něco častěji: Figure 79. Začlenění tématických větví s příspěvky do integračních větví s dlouhou životností. Pokud se tématická větev nakonec začlení do větve master , z repozitáře se odstraní. Projekt Git má kromě toho větev maint , která byla odštěpena z posledního vydání a obsahuje záplaty přenesené z vyšších verzí (backport) pro případ, že by bylo třeba vydat opravnou verzi. Pokud tedy klonujete repozitář Git, můžete se přepnout do čtyř větví a podívat se na projekt v různých fázích vývoje — v závislosti na tom, jak čerstvou verzi chcete nebo jak chcete přispívat. A správce projektu má k dispozici strukturovaný pracovní postup k posouzení nových příspěvků. Pracovní postupy s přeskládáním a s částečným převzetím revizí Někteří správci dávají místo začlenění práce z příspěvků (merge) přednost přeskládání (rebase) nebo částečnému převzetí (cherry pick) do větve master , čímž udržují historii téměř lineární. Máte-li hotovou práci v tématické větvi a rozhodli jste se, že ji chcete integrovat, přejdete na tuto větev a spustíte příkaz rebase , jímž znovu sestavíte příslušné změny na vrcholu své aktuální větve master (nebo větve develop a podobně). Pokud vše funguje, můžete větev master posunout rychle vpřed a výsledkem procesu bude lineární historie projektu. Druhým způsobem, jak přesunout práci z jedné větve do druhé, je tzv. částečné převzetí (angl. cherry picking [ 19 ] ). Částečné převzetí lze v systému Git přirovnat k přeskládání jediného objektu revize. Vezme se záplata, která byla provedena v dané revizi, a zkusí se znovu aplikovat na větev, na níž se právě nacházíte. Využijete to v situaci, kdy tématická větev obsahuje několik revizí a chcete integrovat pouze jednu z nich, nebo když máte v tématické větvi jediný objekt revize a dáváte přednost použití cherry-pick před provedením rebase . Dejme tomu, že máte projekt, který vypadá nějak takto: Figure 80. Příklad historie před provedením cherry-pick. Chcete-li do hlavní větve stáhnout revizi e43a6 , můžete zadat následující příkaz: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) Tím se stáhne stejná změna, která byla uvedena v revizi e43a6 , ale hodnota SHA-1 obou revizí se bude lišit, protože se bude lišit datum. Vaše historie teď vypadá nějak takto: Figure 81. Historie po částečném převzetí revize z tématické větve. Teď můžete tématickou větev odstranit a zahodit revize, které nehodláte vtáhnout do jiné větve. Rerere Pokud provádíte velké množství operací slučování a přeskládání, nebo pokud spravujete tématické větve s dlouhou životností, může vám pomoci vlastnost Gitu zvaná „rerere“. Rerere znamená „reuse recorded resolution“, čili „znovupoužití zaznamenaného řešení“. Jde o způsob jak si zjednodušit ruční řešení konfliktu. Pokud je mechanismus rerere povolen, uchovává Git sadu obrazů před a po úspěšných sloučeních. Pokud si Git všimne, že konflikt vypadá přesně jako ten, který jste už vyřešili, použije vaše řešení z minula a nebude vás tím zatěžovat. Uvedený rys má dvě části: konfigurační nastavení a příkaz. Konfigurační nastavení se jmenuje rerere.enabled a je dost šikovné na to, abyste je umístili do globální konfigurace: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Kdykoliv teď provedete sloučení, které řeší konflikt, zaznamená se řešení do mezipaměti pro případ, že bychom ho v budoucnu potřebovali. V případě potřeby můžete s mezipamětí pro rerere pracovat pomocí příkazu git rerere . Pokud je vyvolán bez parametru, prochází Git svou databázi řešení a pokouší se najít shodu s konflikty při aktuální operaci slučování a vyřešit je (i když při nastavení rerere.enabled na hodnotu true se to dělá automaticky). Existují i varianty příkazu pro případy, kdy chceme zobrazit, co se bude zaznamenávat, když chceme odstranit určité řešení z mezipaměti a když chceme celou mezipaměť vymazat. Příkazem rerere se budeme podrobněji zabývat v podkapitole Rerere . Označení vydání značkou Když jste se rozhodli vydat určitou verzi, pravděpodobně ji budete chtít označit, abyste mohli toto vydání v kterémkoli okamžiku v budoucnosti obnovit. Novou značku můžete vytvořit způsobem, který jsme probrali v kapitole Základy práce se systémem Git . Pokud se rozhodnete značku podepsat jako správce, bude označení probíhat takto: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Pokud své značky podepisujete, můžete mít problémy s distribucí veřejného klíče PGP použitého k podepsání značky. Správce projektu Git vyřešil tento problém tak, že přidal svůj veřejný klíč jako blob do repozitáře a poté vložil značku, která ukazuje přímo na tento obsah. Pomocí příkazu gpg --list-keys můžete určit, jaký klíč chcete: $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Poté můžete klíč přímo importovat do gitové databáze: vyexportujte ho a výsledek předáte příkazu git hash-object , který zapíše nový blob s tímto obsahem do systému Git a vrátí vám otisk SHA-1 tohoto blobu: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Teď máte v Gitu obsah svého klíče a můžete vytvořit značku, která bude ukazovat přímo na něj s tím, že zadáte novou hodnotu SHA-1, kterou vám vrátil příkaz hash-object : $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Pokud provedete příkaz git push --tags , začnete značku maintainer-pgp-pub sdílet s ostatními. Když bude chtít kdokoliv nějakou značku ověřit, může přímo importovat váš klíč PGP tak, že stáhne blob přímo z databáze a naimportuje ho do programu GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import Klíč pak může použít k ověření všech vašich podepsaných značek. Pokud navíc zadáte do zprávy značky další instrukce k jejímu ověření, může si je koncový uživatel zobrazit příkazem git show <značka> . Vygenerování čísla sestavení Git nepoužívá pro jednotlivé revize monotónně rostoucí čísla jako „v123“ nebo něco podobného. Pokud chcete získat čitelnou podobu jména revize, můžete pro daný objekt revize spustit příkaz git describe [ 20 ] . Git vám vrátí název nejbližší značky, který doplní počtem revizí za touto značkou a částečnou hodnotou SHA-1 popisovaného objektu revize: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c Díky tomu lze pro snímek nebo sestavení (build) při exportu použít jméno, které je pro člověka trochu srozumitelné. Pokud překládáte Git ze zdrojového kódu naklonovaného z repozitáře projektu Git, získáte ve skutečnosti po spuštění příkazu git --version něco, co vypadá podobně. Pokud získáváte popis objektu revize, který jste právě opatřili značkou, vrátí příkaz název této značky. Příkaz git describe upřednostňuje anotované značky (značky vytvořené s příznakem -a nebo -s ). Pokud tedy používáte příkaz git describe , měli byste značky vytvářet právě tímto způsobem, čímž si při získávání popisu objektu revize zajistíte vhodné pojmenování. Tento řetězec můžete také použít jako cíl příkazů checkout nebo show , ačkoli ty spoléhají na část se zkrácenou hodnotou SHA-1, a proto nemusí platit navždy. Například jádro Linuxu nyní přešlo z 8 na 10 znaků SHA-1, aby byla zajištěna jedinečnost identifikace objektů. Starší výstupy příkazu git describe tím byly zneplatněny. Příprava vydání Nyní budete chtít sestavení vydat. Jednou z věcí, kterou budete chtít udělat, je vytvoření archivu nejnovějšího snímku vašeho kódu pro všechny nebohé duše, které Git nepoužívají. Příkaz pro vytvoření archivu zní git archive [ 21 ] : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Pokud někdo tento tarball otevře, získá nejnovější snímek vašeho projektu uvnitř adresáře projektu. V podstatě stejným způsobem můžete vytvořit také archiv zip tím, že k příkazu git archive přidáte volbu --format=zip : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Nyní máte vytvořen tarball a archiv zip s novou verzí projektu. Můžete je nahrát na příslušnou webovou stránku nebo rozeslat elektronickou poštou. Příkaz „shortlog“ Nyní je na čase obeslat přes poštovní konferenci lidi, kteří chtějí vědět, co je ve vašem projektu nového. Seznam změn (changelog), které byly do projektu přidány od posledního vydání nebo e-mailu, lze rychle a elegantně získat příkazem git shortlog . Příkaz shrne popis všech revizí v zadaném rozmezí. Pokud bylo vaše poslední vydání pojmenováno v1.0.1, zobrazí následující příkaz shrnutí změn ve všech novějších revizích: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Výstupem příkazu je shrnutí všech revizí od v1.0.1 (seskupené podle autora), které můžete přes poštovní konferenci rozeslat. 18 . two-phase merge cycle 19 . Pozn. překl.: „Cherry picking“ je doslova něco jako „vyzobání třešniček“. 20 . Pozn. překl.: Slovo describe znamená doslova popiš (rozkazovací způsob). Příkaz tedy vrací doslovně popis objektu revize . 21 . Pozn. překl.: Při použití příkazu v systému Windows nelze pro vytvoření jména archivu použít obrat `git describe master`.tar.gz, protože zde nefunguje uzavření do opačných apostrofů. V unixových systémech fungují opačné apostrofy tak, že se nahradí výsledkem příkazu, který je v nich uzavřen. V tomto případě by se tedy vrátilo jméno objektu revize odvozené od nejbližší značky, ke kterému se přidá dvojice přípon .tar.gz . Ve Windows budeme muset uvést konkrétní jméno souboru. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/zh-tw/v2/%e5%88%86%e6%95%a3%e5%bc%8f%e7%9a%84-Git-%e7%b6%ad%e8%ad%b7%e4%b8%80%e5%80%8b%e5%b0%88%e6%a1%88 | Git - 維護一個專案 About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 開始 1.1 關於版本控制 1.2 Git 的簡史 1.3 Git 基礎要點 1.4 命令列 1.5 Git 安裝教學 1.6 初次設定 Git 1.7 取得說明文件 1.8 摘要 2. Git 基礎 2.1 取得一個 Git 倉儲 2.2 紀錄變更到版本庫中 2.3 檢視提交的歷史記錄 2.4 復原 2.5 與遠端協同工作 2.6 標籤 2.7 Git Aliases 2.8 總結 3. 使用 Git 分支 3.1 簡述分支 3.2 分支和合併的基本用法 3.3 分支管理 3.4 分支工作流程 3.5 遠端分支 3.6 衍合 3.7 總結 4. 伺服器上的 Git 4.1 通訊協定 4.2 在伺服器上佈署 Git 4.3 產生你的 SSH 公鑰 4.4 設定伺服器 4.5 Git 常駐程式 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 第3方 Git 託管方案 4.10 總結 5. 分散式的 Git 5.1 分散式工作流程 5.2 對專案進行貢獻 5.3 維護一個專案 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 建立帳戶及設定 6.2 參與一個專案 6.3 維護專案 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 總結 7. Git 工具 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 總結 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. 附錄 A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Summary A2. 附錄 B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. 附錄 C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 分散式的 Git - 維護一個專案 維護一個專案 In addition to knowing how to effectively contribute to a project, you’ll likely need to know how to maintain one. This can consist of accepting and applying patches generated via format-patch and emailed to you, or integrating changes in remote branches for repositories you’ve added as remotes to your project. Whether you maintain a canonical repository or want to help by verifying or approving patches, you need to know how to accept work in a way that is clearest for other contributors and sustainable by you over the long run. 使用有特定主題的分支工作 When you’re thinking of integrating new work, it’s generally a good idea to try it out in a topic branch – a temporary branch specifically made to try out that new work. This way, it’s easy to tweak a patch individually and leave it if it’s not working until you have time to come back to it. If you create a simple branch name based on the theme of the work you’re going to try, such as ruby_client or something similarly descriptive, you can easily remember it if you have to abandon it for a while and come back later. The maintainer of the Git project tends to namespace these branches as well – such as sc/ruby_client , where sc is short for the person who contributed the work. As you’ll remember, you can create the branch based off your master branch like this: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Or, if you want to also switch to it immediately, you can use the checkout -b option: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Now you’re ready to add your contributed work into this topic branch and determine if you want to merge it into your longer-term branches. 套用從電子郵件來的補丁 If you receive a patch over email that you need to integrate into your project, you need to apply the patch in your topic branch to evaluate it. There are two ways to apply an emailed patch: with git apply or with git am . 使用 apply 命令套用補丁 If you received the patch from someone who generated it with the git diff or a Unix diff command (which is not recommended; see the next section), you can apply it with the git apply command. Assuming you saved the patch at /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , you can apply the patch like this: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch This modifies the files in your working directory. It’s almost identical to running a patch -p1 command to apply the patch, although it’s more paranoid and accepts fewer fuzzy matches than patch. It also handles file adds, deletes, and renames if they’re described in the git diff format, which patch won’t do. Finally, git apply is an “apply all or abort all” model where either everything is applied or nothing is, whereas patch can partially apply patchfiles, leaving your working directory in a weird state. git apply is overall much more conservative than patch . It won’t create a commit for you – after running it, you must stage and commit the changes introduced manually. You can also use git apply to see if a patch applies cleanly before you try actually applying it – you can run git apply --check with the patch: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply If there is no output, then the patch should apply cleanly. This command also exits with a non-zero status if the check fails, so you can use it in scripts if you want. 使用 am 命令套用補丁 If the contributor is a Git user and was good enough to use the format-patch command to generate their patch, then your job is easier because the patch contains author information and a commit message for you. If you can, encourage your contributors to use format-patch instead of diff to generate patches for you. You should only have to use git apply for legacy patches and things like that. To apply a patch generated by format-patch , you use git am . Technically, git am is built to read an mbox file, which is a simple, plain-text format for storing one or more email messages in one text file. It looks something like this: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 This is the beginning of the output of the format-patch command that you saw in the previous section. This is also a valid mbox email format. If someone has emailed you the patch properly using git send-email, and you download that into an mbox format, then you can point git am to that mbox file, and it will start applying all the patches it sees. If you run a mail client that can save several emails out in mbox format, you can save entire patch series into a file and then use git am to apply them one at a time. However, if someone uploaded a patch file generated via format-patch to a ticketing system or something similar, you can save the file locally and then pass that file saved on your disk to git am to apply it: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function You can see that it applied cleanly and automatically created the new commit for you. The author information is taken from the email’s From and Date headers, and the message of the commit is taken from the Subject and body (before the patch) of the email. For example, if this patch was applied from the mbox example above, the commit generated would look something like this: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 The Commit information indicates the person who applied the patch and the time it was applied. The Author information is the individual who originally created the patch and when it was originally created. But it’s possible that the patch won’t apply cleanly. Perhaps your main branch has diverged too far from the branch the patch was built from, or the patch depends on another patch you haven’t applied yet. In that case, the git am process will fail and ask you what you want to do: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". This command puts conflict markers in any files it has issues with, much like a conflicted merge or rebase operation. You solve this issue much the same way – edit the file to resolve the conflict, stage the new file, and then run git am --resolved to continue to the next patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem If you want Git to try a bit more intelligently to resolve the conflict, you can pass a -3 option to it, which makes Git attempt a three-way merge. This option isn’t on by default because it doesn’t work if the commit the patch says it was based on isn’t in your repository. If you do have that commit – if the patch was based on a public commit – then the -3 option is generally much smarter about applying a conflicting patch: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. In this case, this patch had already been applied. Without the -3 option, it looks like a conflict. If you’re applying a number of patches from an mbox, you can also run the am command in interactive mode, which stops at each patch it finds and asks if you want to apply it: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all This is nice if you have a number of patches saved, because you can view the patch first if you don’t remember what it is, or not apply the patch if you’ve already done so. When all the patches for your topic are applied and committed into your branch, you can choose whether and how to integrate them into a longer-running branch. 切換到遠端分支 If your contribution came from a Git user who set up their own repository, pushed a number of changes into it, and then sent you the URL to the repository and the name of the remote branch the changes are in, you can add them as a remote and do merges locally. For instance, if Jessica sends you an email saying that she has a great new feature in the ruby-client branch of her repository, you can test it by adding the remote and checking out that branch locally: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client If she emails you again later with another branch containing another great feature, you can fetch and check out because you already have the remote setup. This is most useful if you’re working with a person consistently. If someone only has a single patch to contribute once in a while, then accepting it over email may be less time consuming than requiring everyone to run their own server and having to continually add and remove remotes to get a few patches. You’re also unlikely to want to have hundreds of remotes, each for someone who contributes only a patch or two. However, scripts and hosted services may make this easier – it depends largely on how you develop and how your contributors develop. The other advantage of this approach is that you get the history of the commits as well. Although you may have legitimate merge issues, you know where in your history their work is based; a proper three-way merge is the default rather than having to supply a -3 and hope the patch was generated off a public commit to which you have access. If you aren’t working with a person consistently but still want to pull from them in this way, you can provide the URL of the remote repository to the git pull command. This does a one-time pull and doesn’t save the URL as a remote reference: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. 決定要提到哪些資訊 Now you have a topic branch that contains contributed work. At this point, you can determine what you’d like to do with it. This section revisits a couple of commands so you can see how you can use them to review exactly what you’ll be introducing if you merge this into your main branch. It’s often helpful to get a review of all the commits that are in this branch but that aren’t in your master branch. You can exclude commits in the master branch by adding the --not option before the branch name. This does the same thing as the master..contrib format that we used earlier. For example, if your contributor sends you two patches and you create a branch called contrib and applied those patches there, you can run this: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better To see what changes each commit introduces, remember that you can pass the -p option to git log and it will append the diff introduced to each commit. To see a full diff of what would happen if you were to merge this topic branch with another branch, you may have to use a weird trick to get the correct results. You may think to run this: $ git diff master This command gives you a diff, but it may be misleading. If your master branch has moved forward since you created the topic branch from it, then you’ll get seemingly strange results. This happens because Git directly compares the snapshots of the last commit of the topic branch you’re on and the snapshot of the last commit on the master branch. For example, if you’ve added a line in a file on the master branch, a direct comparison of the snapshots will look like the topic branch is going to remove that line. If master is a direct ancestor of your topic branch, this isn’t a problem; but if the two histories have diverged, the diff will look like you’re adding all the new stuff in your topic branch and removing everything unique to the master branch. What you really want to see are the changes added to the topic branch – the work you’ll introduce if you merge this branch with master. You do that by having Git compare the last commit on your topic branch with the first common ancestor it has with the master branch. Technically, you can do that by explicitly figuring out the common ancestor and then running your diff on it: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db However, that isn’t convenient, so Git provides another shorthand for doing the same thing: the triple-dot syntax. In the context of the diff command, you can put three periods after another branch to do a diff between the last commit of the branch you’re on and its common ancestor with another branch: $ git diff master...contrib This command shows you only the work your current topic branch has introduced since its common ancestor with master. That is a very useful syntax to remember. 整合貢獻工作 When all the work in your topic branch is ready to be integrated into a more mainline branch, the question is how to do it. Furthermore, what overall workflow do you want to use to maintain your project? You have a number of choices, so we’ll cover a few of them. 合併工作流程 One simple workflow merges your work into your master branch. In this scenario, you have a master branch that contains basically stable code. When you have work in a topic branch that you’ve done or that someone has contributed and you’ve verified, you merge it into your master branch, delete the topic branch, and then continue the process. If we have a repository with work in two branches named ruby_client and php_client that looks like History with several topic branches. and merge ruby_client first and then php_client next, then your history will end up looking like After a topic branch merge. . 圖表 73. History with several topic branches. 圖表 74. After a topic branch merge. That is probably the simplest workflow, but it can possibly be problematic if you’re dealing with larger or more stable projects where you want to be really careful about what you introduce. If you have a more important project, you might want to use a two-phase merge cycle. In this scenario, you have two long-running branches, master and develop , in which you determine that master is updated only when a very stable release is cut and all new code is integrated into the develop branch. You regularly push both of these branches to the public repository. Each time you have a new topic branch to merge in ( Before a topic branch merge. ), you merge it into develop ( After a topic branch merge. ); then, when you tag a release, you fast-forward master to wherever the now-stable develop branch is ( After a project release. ). 圖表 75. Before a topic branch merge. 圖表 76. After a topic branch merge. 圖表 77. After a project release. This way, when people clone your project’s repository, they can either check out master to build the latest stable version and keep up to date on that easily, or they can check out develop, which is the more cutting-edge stuff. You can also continue this concept, having an integrate branch where all the work is merged together. Then, when the codebase on that branch is stable and passes tests, you merge it into a develop branch; and when that has proven itself stable for a while, you fast-forward your master branch. 大量合併的工作六程 The Git project has four long-running branches: master , next , and pu (proposed updates) for new work, and maint for maintenance backports. When new work is introduced by contributors, it’s collected into topic branches in the maintainer’s repository in a manner similar to what we’ve described (see Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. ). At this point, the topics are evaluated to determine whether they’re safe and ready for consumption or whether they need more work. If they’re safe, they’re merged into next , and that branch is pushed up so everyone can try the topics integrated together. 圖表 78. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. If the topics still need work, they’re merged into pu instead. When it’s determined that they’re totally stable, the topics are re-merged into master and are then rebuilt from the topics that were in next but didn’t yet graduate to master . This means master almost always moves forward, next is rebased occasionally, and pu is rebased even more often: 圖表 79. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches. When a topic branch has finally been merged into master , it’s removed from the repository. The Git project also has a maint branch that is forked off from the last release to provide backported patches in case a maintenance release is required. Thus, when you clone the Git repository, you have four branches that you can check out to evaluate the project in different stages of development, depending on how cutting edge you want to be or how you want to contribute; and the maintainer has a structured workflow to help them vet new contributions. 衍合與挑揀的工作流程 Other maintainers prefer to rebase or cherry-pick contributed work on top of their master branch, rather than merging it in, to keep a mostly linear history. When you have work in a topic branch and have determined that you want to integrate it, you move to that branch and run the rebase command to rebuild the changes on top of your current master (or develop , and so on) branch. If that works well, you can fast-forward your master branch, and you’ll end up with a linear project history. The other way to move introduced work from one branch to another is to cherry-pick it. A cherry-pick in Git is like a rebase for a single commit. It takes the patch that was introduced in a commit and tries to reapply it on the branch you’re currently on. This is useful if you have a number of commits on a topic branch and you want to integrate only one of them, or if you only have one commit on a topic branch and you’d prefer to cherry-pick it rather than run rebase. For example, suppose you have a project that looks like this: 圖表 80. Example history before a cherry-pick. If you want to pull commit e43a6 into your master branch, you can run $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) This pulls the same change introduced in e43a6 , but you get a new commit SHA-1 value, because the date applied is different. Now your history looks like this: 圖表 81. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch. Now you can remove your topic branch and drop the commits you didn’t want to pull in. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called “rerere” that can help. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” – it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . 為釋出的版本加上標籤 When you’ve decided to cut a release, you’ll probably want to drop a tag so you can re-create that release at any point going forward. You can create a new tag as discussed in [ch02-git-basics] . If you decide to sign the tag as the maintainer, the tagging may look something like this: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 If you do sign your tags, you may have the problem of distributing the public PGP key used to sign your tags. The maintainer of the Git project has solved this issue by including their public key as a blob in the repository and then adding a tag that points directly to that content. To do this, you can figure out which key you want by running gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Then, you can directly import the key into the Git database by exporting it and piping that through git hash-object , which writes a new blob with those contents into Git and gives you back the SHA-1 of the blob: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Now that you have the contents of your key in Git, you can create a tag that points directly to it by specifying the new SHA-1 value that the hash-object command gave you: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 If you run git push --tags , the maintainer-pgp-pub tag will be shared with everyone. If anyone wants to verify a tag, they can directly import your PGP key by pulling the blob directly out of the database and importing it into GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import They can use that key to verify all your signed tags. Also, if you include instructions in the tag message, running git show <tag> will let you give the end user more specific instructions about tag verification. 產生一個建置編號 Because Git doesn’t have monotonically increasing numbers like v123 or the equivalent to go with each commit, if you want to have a human-readable name to go with a commit, you can run git describe on that commit. Git gives you the name of the nearest tag with the number of commits on top of that tag and a partial SHA-1 value of the commit you’re describing: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c This way, you can export a snapshot or build and name it something understandable to people. In fact, if you build Git from source code cloned from the Git repository, git --version gives you something that looks like this. If you’re describing a commit that you have directly tagged, it gives you the tag name. The git describe command favors annotated tags (tags created with the -a or -s flag), so release tags should be created this way if you’re using git describe , to ensure the commit is named properly when described. You can also use this string as the target of a checkout or show command, although it relies on the abbreviated SHA-1 value at the end, so it may not be valid forever. For instance, the Linux kernel recently jumped from 8 to 10 characters to ensure SHA-1 object uniqueness, so older git describe output names were invalidated. 準備釋出一個版本 Now you want to release a build. One of the things you’ll want to do is create an archive of the latest snapshot of your code for those poor souls who don’t use Git. The command to do this is git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz If someone opens that tarball, they get the latest snapshot of your project under a project directory. You can also create a zip archive in much the same way, but by passing the --format=zip option to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip You now have a nice tarball and a zip archive of your project release that you can upload to your website or email to people. 簡短的日誌 It’s time to email your mailing list of people who want to know what’s happening in your project. A nice way of quickly getting a sort of changelog of what has been added to your project since your last release or email is to use the git shortlog command. It summarizes all the commits in the range you give it; for example, the following gives you a summary of all the commits since your last release, if your last release was named v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 You get a clean summary of all the commits since v1.0.1, grouped by author, that you can email to your list. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=bn | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/gr/v2/%ce%a4%ce%b1-%ce%b8%ce%b5%ce%bc%ce%b5%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%8e%ce%b4%ce%b7-%cf%83%cf%84%ce%bf%ce%b9%cf%87%ce%b5%ce%af%ce%b1-%cf%84%ce%bf%cf%85-Git-%ce%a7%cf%81%ce%b7%cf%83%ce%b9%ce%bc%ce%bf%cf%80%ce%bf%ce%b9%cf%8e%ce%bd%cf%84%ce%b1%cf%82-%cf%84%ce%bf-%ce%b9%cf%83%cf%84%ce%bf%cf%81%ce%b9%ce%ba%cf%8c-%cf%85%cf%80%ce%bf%ce%b2%ce%bf%ce%bb%cf%8e%ce%bd | Git - Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Ξεκινώντας με το Git 1.1 Σχετικά με τον έλεγχο εκδόσεων 1.2 Σύντομο ιστορικό του Git 1.3 Τι είναι το Git; 1.4 Η γραμμή εντολών 1.5 Εγκατάσταση του Git 1.6 Ρύθμιση του Git για πρώτη φορά 1.7 Χρησιμοποιώντας τη βοήθεια 1.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 2. Τα θεμελιώδη στοιχεία του Git 2.1 Απόκτηση αποθετηρίου Git 2.2 Καταγραφή αλλαγών στο αποθετήριο 2.3 Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών 2.4 Αναιρέσεις (undoing) 2.5 Δουλεύοντας με απομακρυσμένα αποθετήρια 2.6 Ετικέτες 2.7 Συντομεύεσεις στο Git 2.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 3. Διακλαδώσεις στο Git 3.1 Οι κλάδοι με λίγα λόγια 3.2 Βασικές έννοιες διακλαδώσεων και συγχωνεύσεων 3.3 Διαχείριση κλάδων 3.4 Ροές εργασίας με διακλαδώσεις 3.5 Απομακρυσμένοι κλάδοι 3.6 Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) 3.7 Ανακεφαλαίωση 4. Το Git στον διακομιστή 4.1 Τα πρωτόκολλα 4.2 Εγκατάσταση του Git σε διακομιστή 4.3 Δημιουργία δημόσιου κλειδιού SSH 4.4 Στήσιμο του διακομιστή 4.5 Δαίμονες του Git 4.6 Έξυπνο HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Επιλογές φιλοξενίας από τρίτους 4.10 Ανακεφαλαίωση 5. Κατανεμημένο Git 5.1 Κατανεμημένες ροές εργασίας 5.2 Συνεισφέροντας σε ένα έργο 5.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 5.4 Ανακεφαλαίωση 6. GitHub 6.1 Δημιουργία λογαριασμού και ρύθμισή του 6.2 Συνεισφορά σε έργο 6.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 6.4 Διαχείριση οργανισμώνν 6.5 Συγγραφή script στο GitHub 6.6 Ανακεφαλαίωση 7. Εργαλεία του Git 7.1 Επιλογή αναθεώρησης 7.2 Διαδραστική εργασία με το στάδιο καταχώρισης 7.3 Αποθέματα και Καθαρισμός 7.4 Υπογραφή της δουλειάς μας 7.5 Αναζήτηση 7.6 Η ιστορία ξαναγράφεται 7.7 Απομυθοποίηση της reset 7.8 Προχωρημένη Συγχώνευση 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Αποσφαλμάτωση με το Git 7.11 Υπομονάδες 7.12 Δεμάτιασμα δεδομένων 7.13 Replace 7.14 Αποθήκευση διαπιστευτηρίων 7.15 Ανακεφαλαίωση 8. Εξατομίκευση του Git 8.1 Διαμόρφωση Git 8.2 Γνωρίσματα του Git 8.3 Τα άγκιστρα του Git 8.4 Ένα παράδειγμα επιβολής πολιτικής από το Git 8.5 Ανακεφαλαίωση 9. Το Git και άλλα συστήματα 9.1 Το Git ως πελάτης 9.2 Μετανάστευση στο Git 9.3 Ανακεφαλαίωση 10. Εσωτερική λειτουργία του Git 10.1 Διοχετεύσεις και πορσελάνες 10.2 Αντικείμενα του Git 10.3 Αναφορές του Git 10.4 Πακετάρισμα αρχείων 10.5 Τα refspec 10.6 Πρωτόκολλα μεταφοράς 10.7 Διατήρηση και ανάκτηση δεδομένων 10.8 Μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος 10.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A1. Appendix A: Το Git σε άλλα περιβάλλοντα A1.1 Γραφικές διεπαφές A1.2 Το Git στο Visual Studio A1.3 Git στο Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git στο IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git στο Sublime Text A1.6 Το Git στο Bash A1.7 Το Git στο Zsh A1.8 Το Git στο Powershell A1.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A2. Appendix B: Ενσωμάτωση του Git στις εφαρμογές μας A2.1 Γραμμή εντολών Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Appendix C: Εντολές Git A3.1 Ρύθμιση και διαμόρφωση A3.2 Λήψη και δημιουργία έργων A3.3 Βασική λήψη στιγμιοτύπων A3.4 Διακλάδωση και συγχώνευση A3.5 Κοινή χρήση και ενημέρωση έργων A3.6 Επιθεώρηση και σύγκριση A3.7 Αποσφαλμάτωση A3.8 Επιθέματα A3.9 Ηλεκτρονικό ταχυδρομείο A3.10 Εξωτερικά Συστήματα A3.11 Διοίκηση A3.12 Εντολές διοχέτευσης 2nd Edition 2.3 Τα θεμελιώδη στοιχεία του Git - Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών Αφού έχουμε δημιουργήσει αρκετές υποβολές, ή έχουμε κλωνοποιήσει ένα αποθετήριο με υπάρχον ιστορικό υποβολών, κάποια στιγμή θα θελήσουμε να κοιτάξουμε στο παρελθόν για να δούμε τι έχει γίνει. Το πιο βασικό και ισχυρό εργαλείο για να το κάνουμε αυτό είναι η εντολη git log . Τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα χρησιμοποιούν ένα πολύ απλό έργο που ονομάζεται “simplegit”. Για να αποκτήσουμε το έργο, εκτελούμε: $ git clone https://github.com/schacon/simplegit-progit Αν εκτελέσουμε την εντολή git log σε αυτό το έργο, θα πάρουμε κάτι σαν το εξής: $ git log commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 Change version number commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 Remove unnecessary test commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 Initial commit Εξ ορισμού, η εντολή git log παραθέτει όλες τις υποβολές που έχουν γίνει στο αποθετήριο σε αντίστροφη χρονολογική σειρά, οι πιο πρόσφατες υποβολές εμφανίζονται πρώτες. Όπως μπορούμε να δούμε, η εντολή καταγράφει κάθε υποβολή μαζί με το άθροισμα ελέγχου SHA-1, το όνομα και το e-mail του δημιουργού της, την ημερομηνία εγραφής, καθώς και το μήνυμα της υποβολής. Υπάρχει μια πληθώρα επιλογών για τη συγκεκριμένη εντολή ώστε να βρούμε ακριβώς αυτό που ψάχνουμε. Θα δείξουμε κάποιες από τις πιο δημοφιλείς. Μια από τις πιο χρήσιμες επιλογές είναι η -p ή patch , η οποία δείχνει τη διαφορά που εισήχθη σε κάθε υποβολή. Μπορούμε επίσης να περιορίσουμε το πλήθος των υποβολών, για παράδειγμα χρησιμοποιούμε την -2 , για να δούμε μόνο τις δύο τελευταίες υποβολές: $ git log -p -2 commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 Change version number diff --git a/Rakefile b/Rakefile index a874b73..8f94139 100644 --- a/Rakefile +++ b/Rakefile @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ require 'rake/gempackagetask' spec = Gem::Specification.new do |s| s.platform = Gem::Platform::RUBY s.name = "simplegit" - s.version = "0.1.0" + s.version = "0.1.1" s.author = "Scott Chacon" s.email = "schacon@gee-mail.com" s.summary = "A simple gem for using Git in Ruby code." commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 Remove unnecessary test diff --git a/lib/simplegit.rb b/lib/simplegit.rb index a0a60ae..47c6340 100644 --- a/lib/simplegit.rb +++ b/lib/simplegit.rb @@ -18,8 +18,3 @@ class SimpleGit end end - -if $0 == __FILE__ - git = SimpleGit.new - puts git.show -end Η επιλογή αυτή εμφανίζει τις ίδιες πληροφορίες, αλλά κάθε υποβολή ακολουθείται και από τις διαφορές (diff) που εισήγαγε. Αυτό είναι πολύ χρήσιμο στην περίπτωση που θέλουμε να εξετάσουμε κάποιον κώδικα ή για να δούμε στα γρήγορα τι έγινε σε μια ακολουθία υποβολών που εισήγαγε κάποιος συνεργάτης μας. Μπορούμε επίσης να χρησιμοποιήσουμε επιλογές ανακεφαλαίωσης με την git log . Για παράδειμα, αν θέλουμε να δούμε κάποια συντομευμένα στατιστικά για την κάθε υποβολή, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε την επιλογή --stat : $ git log --stat commit ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Mon Mar 17 21:52:11 2008 -0700 Change version number Rakefile | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) commit 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 16:40:33 2008 -0700 Remove unnecessary test lib/simplegit.rb | 5 ----- 1 file changed, 5 deletions(-) commit a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gee-mail.com> Date: Sat Mar 15 10:31:28 2008 -0700 Initial commit README | 6 ++++++ Rakefile | 23 +++++++++++++++++++++++ lib/simplegit.rb | 25 +++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 files changed, 54 insertions(+) Όπως μπορούμε να δούμε, η επιλογή --stat εκτυπώνει κάτω από κάθε υποβολή, μια λίστα με τα τροποποιημένα αρχεία, πόσα αρχεία άλλαξαν, καθώς και πόσες γραμμές προστέθηκαν ή αφαιρέθηκαν σε αυτά τα αρχεία. Επίσης, εκτυπώνει και μια περίληψη αυτών των πληροφοριών στο τέλος. Μια ακόμα χρήσιμη επιλογή είναι η --pretty . Η επιλογή αυτή αλλάζει τη μορφή της εξόδου της εντολής. Υπάρχουν μερικές προϋπάρχουσες τιμές που μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε. Η τιμή oneline εκτυπώνει κάθε υποβολή σε μία γραμμή, κάτι το οποίο μπορεί να μας φανεί χρήσιμο αν βλέπουμε πολλές υποβολές. Επιπλέον, οι τιμές short , full και fuller εμφανίζουν την ίδια έξοδο σε παρόμοια μορφή αλλά με λιγότερες ή περισσότερες πληροφορίες αντίστοιχα: $ git log --pretty=oneline ca82a6dff817ec66f44342007202690a93763949 Change version number 085bb3bcb608e1e8451d4b2432f8ecbe6306e7e7 Remove unnecessary test a11bef06a3f659402fe7563abf99ad00de2209e6 Initial commit Η πιο ενδιαφέρουσα επιλογή είναι η format , η οποία μας επιτρέπει να προσδιορίσουμε εμείς τη μορφή που θα έχει η έξοδός. Αυτό είναι εξαιρετικά χρήσιμο σε περιπτώσεις που θέλουμε η έξοδος να μπορεί να είναι αναγνώσιμη από κάποιο αυτοματοποιημένο σύστημα — επειδή έχουμε προσδιορίσει τη μορφή της εξόδου ρητά, γνωρίζουμε ότι αυτή δεν θα αλλάξει με ενημερώσεις του Git: $ git log --pretty=format:"%h - %an, %ar : %s" ca82a6d - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : Change version number 085bb3b - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : Remove unnecessary test a11bef0 - Scott Chacon, 6 years ago : Initial commit Ο πίνακας Χρήσιμες επιλογές για την git log --pretty=format παραθέτει μερικές από τις πιο χρήσιμες επιλογές μορφοποίησης. Table 1. Χρήσιμες επιλογές για την git log --pretty=format Επιλογή Περιγραφή εξόδου %H Αριθμός SHA-1 υποβολής %h Συντμημένος αριθμός SHA-1 υποβολής %T Αριθμός SHA-1 δέντρου %t Συντμημένος αριθμός SHA-1 δέντρου %P Αριθμοί SHA-1 γονέων %p Συντμημένοι αριθμός SHA-1 γονέων %an Όνομα συγγραφέα %ae E-mail συγγραφέα %ad Ημερομηνία συγγραφέα (σε μορφή που ορίζεται από την επιλογή --date= ) %ar Ημερομηνία συγγραφέα, σχετική %cn Όνομα υποβάλλοντος %ce E-mail υποβάλλοντος %cd Ημερομηνία υποβολής %cr Ημερομηνία υποβολής, σχετική %s Θέμα Ίσως αναρωτιέστε ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ του author (δημιουργού, συγγραφέα) και του committer (αυτού που έκανε την υποβολή). Ο δημιουργός είναι το πρόσωπο που έγραψε αρχικά τη δουλειά, ενώ o committer είναι αυτός που την υπέβαλε τελευταίος. Συνεπώς, αν στείλουμε ένα επίθεμα για ένα έργο και κάποιος άλλος το υποβάλλει, θα πρέπει και οι δύο να πιστωθούμε τη δουλειά: εμείς ως δημιουργός και ο άλλος ως αυτός που την υπέβαλλε. Θα αναλύσουμε αυτή τη διαφορά αυτή σε λίγο, στην ενότητα Κατανεμημένο Git . Οι επιλογές oneline και format είναι ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμες σε συνδυασμό με μια άλλη επιλογή της εντολής log , την --graph . Η επιλογή αυτή προσθέτει ένα μικρό γράφημα με χαρακτήρες ASCII που δείχνει το ιστορικό των κλάδων και των συγχωνεύσεων: $ git log --pretty=format:"%h %s" --graph * 2d3acf9 Ignore errors from SIGCHLD on trap * 5e3ee11 Merge branch 'master' of https://github.com/dustin/grit.git |\ | * 420eac9 Add method for getting the current branch * | 30e367c Timeout code and tests * | 5a09431 Add timeout protection to grit * | e1193f8 Support for heads with slashes in them |/ * d6016bc Require time for xmlschema * 11d191e Merge branch 'defunkt' into local Αυτή η μορφή της εξόδου θα γίνει πιο ενδιαφέρουσα αργότερα όταν καλύψουμε τους κλάδους και τις συγχωνεύσεις στο επόμενο κεφάλαιο. Αυτές είναι μερικές απλές επιλογές με τις οποίες μπορούμε να μορφοποιήσουμε την έξοδο της εντολής git log — υπάρχουν πολλές άλλες. Ο πίνακας Συνήθεις επιλογές για την git log καταγράφει όλες τις επιλογές που καλύψαμε μέχρι στιγμής, καθώς και κάποιες άλλες επιλογές μορφοποίησης που μπορεί να μας φανούν χρήσιμες μαζί με μια περιγραφή του τρόπου με τον οποίο αλλάζουν το αποτέλεμσμα της εντολής log . Table 2. Συνήθεις επιλογές για την git log Επιλογή Περιγραφή -p Δείξε το επίθεμα (patch) που εισήχθηκε σε κάθε υποβολή. --stat Δείξε στατιστικά σχετικά με τα αρχεία που τροποποιήθηκαν σε κάθε υποβολή. --shortstat Δείξε μόνον την τελευταία γραμμή από την επιλογή --stat , που δείχνει μόνο τον συνολικό αριθμό αρχείων που τροποποιήθηκαν και αριθμό γραμμών που προστέθηκαν και αφαιρέθηκαν. --name-only Δείξε τη λίστα των αρχείων που τροποποιήθηκαν (μετά τις πληροφορίες για την υποβολή). --name-status Δείξε επιπλέον τη λίστα των αρχείων που επηρεάστηκαν με προσθήκη/τροποποίηση/διαγραφή πληροφοριών. --abbrev-commit Δείξε μόνο τους πρώτους χαρακτήρες από τους 40 του αθροίσματος ελέγχου SHA-1. --relative-date Δείξε τη σχετική ημερομηνία σε σχετική μορφή (π.χ. “2 weeks ago”) αντί για την πλήρη. --graph Δείξε ένα γράφημα ASCII του κλάδου και του ιστορικού συγχώνευσης δίπλα στην έξοδο του μητρώου. --pretty Δείξε τις υποβολές σε εναλλακτική μορφή· οι επιλογές είναι: oneline , short , full , fuller και format (στην οποία ορίζουμε τη δική μας μορφή). --oneline Συντόμευση για --pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit χρήση και των δύο μαζί. Περιορίζοντας την έξοδο της log Εκτός από τις επιλογές μορφοποίησης, η εντολή git log έχει και πολλές επιλογές που περιορίζουν την έξοδό της — δηλαδή, επιλογές που μας δείχνουν μόνο ένα υποσύνολο των συνολικών υποβολών. Έχουμε ήδη δει μια τέτοια επιλογή, την -2 , η οποία εμφανίζει μόνο τις δύο τελευταίες υποβολές. Μάλιστα, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε -<n> , όπου n είναι ένας ακέραιος που αντιστοιχεί στις τελευταίες n υποβολές. Στην πραγματικότητα, βέβαια, είναι σχετικά απίθανο να χρησιμοποιούμε αυτή την επιλογή συχνά, καθώς το Git εκ προεπιλογής παροχετεύει την έξοδο σε έναν σελιδοποιητή οπότε βλέπουμε μόνο μια σελίδα με τα στοιχεία του μητρώου κάθε φορά. Ωστόσο, θα μας φανούν πολύ χρήσιμες οι επιλογές που περιορίζουν τον αριθμό των αποτελεσμάτων με χρονικά κριτήρια. Για παράδειγμα, η εντολή αυτή θα μας δώσει μια λίστα με τις υποβολές που έγιναν τις τελευταίες δύο εβδομάδες: $ git log --since=2.weeks Η εντολή αυτή χρησιμοποιείται με πολλές διαφορετικές μορφές — μπορούμε να προσδιορίσουμε μια συγκεκριμένη μέρα, "2008-01-15" , ή μια σχετική μέρα όπως "2 years 1 day 3 minutes ago" . Μπορούμε επίσης να φιλτράρουμε τη λίστα με τις υποβολές με βάση κάποια κριτήρια. Η επιλογή --author μας επιτρέπει να φιλτράρουμε με βάση έναν συγκεκριμένο δημιουργό και η επιλογή --grep μας επιτρέπει να ψάξουμε για λέξεις-κλειδιά στα μηνύματα των υποβολών. Note Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε περισσότερες από μία φορές τα κριτήρια αναζήτησης --author και --grep , κάτι που θα περιορίσει την έξοδο της εντολής log σε υποβολές που συμφωνούν με οποιοδήποτε από τα μοτίβα για τον --author και οποιοδήποτε από τα μοτίβα του --grep · πάντως αν προσθέσετε επιπλέον την επιλογή --all-match , θα περιορίσετε την έξοδο σε αυτές τις υποβολές που συμφωνούν με όλα τα μοτίβα του --grep . Ένα ακόμα πολύ χρήσιμο φίλτρο είναι η επιλογή -S (κατά το κοινώς λεγόμενο η “αξίνα” (“pickaxe”) του Git) η οποία παίρνει μια συμβολοσειρά και μας δείχνει μόνο τις υποβολές που εισήγαγαν κάποια αλλαγή στον κώδικα, η οποία προσέθεσε ή αφαίρεσε αυτή τη συμβολοσειρά. Για παράδειγμα, αν θέλουμε να βρούμε την τελευταία υποβολή που προσέθεσε ή αφαίρεσε μια αναφορά σε μια συγκεκριμένη συνάρτηση, θα γράφαμε: $ git log -S function_name Η τελευταία πραγματικά χρήσιμη επιλογή που μπορούμε να περάσουμε στην git log ως φίλτρο, είναι η διαδρομή του καταλόγου (path). Αν προσδιορίσουμε έναν κατάλογο ή ένα όνομα αρχείου, μπορούμε να περιορίσουμε την έξοδο της εντολής log ώστε να μας εμφανίσει μόνο τις υποβολές που επέφεραν αλλαγές σε αυτά τα αρχεία. Συνήθως αυτή είναι η τελευταία επιλογή και γενικά ακολουθεί μια διπλή παύλα ( -- ) ώστε να ξεχωρίζουμε τις διαδρομές των αρχείων από τις επιλογές. $ git log -- path/to/file Στον πίνακα Επιλογές που περιορίζουν την έξοδο της git log καταγράφουμε κάποιες από αυτές τις επιλογές αυτές για εύκολη αναφορά. Table 3. Επιλογές που περιορίζουν την έξοδο της git log Επιλογή Περιγραφή -(n) Δείξε μόνον τις τελευταίες n υποβολές. --since , --after Περιόρισε τις υποβολές σε αυτές που έγιναν μετά από συγκεκριμένη ημερομηνία. --until , --before Περιόρισε τις υποβολές σε αυτές που έγιναν πριν από συγκεκριμένη ημερομηνία. --author Δείξε μόνο τις υποβολές στις οποίες το πεδίο author συμφωνεί με συγκεκριμένη συμβολοσειρά. --committer Δείξε μόνο τις υποβολές στις οποίες το πεδίο committer συμφωνεί με συγκεκριμένη συμβολοσειρά. --grep Δείξε μόνο τις υποβολές στις οποίες το μήνυμα υποβολής περιέχει συγκεκριμένη συμβολοσειρά. -S Δείξε μόνο τις υποβολές στις οποίες προστέθηκε ή αφαιρέθηκε κώδικας που ταιριάζει με συγκεκριμένη συμβολοσειρά. Για παράδειγμα, αν θέλουμε να δούμε ποιες υποβολές τροποποίησαν αρχεία τεστ στο ιστορικό του πηγαίου κώδικα του Git από τον Junio Hamano και δεν είναι υποβολές συγχώνευσης κατά τον Οκτώβριο του 2008, μπορούμε να εκτελέσουμε κάτι τέτοιο: $ git log --pretty="%h - %s" --author='Junio C Hamano' --since="2008-10-01" \ --before="2008-11-01" --no-merges -- t/ 5610e3b - Fix testcase failure when extended attributes are in use acd3b9e - Enhance hold_lock_file_for_{update,append}() API f563754 - demonstrate breakage of detached checkout with symbolic link HEAD d1a43f2 - reset --hard/read-tree --reset -u: remove unmerged new paths 51a94af - Fix "checkout --track -b newbranch" on detached HEAD b0ad11e - pull: allow "git pull origin $something:$current_branch" into an unborn branch Από τις περίπου 40.000 υποβολές στο ιστορικό του πηγαίου κώδικα του Git, η εντολή αυτή θα μας δείξει μόνο έξι που ταιριάζουν με τα παραπάνω κριτήρια. Tip Αποτροπή της εμφάνισης των υποβολών συγχώνευσης Ανάλογα με τη ροή εργασίας που χρησιμοποιοείτε στο αποθετήριό σας, ενδέχεται ένα σημαντικό ποσοστό των υποβολών στο ιστορικό να είναι απλά υποβολές συγχώνευσης, οι οποίες γενικά δεν εμπεριέχουν πολλές πληροφορίες. Για να αποτρέψετε την εμφάνιση των υποβολών συγχώνευσης, απλά προσθέτετε στη log την επιλογή --no-merges . prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/sl/v2/Porazdeljeni-Git-Vzdr%c5%beevanje-projekta | Git - Vzdrževanje projekta About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Začetek 1.1 O nadzoru različic 1.2 Kratka zgodovina Gita 1.3 Kaj je Git? 1.4 Ukazna vrstica 1.5 Namestitev Gita 1.6 Prva nastavitev Gita 1.7 Pridobivanje pomoči 1.8 Povzetek 2. Osnove Git 2.1 Pridobivanje repozitorija Git 2.2 Snemanje sprememb v repozitorij 2.3 Pregled zgodovine potrditev 2.4 Razveljavljanje stvari 2.5 Delo z daljavami 2.6 Označevanje 2.7 Aliasi Git 2.8 Povzetek 3. Veje Git 3.1 Veje na kratko 3.2 Osnove vej in združevanja 3.3 Upravljanje vej 3.4 Poteki dela z vejami 3.5 Oddaljene veje 3.6 Ponovno baziranje 3.7 Povzetek 4. Git na strežniku 4.1 Protokoli 4.2 Pridobitev Gita na strežniku 4.3 Generiranje vaših javnih ključev SSH 4.4 Nastavitev strežnika 4.5 Prikriti proces Git 4.6 Pametni HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Možnosti gostovanja pri tretjih ponudnikih 4.10 Povzetek 5. Porazdeljeni Git 5.1 Porazdeljeni poteki dela 5.2 Prispevek k projektu 5.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 5.4 Povzetek 6. GitHub 6.1 Namestitev in konfiguracija računa 6.2 Prispevek k projektu 6.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 6.4 Upravljanje organizacije 6.5 Skriptni GitHub 6.6 Povzetek 7. Orodja Git 7.1 Izbira revizije 7.2 Interaktivno pripravljanje 7.3 Shranjevanje na varno (angl. stashing) in čiščenje 7.4 Podpisovanje vašega dela 7.5 Iskanje 7.6 Prepisovanje zgodovine 7.7 Demistifikacija ponastavitve 7.8 Napredno združevanje 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Razhroščevanje z Gitom 7.11 Podmoduli 7.12 Povezovanje v pakete 7.13 Zamenjava 7.14 Shramba poverilnic 7.15 Povzetek 8. Prilagoditev Gita 8.1 Konfiguracija Git 8.2 Atributi Git 8.3 Kljuke Git 8.4 Primer pravilnika, ki ga uveljavlja Git 8.5 Povzetek 9. Git in ostali sistemi 9.1 Git kot odjemalec 9.2 Migracija na Git 9.3 Povzetek 10. Notranjost Gita 10.1 Napeljava in keramika 10.2 Objekti Git 10.3 Reference Git 10.4 Packfiles (datoteke zmanjšanih podatkov) 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Protokoli prenosa 10.7 Vzdrževanje in obnovitev podatkov 10.8 Spremenljivke okolja 10.9 Povzetek A1. Dodatek A: Git v drugih okoljih A1.1 Grafični vmesniki A1.2 Git v Visual Studio A1.3 Git v Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git v IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git v Sublime Text A1.6 Git v Bashu A1.7 Git v Zsh A1.8 Git v Powershellu A1.9 Povzetek A2. Dodatek B: Vdelava Gita v vašo aplikacijo A2.1 Git v ukazni vrstici A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Dodatek C: Ukazi Git A3.1 Nastavitev in konfiguracija A3.2 Pridobivanje in ustvarjanje projektov A3.3 Osnove posnetkov A3.4 Veje in združevanje A3.5 Deljenje in posodabljanje projektov A3.6 Pregled in primerjava A3.7 Razhroščevanje A3.8 Popravljanje A3.9 E-pošta A3.10 Zunanji sistemi A3.11 Administracija A3.12 Orodja za sisteme napeljave 2nd Edition 5.3 Porazdeljeni Git - Vzdrževanje projekta Vzdrževanje projekta Poleg tega, da veste, kako učinkovito prispevati projektu, boste verjetno morali vedeti tudi, kako ga vzdrževati. To lahko sestoji iz sprejemanja in uporabe popravkov generiranih preko format-patch , ki so vam poslani preko e-pošte, ali integracije sprememb v oddaljenih vejah za repozitorije, ki ste jih dodali kot daljave v svoj projekt. Bodisi če vzdržujete kanonični repozitorij ali želite pomagati s potrditvijo ali odobritvijo popravkov, morate vedeti, kako sprejeti delo na način, ki je najbolj jasen za druge, ki prispevajo, in trajnosten na dolgi rok. Delo na tematskih vejah Ko razmišljate o integraciji novega dela, je v splošnem dobra ideja poskusiti na tematski veji — začasni veji, posebej narejeni za preskušanje tega novega dela. Na ta način je enostavno prilagoditi programski popravek individualno, ali pa ga pustiti, če ne deluje, dokler nimate časa se vrniti nazaj k njemu. Če ustvarite enostavno ime veje na osnovi teme dela, ki ga boste poskusili, kot je ruby_client ali nekaj podobno opisljivega, si lahko enostavno zapomnite, če jo morate opustiti za nekaj časa in se kasneje vrniti. Vzdrževalec projekta Git tudi stremi k poimenovanju teh vej v imenskem prostoru — kot je sc/ruby_client , kjer je sc kratica za osebo, ki je prispevala delo. Kot se boste spomnili, lahko ustvarite vejo na osnovi vaše veje master takole: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Ali če želite takoj nanjo tudi preklopiti, lahko uporabite možnost checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Sedaj ste pripravljeni dodati prispevano delo, ki ste ga prejeli, v to tematsko vejo in določiti, ali jo želite združiti v svoje dolgotrajne veje. Uporaba popravkov iz e-pošte Če prejmete programski popravek, ki ga morate integrirati v svoj projekt, preko e-pošte, morate uporabiti popravek na svoji tematski veji, da ga ocenite. Na voljo sta dva načina za uporabo e-poštnega popravka: z git apply ali z git am . Uporaba popravka z apply Če prejmete programski popravek od nekoga, ki ga je generiral z git diff ali kakšno variacijo ukaza Unix diff (kar ni priporočljivo; glejte naslednji razdelek), ga lahko uporabite z ukazom git apply . Predpostavljamo, da ste shranili programski popravek v /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , lahko uporabite popravek na naslednji način: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch To spremeni datoteke v vašem delovnem direktoriju. Je skoraj identično pogonu ukaza patch -p1 , da uporabite programski popravek, vendar je bolj paranoično in sprejema manj nejasna ujemanja kot popravek. Upravlja tudi dodajanja datotek, brisanja in preimenovanja, če so opisana v obliki git diff , kar patch ne naredi. Na koncu git apply je model »uporabi vse ali prekliči vse«, kjer je uporabljeno vse ali nič, z razliko, kjer patch lahko delno uporablja datoteke popravkov, kar pusti vaš delovni direktorij v čudnem stanju. git apply je splošno veliko bolj konzervativen kot patch . Ne bo ustvaril potrditve za vas — po tem, ko ga poženete, morate ročno dati v področje priprave in potrditi uvedene spremembe. git apply lahko uporabite tudi, da vidite, če se programski popravek lahko gladko uporabi, preden ga poskusite dejansko uporabiti — poženete lahko git apply --check s popravkom: $ git apply --check 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Če ni nobenega izpisa, potem bi se moral programski popravek uporabiti gladko. Ta ukaz se tudi konča z neničelnim statusom, če preverjanje ni uspešno, tako da ga lahko uporabite v skriptih, če želite. Uporaba popravka z am Če je uporabnik, ki prispeva, uporabnik Git in je bilo dovolj dobro uporabiti ukaz format-patch za generiranje njegovega popravka, potem je vaše delo enostavnejše, saj programski popravek vsebuje informacije avtorja in sporočilo potrditve za vas. Če lahko, spodbudite svoje sodelavce, da uporabljajo format-patch namesto diff za generiranje popravkov za vas. git apply bi morali uporabiti samo pri opuščenih popravkih in podobnih stvareh. Da uporabite programski popravek generiran s format-patch , uporabite git am (ukaz se imenuje am , ker pomeni »uporabi (angl. apply ) serijo popravkov iz mailboxa«). Tehnično je git am zgrajen, da prebere datoteko mbox, ki je enostaven tekstovni format za shranjevanje enega ali več e-poštnih sporočil v eni tekstovni datoteki. Videti je nekako takole: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 To je začetek izhodnega zapisa ukaza git format-patch , ki ste ga videli v prejšnjem odseku; predstavlja tudi veljaven e-poštni format mbox. Če vam nekdo pravilno pošlje programski popravek z uporabo ukaza git send-email in ga prenesete v obliki mbox, lahko git am usmerite v datoteko mbox in začne uporabljati vse popravke, ki jih vidi. Če uporabljate odjemalca pošte, ki lahko več e-poštnih sporočil shranjuje v obliki mbox, lahko celotno serijo popravkov shranite v datoteko in nato uporabite git am , da jih uporabite enega za drugim. Če pa je nekdo naložil datoteko s popravkom, ki je bila ustvarjena prek ukaza git format-patch v sistem za beleženje težav ali kaj podobnega, lahko datoteko shranite lokalno in jo nato prenesete v git am , da jo uporabite: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: Add limit to log function Vidite lahko, da se je programski popravek uporabil brez težav in samodejno ustvaril novo potrditev za vas. Informacije o avtorju so vzete iz glav From in Date v e-pošti, sporočilo potrditve pa je vzeto iz Subject in telesa (pred popravkom) e-pošte. Če je bil na primer ta programski popravek uporabljen iz zgornjega primera mbox, bi bila ustvarjena potrditev nekaj podobnega temu: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Informacije Commit kažejo osebo, ki je uporabila programski popravek, in čas uporabe. Informacije Author pa kažejo na osebo, ki je prvotno ustvarila programski popravek in kdaj je bil prvotno ustvarjen. Vendar lahko se zgodi, da se programski popravek ne bo uporabil brez težav. Morda se je vaša glavna veja preveč oddaljila od veje, iz katere je bil programski popravek zgrajen, ali pa je popravek odvisen od drugega popravka, ki ga še niste uporabili. V tem primeru bo proces git am spodletel in vas vprašal, kaj želite storiti: $ git am 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Ta ukaz vstavi označevalce konfliktov v datoteke, s katerimi ima težave, podobno kot pri operaciji združevanja ali ponovnem baziranju, ki ima konflikte. To težavo lahko rešite na podoben način — uredite datoteko, da rešite konflikt, shranite novo datoteko in nato zaženite git am --resolved , da nadaljujete na naslednji programski popravek: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: See if this helps the gem Če želite, da Git poskusi bolj inteligentno rešiti konflikt, mu lahko podate možnost -3 , kjer Git poskuša izvesti tristransko združevanje. Ta možnost ni privzeto vklopljena, ker ne deluje, če potrditve, ki jih navaja programski popravek, ni v vašem repozitoriju. Če imate to potrditev — če je bil programski popravek ustvarjen na podlagi javne potrditve — je možnost -3 na splošno veliko bolj inteligentna pri uporabi konfliktnega popravka: $ git am -3 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. V tem primeru bi bil programski popravek brez možnosti -3 obravnavan kot konflikt. Ker je bila uporabljena možnost -3 , se je programski popravek uporabil brez težav. Če uporabljate več popravkov iz mboxa, lahko ukaz am zaženete tudi v interaktivnem načinu, ki se ustavi pri vsakem popravku, ki ga najde, in vpraša, ali ga želite uporabiti: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- See if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all To je koristno, če imate shranjenih več popravkov, saj si lahko programski popravek najprej ogledate, če se ne spomnite, kaj predstavlja, ali pa ga ne uporabite, če ste ga že uporabili. Ko so vsi popravki za vašo temo uporabljeni in potrjeni v vaši razvojni veji, lahko izberete, ali jih želite integrirati v dolgotrajno vejo in na kakšen način. Izvlečenje oddaljenih vej Če je vaš prispevek prišel od uporabnika Git, ki je nastavil svoj lastni repozitorij, vanj potisnil več sprememb in vam nato poslal naslov URL repozitorija in ime oddaljene veje, v kateri so spremembe, jih lahko dodate kot oddaljeno vejo in nato lokalno združite. Na primer, če vam Jessica pošlje e-poštno sporočilo, v katerem pravi, da ima odlično novo funkcijo v veji ruby-client svojega repozitorija, jo lahko preizkusite tako, da dodate oddaljeno vejo in lokalno izvlečete to vejo: $ git remote add jessica https://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Če vam pozneje ponovno pošlje e-pošto z drugo vejo, ki vsebuje drugo odlično funkcionalnost, jo lahko neposredno prenesete s fetch in checkout saj imate že nastavljen oddaljeni vir. To je najbolj uporabno, če redno sodelujete s to osebo. Če nekdo prispeva le občasno kakšen programski popravek, je sprejemanje prek e-pošte manj časovno potratno, kot zahtevati, da vsakdo zažene svoj lastni strežnik in nenehno dodaja in odstranjuje daljave, da bi dobili nekaj sprememb. Verjetno tudi ne želite imeti na stotine daljav, vsake za vsako osebo, ki prispeva le eno ali dve spremembi. Vendar pa lahko skripti in gostujoče storitve to olajšajo — odvisno je predvsem od tega, kako razvijate in kako razvijajo vaši sodelavci. Druga prednost tega pristopa je, da dobite tudi zgodovino opravljenih potrditev. Čeprav imate lahko legitimne težave z združevanjem, veste, kje v vaši zgodovini je njihovo delo, saj je pravilno tristopenjsko združevanje privzeto, namesto da bi morali zagotoviti -3 in upati, da je oblika spremembe ustvarjena iz javne potrditve, do katere imate dostop. Če ne sodelujete redno z osebo, vendar še vedno želite povleči od njih na ta način, lahko naslov URL oddaljenega repozitorija navedete v ukazu git pull . To naredi enkratno vlečenje in ne shrani URL-ja kot referenčnega oddaljenega vira: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Določanje, kaj se uvaja Zdaj imate tematsko vejo, ki vsebuje prispevano delo. V tem trenutku lahko določite, kaj bi radi naredili z njim. Ta odsek ponovno pregleda nekaj ukazov, da lahko vidite, kako jih lahko uporabite za pregled tega, kaj boste uvedli, če ga združite v glavno vejo. Pogosto je koristno, da pregledate vse potrditve, ki so v tej veji, vendar niso v vaši veji master . Potrditve v veji master lahko izključite tako, da pred imenom veje dodate možnost --not . To stori isto kot oblika master..contrib , ki smo jo uporabili prej. Na primer, če vam sodelavec pošlje dve potrditvi in ustvarite vejo z imenom contrib ter nanjo uporabite te potrditve, lahko zaženete: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 See if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 Update gemspec to hopefully work better Da vidite, kaj spremembe vsake potrditve prinesejo, ne pozabite, da lahko podate ukazu git log možnost -o in pripel bo razliko predstavljeno v vsaki potrditvi. Da bi videli celotno razliko, ki bi se zgodila, če bi to tematsko vejo združili z drugo vejo, boste morda morali uporabiti čuden trik, da dobite pravilne rezultate. Morda bi pomislili, da bi zagnali to: $ git diff master Ta ukaz vam da razliko, vendar je lahko zavajajoča. Če se je vaša veja master premaknila naprej od trenutka, ko ste iz nje ustvarili tematsko vejo, boste dobili na videz nenavadne rezultate. To se zgodi, ker Git neposredno primerja posnetke zadnje potrditve na tematski veji, na kateri ste, in posnetka zadnje potrditve na veji master . Na primer, če ste na veji master dodali vrstico v datoteko, bo neposredna primerjava posnetkov videti, kot da bo tematska veja odstranila to vrstico. Če je master neposredni prednik vaše tematske veje, to ni problem; toda če sta se zgodovini razhajali, se bo razlika zdela, kot da dodajate vse nove stvari na svoji tematski veji in odstranjujete vse, kar je edinstveno za vejo master . Kar želite videti, so spremembe, dodane v tematski veji — delo, ki ga boste uvedli, če boste združili to vejo z master . To dosežete tako, da Git primerja zadnjo potrditev na vaši tematski veji z zadnjim skupnim prednikom, ki ga ima z vejo master . Tehnično gledano, to lahko storite tako, da izrecno določite skupnega prednika in nato zaženete svojo razliko na njem: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db ali bolj jedrnato: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Vendar nobena od teh ni posebej priročna, zato Git ponuja še eno bližnjico za isto stvar: sintakso s tremi pikami. V kontekstu ukaza git diff lahko dodate tri pike po drugi veji, da naredite diff med zadnjo potrditvijo na veji, na kateri ste, in njenim skupnim prednikom z drugo vejo: $ git diff master...contrib Ta ukaz prikaže samo delo, ki ga je vaša trenutna tematska veja vnesla od skupnega prednika z vejo master . To je zelo uporabna sintaksa, ki si jo velja zapomniti. Integriranje prispevanega dela Ko je vse delo v vaši tematski veji pripravljeno za integracijo v glavno vejo, se postavi vprašanje, kako to storiti. Poleg tega, kateri splošni potek dela želite uporabiti za vzdrževanje svojega projekta? Imate več možnosti, zato bomo obravnavali nekatere od njih. Poteki dela združevanj Eden izmed osnovnih potekov dela je, da preprosto združite vse delo neposredno v vašo vejo master . V tem scenariju imate vejo master , ki vsebuje v bistvu stabilno kodo. Ko imate delo v tematski veji, za katerega menite, da ste ga dokončali, ali delo, ki ga je prispeval nekdo drug in ste ga preverili, ga združite v vašo vejo master , izbrišete tematsko vejo, ki ste jo ravno združili, ter ponovite. Na primer, če imamo repozitorij z delom v dveh vejah imenovanih ruby_client in php_client , ki je videti kot na sliki Zgodovina z več tematskimi vejami , in združimo ruby_client , nato pa še php_client , bo vaša zgodovina videti kot na sliki Po združitvi tematske veje . Slika 72. Zgodovina z več tematskimi vejami Slika 73. Po združitvi tematske veje To je verjetno najpreprostejši potek dela, vendar lahko pri delu z večjimi ali bolj stabilnimi projekti, kjer morate biti zelo previdni pri tem, kaj uvajate, povzroči težave. Če imate pomembnejši projekt, bi morda želeli uporabiti dvofazni postopek združevanja. V tem scenariju imate dve dolgotrajni veji, master in develop , pri katerih določite, da se master posodobi le, ko je izdana zelo stabilna različica in se vsa nova koda integrira v vejo develop . Občasno obe veji potisnete v javni repozitorij. Vsakič, ko želite združiti novo tematsko vejo (slika Pred združitvijo tematske veje ), jo združite v vejo develop (slika Po združitvi tematske veje ); nato, ko označite izdajo, master hitro posodobite do stabilne točke, kjer je trenutna veja develop (slika Po objavi projekta ). Slika 74. Pred združitvijo tematske veje Slika 75. Po združitvi tematske veje Slika 76. Po objavi projekta Na ta način lahko ljudje, ki si klonirajo vaš repozitorij projekta, izvlečejo master za gradnjo najnovejše stabilne različice in jo enostavno ohranjajo posodobljeno, ali pa preverijo develop , ki vsebuje najnaprednejšo vsebino. To zasnovo lahko razširite tudi tako, da imate vejo integrate , v kateri se združi vse delo. Nato, ko je koda na tej veji stabilna in uspešno preide teste, jo združite v vejo develop , in ko se ta predstavi kot stabilna za več časa, posodobite vejo master . Poteki dela večjih združevanj Projekt Git ima štiri dolgotrajne veje: master , next in seen (prej pu — predlagane posodobitve — angl. proposed updates ) za novo delo in maint za vzdrževanje posodobitev. Ko prispe novo delo s strani sodelavcev, se zbere v tematskih vejah v repozitoriju vzdrževalca na način, podoben temu, kar smo opisali (glejte sliko Upravljanje kompleksne serije vzporednih prispevanih tematskih vej ). V tej fazi se ocenijo tematske veje, da se ugotovi, ali so varne in pripravljene za uporabo, ali potrebujejo še več dela. Če so varne, se vgradijo v next in ta veja se objavi, tako da lahko vsi preizkusijo teme, integrirane skupaj. Slika 77. Upravljanje kompleksne serije vzporednih prispevanih tematskih vej Če teme še potrebujejo delo, so namesto tega združene v vejo seen . Ko se ugotovi, da so v celoti stabilne, se teme ponovno združi v vejo master . Veji next in seen sta nato znova zgrajeni iz master . To pomeni, da se master skoraj vedno premika naprej, next se občasno ponovno bazira in seen se ponovno bazira še pogosteje: Slika 78. Združevanje prispevanih tematskih vej v dolgotrajne integracijske veje Ko je tematska veja končno združena v master , se izbriše iz repozitorija. Projekt Git ima tudi vejo maint , ki je razvejana od zadnje različice, da zagotavlja popravke za nazaj, če je potrebna vzdrževalna izdaja. Tako imate pri kloniranju repozitorija Git štiri veje, ki jih lahko preizkusite, da ovrednotite projekt v različnih razvojnih fazah, odvisno od tega, kako drzni želite biti, ali kako želite prispevati; in vzdrževalec ima strukturiran potek dela, ki mu pomaga preverjati nove prispevke. Potek dela projekta Git je specializiran. Za boljše razumevanje si lahko ogledate Gitov vodnik za vzdrževanje . Poteki dela ponovnega baziranja in izbire najboljšega Drugi vzdrževalci raje ponovno bazirajo ali izberejo najboljše prispevano delo na vrh njihove veje master , namesto da bi ga združili, da ohranijo predvsem linearno zgodovino. Ko imate delo v tematski veji in ste ugotovili, da ga želite integrirati, se premaknete na to vejo in zaženete ukaz za ponovno baziranje (angl. rebase ), da ponovno sestavite spremembe na vrhu trenutne veje master (ali develop in tako naprej). Če to deluje dobro, lahko hitro previjete naprej vašo vejo master in imeli boste linearno zgodovino projekta. Drugi način za premikanje vpeljanega dela iz ene veje v drugo je t. i. izbiranje najboljšega (angl. cherry picking ). Izbiranje najboljšega v Gitu je podobno ponovnem baziranju za eno samo potrditev. Vzame programski popravek, ki je bil uveden v eni potrditvi, in ga poskuša ponovno uporabiti na veji, na kateri trenutno ste. To je uporabno, če imate na veji več potrditev in želite integrirati le eno od njih, ali če imate samo eno potrditev na veji in bi jo raje izbrali kot najboljšo namesto ponovnega baziranja. Na primer, recimo, da imate projekt, ki je videti tako: Slika 79. Primer zgodovine pred izbiro najboljšega Če želite povleči potrditev e43a6 v vašo vejo master , lahko poženete: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) To povleče iste spremembe, ki so bile predstavljene v e43a6 , vendar dobite novo vrednost SHA-1 potrditve, ker je uporabljeni datum drugačen. Sedaj je vaša zgodovina videti takole: Slika 80. Zgodovina po izbiri najboljše potrditve iz tematske veje Sedaj lahko odstranite svojo tematsko vejo in opustite potrditve, ki jih niste želeli povleči. Rerere Če delate veliko združevanja in ponovnega baziranja, ali vzdržujete dolgotrajno tematsko vejo, ima Git lastnost, ki se imenuje »rerere«, ki je lahko koristna. Rerere pomeni »reuse recorded resolution« (ponovno uporabi posneto rešitev) — je način bližnjice ročnega reševanja konflikta. Ko je rerere omogočen, bo Git obdržal skupek slik pred in po iz uspešnih združitev in če opazi, da gre za konflikt, ki je videti točno tak kot eden, ki ste ga že popravili, bo enostavno samo uporabil programski popravek od zadnjič, ne da vas pri tem z njim moti. Ta lastnost prihaja v dveh delih: konfiguracijska nastavitev in ukaz. Konfiguracijska nastavitev je rerere.enabled in je dovolj priročna, da jo dodate v svoje globalne nastavitve: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Sedaj, vsakič, ko izvedete združevanje, ki rešuje konflikte, se bo rešitev zabeležila v predpomnilnik, če jo boste potrebovali v prihodnosti. Če je treba, lahko z ukazom git rerere interaktivno upravljate s predpomnilnikom rerere. Ko se uporabi samostojno, Git preveri svojo bazo rešitev in poskuša najti ujemanje z morebitnimi trenutnimi konflikti ob združevanju in jih reši (če je rerere.enabled nastavljeno na true , se to izvede samodejno). Obstajajo tudi podukazi, s katerimi lahko vidite, kaj bo zabeleženo, izbrišete določeno rešitev iz predpomnilnika ali počistite celoten predpomnilnik. Rerere bomo podrobneje obravnavali v Rerere . Označevanje vaših izdaj Ko se odločite za izdajo, boste verjetno želeli dodeliti oznako, da boste lahko to izdajo ustvarili kadarkoli v prihodnosti. Novo oznako lahko ustvarite, kot je opisano v poglavju Osnove Git . Če se odločite podpisati oznako kot vzdrževalec, je lahko postopek označevanja videti nekako takole: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Če podpišete svoje oznake, se lahko pojavijo težave pri distribuciji javnega ključa PGP, ki se uporablja za podpisovanje vaših oznak. Vzdrževalec projekta Git je to težavo rešil tako, da je svoj javni ključ vključil kot blob v repozitoriju in nato dodal oznako, ki neposredno kaže na ta vsebino. Kateri ključ želite, lahko ugotovite tako, da zaženete ukaz gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Nato lahko ključ neposredno uvozite v Gitovo bazo tako, da ga izvozite in pretakate skozi git hash-object , ki napiše nov blob s temi vsebinami v Git in vrne SHA-1 bloba: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Zdaj, ko imate vsebino ključa v Gitu, lahko ustvarite oznako, ki nanjo neposredno kaže, tako da navedete novo vrednost SHA-1, ki vam jo je dal ukaz hash-object : $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Če zaženete git push --tags , se bo oznaka maintainer-pgp-pub delila z vsemi. Če želi kdo preveriti oznako, lahko vaš ključ PGP neposredno uvozi tako, da povleče blob neposredno iz baze podatkov in ga uvozi v GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import S tem ključem lahko preverijo tudi vse vaše podpisane oznake. Poleg tega lahko z navodili v sporočilu oznake zagon git show <tag> uporabnikom ponudi bolj specifična navodila za preverjanje oznake. Ustvarjanje številke gradnje Ker Git nima za vsako potrditev monotono naraščajočih številk, kot so v123 ali enakovredne, lahko za ime, ki je berljivo za ljudi in ki pripada potrditvi, uporabite git describe na tej potrditvi. V odzivu Git generira niz, ki sestoji iz imena najnovejše označene potrditve, ki se pojavi pred to potrditvijo, sledi število potrditev od te označene potrditve, nato pa delna vrednost SHA-1 potrditve, ki se opisuje (predpona g pomeni Git): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c Na ta način lahko izvozite posnetek ali ga sestavite in mu dodelite ime, ki ga ljudje razumejo. Dejansko, če Git zgradite iz izvorne kode, ki jo prenesete iz repozitorija Git, vam git --version da nekaj, kar je videti tako. Če opišete potrditev, ki ste jo neposredno označili, vam preprosto prikaže ime oznake. Privzeto ukaz git describe zahteva anotirane oznake (oznake, ustvarjene z zastavico -a ali -s ); če želite izkoristiti tudi enostavne (ne-anotirane) oznake, dodajte ukazu možnost --tags . Ta niz lahko uporabite tudi kot cilj ukaza git checkout ali git show , vendar je odvisen od okrajšane vrednosti SHA-1 na koncu, zato morda ne bo za vedno veljaven. Na primer, jedro Linuxa se je nedavno preusmerilo iz 8 na 10 znakov, da bi zagotovilo enoličnost objekta SHA-1, zato so bili starejši izpisi imen git describe neveljavni. Priprava izdaje Sedaj želite objaviti gradnjo. Ena od stvari, ki jo boste želeli narediti, je ustvariti arhiv najnovejše slike vaše kode za tiste uboge duše, ki ne uporabljajo Gita. Ukaz za to je git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Če nekdo odpre tisti stisnjeni arhiv tar (angl. tarball ), dobi najnovejši posnetek vašega projekta pod direktorijem project . Na podoben način pa lahko ustvarite tudi arhiv zip, vendar tako, da daste --format=zip kot možnost ukazu git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Zdaj imate lep stisnjen arhiv tar in arhiv zip vaše projektne izdaje, ki ju lahko naložite na svojo spletno stran, ali pošljete ljudem po e-pošti. Kratek dnevnik (angl. shortlog ) Čas je, da pošljete elektronsko pošto svojemu seznamu prejemnikov, ki želijo vedeti, kaj se dogaja v vašem projektu. Lep način hitrega pridobivanja vrste sprememb, ki so bile dodane v vaš projekt od zadnje objave ali e-pošte, je uporaba ukaza git shortlog . Povzame vse potrditve v določenem obsegu; na primer, naslednje vam da povzetek vseh potrditev od zadnje objave, če je bila vaša zadnja objava poimenovana v1.0.1 : $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Dobite čisti povzetek vseh potrditev od v1.0.1 , združen po avtorju, ki ga lahko pošljete po elektronski pošti na svoj seznam prejemnikov. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/zh/v2/%e5%88%86%e5%b8%83%e5%bc%8f-Git-%e7%bb%b4%e6%8a%a4%e9%a1%b9%e7%9b%ae | Git - 维护项目 About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 起步 1.1 关于版本控制 1.2 Git 简史 1.3 Git 是什么？ 1.4 命令行 1.5 安装 Git 1.6 初次运行 Git 前的配置 1.7 获取帮助 1.8 总结 2. Git 基础 2.1 获取 Git 仓库 2.2 记录每次更新到仓库 2.3 查看提交历史 2.4 撤消操作 2.5 远程仓库的使用 2.6 打标签 2.7 Git 别名 2.8 总结 3. Git 分支 3.1 分支简介 3.2 分支的新建与合并 3.3 分支管理 3.4 分支开发工作流 3.5 远程分支 3.6 变基 3.7 总结 4. 服务器上的 Git 4.1 协议 4.2 在服务器上搭建 Git 4.3 生成 SSH 公钥 4.4 配置服务器 4.5 Git 守护进程 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 第三方托管的选择 4.10 总结 5. 分布式 Git 5.1 分布式工作流程 5.2 向一个项目贡献 5.3 维护项目 5.4 总结 6. GitHub 6.1 账户的创建和配置 6.2 对项目做出贡献 6.3 维护项目 6.4 管理组织 6.5 脚本 GitHub 6.6 总结 7. Git 工具 7.1 选择修订版本 7.2 交互式暂存 7.3 贮藏与清理 7.4 签署工作 7.5 搜索 7.6 重写历史 7.7 重置揭密 7.8 高级合并 7.9 Rerere 7.10 使用 Git 调试 7.11 子模块 7.12 打包 7.13 替换 7.14 凭证存储 7.15 总结 8. 自定义 Git 8.1 配置 Git 8.2 Git 属性 8.3 Git 钩子 8.4 使用强制策略的一个例子 8.5 总结 9. Git 与其他系统 9.1 作为客户端的 Git 9.2 迁移到 Git 9.3 总结 10. Git 内部原理 10.1 底层命令与上层命令 10.2 Git 对象 10.3 Git 引用 10.4 包文件 10.5 引用规范 10.6 传输协议 10.7 维护与数据恢复 10.8 环境变量 10.9 总结 A1. 附录 A: 在其它环境中使用 Git A1.1 图形界面 A1.2 Visual Studio 中的 Git A1.3 Visual Studio Code 中的 Git A1.4 IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine 中的 Git A1.5 Sublime Text 中的 Git A1.6 Bash 中的 Git A1.7 Zsh 中的 Git A1.8 PowerShell 中的 Git A1.9 总结 A2. 附录 B: 在你的应用中嵌入 Git A2.1 命令行 Git 方式 A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. 附录 C: Git 命令 A3.1 设置与配置 A3.2 获取与创建项目 A3.3 快照基础 A3.4 分支与合并 A3.5 项目分享与更新 A3.6 检查与比较 A3.7 调试 A3.8 补丁 A3.9 邮件 A3.10 外部系统 A3.11 管理 A3.12 底层命令 2nd Edition 5.3 分布式 Git - 维护项目 维护项目 除了如何有效地参与一个项目的贡献之外，你可能也需要了解如何维护项目。 这包含接受并应用别人使用 format-patch 生成并通过电子邮件发送过来的补丁， 或对项目添加的远程版本库分支中的更改进行整合。 但无论是管理版本库，还是帮忙验证、审核收到的补丁，都需要同其他贡献者约定某种长期可持续的工作方式。 在主题分支中工作 如果你想向项目中整合一些新东西，最好将这些尝试局限在 主题分支 ——一种通常用来尝试新东西的临时分支中。 这样便于单独调整补丁，如果遇到无法正常工作的情况，可以先不用管，等到有时间的时候再来处理。 如果你基于你所尝试进行工作的特性为分支创建一个简单的名字，比如 ruby_client 或者具有类似描述性的其他名字，这样即使你必须暂时抛弃它，以后回来时也不会忘记。 项目的维护者一般还会为这些分支附带命名空间，比如 sc/ruby_client （其中 sc 是贡献该项工作的人名称的简写）。 你应该记得，可以使用如下方式基于 master 分支建立主题分支： $ git branch sc/ruby_client master 或者如果你同时想立刻切换到新分支上的话，可以使用 checkout -b 选项： $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master 现在你已经准备好将你收到的贡献加入到这个主题分支，并考虑是否将其合并到长期分支中去了。 应用来自邮件的补丁 如果你通过电子邮件收到了一个需要整合进入项目的补丁，你需要将其应用到主题分支中进行评估。 有两种应用该种补丁的方法：使用 git apply ，或者使用 git am 。 使用 apply 命令应用补丁 如果你收到了一个使用 git diff 或 Unix diff 命令的变体（不推荐使用这种方式，具体见下一节） 创建的补丁，可以使用 git apply 命令来应用。 假设你将补丁保存在了 /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch 中，可以这样应用补丁： $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch 这会修改工作目录中的文件。 它与运行 patch -p1 命令来应用补丁几乎是等效的，但是这种方式更加严格，相对于 patch 来说，它能够接受的模糊匹配更少。 它也能够处理 git diff 格式文件所描述的文件添加、删除和重命名操作，而 patch 则不会。 最后， git apply 命令采用了一种“全部应用，否则就全部撤销（apply all or abort all）”的模型， 即补丁只有全部内容都被应用和完全不被应用两个状态，而 patch 可能会导致补丁文件被部分应用， 最后使你的工作目录保持在一个比较奇怪的状态。 总体来看， git apply 命令要比 patch 谨慎得多。 并且，它不会为你创建提交——在运行之后，你需要手动暂存并提交补丁所引入的更改。 在实际应用补丁前，你还可以使用 git apply 来检查补丁是否可以顺利应用——即对补丁运行 git apply --check 命令： $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply 如果没有产生输出，则该补丁可以顺利应用。 如果检查失败了，该命令还会以一个非零的状态退出，所以需要时你也可以在脚本中使用它。 使用 am 命令应用补丁 如果补丁的贡献者也是一个 Git 用户，并且其能熟练使用 format-patch 命令来生成补丁，这样的话你的工作会变得更加轻松，因为这种补丁中包含了作者信息和提交信息供你参考。 如果可能的话，请鼓励贡献者使用 format-patch 而不是 diff 来为你生成补丁。 而只有对老式的补丁，你才必须使用 git apply 命令。 要应用一个由 format-patch 命令生成的补丁，你应该使用 git am 命令 （该命令的名字 am 表示它“应用（Apply）一系列来自邮箱（Mailbox）的补丁”）。 从技术的角度看， git am 是为了读取 mbox 文件而构建的， mbox 是一种用来在单个文本文件中存储一个或多个电子邮件消息的简单纯文本格式。 其大致格式如下所示： From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 这其实就是你前面看到的 git format-patch 命令输出的开始几行， 而同时它也是有效的 mbox 电子邮件格式。 如果有人使用 git send-email 命令将补丁以电子邮件的形式发送给你， 你便可以将它下载为 mbox 格式的文件，之后将 git am 命令指向该文件，它会应用其中包含的所有补丁。 如果你所使用的邮件客户端能够同时将多封邮件保存为 mbox 格式的文件， 你甚至能够将一系列补丁打包为单个 mbox 文件，并利用 git am 命令将它们一次性全部应用。 然而，如果贡献者将 git format-patch 生成的补丁文件上传到工单系统或类似的任务处理系统， 你可以先将其保存到本地，之后通过 git am 来应用补丁： $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function 你会看到补丁被顺利地应用，并且为你自动创建了一个新的提交。 其中的作者信息来自于电子邮件头部的 From 和 Date 字段，提交消息则取自 Subject 和邮件正文中补丁之前的内容。 比如，应用上面那个 mbox 示例后生成的提交是这样的： $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 其中 Commit 信息表示的是应用补丁的人和应用补丁的时间。 Author 信息则表示补丁的原作者和原本的创建时间。 但是，有时候无法顺利地应用补丁。 这也许是因为你的主分支和创建补丁的分支相差较多，也有可能是因为这个补丁依赖于其他你尚未应用的补丁。 这种情况下， git am 进程将会报错并且询问你要做什么： $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". 该命令将会在所有出现问题的文件内加入冲突标记，就和发生冲突的合并或变基操作一样。 而你解决问题的手段很大程度上也是一样的——即手动编辑那些文件来解决冲突，暂存新的文件， 之后运行 git am --resolved 继续应用下一个补丁： $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem 如果你希望 Git 能够尝试以更加智能的方式解决冲突，你可以对其传递 -3 选项来使 Git 尝试进行三方合并。 该选项默认并没有打开，因为如果用于创建补丁的提交并不在你的版本库内的话，这样做是没有用处的。 而如果你确实有那个提交的话——比如补丁是基于某个公共提交的——那么通常 -3 选项对于应用有冲突的补丁是更加明智的选择。 $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. 比如上面这种情况，如果没有 -3 选项的话，这看起来就像是存在一个冲突。 由于使用了 -3 选项，该补丁就被干净地应用了 如果你正在利用一个 mbox 文件应用多个补丁，也可以在交互模式下运行 am 命令， 这样在每个补丁之前，它会停住询问你是否要应用该补丁： $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all 这在你保存的补丁较多时很好用，因为你可以在应用之前查看忘掉内容的补丁，并且跳过已经应用过的补丁。 当与你的特性相关的所有补丁都被应用并提交到分支中之后，你就可以选择是否以及如何将其整合到更长期的分支中去了。 检出远程分支 如果你的贡献者建立了自己的版本库，并且向其中推送了若干修改， 之后将版本库的 URL 和包含更改的远程分支发送给你，那么你可以将其添加为一个远程分支，并且在本地进行合并。 比如 Jessica 向你发送了一封电子邮件，内容是在她的版本库中的 ruby-client 分支中有一个很不错的新功能， 为了测试该功能，你可以将其添加为一个远程分支，并在本地检出： $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client 如果她再次发邮件说另一个分支中包含另一个优秀功能，因为之前已经设置好远程分支了， 你就可以直接进行 fetch 和 checkout 操作。 这对于与他人长期合作工作来说很有用。 而对于提交补丁频率较小的贡献者，相对于每个人维护自己的服务器，不断增删远程分支的做法，使用电子邮件来接收可能会比较省时。 况且你也不会想要加入数百个只提供一两个补丁的远程分支。 然而，脚本和托管服务在一定程度上可以简化这些工作——这很大程度上依赖于你和你的贡献者开发的方式。 这种方式的另一种优点是你可以同时得到提交历史。 虽然代码合并中可能会出现问题，但是你能获知他人的工作是基于你的历史中的具体哪一个位置；所以 Git 会默认进行三方合并，不需要提供 -3 选项，你也不需要担心补丁是基于某个你无法访问的提交生成的。 对于非持续性的合作，如果你依然想要以这种方式拉取数据的话，你可以对远程版本库的 URL 调用 git pull 命令。 这会执行一个一次性的抓取，而不会将该 URL 存为远程引用： $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. 确定引入了哪些东西 你已经有了一个包含其他人贡献的主题分支。 现在你可以决定如何处理它们了。 本节回顾了若干命令，以便于你检查若将其合并入主分支所引入的更改。 一般来说，你应该对该分支中所有 master 分支尚未包含的提交进行检查。 通过在分支名称前加入 --not 选项，你可以排除 master 分支中的提交。 这和我们之前使用的 master..contrib 格式是一样的。 假设贡献者向你发送了两个补丁，为此你创建了一个名叫 contrib 的分支并在其上应用补丁，你可以运行： $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better 如果要查看每次提交所引入的具体修改，你应该记得可以给 git log 命令传递 -p 选项，这样它会在每次提交后面附加对应的差异（diff）。 而要查看将该主题分支与另一个分支合并的完整 diff，你可能需要使用一个有些奇怪的技巧来得到正确的结果。 你可能会想到这种方式： $ git diff master 这个命令会输出一个 diff，但它可能并不是我们想要的。 如果在你创建主题分支之后， master 分支向前移动了，你获得的结果就会显得有些不对。 这是因为 Git 会直接将该主题分支与 master 分支的最新提交快照进行比较。 比如说你在 master 分支中向某个文件添加了一行内容，那么直接比对最新快照的结果看上去就像是你在主题分支中将这一行删除了。 如果 master 分支是你的主题分支的直接祖先，其实是没有任何问题的； 但是一旦两个分支的历史产生了分叉，上述比对产生的 diff 看上去就像是将主题分支中所有的新东西加入， 并且将 master 分支所独有的东西删除。 而你真正想要检查的东西，实际上仅仅是主题分支所添加的更改——也就是该分支与 master 分支合并所要引入的工作。 要达到此目的，你需要让 Git 对主题分支上最新的提交与该分支与 master 分支的首个公共祖先进行比较。 从技术的角度讲，你可以以手工的方式找出公共祖先，并对其显式运行 diff 命令： $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db 或者，更简洁的形式： $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) 然而，这种做法比较麻烦，所以 Git 提供了一种比较便捷的方式：三点语法。 对于 git diff 命令来说，你可以通过把 … 置于另一个分支名后来对该分支的最新提交与两个分支的共同祖先进行比较： $ git diff master...contrib 该命令仅会显示自当前主题分支与 master 分支的共同祖先起，该分支中的工作。 这个语法很有用，应该牢记。 将贡献的工作整合进来 当主题分支中所有的工作都已经准备好整合进入更靠近主线的分支时，接下来的问题就是如何进行整合了。 此外，还有一个问题是，你想使用怎样的总体工作流来维护你的项目？ 你的选择有很多，我们会介绍其中的一部分。 合并工作流 一种基本的工作流就是将所有的工作直接合并到 master 分支。 在这种情况下， master 分支包含的代码是基本稳定的。 当你完成某个主题分支的工作，或审核通过了其他人所贡献的工作时，你会将其合并进入 master 分支，之后将主题分支删除，如此反复。 举例来说，如果我们的版本库包含类似 包含若干主题分支的提交历史。 的两个名称分别为 ruby_client 和 php_client 的分支， 并且我们合并完 ruby_client 分支后，再合并 php_client 分支，那么提交历史最后会变成 合并主题分支之后。 的样子。 Figure 73. 包含若干主题分支的提交历史。 Figure 74. 合并主题分支之后。 这也许是最简单的工作流了，但是当项目更大，或更稳定，你对自己所引入的工作更加在意时，它可能会带来问题。 如果你的项目非常重要，你可能会使用两阶段合并循环。 在这种情况下，你会维护两个长期分支，分别是 master 和 develop ， master 分支只会在一个非常稳定的版本发布时才会更新，而所有的新代码会首先整合进入 develop 分支。 你定期将这两个分支推送到公共版本库中。 每次需要合并新的主题分支时（ 合并主题分支前。 ），你都应该合并进入 develop 分支（ 合并主题分支后。 ）；当打标签发布的时候，你会将 master 分支快进到已经稳定的 develop 分支（ 一次发布之后。 ）。 Figure 75. 合并主题分支前。 Figure 76. 合并主题分支后。 Figure 77. 一次发布之后。 这样当人们克隆你项目的版本库后，既可以检出 master 分支以构建最新的稳定版本并保持更新， 也可以检出包含更多前沿内容 develop 分支。 你也可以扩展这个概念，维护一个将所有工作合并到一起的整合分支。 当该分支的代码稳定并通过测试之后，将其合并进入 develop 分支； 经过一段时间，确认其稳定之后，将其以快进的形式并入 master 分支。 大项目合并工作流 Git 项目包含四个长期分支： master 、 next ，用于新工作的 pu （proposed updates）和用于维护性向后移植工作（maintenance backports）的 maint 分支。 贡献者的新工作会以类似之前所介绍的方式收入主题分支中（见 管理复杂的一系列接收贡献的平行主题分支。 ）。 之后对主题分支进行测试评估，检查其是否已经能够合并，或者仍需要更多工作。 安全的主题分支会被合并入 next 分支，之后该分支会被推送使得所有人都可以尝试整合到一起的特性。 Figure 78. 管理复杂的一系列接收贡献的平行主题分支。 如果主题分支需要更多工作，它则会被并入 pu 分支。 当它们完全稳定之后，会被再次并入 master 分支。 这意味着 master 分支始终在进行快进， next 分支偶尔会被变基，而 pu 分支的变基比较频繁： Figure 79. 将贡献的主题分支并入长期整合分支。 当主题分支最终被并入 master 分支后，便会被从版本库中删除掉。 Git 项目还有一个从上一次发布中派生出来的 maint 分支来提供向后移植过来的补丁以供发布维护更新。 因此，当你克隆 Git 的版本库之后，就会有四个可分别评估该项目开发的不同阶段的可检出的分支， 检出哪个分支，取决于你需要多新的版本，或者你想要如何进行贡献； 对于维护者来说，这套结构化的工作流能帮助它们审查新的贡献。 Git 项目的工作流是特别的。要清晰地理解它，请阅读 Git 维护者手册 。 变基与拣选工作流 为了保持线性的提交历史，有些维护者更喜欢在 master 分支上对贡献过来的工作进行变基和拣选，而不是直接将其合并。 当你完成了某个主题分支中的工作，并且决定要将其整合的时候，你可以在该分支中运行变基命令， 在当前 master 分支（或者是 develop 等分支）的基础上重新构造修改。 如果结果理想的话，你可以快进 master 分支，最后得到一个线性的项目提交历史。 另一种将引入的工作转移到其他分支的方法是拣选。 Git 中的拣选类似于对特定的某次提交的变基。 它会提取该提交的补丁，之后尝试将其重新应用到当前分支上。 这种方式在你只想引入主题分支中的某个提交，或者主题分支中只有一个提交，而你不想运行变基时很有用。 举个例子，假设你的项目提交历史类似： Figure 80. 拣选之前的示例历史。 如果你希望将提交 e43a6 拉取到 master 分支，你可以运行： $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) 这样会拉取和 e43a6 相同的更改，但是因为应用的日期不同，你会得到一个新的提交 SHA-1 值。 现在你的历史会变成这样： Figure 81. 拣选主题分支中的一个提交后的历史。 现在你可以删除这个主题分支，并丢弃不想拉入的提交。 Rerere 如果你在进行大量的合并或变基，或维护一个长期的主题分支，Git 提供的一个叫做“rerere”的功能会有一些帮助。 Rerere 是“重用已记录的冲突解决方案（reuse recorded resolution）”的意思——它是一种简化冲突解决的方法。 当启用 rerere 时，Git 将会维护一些成功合并之前和之后的镜像，当 Git 发现之前已经修复过类似的冲突时， 便会使用之前的修复方案，而不需要你的干预。 这个功能包含两个部分：一个配置选项和一个命令。 其中的配置选项是 rerere.enabled ，把它放在全局配置中就可以了： $ git config --global rerere.enabled true 现在每当你进行一次需要解决冲突的合并时，解决方案都会被记录在缓存中，以备之后使用。 如果你需要和 rerere 的缓存交互，你可以使用 git rerere 命令。 当单独调用它时，Git 会检查解决方案数据库，尝试寻找一个和当前任一冲突相关的匹配项并解决冲突 （尽管当 rerere.enabled 被设置为 true 时会自动进行）。 它也有若干子命令，可用来查看记录项，删除特定解决方案和清除缓存全部内容等。 我们将在 Rerere 中详细探讨。 为发布打标签 当你决定进行一次发布时，你可能想要打一个标签，这样在之后的任何一个提交点都可以重新创建该发布。 你在 Git 基础 中已经了解了创建新标签的过程。 作为一个维护者，如果你决定要为标签签名的话，打标签的过程应该是这样子的： $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 如果你为标签签名了，你可能会遇到分发用来签名的 PGP 公钥的问题。 Git 项目的维护者已经解决了这一问题，其方法是在版本库中以 blob 对象的形式包含他们的公钥，并添加一个直接指向该内容的标签。 要完成这一任务，首先你可以通过运行 gpg --list-keys 找出你所想要的 key： $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] 之后你可以通过导出 key 并通过管道传递给 git hash-object 来直接将 key 导入到 Git 的数据库中， git hash-object 命令会向 Git 中写入一个包含其内容的新 blob 对象，并向你返回该 blob 对象的 SHA-1 值： $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 既然 Git 中已经包含你的 key 的内容了，你就可以通过指定由 hash-object 命令给出的新 SHA-1 值来创建一个直接指向它的标签： $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 如果你运行 git push --tags 命令，那么 maintainer-pgp-pub 标签将会被共享给所有人。 需要校验标签的人可以通过从数据库中直接拉取 blob 对象并导入到 GPG 中来导入 PGP key： $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import 人们可以使用这个 key 来校验所有由你签名的标签。 另外，如果你在标签信息中包含了一些操作说明，用户可以通过运行 git show <tag> 来获取更多关于标签校验的说明。 生成一个构建号 Git 中不存在随每次提交递增的“v123”之类的数字序列，如果你想要为提交附上一个可读的名称， 可以对其运行 git describe 命令。作为回应，Git 将会生成一个字符串， 它由最近的标签名、自该标签之后的提交数目和你所描述的提交的部分 SHA-1 值（前缀的 g 表示 Git）构成： $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c 这样你在导出一个快照或构建时，可以给出一个便于人们理解的命名。 实际上，如果你的 Git 是从 Git 自己的版本库克隆下来并构建的，那么 git --version 命令给出的结果是与此类似的。 如果你所描述的提交自身就有一个标签，那么它将只会输出标签名，没有后面两项信息。 默认情况下， git describe 命令需要有注解的标签（即使用 -a 或 -s 选项创建的标签）； 如果你想使用轻量标签（无注解的标签），请在命令后添加 --tags 选项。 你也可以使用这个字符串来调用 git checkout 或 git show 命令， 但是这依赖于其末尾的简短 SHA-1 值，因此不一定一直有效。 比如，最近 Linux 内核为了保证 SHA-1 值对象的唯一性，将其位数由 8 位扩展到了 10 位， 导致以前的 git describe 输出全部失效。 准备一次发布 现在你可以发布一个构建了。 其中一件事情就是为那些不使用 Git 的可怜包们创建一个最新的快照归档。 使用 git archive 命令完成此工作： $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz 如果有人将这个压缩包解压，他就可以在一个 project 目录中得到你项目的最新快照。 你也可以以类似的方式创建一个 zip 压缩包，但此时你应该向 git archive 命令传递 --format=zip 选项： $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip 现在你有了本次发布的一个 tar 包和一个 zip 包，可以将其上传到网站或以电子邮件的形式发送给人们。 制作提交简报 现在是时候通知邮件列表里那些好奇你的项目发生了什么的人了。 使用 git shortlog 命令可以快速生成一份包含从上次发布之后项目新增内容的修改日志（changelog）类文档。 它会对你给定范围内的所有提交进行总结；比如，你的上一次发布名称是 v1.0.1，那么下面的命令可以给出上次发布以来所有提交的总结： $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 这份整洁的总结包括了自 v1.0.1 以来的所有提交，并且已经按照作者分好组，你可以通过电子邮件将其直接发送到列表中。 prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://www.linkedin.com/products/firstup-io-firstup/ | Firstup | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Firstup in Asan Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Join now Sign in Firstup Employee Communications Software by Firstup See who's skilled in this Add as skill Learn more Report this product About The employee experience platform that helps you scale personalized campaigns to every employee. Firstup helps you connect with your employees, deliver personalized communication, and gain engagement insights to deliver an exceptional employee experience. Media Products media viewer No more previous content The intelligent communication platform Most employees receive in excess of a hundred company updates every day. This constant "noise" is causing employee burnout and decreased productivity. But there is a solution to the chaos! Firstup is an intelligent communication platform that actually improves the employee experience in every moment that matters, large and small. More intelligent communication increases employee engagement, boosts productivity, and retains top talent. Find out why leaders in HR, IT, and internal communication Boost employee engagement with journey automation Learn how journey automation can transform your employee communications! This video shows how to effortlessly personalize messages for each employee at crucial moments, increasing engagement, productivity, and retention with journey automation. From onboarding to change management, see how Firstup’s intelligent communication platform allows you to design hyper-personalized campaigns at scale. Ready to elevate your employee experience? Watch now and learn more about how journey automation can Create powerful moments throughout the employee journey Give your teams the only platform that uses real-time data to determine the most meaningful campaigns, optimal time, and best channel for each employee. Firstup for internal communicators Internal communicators are using Firstup to cut through the noise and engage with every employee when it matters most. Learn how internal communicators are using Firstup to quickly design engaging content and increase engagement by 3x. Firstup for HR professionals Accelerate your onboarding and training processes by 30% with the Firstup intelligent communication platform. Revolutionize your employee journeys and improve the employee experience today! No more next content Featured customers of Firstup BBC Broadcast Media Production and Distribution 2,148,981 followers Amazon Software Development 36,032,701 followers The Clorox Company Manufacturing 375,337 followers CarMax Retail 164,783 followers Toshiba Global Commerce Solutions Technology, Information and Internet 67,545 followers Wegmans Food Markets Retail 121,290 followers GE Appliances, a Haier company Manufacturing 87,892 followers Toyota Motor Corporation Motor Vehicle Manufacturing 2,293,377 followers Ochsner Health Hospitals and Health Care 89,979 followers Boston Children's Hospital Hospitals and Health Care 190,562 followers 3M Industrial Machinery Manufacturing 2,368,363 followers Advocate Health Hospitals and Health Care 60,751 followers Mount Sinai Health System Hospitals and Health Care 303,912 followers Keurig Dr Pepper Inc. Food and Beverage Services 216,841 followers Southern Company Utilities 209,147 followers AGCO Corporation Machinery Manufacturing 448,087 followers Kohler Co. Manufacturing 317,275 followers Wawa, Inc. Retail 115,541 followers PVH Corp. Retail Apparel and Fashion 522,905 followers Nebraska Medicine Hospitals and Health Care 37,280 followers Show more Show less Similar products Zoho Cliq Zoho Cliq Employee Communications Software HCL Sametime HCL Sametime Employee Communications Software Workvivo by Zoom Workvivo by Zoom Employee Communications Software Flip Flip Employee Communications Software Poppulo Poppulo Employee Communications Software Staffbase Staffbase Employee Communications Software Sign in to see more Show more Show less LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines English (English) Language | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/uk/v2/%d0%a0%d0%be%d0%b7%d0%bf%d0%be%d0%b4%d1%96%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b9-Git-%d0%a1%d1%83%d0%bf%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b4%d0%b6%d1%83%d0%b2%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%bd%d1%8f-%d0%bf%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b5%d0%ba%d1%82%d1%83 | Git - Супроводжування проекту About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Вступ 1.1 Про систему контролю версій 1.2 Коротка історія Git 1.3 Основи Git 1.4 Git, зазвичай, тільки додає дані 1.5 Три стани 1.6 Командний рядок 1.7 Інсталяція Git 1.8 Початкове налаштування Git 1.9 Отримання допомоги 1.10 Підсумок 2. Основи Git 2.1 Створення Git-сховища 2.2 Запис змін до репозиторія 2.3 Перегляд історії комітів 2.4 Скасування речей 2.5 Взаємодія з віддаленими сховищами 2.6 Теґування 2.7 Псевдоніми Git 2.8 Підсумок 3. Галуження в git 3.1 Гілки у кількох словах 3.2 Основи галуження та зливання 3.3 Управління гілками 3.4 Процеси роботи з гілками 3.5 Віддалені гілки 3.6 Перебазовування 3.7 Підсумок 4. Git на сервері 4.1 Протоколи 4.2 Отримання Git на сервері 4.3 Генерація вашого публічного ключа SSH 4.4 Налаштування Серверу 4.5 Демон Git 4.6 Розумний HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Варіанти стороннього хостингу 4.10 Підсумок 5. Розподілений Git 5.1 Розподілені процеси роботи 5.2 Внесення змін до проекту 5.3 Супроводжування проекту 5.4 Підсумок 6. GitHub 6.1 Створення та налаштування облікового запису 6.2 Як зробити внесок до проекту 6.3 Супроводжування проєкту 6.4 Керування організацією 6.5 Скриптування GitHub 6.6 Підсумок 7. Інструменти Git 7.1 Вибір ревізій 7.2 Інтерактивне індексування 7.3 Ховання та чищення 7.4 Підписання праці 7.5 Пошук 7.6 Переписування історії 7.7 Усвідомлення скидання (reset) 7.8 Складне злиття 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Зневадження з Git 7.11 Підмодулі 7.12 Пакування 7.13 Заміна 7.14 Збереження посвідчення (credential) 7.15 Підсумок 8. Налаштування Git 8.1 Конфігурація Git 8.2 Атрибути Git 8.3 Гаки (hooks) Git 8.4 Приклад політики користування виконуваної Git-ом 8.5 Підсумок 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git як клієнт 9.2 Міграція на Git 9.3 Підсумок 10. Git зсередини 10.1 Кухонні та парадні команди 10.2 Об’єкти Git 10.3 Посилання Git 10.4 Файли пакунки 10.5 Специфікація посилань (refspec) 10.6 Протоколи передачі 10.7 Супроводження та відновлення даних 10.8 Змінні середовища 10.9 Підсумок A1. Додаток A: Git в інших середовищах A1.1 Графічні інтерфейси A1.2 Git у Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Eclipse A1.4 Git у Bash A1.5 Git у Zsh A1.6 Git у Powershell A1.7 Підсумок A2. Додаток B: Вбудовування Git у ваші застосунки A2.1 Git з командного рядка A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A3. Додаток C: Команди Git A3.1 Налаштування та конфігурація A3.2 Отримання та створення проектів A3.3 Базове збереження відбитків A3.4 Галуження та зливання A3.5 Поширення й оновлення проектів A3.6 Огляд та порівняння A3.7 Зневаджування A3.8 Латання (patching) A3.9 Електронна пошта A3.10 Зовнішні системи A3.11 Адміністрування A3.12 Кухонні команди 2nd Edition 5.3 Розподілений Git - Супроводжування проекту Супроводжування проекту Окрім знань щодо того, як ефективно зробити внесок до проекту, вам можливо знадобиться вміння його супроводжувати. Це може включати прийняття та застосування латок, які були згенеровані format-patch та надіслані вам поштою, або інтегрування змін з віддалених гілок для сховищ, які ви додали як віддалене для вашого проекту. Чи ви супроводжуєте канонічний репозиторій, чи бажаєте допомогти перевіряти або схвалювати латки, вам треба знати, як приймати роботу в спосіб, який є найзрозумілішим для інших учасників та щоб ви були в змозі підтримувати його у майбутньому. Робота з тематичними гілками Коли ви збираєтесь інтегрувати нову роботу, зазвичай слушно випробувати її в тематичній гілці — тимчасова гілка, спеціально створена для перевірки нової роботи. У такому разі буде легко окремо налаштовувати латку та облишити її, якщо вона не працює, доки не зʼявиться час, щоб повернутися до неї. Якщо ви виберете просте імʼя для гілки, повʼязане з тематикою роботи, яку ви збираєтесь випробувати, наприклад ruby_client чи щось не менш змістовне, то легко зможете пригадати назву гілки, якщо ви покинули її на деякий час та вирішили повернутись до неї пізніше. Супроводжувач проекту Git переважно також розподіляє ці гілки за просторами імен — на кшталт sc/ruby_client , де sc є скороченням від імені автора роботи. Як ви памʼятаєте, можна відгалузити гілку від master таким чином: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Або, якщо ви бажаєте відразу до неї переключитися, то можете використати checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Тепер ви готові додати отриманий внесок до цієї тематичної гілки та визначити, чи варто це зливати до довготриваліших гілок. Застосування латок, отриманих поштою Якщо ви отримали латку через електронну пошту та потрібно її інтегрувати до проекту, то треба застосувати латку в тематичній гілці, щоб перевірити її. Є два методи застосувати надіслану латку: за допомогою git apply або git am . Застосування латки за допомогою apply Якщо ви отримали латку від когось, хто згенерував її командою git diff або якимось різновидом Unix diff (не рекомендовано; дивіться наступну підсекцію), то її можна застосувати за допомогою команди git apply . Припускаючи, що латку збережено в /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , її можна застосувати наступним чином: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Це змінює файли у вашій робочій директорії. Це майже те саме, що виконати команду patch -p1 , щоб застосувати латку, хоча вона є більш параноїдною та приймає менше невизначених збігів, ніж patch. Вона також опрацьовує додавання, вилучення та перейменування файлів, якщо вони описані в форматі git diff , чого patch не зробить. Нарешті, git apply працює за принципом `застосувати все або скасувати все'': буде застосовано все або нічого, у той час як `patch може частково застосувати латки, залишивши робочу директорію в дивному стані. Загалом git apply набагато консервативніша, ніж patch . Вона не створить для вас коміт — після виконання, вам доведеться індексувати та зберегти нові зміни вручну. Ви також можете використати git apply , щоб побачити, чи латка може бути застосована чисто перед тим, як власно намагатись справді застосувати її — ви можете виконати git apply --check з латкою: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Якщо вивід порожній, то латка має застосуватися чисто. Ця команда також виходить з ненульовим статусом, якщо перевірка зазнає невдачі, отже її можна використовувати в скриптах, якщо забажаєте. Застосування латки за допомогою am Якщо автор змін є користувачем Git та був достатньо добрим, щоб використати команду format-patch задля генерації латки, то ваше завдання буде легшим, адже латка містить інформацію про автора та повідомлення коміту. Якщо можете, заохочуйте ваших розробників використовувати format-patch замість diff для генерації латок для вас. Ви маєте використовувати git apply лише для застарілих латок та тому подібних речей. Щоб застосувати латку, що її згенерувала format-patch , скористуйтесь git am (команда називається am , бо використовується, щоб застосувати (apply) низку латок з поштової скриньки (mailbox)). Технічно, git am створено щоб прочитати файл mbox, що є простим, текстовим форматом для збереження одного чи більше поштових повідомлень в одному текстовому файлі. Виглядає він приблизно так: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Це початок виводу команди git format-patch , яку ви бачили у попередній секції, а також відповідає поштовому формату mbox. Якщо хтось правильно надіслав вам латку, використовуючи git send-email , та ви завантажили її у форматі mbox, то ви можете вказати git am цей mbox файл, та він розпочне застосовувати всі латки, які зустріне. Якщо ви користуєтесь поштовим клієнтом, який може зберегти декілька листів у mbox форматі, то можете зберегти всю послідовність латок до одного файлу, а потім використати git am щоб застосувати їх усіх по одній. Втім, якщо хтось відвантажив файл латки, який згенерував git format-patch , до системи завдань (ticketing system) чи чогось подібного, то файл можна зберегти локально та потім передати його з вашого диску до git am для застосування: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function Як бачите, команда чисто застосувала та автоматично створила новий коміт для вас. Інформація про автора взята зі заголовків листа From та Date , а повідомлення коміту взято зі Subject та тіла (перед латкою) листа. Наприклад, якби латка застосовувалась з наведеного вище прикладу mbox, згенерований коміт виглядав би приблизно так: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Інформація Commit містить людину, яка застосувала латку та час застосування. Інформація Author — особу, яка оригінально створила латку та коли це було зроблено. Проте, можливо, що латка не застосовується чисто. Можливо, ваша головна гілка відхилилася надто далеко від гілки, на якій базувалася латка, або латка залежить від іншої латки, яку ви досі не застосували. У цьому випадку, процес git am завершиться невдачею, та спитає вас, що робити: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Ця команда додає позначки конфліктів до всіх файлів, з якими в неї є проблеми — так само, як при конфліктах злиття чи перебазування. Ви розв’язуєте ці проблеми так само — редагуєте файл, щоб розв’язати конфлікт, індексуєте оновлений файл, а потім виконуєте git am --resolved , щоб продовжити з наступною латкою: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem Якщо ви бажаєте, щоб Git спробував поводитись трохи розумніше при розв’язуванні конфлікту, то можете передати опцію -3 , з якою Git спробує три-точкове злиття (three-way merge). Ця опція типово не ввімкнена, адже вона не працює, якщо коміту, на якому базується латка, немає у вашому репозиторії. Якщо ви маєте цей коміт — якщо латка базувалася на публічному коміті — то зазвичай опція -3 набагато кмітливіше застосовує конфліктну латку. $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. У цьому випадку без опції -3 латка викликала б конфлікт. Але з опцією -3 латка застосовується без помилок. Якщо ви застосовуєте декілька латок з mbox, ви також можете виконати команду am в інтерактивному режимі, який зупиняється після кожної знайденої латки та питає, чи варто її застосовувати: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all Це зручно, якщо у вас збережено низку латок, адже ви можете спочатку переглянути латку, якщо не пам’ятаєте про що вона, або не застосовувати вже застосовані латки. Коли всі латки для вашої гілки застосовані та збережені в комітах гілки, ви можете вибрати, як інтегрувати їх до довгостроковіших гілок. Отримання віддалених гілок Якщо внесок прийшов від користувача Git, який налаштував свій власний репозиторій, надіслав до нього декілька змін, та відправив вам URL цього сховища, а також ім’я віддаленої гілки, яка містить зміни, то можете додати його як віддалене сховище та зробити локальне злиття. Наприклад, якщо Джесіка надсилає вам листа, в якому розповідає про чудовий новий функціонал у гілці ruby-client її сховища, то ви можете подивитись на них, якщо додасте віддалене сховище та отримаєте цю гілку локально: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Якщо пізніше вона знову надішле вам листа з іншою гілкою з ще однією чудовою функцією, то ви зможете отримати зміни напряму, адже у вас вже є її віддалене сховище. Це найзручніше, якщо ви працюєте з кимось постійно. Якщо ж це подеколи єдина латка для внеску, то на прийняття її листом може піти менше часу, ніж вимагати від когось мати власний сервер та постійно додавати та вилучати віддалені сховища задля отримання нових латок. Також, навряд чи вам сподобається мати сотні віддалених репозиторіїв, у кожен з яких було додано лише одну чи дві латки. Втім, скрипти та сервіси розгортання (hosted services) можуть полегшити це — переважно все залежить від того, як працюєте ви, та як працюють автори внесків. Інша перевага цього підходу в тому, що ви також отримуєте історію комітів. Хоча у вас можуть бути справжні проблеми злиття, ви будете знати на чому з вашої історії вони базуються; належне три-точкове злиття є типовим — немає необхідності додавати -3 та сподіватись, що латку було згенеровано на базі публічного коміту, до якого ви маєте доступ. Якщо ви не співпрацюєте з людиною постійно, проте все одно бажаєте отримати зміни в такий спосіб, то можете надати URL віддаленого сховища команді git pull . Це робить одноразове отримання змін та не зберігає URL як посилання на віддалений репозиторій: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Як дізнатися, що додано Тепер у вас є тематична гілка, яка містить внесену працю. На цей момент ви можете визначити, що ви бажаєте з нею робити. Ця секція повертається до декількох команд, щоб ви могли бачити, як їх можна використовувати для перегляду саме того, що буде додано в разі зливання до головної гілки. Буває корисним переглянути всі коміти, які є в поточній гілці, проте яких немає в гілці master. Коміти з головної гілки можна виключити за допомогою опції --not перед ім’ям гілки. Це робить те саме, що й формат master..contrib , що ми його використовували раніше. Наприклад, якщо вам надіслано дві латки та ви створили гілку під назвою contrib та застосували їх до неї, то можете виконати: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better Щоб побачити, які зміни привносить кожен коміт, згадайте опцію -p команди git log , яка додає привнесену різницю після кожного коміту. Щоб побачити повну різницю того, що буде в разі зливання тематичної гілки до іншої, можливо вам доведеться вдатися до хитрощів, щоб отримати правильний результат. Вам може спасти на думку виконати наступне: $ git diff master Ця команда видає вам різницю, проте вона може бути оманливою. Якщо гілка master пішла вперед після створення тематичної гілки на її базі, то ви отримаєте назверх дивний результат. Так сталося через те, що Git напряму порівнює відбитки останнього коміту поточної тематичної гілки та відбиток останнього коміту в гілці master . Наприклад, якщо ви додали рядок у файлі в гілці master , пряме порівняння цих відбитків виглядатиме ніби тематична гілка збирається вилучити цей рядок. Якщо master є прямим предком тематичної гілки, то це не буде проблемою; проте якщо ці дві історії розійшлися, різниця виглядатиме ніби ви додаєте все нове зі своєї тематичної гілки та видаляєте все, що зʼявилося лише в гілці master . Що вам дійсно потрібно побачити — це зміни, додані до тематичної гілки — праця, яку ви запровадите, якщо зіллєте цю гілку до master. Це можна зробити, якщо порівняти останній коміт тематичної гілки з першим спільним предком, який вона має з гілкою master. Технічно, ви можете зробити це явно зʼясувавши спільного предка та виконавши diff з ним: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db чи, стисліше: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Втім, обидва ці варіанти не надто зручні, отже Git надає ще одне скорочення для того самого: синтаксис потрійної крапки. У контексті команди git diff , ви можете поставити три крапки після іншої гілки, щоб побачити різницю між останнім комітом поточної гілки та її спільного предка з іншою гілкою: $ git diff master...contrib Ця команда показує лише зроблене у поточній тематичній гілці після спільного з master предка. Цей синтаксис дійсно варто запамʼятати. Інтеграція внеску Коли вся робота в тематичній гілці готова для інтеграції до головнішої гілки, постає питання: як це зробити. Ба більше: який загальний процес роботи ви бажаєте використати для супроводження свого проекту? У вас є чимало варіантів, отже ми розглянемо декілька з них. Процеси роботи зливання Одним з простих процесів роботи — зливати всю цю працю прямо до гілки master . У цьому сценарії, гілка master містить зазвичай стабільний код. Коли зʼявляється робота в тематичній гілці, яку ви вважаєте завершеною, чи хтось інший запропонував та ви перевірили, ви зливаєте її до гілки master , вилучаєте цю щойно залиту тематичну гілку, та повторюєте це все знову. Наприклад, якщо в нас є репозиторій з роботою в двох гілках під назвами ruby_client та php_client , що мають вигляд Історія з декількома тематичними гілками. , та ми зіллємо ruby_client , а потім php_client , то наша історія в результаті виглядатиме як Після злиття тематичної гілки. . Рисунок 72. Історія з декількома тематичними гілками. Рисунок 73. Після злиття тематичної гілки. Це, напевно, найпростіший процес роботи, проте він може бути проблемним, якщо треба працювати з більшими або стабільнішими проектами, в яких ви бажаєте бути дійсно обережними з новими змінами. Якщо у вас достатньо важливий проект, то можна скористатися двофазним циклом зливання. У цьому сценарії, у вас є дві довгострокові гілки: master та develop . Ви домовляєтесь оновлювати master лише коли зʼявляється дуже стабільна версія, а весь новий код інтегрується до гілки develop . Ви регулярно надсилаєте зміни до обох цих гілок до публічного сховища. Щоразу, коли виникає готова до злиття тематична гілка ( Перед злиттям тематичної гілки. ), ви зливаєте її до develop ( Після злиття тематичної гілки. ); потім, коли ви створите теґ перевіреної версії, то перемотуєте вперед master до останнього коміту тепер стабільного develop ( Після випуску проекту. ). Рисунок 74. Перед злиттям тематичної гілки. Рисунок 75. Після злиття тематичної гілки. Рисунок 76. Після випуску проекту. Таким чином, коли хтось створює клон сховища вашого проекту, вони можуть або отримати master , щоб зібрати останню стабільну версію та легко оновлюватись, або можуть отримати develop , в якому зміст найновіше. Ви також можете розширити цю концепцію: додати гілку integrate , в якій вся робота зливається разом. Потім, коли код у цій гілці стає стабільним та проходитиме тести, ви зливаєте її до гілки develop ; а вже коли вона дійсно довела свою стабільність, ви перемотуєте вперед гілку master . Процеси роботи великих зливань Проект Git має чотири довгострокових гілки: master , next та pu (proposed updates — пропоновані оновлення) для нової роботи, та main для виправлень старших версій. Коли учасники впроваджують щось нове, воно накопичується в тематичних гілках у сховищі супроводжувача — схоже на вищеописані методи (дивіться Керування складною послідовністю паралельних доданих тематичних гілок. ). Потім тематичні гілки перевіряють, щоб визначити, чи вони є безпечними та готовими для використання, чи треба ще над ними працювати. Якщо вони безпечні, їх зливають до next , і цю гілку надсилають до сервера, аби всі могли спробувати злити тематичні гілки разом. Рисунок 77. Керування складною послідовністю паралельних доданих тематичних гілок. Якщо теми досі потребують доопрацювання, їх натомість зливають до pu . Коли визначено, що вони цілковито стабільні, їх зливають вдруге — до master . Гілки next та pu перезбираються з master . Це означає, що master майже завжди рухається вперед, next іноді перебазовують, а pu перебазовують навіть частіше: Рисунок 78. Зливання доданих тематичних гілок до довготривалих інтеграційних гілок. Коли тематичну гілку нарешті зливають до master , її вилучать з репозиторія. Проект Git також містить гілку main , яка відгалужена від останнього видання (release), щоб постачати латки до цієї версії, якщо необхідно супроводження цього видання. Отже, коли ви робите клон сховища Git, у вас є чотири гілки, на які ви можете переключитися, щоб випробувати проект на різних щаблях розробки, в залежності від того, наскільки новітня версія вам потрібна, чи яким чином ви бажаєте зробити внесок; та супроводжувач має структурований процес роботи, щоб йому було зручно оцінити нових учасників. Процес роботи проекту Git дуже спеціалізований. Щоб добре це зрозуміти, можете поглянути на Інструкцію супроводжувача Git . Процеси роботи з перебазуванням та висмикуванням Інші супроводжувачі надають перевагу перебазуванню та висмикуванню нової роботи поверху їхньої гілки master, замість зливання до неї, задля якомога лінійнішої історії. Коли у вас є робота в тематичній гілці, та ви вирішили, що бажаєте її інтегрувати, ви переходите до цієї гілки та виконуєте команду rebase, щоб перебудувати зміни поверху вашої поточної гілки master (або develop тощо). Якщо все вийшло добре, ви можете перемотати вперед свою гілку master , та отримаєте лінійну історію проекту. Інший спосіб перемістити впроваджену роботу з однієї гілки до іншої — висмикнути її. Висмикування в Git — це ніби перебазування для єдиного коміту. Воно бере латку, яку запровадив коміт, та намагається застосувати його на поточній гілці. Це корисно, якщо у вас є декілька комітів у тематичній гілці, та ви бажаєте інтегрувати лише один з них, або якщо у вас лише один коміт у тематичній гілці, та вам легше висмикнути його, ніж виконувати перебазування. Наприклад, припустимо, що у вас є ось такий проект: Рисунок 79. Приклад історії перед висмикуванням. Якщо ви бажаєте додати коміт e43a6 до гілки master, ви можете виконати $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) Це додає ті ж зміни, що були впроваджені в e43a6 , проте ви отримуєте нове значення SHA-1 коміту, адже дата застосування інша. Тепер історія виглядає так: Рисунок 80. Історія після висмикування коміту з тематичної гілки. Тепер ви можете вилучити тематичну гілку та викинути коміти, які ви не бажали додавати. Rerere Якщо ви робите багато зливань та перебазувань, або супроводжуєте довготривалу тематичну гілку, Git має функціонал під назвою ``rerere'', який може стати в пригоді. Rerere означає ``використовуй записані розвʼязання'' (reuse recorded resolution) — це метод скоротити ручні розвʼязання конфліктів. Коли rerere ввімкнено, Git зберігає набір відбитків станів до та після успішних зливань, та, якщо бачить конфлікт, який виглядає саме так, як якийсь вже розвʼязаний, він просто використає попереднє розвʼязання, і не буде вас ним турбувати. У цієї функції є дві частини: налаштування та команда. Налаштування називається rerere.enabled , та є достатньо корисним, щоб додати його до вашої глобальної конфігурації: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Тепер, щоразу як ви робите зливання, яке розвʼязує конфлікти, розвʼязання буде збережено в памʼяті на випадок, якщо воно знадобиться в майбутньому. Якщо потрібно, ви можете взаємодіяти з памʼяттю rerere за допомогою команди git rerere . Якщо викликати окремо, Git перевіряє базу даних розвʼязань та намагається знайти збіг з будь-яким поточним конфліктом злиття та розвʼязує їх (хоча це здійснюється автоматично, якщо rerere.enabled встановлено в true ). Також існують підкоманди, для перегляду того, що буде записано, для стирання окремого розвʼязання з памʼяті, та щоб очистити всю памʼять. Ми розглянемо rerere докладніше в Rerere . Теґування ваших видань (release) Коли ви вирішили випустити видання, ви, вірогідно, забажаєте створити теґ, щоб мати можливість відтворити його після того. Як ви можете створити новий теґ, розказано в Основи Git . Якщо ви, як супроводжувач, вирішите підписати теґ, процес може виглядати приблизно так: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Якщо ви підписуєте свої теґи, то може виникнути проблема розповсюдження публічних ключів PGP, який використовується для підписання теґів. Супроводжувач проекту Git впорався з цією проблемою: включив публічний ключ як блоб в сховищі, та додав теґ, який вказує прямо на його вміст. Щоб це зробити, ви можете зрозуміти, який ключ вам потрібен за допомогою gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Потім, ви можете напряму імпортувати ключ до бази даних Git, якщо експортуєте його та пропустити через команду git hash-object , яка записує новий блоб з його вмістом до Git та видає SHA-1 цього блобу: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Тепер вміст вашого ключу є в Git, ви можете створити теґ, який вказує прямо на нього, якщо вкажете нове значення SHA-1, яке надала нам команда hash-object . $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Якщо виконати git push --tags , то теґ maintainer-pgp-pub стане доступним всім. Якщо хтось забажає перевірити теґ, то він зможе напряму імпортувати ваш PGP ключ. Для цього йому треба дістати блоб напряму з бази даних та імпортувати його до GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import Він зможе використати ключ щоб перевірити всі підписані теґи. Також, якщо ви включите інструкції в повідомлення теґу, то виконання git show <теґ> дозволить вам надати користувачу більш детальні інструкції щодо перевірки теґу. Генерація номеру збірки Оскільки Git не має монотонно зростаючих номерів як 'v123' чи чогось подібного для кожного коміту, якщо ви бажаєте мати зручне для людини імʼя для коміту, ви можете виконати git describe для цього коміту. Git надає вам імʼя найближчого теґу разом з кількістю комітів поверху цього теґу, а також часткове значення SHA-1 для описаного коміту: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c Таким чином, ви можете експортувати відбиток чи збірку та назвати його якось зрозуміло для людей. Насправді, якщо ви зберете Git з вихідного коду з клону сховища Git, то git --version надає вам щось дуже схоже. Якщо ви описуєте коміт, для котрого існує прямий теґ, то вам надається просто імʼя цього теґу. Команда git describe схиляється до анотованих теґів (теґи, що їх створили з опцією -a або -s ), отже теґи для видань (release) варто створювати таким чином при використанні git describe , щоб бути впевненим, що коміт буде названо належним чином при описі. Ви також можете використати цей рядок як ціль для команд checkout або show, хоча вона покладається на скорочене значення SHA-1 наприкінці, отже воно може не бути дійсним завжди. Наприклад, ядро Linux нещодавно стрибнуло з 8 до 10 символів, щоб подбати про унікальність SHA-1 обʼєктів, отже старіші імена з виводу git describe стали непридатними. Підготовка видань Тепер ви бажаєте видати збірку. Одна з речей, які ви забажаєте — створити архів останнього відбитку вашого коду для знедолених, які не користуються Git. Для цього існує команда git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Якщо хтось відкриє цей архів tar, то отримає останній відбиток вашого проекту в директорії проекту. Ви також можете створити архів zip майже так само — треба лише передати опцію --format=zip до git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Тепер у вас є гарний архів tar та zip вашого видання проекту, яке ви можете відвантажити на вебсайт або надіслати комусь поштою. Короткий журнал (shortlog) Настав час написати до вашої поштової розсилки всім бажаючим знати, що коїться у вашому проекті. Чудовий спосіб швидко отримати короткий журнал змін, які були додані до проекту після попереднього видання — використати команду git shortlog . Вона робить підсумок всіх комітів з наданих їй комітів; наприклад, наступне надає вам підсумок всіх комітів після останнього видання, якщо воно називається v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Ви отримуєте чистий підсумок всіх комітів після v1.0.1, згруповані за автором, який ви можете надіслати до вашої розсилки. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/ko/v2/%eb%b6%84%ec%82%b0-%ed%99%98%ea%b2%bd%ec%97%90%ec%84%9c%ec%9d%98-Git-%ed%94%84%eb%a1%9c%ec%a0%9d%ed%8a%b8-%ea%b4%80%eb%a6%ac%ed%95%98%ea%b8%b0 | Git - 프로젝트 관리하기 About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 시작하기 1.1 버전 관리란? 1.2 짧게 보는 Git의 역사 1.3 Git 기초 1.4 CLI 1.5 Git 설치 1.6 Git 최초 설정 1.7 도움말 보기 1.8 요약 2. Git의 기초 2.1 Git 저장소 만들기 2.2 수정하고 저장소에 저장하기 2.3 커밋 히스토리 조회하기 2.4 되돌리기 2.5 리모트 저장소 2.6 태그 2.7 Git Alias 2.8 요약 3. Git 브랜치 3.1 브랜치란 무엇인가 3.2 브랜치와 Merge 의 기초 3.3 브랜치 관리 3.4 브랜치 워크플로 3.5 리모트 브랜치 3.6 Rebase 하기 3.7 요약 4. Git 서버 4.1 프로토콜 4.2 서버에 Git 설치하기 4.3 SSH 공개키 만들기 4.4 서버 설정하기 4.5 Git 데몬 4.6 스마트 HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 또 다른 선택지, 호스팅 4.10 요약 5. 분산 환경에서의 Git 5.1 분산 환경에서의 워크플로 5.2 프로젝트에 기여하기 5.3 프로젝트 관리하기 5.4 요약 6. GitHub 6.1 계정 만들고 설정하기 6.2 GitHub 프로젝트에 기여하기 6.3 GitHub 프로젝트 관리하기 6.4 Organization 관리하기 6.5 GitHub 스크립팅 6.6 요약 7. Git 도구 7.1 리비전 조회하기 7.2 대화형 명령 7.3 Stashing과 Cleaning 7.4 내 작업에 서명하기 7.5 검색 7.6 히스토리 단장하기 7.7 Reset 명확히 알고 가기 7.8 고급 Merge 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Git으로 버그 찾기 7.11 서브모듈 7.12 Bundle 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential 저장소 7.15 요약 8. Git맞춤 8.1 Git 설정하기 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 정책 구현하기 8.5 요약 9. Git과 여타 버전 관리 시스템 9.1 Git: 범용 Client 9.2 Git으로 옮기기 9.3 요약 10. Git의 내부 10.1 Plumbing 명령과 Porcelain 명령 10.2 Git 개체 10.3 Git Refs 10.4 Packfile 10.5 Refspec 10.6 데이터 전송 프로토콜 10.7 운영 및 데이터 복구 10.8 환경변수 10.9 요약 A1. 부록 A: 다양한 환경에서 Git 사용하기 A1.1 GUI A1.2 Visual Studio A1.3 Eclipse A1.4 Bash A1.5 Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 요약 A2. 부록 B: 애플리케이션에 Git 넣기 A2.1 Git 명령어 A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A3. 부록 C: Git 명령어 A3.1 설치와 설정 A3.2 프로젝트 가져오기와 생성하기 A3.3 스냅샷 다루기 A3.4 Branch와 Merge A3.5 공유하고 업데이트하기 A3.6 보기와 비교 A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patch 하기 A3.9 Email A3.10 다른 버전 관리 시스템 A3.11 관리 A3.12 Plumbing 명령어 2nd Edition 5.3 분산 환경에서의 Git - 프로젝트 관리하기 프로젝트 관리하기 효율적으로 기여하는 방법뿐만 아니라 효율적으로 운영하는 방법도 알아야 한다. 언젠가는 단순히 프로젝트에 기여하는 것이 아니라 프로젝트를 직접 운영해야 할 수도 있다. 프로젝트를 운영하는 것은 크게 두 가지로 이루어진다. 하나는 format-patch 명령으로 생성한 Patch를 이메일로 받아서 프로젝트에 Patch를 적용하는 것이다. 다른 하나는 프로젝트의 다른 리모트 저장소로부터 변경 내용을 Merge 하는 것이다. 저장소를 아주 깔끔하고 정돈된 상태로 운영하고 Patch를 적용하거나 수정사항을 확인하기 쉬운 상태로 유지하려면 좋은 운영 방식을 터득해야 한다. 좋은 운영 방식은 다른 사람들이 이해하기 쉽고 프로젝트가 오랫동안 운영돼도 흐트러짐이 없어야 한다. 토픽 브랜치에서 일하기 메인 브랜치에 통합하기 전에 임시로 토픽 브랜치를 하나 만들고 거기에 통합해 보고 나서 다시 메인 브랜치에 통합하는 것이 좋다. 이렇게 하면 Patch를 적용할 때 이리저리 수정해 보기도 하고 좀 더 고민해 봐야 하면 Patch를 적용해둔 채로 나중으로 미룰 수도 있다. 무슨 Patch인지 브랜치 이름에 간단히 적어주면 다른 작업을 하다가 나중에 이 브랜치로 돌아왔을 때 기억해내기 훨씬 수월하다. 프로젝트 관리자라면 이런 토픽 브랜치의 이름을 잘 지어야 한다. 예를 들어 sc 라는 사람이 작업한 Patch라면 sc/ruby_client 처럼 앞에 닉네임을 붙여서 브랜치를 만들 수 있다. master 브랜치에서 새 토픽 브랜치를 아래와 같이 만든다. $ git branch sc/ruby_client master checkout -b 명령으로 브랜치를 만들고 Checkout까지 한 번에 할 수 있다. $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master 이렇게 토픽 브랜치를 만들고 받은 Patch를 적용해보고 적용한 내용을 다시 Long-Running 브랜치로 Merge 한다. 이메일로 받은 Patch를 적용하기 이메일로 받은 Patch를 프로젝트에 적용하기 전에 우선 토픽 브랜치에 Patch를 적용한다. Patch를 적용하는 방법은 git apply 명령을 사용하는 것과 git am 명령을 사용하는 것 두 가지가 있다. apply 명령을 사용하는 방법 git diff 나 Unix의 diff 명령(다음 절에서 다루겠지만 추천하지 않는 방법)으로 만든 Patch 파일을 적용할 때는 git apply 명령을 사용한다. Patch 파일이 /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch 라고 하면 아래와 같은 명령으로 Patch를 적용할 수 있다. $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch 위 명령을 실행하면 Patch 파일 내용에 따라 현재 디렉토리의 파일들을 변경한다. 위 명령은 patch -p1 명령과 거의 같다. 하지만, 이 명령이 patch 명령보다 훨씬 더 꼼꼼하게 비교한다. git diff 로 생성한 Patch 파일에 파일을 추가하거나, 파일을 삭제하고, 파일의 이름을 변경하는 내용이 들어 있으면 그대로 적용된다. 이런 것은 patch 명령으로 할 수 없다. 그리고 git apply 는 “모두 적용, 아니면 모두 취소” 모델을 사용하기 때문에 Patch를 적용하는 데 실패하면 Patch를 적용하기 이전 상태로 전부 되돌려 놓는다. patch 명령은 여러 파일에 적용하다가 중간에 실패하면 거기서 그대로 중단하기 때문에 깔끔하지 못하다. git apply 는 patch 명령보다 훨씬 보수적이다. 이 명령은 자동으로 커밋해 주지 않기 때문에 변경된 파일을 직접 Staging Area에 추가하고 커밋해야 한다. 실제로 Patch를 적용하기 전에 Patch가 잘 적용되는지 한 번 시험해보려면 git apply --check 명령을 사용한다. $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply 화면에 아무 내용도 뜨지 않으면 Patch가 깔끔하게 적용됐다는 것이다. 이 명령은 Patch를 적용해 보고 에러가 발생하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환하기 때문에 쉘 스크립트에서도 사용할 수 있다. am 명령을 사용하는 방법 프로젝트 기여자가 Git의 format-patch 명령을 잘 사용하면 관리자의 작업은 훨씬 쉬워진다. format-patch 명령으로 만든 Patch 파일은 기여자의 정보와 커밋 정보가 포함되어 있기 때문이다. 그래서 기여자가 diff보다 format-patch를 사용하도록 권해야 한다. git apply 는 기존 Patch 파일에만 사용한다. format-patch 명령으로 생성한 Patch 파일은 git am 명령으로 적용한다( am 은 "apply a series of patches from a mailbox"의 약자다). git am 은 mbox 파일을 읽어 그 안에 이메일 메시지가 한 개가 있든 여러 개가 있든 처리할 수 있다. mbox 파일은 간단한 텍스트 파일이고 그 내용은 아래와 같다. From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 이 내용은 format-patch 명령으로 생성한 파일의 앞부분이다. 이 파일은 mbox 이메일 형식이다. 받은 메일이 git send-email 로 만든 메일이라면 mbox 형식으로 저장하고 이 mbox 파일을 git am 명령으로 적용한다. 사용하는 메일 클라이언트가 여러 이메일을 mbox 파일 하나로 저장할 수 있다면 메일 여러 개를 한 번에 Patch 할 수 있다. 이메일로 받은 것이 아니라 git format-patch 명령으로 만든 이슈 트래킹 시스템 같은데 올라온 파일이라면 먼저 내려받고서 git am 명령으로 Patch 한다. $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function Patch가 성공하면 자동으로 새로운 커밋이 하나 만들어진다. 이메일의 From 과 Date 에서 저자 정보가, 이메일의 제목과 메시지에서 커밋 메시지가 추출돼 사용된다. 예를 들어 위의 mbox 예제 파일을 적용해서 생성되는 커밋은 아래와 같다. $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Commit 부분의 커밋 정보는 누가 언제 Patch 했는지 알려 준다. Author 정보는 실제로 누가 언제 Patch 파일을 만들었는지 알려 준다. Patch에 실패할 수도 있다. 보통 Patch가 생성된 시점보다 해당 브랜치가 너무 업데이트 됐을 때나 아직 적용되지 않은 다른 Patch가 필요한 경우에 일어난다. 이러면 git am 명령은 Patch를 중단하고 사용자에게 어떻게 처리할지 물어온다. $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". 성공적으로 Patch 하지 못하면 git은 Merge 나 Rebase 의 경우처럼 문제를 일으킨 파일에 충돌 표시를 해 놓는다. Merge 나 Rebase 할 때 충돌을 해결하는 것처럼 Patch의 충돌도 해결할 수 있다. 충돌한 파일을 열어서 충돌 부분을 수정하고 나서 Staging Area에 추가하고 git am --resolved 명령을 입력한다. $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem 충돌이 났을 때 Git에게 좀 더 머리를 써서 Patch를 적용하도록 하려면 -3 옵션을 사용한다. 이 옵션은 Git에게 3-way Patch를 적용해 보라고 하는 것이다. Patch가 어느 시점에서 갈라져 나온 것인지 알 수 없기 때문에 이 옵션은 기본적으로 비활성화돼 있다. 하지만 같은 프로젝트의 커밋이라면 기본 옵션보다 훨씬 똑똑하게 충돌 상황을 해결한다. $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. 위의 경우에서 -3 옵션이 없었으면 충돌이 났을 것이다. -3 옵션이 있어서 충돌 없이 깨끗하게 Patch가 적용됐다. 하나의 mbox 파일에 들어 있는 여러 Patch를 적용할 때 am 명령의 대화형 방식을 사용할 수 있다. 이 방식을 사용하면 Patch를 적용할 때마다 묻는다. $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all 이 옵션은 Patch를 여러 개 적용할 때 유용하다. 적용하려는 Patch의 내용을 미리 꼭 기억해두지 않아도 되고 적용하기 전에 이미 적용된 Patch인지 알 수 있다. 모든 Patch를 토픽 브랜치에 적용하고 커밋까지 마치면 Long-Running 브랜치에 어떻게 통합할지를 결정해야 한다. 리모트 브랜치로부터 통합하기 프로젝트 기여자가 자신의 저장소를 만들고 커밋을 몇 번 하고 저장소의 URL과 변경 내용을 메일로 보내왔다면 URL을 리모트 저장소로 등록하고 Merge 할 수 있다. 예를 들어 Jessica가 ruby-client 브랜치에 엄청난 기능을 만들어 놨다고 이메일을 보내왔다. 이 리모트 브랜치를 등록하고 Checkout 해서 테스트한다. $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client 나중에 Jessiaca가 이메일로 또 다른 엄청난 기능을 개발한 브랜치를 보내오면 이미 저장소를 등록했기 때문에 바로 Fetch 하고 Checkout 할 수 있다. 다른 개발자들과 함께 지속적으로 개발할 때는 이 방식이 가장 사용하기 좋다. 물론 기여하는 사람이 간단한 Patch를 이따금씩만 만들어 내면 이메일로 Patch 파일을 받는 것이 낫다. 기여자가 저장소 서버를 만들어 커밋하고 관리자가 리모트 저장소로 등록해서 Patch를 합치는 작업보다 시간과 노력이 덜 든다. 물론 Patch 한 두 개를 보내는 사람들까지도 모두 리모트 저장소로 등록해서 사용해도 된다. 스크립트나 호스팅 서비스를 사용하면 좀 더 쉽게 관리할 수 있다. 어쨌든 어떤 방식이 좋을지는 우리가 어떻게 개발하고 어떻게 기여할지에 달렸다. 리모트 저장소로 등록하면 커밋의 히스토리도 알 수 있다. Merge 할 때 어디서부터 커밋이 갈라졌는지 알 수 있기 때문에 -3 옵션을 주지 않아도 자동으로 3-way Merge가 적용된다. 리모트 저장소로 등록하지 않고도 Merge 할 수 있다. 계속 함께 일할 개발자가 아닐 때 사용하면 좋다. 아래는 리모트 저장소로 등록하지 않고 URL을 직접 사용하여 Merge를 하는 예이다. $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. 무슨 내용인지 확인하기 기여물이 포함된 토픽 브랜치가 있으니 이제 그 기여물을 Merge 할지 말지 결정해야 한다. 이번 절에서는 메인 브랜치에 Merge 할 때 필요한 명령어를 살펴본다. 주로 토픽 브랜치를 검토하는데 필요한 명령이다. 먼저 지금 작업하는 브랜치에서 master 브랜치에 속하지 않는 커밋만 살펴보는 것이 좋다. --not 옵션으로 히스토리에서 master 브랜치에 속한 커밋은 제외하고 살펴본다. 앞서 살펴본 master..contrib 형식을 사용하여 확인할 수도 있다. contrib 브랜치에 Patch를 두 개 Merge 했으면 아래와 같은 명령어로 그 결과를 살펴볼 수 있다. $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better git log 명령에 -p 옵션을 주면 각 커밋에서 실제로 무슨 내용이 변경됐는지 살펴볼 수 있다. 이 옵션은 각 commit의 뒤에 diff의 내용을 출력해 준다. 토픽 브랜치를 다른 브랜치에 Merge 하기 전에 어떤 부분이 변경될지 미리 살펴볼 수 있다. 이때는 색다른 명령을 사용해야 한다. 물론 아래와 같은 명령을 사용할 수도 있다. $ git diff master 이 명령은 diff 내용을 보여주긴 하지만 잘못된 것을 보여줄 수도 있다. 토픽 브랜치에서 작업하는 동안 master 브랜치에 새로운 커밋이 추가될 수도 있다. 그렇기 때문에 기대하는 diff 결과가 아닐 수 있다. 위 명령은 토픽 브랜치의 마지막 커밋과 master 브랜치의 마지막 커밋을 비교한다. master 브랜치에 한 줄을 추가되면 토픽 브랜치에서 한 줄 삭제한 것으로 보여 준다. master 브랜치가 가리키는 커밋이 토픽 브랜치의 조상이라면 아무 문제 없다. 하지만, 그렇지 않은 경우라면 이 diff 도구는 토픽 브랜치에만 있는 내용은 추가하는 것이고 master 브랜치에만 있는 내용은 삭제하는 것으로 간주한다. 정말 보고 싶은 것은 토픽 브랜치에 추가한 것이고 결국에는 이것을 master 브랜치에 추가하려는 것이다. 그러니까 master 브랜치와 토픽 브랜치의 공통 조상인 커밋을 찾아서 토픽 브랜치가 현재 가리키는 커밋과 비교해야 한다. 아래와 같은 명령으로 공통 조상인 커밋을 찾고 이 조상 커밋에서 변경된 내용을 살펴본다. $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db 같은 내용을 명령 한 줄로 실행하면 다음과 같다. $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) 이 방법으로 원하는 결과를 얻을 수 있지만, 사용법이 불편하다. Git은 Triple-Dot 구문으로 간단하게 위와 같이 비교하는 방법을 지원한다. diff 명령을 사용할 때 두 브랜치 사이에 … 를 쓰면, 두 브랜치의 공통 조상과 브랜치의 마지막 커밋을 비교한다. $ git diff master...contrib 이 명령은 master 브랜치와 현재 토픽 브랜치에서 달라진 것들만 보여주기 때문에 기억해두면 매우 유용하게 사용할 수 있다. 기여물 통합하기 기여물을 토픽 브랜치에 다 적용하고 Long-Running 브랜치나 master 브랜치로 통합할 준비가 되었다면 이제 어떻게 해야 할까. 프로젝트를 운영하는 데 쓰는 작업 방식은 어떤 것이 있을까. 앞으로 그 예제 몇 가지를 살펴본다. Merge 하는 워크플로 바로 master 브랜치에 Merge 하는 것이 가장 간단하다. 이 워크플로에서는 master 브랜치가 안전한 코드라고 가정한다. 토픽 브랜치에서 작업을 하고 작업이 끝나면 토픽 브랜치를 검증하고 master 브랜치로 Merge 한 후 토픽 브랜치를 삭제하는 과정을 반복한다. 여러 토픽 브랜치 히스토리. 처럼 ruby_client 브랜치와 php_client 브랜치가 있을 때 , ruby_client 브랜치를 master 브랜치로 Merge 한 후 php_client 브랜치를 Merge 하면 Merge 한 후의 저장소. 같아진다. 그림 73. 여러 토픽 브랜치 히스토리. 그림 74. Merge 한 후의 저장소. 이 워크플로에서 가장 간단한 시나리오다. 프로젝트의 규모가 커지거나 코드를 더 안정적으로 관리할 때는 이렇게 쉽게 Merge 되지 않을 것이다. 개발자가 많고 규모가 큰 프로젝트에서는 최소한 두 단계로 Merge 하는 것이 좋다. 살펴볼 예에서는 Long-Running 브랜치를 두 개를 유지한다. master 브랜치는 아주 안정적인 버전을 릴리즈하기 위해서 사용한다. develop 브랜치는 새로 수정된 코드를 통합할 때 사용한다. 그리고 두 브랜치를 모두 공개 저장소에 Push 한다. 우선 develop 브랜치에 토픽 브랜치( 토픽 브랜치를 Merge 하기 전. )를 토픽 브랜치를 Merge 한 후. 같이 Merge 한다. 그 후에 릴리즈해도 될만한 수준이 되면 master 브랜치를 develop 브랜치까지 Fast-forward시킨다( 토픽 브랜치를 릴리즈한 후. ). 그림 75. 토픽 브랜치를 Merge 하기 전. 그림 76. 토픽 브랜치를 Merge 한 후. 그림 77. 토픽 브랜치를 릴리즈한 후. 이 워크플로를 사용하면 프로젝트 저장소를 Clone 하고 나서 개발자가 안정 버전이 필요하면 master 브랜치를 빌드하고 안정적이지 않더라도 좀 더 최신 버전이 필요하면 develop 브랜치를 Checkout 하여 빌드한다. 이 개념을 좀 더 확장해서 사용할 수 있다. 토픽 브랜치를 검증하기 위한 integrate 브랜치를 만들어 Merge 하고 토픽 브랜치가 검증되면 develop 브랜치에 Merge 한다. 그리고 develop 브랜치에서 충분히 안정하다는 것이 증명되면 그때 master 브랜치에 Fast-forward Merge 한다. 대규모 Merge 워크플로 Git을 개발하는 프로젝트는 Long-Running의 브랜치를 4개 운영한다. 각 브랜치 이름은 master , next , pu (Proposed Updates), maint 이다. maint 는 마지막으로 릴리즈한 버전을 지원하는 브랜치다. 기여자가 새로운 기능을 제안하면 관리자는 토픽 브랜치를 동시에 여러 개 관리하는 것은 복잡하다. 처럼 자신의 저장소에 토픽 브랜치를 만들어 관리한다. 그리고 토픽에 부족한 점은 없는지, 안정적인지 계속 테스트한다. 안정화되면 next 로 Merge 하고 저장소에 Push 한다. 그러면 모두가 잘 통합됐는지 확인할 수 있다. 그림 78. 토픽 브랜치를 동시에 여러 개 관리하는 것은 복잡하다. 토픽 브랜치가 좀 더 개선돼야 하면 next 가 아니라 pu 에 Merge 한다. 충분히 검증을 했을 때에만 master 브랜치로 Merge 한다. master 브랜치에 Merge하고 나면 next 브랜치와 pu 브랜치는 master 브랜치를 기반으로 다시 만든다. 즉 next 브랜치는 정말 가끔 Rebase 하고 pu 는 자주 Rebase 하지만 master 는 항상 Fast-forward 한다. 그림 79. 토픽 브랜치를 Long-Running 브랜치로 Merge 하기. 토픽 브랜치가 결국 master 브랜치로 Merge 되면 저장소에서 삭제한다. 그리고 이전 릴리즈 버전에 Patch가 필요하면 maint 브랜치를 이용해 대응한다. Git을 개발하는 프로젝트를 Clone 하면 브랜치가 4개 있고 각 브랜치를 이용하여 진행사항을 확인해볼 수 있다. 그래서 새로운 기능을 추가하려면 적당한 브랜치를 보고 고른다. 이 워크플로는 잘 구조화돼 있어서 코드가 새로 추가돼도 테스트하기 쉽다. 이 Git 프로젝트의 워크플로는 끝판왕이다. 완벽하게 이해하려면 Git 관리자 가이드 를 봐야 한다. Rebase와 Cherry-Pick 워크플로 히스토리를 한 줄로 관리하려고 Merge 보다 Rebase 나 Cherry-Pick을 더 선호하는 관리자들도 있다. 토픽 브랜치에서 작업을 마친 후 master 브랜치에 Merge 할 때 master 브랜치를 기반으로 Rebase 한다. 그러면 커밋이 다시 만들어 진다. master 대신 develop 등의 브랜치에도 가능하다. 문제가 없으면 master 브랜치를 Fast-forward시킨다. 이렇게 히스토리를 한 줄로 유지할 수 있다. 한 브랜치에서 다른 브랜치로 작업한 내용을 옮기는 또 다른 방식으로 Cherry-pick이란 것도 있다. Git의 Cherry-pick은 커밋 하나만 Rebase 하는 것이다. 커밋 하나로 Patch 내용을 만들어 현재 브랜치에 적용을 하는 것이다. 토픽 브랜치에 있는 커밋 중에서 하나만 고르거나 토픽 브랜치에 커밋이 하나밖에 없을 때 Rebase 보다 유용하다. 아래와 같은 예를 들어보자. 그림 80. Cherry-pick을 실행하기 전의 저장소. e43a6 커밋 하나만 master 브랜치에 적용하려면 아래와 같은 명령을 실행한다. $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) 위 명령을 실행하면 e43a6 커밋에서 변경된 내용을 현재 브랜치에 똑같이 적용을 한다. 하지만, 변경을 적용한 시점이 다르므로 새 커밋의 SHA-1 해시값은 달라진다. 명령을 실행하고 나면 아래와 같이 된다. 그림 81. Cherry-pick 방식으로 커밋 하나를 적용한 후의 저장소. Rebase 나 Cherry-pick 방식으로 토픽 브랜치를 합치고 나면 필요없는 토픽 브랜치나 커밋은 삭제한다. Rerere 수시로 Merge 나 Rebase를 한다거나 오랫동안 유지되는 토픽브랜치를 쓰는 사람에게 유용한 “rerere” 기능이 있다. Rerere의 뜻은 “reuse recorded resolution”(충돌 해결방법 재사용)으로 수작업으로 충돌 해결하던 것을 쉽게 해준다. rerere 기능이 활성화 돼 있으면 Merge가 성공할 때 마다 그 이전과 이후 상태를 저장해둔다. 나중에 충돌이 발생하면 비슷한 상황에서 Merge가 성공한 적이 있었는지 찾아보고 해결이 가능하다면 자동으로 해결한다. Rerere 기능의 동작은 두 부분으로 나누어 볼 수 있다. Rerere 기능을 설정하는 부분과 Rerere 기능을 명령으로 사용하는 부분이다. 설정은 rerere.enabled 값을 설정하면 되는데 글로벌 설정에 저장해 두고 사용하면 편하다. $ git config --global rerere.enabled true 이제부터 Merge가 성공할 때 마다 전후 상황을 기록해두고 나중에 충돌이 나면 사용할 수 있게 됐다. 필요하다면 git rerere 명령을 사용하여 저장된 캐시를 바탕으로 대화형 인터페이스를 통해 충돌을 다룰 수도 있다. git rerere 명령을 직접 실행하면 현재 Merge 과정에서 발생한 충돌을 해결하는데 참고할 만한 이전 Merge 기록을 찾아준다( rerere.enabled 옵션이 켜져 있다면 자동). Rerere 기능을 사용할 때 기록할 내용을 세세하게 설정하거나, 기록된 내용 중에 특정 기록을 지운다거나 하는 보조 명령도 제공한다. 자세한 내용은 Rerere 에서 다루기로 한다. 릴리즈 버전에 태그 달기 적당한 때가 되면 릴리즈해야 한다. 그리고 언제든지 그 시점으로 되돌릴 수 있게 태그를 다는 것이 좋다. Git의 기초 에서 살펴본 대로 태그를 달면 된다. 서명된 태그를 달면 아래와 같이 출력된다. $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 태그에 서명하면 서명에 사용한 PGP 공개키도 배포해야 한다. Git 개발 프로젝트는 관리자의 PGP 공개키를 Blob 형식으로 Git 저장소에 함께 배포한다. 이 Blob 파일을 사용하여 태그에 서명했다. gpg --list-keys 명령으로 어떤 PGP 공개키를 포함할지 확인한다. $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] git hash-object 라는 명령으로 공개키를 바로 Git 저장소에 넣을 수 있다. 이 명령은 Git 저장소 안에 Blob 형식으로 공개키를 저장해주고 그 Blob의 SHA-1 값을 알려준다. $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 hash-object 명령으로 구한 SHA-1 해시값으로 PGP 공개키를 가리키는 태그를 만든다. $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 git push --tags 명령으로 앞서 만든 maintainer-pgp-pub 태그를 공유한다. 다른 사람이 태그의 서명을 확인하려면 우선 Git 저장소에 저장된 PGP 공개키를 꺼내서 GPG키 데이터베이스에 저장해야 한다. $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import 사람들은 이렇게 공개키를 얻어서 서명된 태그를 확인한다. 또한, 관리자가 태그 메시지에 서명을 확인하는 방법을 적어 놓으면 좋다. git show <tag> 으로 어떻게 서명된 태그를 확인하는지 설명한다. 빌드넘버 만들기 Git은 'v123' 처럼 숫자 형태로 커밋 이름을 만들지 않기 때문에 사람이 기억하기 어렵다. 하지만 git describe 명령으로 좀 더 사람이 기억하기 쉬운 이름을 얻을 수 있다. Git은 가장 가까운 태그의 이름과, 태그에서 얼마나 더 커밋이 쌓였는지, 그리고 해당 커밋의 SHA-1 값을 조금 가져다가 이름을 만든다. $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c 이렇게 사람이 읽을 수 있는 이름으로 스냅샷이나 빌드를 만든다. 만약 저장소에서 Clone 한 후 소스코드로 Git을 설치하면 git --version 명령은 이렇게 생긴 빌드넘버를 보여준다. 태그가 달린 커밋에 git describe 명령을 사용하면 다른 정보 없이 태그 이름만 사용한다. git describe 명령은 -a 나 -s 옵션을 주고 만든 Annotated 태그가 필요하다. 릴리즈 태그는 git describe 명령으로 만드니까 꼭 이름이 적당한지 사전에 확인해야 한다. 그리고 이 값은 checkout이나 show 명령에도 사용할 수 있지만, 전적으로 이름 뒤에 붙은 SHA-1 값을 사용한다. 그래서 이 값으로는 해당 커밋을 못 찾을 수도 있다. 최근 Linux 커널은 충돌 때문에 축약된 SHA-1가 8자에서 10자로 늘어났다. 이제는 8자일 때 생성한 값은 사용할 수 없다. 릴리즈 준비하기 배포할 릴리즈 버전이 준비되었다. 먼저 Git을 사용하지 않는 사람을 위해 소스코드 스냅샷을 압축한다. 쉽게 압축할 수 있도록 Git은 git archive 명령을 지원한다. $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz 이 압축 파일을 풀면 프로젝트의 가장 마지막 스냅샷이 나온다. ZIP 형식으로 압축 파일을 만들려면 --format=zip 옵션을 사용한다. $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip 이렇게 압축한 스냅샷 파일은 웹사이트나 이메일로 사람들에게 배포할 수 있다. Shortlog 보기 이메일로 프로젝트의 변경 사항을 사람들에게 알려야 할 때, git shortlog 명령을 사용하면 지난 릴리즈 이후의 변경 사항 목록을 쉽게 얻어올 수 있다. git shortlog 명령은 주어진 범위에 있는 커밋을 요약해준다. 아래는 최근 릴리즈 버전인 v1.0.1 이후의 커밋을 요약해 주는 예제이다. $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 이렇게 v1.0.1 이후 변경 내용을 Author를 기준으로 정리한 커밋을 이메일로 전송한다. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=en_NZ | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등� | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
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https://git-scm.com/book/id/v2/Distributed-Git-Maintaining-a-Project | Git - Maintaining a Project About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Memulai 1.1 Tentang Version Control 1.2 Sejarah Singkat Git 1.3 Dasar-dasar Git 1.4 Command Line 1.5 Memasang Git 1.6 Pengaturan Awal Git 1.7 Mendapatkan Bantuan 1.8 Kesimpulan 2. Git Basics 2.1 Mendapatkan Repository Git 2.2 Recording Changes to the Repository 2.3 Viewing the Commit History 2.4 Undoing Things 2.5 Working with Remotes 2.6 Tagging 2.7 Alias Git 2.8 Summary 3. Git Branching 3.1 Branches in a Nutshell 3.2 Basic Branching and Merging 3.3 Branch Management 3.4 Branching Workflows 3.5 Remote Branches 3.6 Rebasing 3.7 Summary 4. Git di Server 4.1 Protokol 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Generating Your SSH Public Key 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Ringkasan 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Distributed Workflows 5.2 Contributing to a Project 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Pengaturan dan Konfigurasi Akun 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Mengelola Organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Ringkasan 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Kostumisasi Git 8.1 Konfigurasi Git 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Ringkasan 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Appendix A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Summary A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distributed Git - Maintaining a Project Maintaining a Project In addition to knowing how to effectively contribute to a project, you’ll likely need to know how to maintain one. This can consist of accepting and applying patches generated via format-patch and e-mailed to you, or integrating changes in remote branches for repositories you’ve added as remotes to your project. Whether you maintain a canonical repository or want to help by verifying or approving patches, you need to know how to accept work in a way that is clearest for other contributors and sustainable by you over the long run. Working in Topic Branches When you’re thinking of integrating new work, it’s generally a good idea to try it out in a topic branch – a temporary branch specifically made to try out that new work. This way, it’s easy to tweak a patch individually and leave it if it’s not working until you have time to come back to it. If you create a simple branch name based on the theme of the work you’re going to try, such as ruby_client or something similarly descriptive, you can easily remember it if you have to abandon it for a while and come back later. The maintainer of the Git project tends to namespace these branches as well – such as sc/ruby_client , where sc is short for the person who contributed the work. As you’ll remember, you can create the branch based off your master branch like this: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Or, if you want to also switch to it immediately, you can use the checkout -b option: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Now you’re ready to add your contributed work into this topic branch and determine if you want to merge it into your longer-term branches. Applying Patches from E-mail If you receive a patch over e-mail that you need to integrate into your project, you need to apply the patch in your topic branch to evaluate it. There are two ways to apply an e-mailed patch: with git apply or with git am . Applying a Patch with apply If you received the patch from someone who generated it with the git diff or a Unix diff command (which is not recommended; see the next section), you can apply it with the git apply command. Assuming you saved the patch at /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , you can apply the patch like this: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch This modifies the files in your working directory. It’s almost identical to running a patch -p1 command to apply the patch, although it’s more paranoid and accepts fewer fuzzy matches than patch. It also handles file adds, deletes, and renames if they’re described in the git diff format, which patch won’t do. Finally, git apply is an “apply all or abort all” model where either everything is applied or nothing is, whereas patch can partially apply patchfiles, leaving your working directory in a weird state. git apply is overall much more conservative than patch . It won’t create a commit for you – after running it, you must stage and commit the changes introduced manually. You can also use git apply to see if a patch applies cleanly before you try actually applying it – you can run git apply --check with the patch: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply If there is no output, then the patch should apply cleanly. This command also exits with a non-zero status if the check fails, so you can use it in scripts if you want. Applying a Patch with am If the contributor is a Git user and was good enough to use the format-patch command to generate their patch, then your job is easier because the patch contains author information and a commit message for you. If you can, encourage your contributors to use format-patch instead of diff to generate patches for you. You should only have to use git apply for legacy patches and things like that. To apply a patch generated by format-patch , you use git am . Technically, git am is built to read an mbox file, which is a simple, plain-text format for storing one or more e-mail messages in one text file. It looks something like this: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 This is the beginning of the output of the format-patch command that you saw in the previous section. This is also a valid mbox e-mail format. If someone has e-mailed you the patch properly using git send-email, and you download that into an mbox format, then you can point git am to that mbox file, and it will start applying all the patches it sees. If you run a mail client that can save several e-mails out in mbox format, you can save entire patch series into a file and then use git am to apply them one at a time. However, if someone uploaded a patch file generated via format-patch to a ticketing system or something similar, you can save the file locally and then pass that file saved on your disk to git am to apply it: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function You can see that it applied cleanly and automatically created the new commit for you. The author information is taken from the e-mail’s From and Date headers, and the message of the commit is taken from the Subject and body (before the patch) of the e-mail. For example, if this patch was applied from the mbox example above, the commit generated would look something like this: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 The Commit information indicates the person who applied the patch and the time it was applied. The Author information is the individual who originally created the patch and when it was originally created. But it’s possible that the patch won’t apply cleanly. Perhaps your main branch has diverged too far from the branch the patch was built from, or the patch depends on another patch you haven’t applied yet. In that case, the git am process will fail and ask you what you want to do: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". This command puts conflict markers in any files it has issues with, much like a conflicted merge or rebase operation. You solve this issue much the same way – edit the file to resolve the conflict, stage the new file, and then run git am --resolved to continue to the next patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem If you want Git to try a bit more intelligently to resolve the conflict, you can pass a -3 option to it, which makes Git attempt a three-way merge. This option isn’t on by default because it doesn’t work if the commit the patch says it was based on isn’t in your repository. If you do have that commit – if the patch was based on a public commit – then the -3 option is generally much smarter about applying a conflicting patch: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. In this case, this patch had already been applied. Without the -3 option, it looks like a conflict. If you’re applying a number of patches from an mbox, you can also run the am command in interactive mode, which stops at each patch it finds and asks if you want to apply it: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all This is nice if you have a number of patches saved, because you can view the patch first if you don’t remember what it is, or not apply the patch if you’ve already done so. When all the patches for your topic are applied and committed into your branch, you can choose whether and how to integrate them into a longer-running branch. Checking Out Remote Branches If your contribution came from a Git user who set up their own repository, pushed a number of changes into it, and then sent you the URL to the repository and the name of the remote branch the changes are in, you can add them as a remote and do merges locally. For instance, if Jessica sends you an e-mail saying that she has a great new feature in the ruby-client branch of her repository, you can test it by adding the remote and checking out that branch locally: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client If she e-mails you again later with another branch containing another great feature, you can fetch and check out because you already have the remote setup. This is most useful if you’re working with a person consistently. If someone only has a single patch to contribute once in a while, then accepting it over e-mail may be less time consuming than requiring everyone to run their own server and having to continually add and remove remotes to get a few patches. You’re also unlikely to want to have hundreds of remotes, each for someone who contributes only a patch or two. However, scripts and hosted services may make this easier – it depends largely on how you develop and how your contributors develop. The other advantage of this approach is that you get the history of the commits as well. Although you may have legitimate merge issues, you know where in your history their work is based; a proper three-way merge is the default rather than having to supply a -3 and hope the patch was generated off a public commit to which you have access. If you aren’t working with a person consistently but still want to pull from them in this way, you can provide the URL of the remote repository to the git pull command. This does a one-time pull and doesn’t save the URL as a remote reference: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Determining What Is Introduced Now you have a topic branch that contains contributed work. At this point, you can determine what you’d like to do with it. This section revisits a couple of commands so you can see how you can use them to review exactly what you’ll be introducing if you merge this into your main branch. It’s often helpful to get a review of all the commits that are in this branch but that aren’t in your master branch. You can exclude commits in the master branch by adding the --not option before the branch name. This does the same thing as the master..contrib format that we used earlier. For example, if your contributor sends you two patches and you create a branch called contrib and applied those patches there, you can run this: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better To see what changes each commit introduces, remember that you can pass the -p option to git log and it will append the diff introduced to each commit. To see a full diff of what would happen if you were to merge this topic branch with another branch, you may have to use a weird trick to get the correct results. You may think to run this: $ git diff master This command gives you a diff, but it may be misleading. If your master branch has moved forward since you created the topic branch from it, then you’ll get seemingly strange results. This happens because Git directly compares the snapshots of the last commit of the topic branch you’re on and the snapshot of the last commit on the master branch. For example, if you’ve added a line in a file on the master branch, a direct comparison of the snapshots will look like the topic branch is going to remove that line. If master is a direct ancestor of your topic branch, this isn’t a problem; but if the two histories have diverged, the diff will look like you’re adding all the new stuff in your topic branch and removing everything unique to the master branch. What you really want to see are the changes added to the topic branch – the work you’ll introduce if you merge this branch with master. You do that by having Git compare the last commit on your topic branch with the first common ancestor it has with the master branch. Technically, you can do that by explicitly figuring out the common ancestor and then running your diff on it: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db However, that isn’t convenient, so Git provides another shorthand for doing the same thing: the triple-dot syntax. In the context of the diff command, you can put three periods after another branch to do a diff between the last commit of the branch you’re on and its common ancestor with another branch: $ git diff master...contrib This command shows you only the work your current topic branch has introduced since its common ancestor with master. That is a very useful syntax to remember. Integrating Contributed Work When all the work in your topic branch is ready to be integrated into a more mainline branch, the question is how to do it. Furthermore, what overall workflow do you want to use to maintain your project? You have a number of choices, so we’ll cover a few of them. Merging Workflows One simple workflow merges your work into your master branch. In this scenario, you have a master branch that contains basically stable code. When you have work in a topic branch that you’ve done or that someone has contributed and you’ve verified, you merge it into your master branch, delete the topic branch, and then continue the process. If we have a repository with work in two branches named ruby_client and php_client that looks like History with several topic branches. and merge ruby_client first and then php_client next, then your history will end up looking like After a topic branch merge. . Figure 73. History with several topic branches. Figure 74. After a topic branch merge. That is probably the simplest workflow, but it can possibly be problematic if you’re dealing with larger or more stable projects where you want to be really careful about what you introduce. If you have a more important project, you might want to use a two-phase merge cycle. In this scenario, you have two long-running branches, master and develop , in which you determine that master is updated only when a very stable release is cut and all new code is integrated into the develop branch. You regularly push both of these branches to the public repository. Each time you have a new topic branch to merge in ( Before a topic branch merge. ), you merge it into develop ( After a topic branch merge. ); then, when you tag a release, you fast-forward master to wherever the now-stable develop branch is ( After a project release. ). Figure 75. Before a topic branch merge. Figure 76. After a topic branch merge. Figure 77. After a project release. This way, when people clone your project’s repository, they can either check out master to build the latest stable version and keep up to date on that easily, or they can check out develop, which is the more cutting-edge stuff. You can also continue this concept, having an integrate branch where all the work is merged together. Then, when the codebase on that branch is stable and passes tests, you merge it into a develop branch; and when that has proven itself stable for a while, you fast-forward your master branch. Large-Merging Workflows The Git project has four long-running branches: master , next , and pu (proposed updates) for new work, and maint for maintenance backports. When new work is introduced by contributors, it’s collected into topic branches in the maintainer’s repository in a manner similar to what we’ve described (see Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. ). At this point, the topics are evaluated to determine whether they’re safe and ready for consumption or whether they need more work. If they’re safe, they’re merged into next , and that branch is pushed up so everyone can try the topics integrated together. Figure 78. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. If the topics still need work, they’re merged into pu instead. When it’s determined that they’re totally stable, the topics are re-merged into master and are then rebuilt from the topics that were in next but didn’t yet graduate to master . This means master almost always moves forward, next is rebased occasionally, and pu is rebased even more often: Figure 79. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches. When a topic branch has finally been merged into master , it’s removed from the repository. The Git project also has a maint branch that is forked off from the last release to provide backported patches in case a maintenance release is required. Thus, when you clone the Git repository, you have four branches that you can check out to evaluate the project in different stages of development, depending on how cutting edge you want to be or how you want to contribute; and the maintainer has a structured workflow to help them vet new contributions. Rebasing and Cherry Picking Workflows Other maintainers prefer to rebase or cherry-pick contributed work on top of their master branch, rather than merging it in, to keep a mostly linear history. When you have work in a topic branch and have determined that you want to integrate it, you move to that branch and run the rebase command to rebuild the changes on top of your current master (or develop , and so on) branch. If that works well, you can fast-forward your master branch, and you’ll end up with a linear project history. The other way to move introduced work from one branch to another is to cherry-pick it. A cherry-pick in Git is like a rebase for a single commit. It takes the patch that was introduced in a commit and tries to reapply it on the branch you’re currently on. This is useful if you have a number of commits on a topic branch and you want to integrate only one of them, or if you only have one commit on a topic branch and you’d prefer to cherry-pick it rather than run rebase. For example, suppose you have a project that looks like this: Figure 80. Example history before a cherry-pick. If you want to pull commit e43a6 into your master branch, you can run $ git cherry-pick e43a6fd3e94888d76779ad79fb568ed180e5fcdf Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) This pulls the same change introduced in e43a6 , but you get a new commit SHA-1 value, because the date applied is different. Now your history looks like this: Figure 81. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch. Now you can remove your topic branch and drop the commits you didn’t want to pull in. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called “rerere” that can help. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” – it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . Tagging Your Releases When you’ve decided to cut a release, you’ll probably want to drop a tag so you can re-create that release at any point going forward. You can create a new tag as discussed in Git Basics . If you decide to sign the tag as the maintainer, the tagging may look something like this: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 If you do sign your tags, you may have the problem of distributing the public PGP key used to sign your tags. The maintainer of the Git project has solved this issue by including their public key as a blob in the repository and then adding a tag that points directly to that content. To do this, you can figure out which key you want by running gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Then, you can directly import the key into the Git database by exporting it and piping that through git hash-object , which writes a new blob with those contents into Git and gives you back the SHA-1 of the blob: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Now that you have the contents of your key in Git, you can create a tag that points directly to it by specifying the new SHA-1 value that the hash-object command gave you: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 If you run git push --tags , the maintainer-pgp-pub tag will be shared with everyone. If anyone wants to verify a tag, they can directly import your PGP key by pulling the blob directly out of the database and importing it into GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import They can use that key to verify all your signed tags. Also, if you include instructions in the tag message, running git show <tag> will let you give the end user more specific instructions about tag verification. Generating a Build Number Because Git doesn’t have monotonically increasing numbers like v123 or the equivalent to go with each commit, if you want to have a human-readable name to go with a commit, you can run git describe on that commit. Git gives you the name of the nearest tag with the number of commits on top of that tag and a partial SHA-1 value of the commit you’re describing: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c This way, you can export a snapshot or build and name it something understandable to people. In fact, if you build Git from source code cloned from the Git repository, git --version gives you something that looks like this. If you’re describing a commit that you have directly tagged, it gives you the tag name. The git describe command favors annotated tags (tags created with the -a or -s flag), so release tags should be created this way if you’re using git describe , to ensure the commit is named properly when described. You can also use this string as the target of a checkout or show command, although it relies on the abbreviated SHA-1 value at the end, so it may not be valid forever. For instance, the Linux kernel recently jumped from 8 to 10 characters to ensure SHA-1 object uniqueness, so older git describe output names were invalidated. Preparing a Release Now you want to release a build. One of the things you’ll want to do is create an archive of the latest snapshot of your code for those poor souls who don’t use Git. The command to do this is git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz If someone opens that tarball, they get the latest snapshot of your project under a project directory. You can also create a zip archive in much the same way, but by passing the --format=zip option to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip You now have a nice tarball and a zip archive of your project release that you can upload to your website or e-mail to people. The Shortlog It’s time to e-mail your mailing list of people who want to know what’s happening in your project. A nice way of quickly getting a sort of changelog of what has been added to your project since your last release or e-mail is to use the git shortlog command. It summarizes all the commits in the range you give it; for example, the following gives you a summary of all the commits since your last release, if your last release was named v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 You get a clean summary of all the commits since v1.0.1, grouped by author, that you can e-mail to your list. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/tr/v2/Da%c4%9f%c4%b1t%c4%b1k-Git-Bir-Projeyi-Y%c3%bcr%c3%bctme | Git - Bir Projeyi Yürütme About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Başlangıç 1.1 Sürüm Denetimi 1.2 Git’in Kısa Tarihçesi 1.3 Git Nedir? 1.4 Komut Satırı 1.5 Git’i Yüklemek 1.6 Git’i İlk Defa Kurmak 1.7 Yardım Almak 1.8 Özet 2. Git Temelleri 2.1 Bir Git Reposu Oluşturma/Kopyalama 2.2 Değişikliklerin Repoya Kaydedilmesi 2.3 Katkı Geçmişini Görüntüleme 2.4 Değişiklikleri Geri Alma 2.5 Uzak Repo ile Çalışmak 2.6 Etiketleme 2.7 Komut Kısayolu (Alias) Ayarlama 2.8 Özet 3. Git Dalları 3.1 Dallar 3.2 Kısaca Dallandırma ve Birleştirme Temelleri 3.3 Dal Yönetimi 3.4 İş Akışı Dallandırması 3.5 Uzak Dallar 3.6 Yeniden Temelleme (rebase) 3.7 Özet 4. Bir Sunucuda Git Kurma 4.1 İletişim Kuralları (Protocols) 4.2 Bir Sunucuda Git Kurma 4.3 SSH Ortak Anahtarınızı Oluşturma 4.4 Sunucu Kurma 4.5 Git Cini (Daemon) 4.6 Akıllı HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Üçüncü Taraf Barındırma (Hosting) Seçenekleri 4.10 Özet 5. Dağıtık Git 5.1 Dağıtık İş Akışları 5.2 Projenin Gelişiminde Rol Almak 5.3 Bir Projeyi Yürütme 5.4 Özet 6. GitHub 6.1 Bir Projeye Katkıda Bulunmak 6.2 Proje Bakımı 6.3 Kurumsal Yönetim 6.4 GitHub’ı otomatikleştirme 6.5 Özet 7. Git Araçları 7.1 Düzeltme Seçimi 7.2 Etkileşimli İzlemleme (Staging) 7.3 Saklama ve Silme 7.4 Çalışmanızı İmzalama 7.5 Arama 7.6 Geçmişi Yeniden Yazma 7.7 Reset Komutunun Gizemleri 7.8 İleri Seviye Birleştirme 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Git’le Hata Ayıklama 7.11 Alt Modüller 7.12 Demetleme (Bundling) 7.13 Git Nesnesini Değiştirme 7.14 Kimlik Bilgisi Depolama 7.15 Özet 8. Git’i Özelleştirmek 8.1 Git Yapılandırması 8.2 Git Nitelikleri 8.3 Git Kancaları (Hooks) 8.4 Bir Örnek: Mecburi Git Politikası 8.5 Özet 9. Git ve Diğer Sistemler 9.1 İstemci Olarak Git 9.2 Git’e Geçiş 9.3 Özet 10. Dahili Git Ögeleri 10.1 Tesisat ve Döşeme (Plumbing ve Porcelain) 10.2 Git Nesneleri 10.3 Git Referansları 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protokolleri 10.7 Bakım ve Veri Kurtarma 10.8 Ortam Değişkenleri 10.9 Özet A1. Ek bölüm A: Diğer Ortamlarda Git A1.1 Görsel Arayüzler A1.2 Visual Studio ile Git A1.3 Visual Studio Code ile Git A1.4 Eclipse ile Git A1.5 Sublime Text ile Git A1.6 Bash ile Git A1.7 Zsh ile Git A1.8 PowerShell ile Git A1.9 Özet A2. Ek bölüm B: Git’i Uygulamalarınıza Gömmek A2.1 Git Komut Satırı A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Ek bölüm C: Git Komutları A3.1 Kurulum ve Yapılandırma Komutları A3.2 Proje Oluşturma Komutları A3.3 Kısaca Poz (Snapshot) Alma A3.4 Dallandırma ve Birleştirme Komutları A3.5 Projeleri Paylaşma ve Güncelleme Komutları A3.6 İnceleme ve Karşılaştırma Komutları A3.7 Hata Ayıklama (Debugging) Komutları A3.8 Yamalama (Patching) A3.9 E-Posta Komutları A3.10 Harici Sistemler A3.11 Yönetim A3.12 Tesisat (Plumbing) Komutları 2nd Edition 5.3 Dağıtık Git - Bir Projeyi Yürütme Bir Projeyi Yürütme Projeye katkı sağlamanın yanı sıra genellikle bilmeniz gereken bir diğer beceri de Bir projeyi etkili bir şekilde yürütmektir. Bu format-patch ile oluşturulan ve size e-posta yoluyla gönderilen yamaları kabul etmek ve uygulamak veya eklediğiniz uzak dallardaki değişiklikleri projenize birleştirmekten oluşabilir. İster klasik bir repoyu yürütüyor olun, ister yamaları doğrulayarak veya onaylayarak projeye yardımcı olun; diğer katkıda bulunanlar için en açık ve sizin için uzun vadede en sürdürülebilir kabul yöntemini bilmeniz gerekir. Tematik Dallarda Çalışma Yeni bir çalışmayı birleştirmeyi düşündüğünüzde, sırf bunu denemek için geçici bir tematik dal oluşturmak iyi bir fikirdir. Bu şekilde, bir yamanın detaylarını bireysel olarak ayarlamak ve işe yaramıyorsa daha sonra geri dönmek üzere bir kenara ayırmak için zamanınız olur. Denemeyi yapacağınız işin konusuna dayanan basit ve açıklayıcı bir dal adı oluşturursanız (ör. ruby_client vb); bir süre terk edip daha sonra geri dönmek zorunda kalırsanız, kolaylıkla hatırlayabilirsiniz. Git projesinin yürütücüsü de genellikle bu dalları isimlendirir (ör. sc/ruby_client . Surada sc çalışmayı ekleyen kişinin kısaltmasıdır). Hatırlayacağınız gibi, bunu master dalınızdan şu şekilde oluşturabilirsiniz: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Veya doğrudan o dala geçmek istiyorsanız, checkout -b seçeneğini kullanabilirsiniz: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Şimdi aldığınız çalışmayı bu tematik dala eklemeye hazırsınız ve onu daha uzun vadeli dallarınıza birleştirip birleştirmeyeceğinize karar verebilirsiniz. E-Postadan gelen Yamaları Uygulamak E-posta yoluyla alınan bir yamayı projenize birleştirmeniz gerekiyorsa, yamayı test etmek için tematik dalınıza uygulamanız gerekir. E-postayla gönderilen bir yamayı uygulamanın iki yolu vardır: git apply ve git am . Bir Yamayı apply ile Uygulamak Eğer birisi yamayı git diff veya Unix’un diff komutunun bir türevi ile oluşturduysa (ki bir sonraki bölümde göreceğiniz üzere bu önerilmez), yamayı git apply komutu ile uygulayabilirsiniz. Yamayı /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch dosyasına kaydettiğinizi farzedersek, şu şekilde uygulayabilirsiniz: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Bu, çalışma dizininizdeki dosyaları değiştirir. Bir yama uygulamak için patch -p1 komutunu çalıştırmakla neredeyse aynıdır; ancak daha paranoiddir ve patch’e göre daha az belirsiz eşleşme (fuzzy match) kabul eder. Ayrıca, git diff formatında açıklanmış dosya ekleme, silme ve yeniden adlandırma işlemlerini, patch 'in yapmayacağı şekilde ele alır. Son olarak, git apply uygulamanızda "tümünü uygula" veya "hiçbirini uygulama" kararını vermeniz gereken bir modelidir: patch ise yamaları kısmen uygulayabilir ve çalışma dizenizi tuhaf bir durumda bırakabilir. git apply genel olarak patch 'den çok daha katı davranır. Size bir katkı kaydı oluşturmaz: çalıştırdıktan sonra, değişiklikleri elle aşamalandırmanız ve katkı işlemeniz gerekir. git apply komutunu, bir yamayı gerçekten uygulamadan önce, düzgün bir şekilde uygulanıp uygulanamayacağını kontrol etmek için de kullanabilirsiniz. Bunun için git apply --check komutu yamayla birlikte çalıştırabilirsiniz. $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Eğer çıktı yoksa, yama temiz bir şekilde uygulanabilir demektir. Bu komut ayrıca, kontrolün başarısız olduğu durumlarda da sonucu sıfır olmayan bir durumla (non-zero status) çıkar, bu nedenle isterseniz bu komutu betiklerde de kullanabilirsiniz. git am Komutuyla Yama Uygulama Eğer geliştirici yamasını oluşturmak için format-patch komutunu kullanacak tecrübede bir Git kullanıcısıysa; yama yazar bilgisi ve bir katkı mesajı da içereceği için, işiniz daha kolay olur. Mümkünse, geliştiricilerinizi yamalarını oluşturmak için diff yerine format-patch kullanmaları yönünde teşvik edin. Yalnızca eski yamalar (legacy patch) ve benzeri durumlar için git apply kullanmanız gerekir. format-patch ile oluşturulan bir yamayı uygulamak için git am ("bir posta kutusundan bir dizi yamayı uygulamak" için bu komut kullanıldığından am olarak adlandırılır) kullanılır. git am komutu teknik olarak, bir veya daha fazla e-posta mesajını tek bir metin dosyasında depolamak için oluşturulan basit bir düz-metin biçimi olan "mbox" dosyasını okumak amacıyla oluşturulmuştur. Ve şuna benzer: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Bu, önceki bölümde gördüğünüz git format-patch komutunun çıktısının başlangıcıdır; aynı zamanda geçerli bir mbox e-posta biçimini temsil eder. Eğer biri size yamayı git send-email komutunu kullanarak düzgün şekilde e-posta ile gönderdiyse; ve siz de bunu mbox biçiminde indirir ve git am 'i o mbox dosyasına işaret edecek şekilde ayarlarsanız; gördüğü tüm yamaları uygulamaya başlayacaktır. Eğer bir mbox formatında birkaç e-postayı kaydedebilen bir posta istemcisi çalıştırıyorsanız, tüm yama serilerini bir dosyaya kaydedip, bunların hepsini tek seferde uygulamak için git am 'i kullanabilirsiniz. Ancak, birisi git format-patch kullanarak oluşturulan bir yama dosyasını bir bilet sistemi veya benzer bir yere yüklediyse; bu dosyayı yerel olarak kaydedip, ardından diskte kaydedilen bu dosyayı uygulamak için git am 'e iletebilirsiniz: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function Gördüğünüz gibi, temiz bir şekilde uygulandı ve otomatik olarak yeni bir katkı oluşturuldu. Yazar bilgileri, e-postanın From (gönderici) ve Date (tarih) başlıklarından; katkı mesajı, e-postanın Subject (konu) ve yamadan önceki gövde kısmından alınır. Örneğin, yukarıdaki mbox örneğinden uyarlanan bir yama için oluşturulan katkı şöyle görünecektir: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Commit (katkı) bilgileri yamayı uygulayan kişiyi ve uygulanma zamanını gösterir. Author (yazar) bilgileri ise özgün yamayı oluşturan kişiyi ve ne zaman oluşturduğunu gösterir. Ama yamanın temiz bir şekilde uygulanamaması ihtimal dahilindedir. Belki ana dalınız, yamanın oluşturulduğu daldan çok uzaklaşmıştır veya yama henüz uygulamadığınız başka bir yamaya bağlıdır. Bu durumda, git am işlemi başarısız olacak ve ne yapmak istediğinizi size soracaktır: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Bu komut, sorun yaşadığı dosyalara "çatışan birleştirme" veya "yeniden temelleme işlemi" gibi çatışma işaretçileri koyar. Bu sorunu çözmenin yolu neredeyse aynıdır: dosyayı çatışmayı çözecek şekilde düzenleyin, yeni dosyayı hazırlayın ve ardından bir sonraki yamaya devam etmek için git am --resolved komutunu çalıştırın: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem Eğer Git’in çatışmayı biraz daha akıllıca çözmesini istiyorsanız -3 seçeneğini kullanarak, Git’in üç yollu bir birleştirme yapmayı denemesini sağlarsınız. Yama üzerindeki işlenecek olan katkı, sizin reposunuzda bulunmuyorsa çalışmayacağı için, bu seçenek varsayılan olarak etkinleştirilmemiştir. Eğer o katkı sizin reposunuzda mevcutsa (eğer yama bir halka açık katkıya dayanıyorsa), o zaman -3 seçeneği genellikle bir çatışmalı yamanın uygulanması konusunda daha akıllıdır: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. Yukarıdaki durumda -3 seçeneği olmasaydı, yama bir çatışma olarak kabul edilirdi. -3 seçeneği kullanıldığı için temiz bir şekilde uygulandı. Eğer bir mbox’tan bir dizi yama uyguluyorsanız; her bulduğu yamada durup, onu uygulamak isteyip istemediğinizi soran, etkileşimli am komutunu da çalıştırabilirsiniz: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all Eğer kaydedilmiş birkaç yamanız varsa ve hangilerini zaten uyguladığınızı veya uygulayacağınızı hatırlayamıyorsanız; öncesinde yamayı görmenize olanak sağladığı için, bu özellik oldukça kullanışlıdır. Bir tema için tüm yamalar uygulandığında ve dalınıza katkı olarak işlendiğinde, bunları uzun vadeli çalışan bir dala birleştirip birleştirmeyeceğinizi veya nasıl birleştireceğinizi seçebilirsiniz. Uzak Dallara Geçmek Eğer bu katkı; kendi reposunu kuran, bir dizi değişiklik yapıp, buraya iten ve ardından değişikliklerin URL’sini ve değişikliklerin bulunduğu uzak dalın adını size gönderen bir Git kullanıcısından geldiyse, onları bir uzak repo olarak ekleyebilir ve yerel olarak birleştirebilirsiniz. Örneğin, Jessica size kendi reposunun ruby-client dalında harika bir yeni özellik olduğunu söyleyen bir e-posta gönderirse; onun uzak reposunu ekleyip, bu yerelde dala geçiş yaparak, bu özelliği test edebilirsiniz: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Daha sonra, size başka bir harika özelliğe sahip başka bir dalı içeren yeni bir e-posta gönderirse, zaten uzak sunucuyu kurduğunuz için doğrudan fetch ve checkout yapabilirsiniz. Biriyle sürekli birlikte çalışıyorsanız en kullanışlı olan yöntem budur. Eğer birisi arada bir ve sadece tek bir yama eklemek istiyorsa, o zaman bu değişiklikleri e-posta yoluyla kabul etmek, herkesin kendi sunucusunu çalıştırmasından ve birkaç yama almak için sürekli olarak uzak sunucular ekleyip, kaldırmasından daha tasarruflu bir zaman yönetimidir. Ayrıca, muhtemelen yalnızca bir veya iki yama sağlayan herkes için yüzlerce uzak sunucu eklemek istemezsiniz. Her ne kadar, betikler ve barındırılan hizmetler bu işi kolaylaştırabilse de, bu büyük ölçüde sizin ve katkı sağlayan geliştiricilerin nasıl geliştirme yaptığına bağlıdır. Bu yaklaşımın bir diğer avantajı ise geçmişini de almanızdır. Geçerli birleştirme sorunlarına sahip olabilseniz dahi, bu çalışmalarının geçmişinizde nerede olduğunu bilirsiniz. Varsayılan olarak sağlanan düzgün bir üç yollu birleştirme, -3 sağlamak zorunda kalmaktan ve yamanın erişiminiz olan herkese açık bir katkıya dayanmasını ummaktan iyidir. Eğer sürekli olarak bir kişiyle çalışmıyor ama yine de yamayı onlardan bu şekilde çekmek istiyorsanız, git pull komutuna uzak repo URL’sini girebilirsiniz. Bu, tek seferlik bir çekme işlemi yapar ama URL’yi uzak bir referans olarak kaydetmez: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Katkıları Tanımlamak Şimdi, üzerinde katkı yapılan bir tematik dalınız var. Bu noktada, onunla ne yapmak istediğinizi belirleyebilirsiniz. Bu bölümde, ana dalınıza bir yamayı birleştirdiğinizde, tam olarak neyi tanıtacağınızı incelemek için birkaç komutu tekrar ele alacağız. Tematik dalda olan, ancak ana dalınızda olmayan tüm katkıların gözden geçirilmesinde fayda vardır. Ana dalınızda bulunan katkıları bundan hariç tutmak için --not seçeneğini dal adının önüne ekleyebilirsiniz. Bu, daha önce kullandığımız master..contrib biçimiyle aynı işlemi yapar. Örneğin, katkılayıcınız size iki yama gönderirse ve siz contrib adında bir dal oluşturup bunları oraya uygularsanız, şunu çalıştırabilirsiniz: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better Hatırlayacağınız üzere her katkının hangi değişiklikleri içerdiğini görmek için, git log komutuna -p seçeneğini ekleyebilirsiniz. Ayrıca her katkıyla gelen fark da gösterilecektir. Ana dal ve tematik dalı birleştirirseniz kodda ne gibi farklılıklar olacağının tam bir resmini görmek isterseniz, doğru sonuçları elde etmek için garip bir hile kullanmanız gerekebilir. Şunu çalıştırmayı düşünebilirsiniz: $ git diff master Bu komut size bir fark gösterir, ancak sonuç yanıltıcı olabilir. Eğer master dalınız, tematik dalınızı oluşturduğunuzdan bu yana ilerlemişse, çok garip sonuçlar elde edebilirsiniz. Bunun sebebi, Git’in üzerinde bulunduğunuz tema dalındaki son katkının pozuyla, master dalındaki son katkının pozunu doğrudan karşılaştırmasıdır. Örneğin, master dalındaki bir dosyaya bir satır eklerseniz; pozların doğrudan karşılaştırılması, tematik dalın bu satırı kaldıracakmış gibi görünmesine neden olur. Eğer master dalı tematik dalınızın doğrudan bir atası ise, bu bir sorun değildir; ancak eğer iki geçmiş ayrıldıysa, fark master dalına özgü olan her şeyi kaldırıyor ve tema dalınızdaki tüm yeni şeyleri ekliyormuş gibi görünecektir. Gerçekte görmek istediğiniz şey, konu dalına eklenen değişikliklerdir, yani bu dalı ana dala birleştirdiğinizde getireceğiniz çalışma. Bunu görmek için, Git’in tema dalınızın son katkısını, master üzerindeki ilk ortak atasıyla karşılaştırması neticesinde görebilirsiniz. Teknik olarak bunu yapmanın yolu: ortak atayı açıkça bulup ardından diff’i üzerinde çalıştırmaktır: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db or, more concisely: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Yine de bunlar özellikle kullanışlı yöntemler değil, bu yüzden Git aynı işi yapmak için başka bir kısaltma sağlar: üç nokta sözdizimi. git diff komutu bağlamında: diff yapmak için üzerinde bulunduğunuz dalın son katkısı ile başka bir dalın son ortak atası arasına üç nokta (…) koyabilirsiniz: $ git diff master...contrib Bu komut, mevcut tema dalınızın, master ile ortak atasından bu yana getirdiği çalışmayı gösterir. Bu akılda tutmaya değer ve çok kullanışlı bir sözdizimidir. Katkılanan İşi Birleştirmek Tema dalınızdaki tüm çalışma, ana dala daha yakın bir dala birleştirilmeye hazır olduğunda, sıradaki soru bunun nasıl yapılacağıdır. Bunun da ötesinde, projenizi yürütmek için hangi genel iş akışını kullanmak istiyorsunuz? Şimdi elinizdeki pek çok seçenekten birkaçını ele alacağız. İş Akışlarını Birleştirmek En temel iş akışı, tüm çalışmayı doğrudan master dalınıza birleştirmektir. Bu senaryoda, kararlı kodu içeren bir master dalınız bulunmaktadır. Tematik dalda tamamlandığını düşündüğünüz veya bir başkasının katkıda bulunduğu ama sizin onayladığınız bir çalışma varsa, bunu ana dalınıza birleştirir ve artık ihtiyaç duymadığınız tema dalını silersiniz. Bu süreci her defasında tekrar edersiniz. Örneğin, ruby_client ve php_client adlı iki dalında çalışma yapılan Bir kaç tematik dallı bir geçmiş. gibi bir repomuz olduğunu varsayalım. Eğer, önce ruby_client ve ardından da php_client dalını birleştirirsek, geçmişiniz Bir tema dalını birleştirdikten sonrası. gibi görünecektir. Görsel 73. Bir kaç tematik dallı bir geçmiş. Görsel 74. Bir tema dalını birleştirdikten sonrası. Bu muhtemelen en basit iş akışıdır; ancak neyi değiştirdiğinize çok dikkat ettiğiniz, daha büyük ve istikrarlı projelerle uğraşıyorsanız, sorun yaşayabilirsiniz. Daha önemli bir projeniz varsa, iki aşamalı bir birleştirme döngüsü kullanmak isteyebilirsiniz. Bu senaryoda, sadece çok kararlı bir sürüm çıktığında güncellenecek olan master ve her yeni kodunuzu üzerinde geliştirip denediğiniz develop adında, iki adet uzun ömürlü dalınız var: Her iki dalı da düzenli olarak açık reponuza (public repository) itiyorsunuz. Birleştirilecek yeni bir tema dalınız olduğunda ( Tema dalı birleşmesi öncesi. ), bunu develop dalına birleştirirsiniz ( Tema dalı birleşmesi sonrası. ); ardından, yeni bir sürüm etiketlediğinizde, master dalını ileri sararak (fast-forward) şu anda istikrarlı olan develop dalını bulunduğu yere getirirsiniz ( Yeni sürüm sonrası. ). Görsel 75. Tema dalı birleşmesi öncesi. Görsel 76. Tema dalı birleşmesi sonrası. Görsel 77. Yeni sürüm sonrası. Bu şekilde, insanlar reponuzu kopyaladığında; ya en son "kararlı" sürümü derlemek ve bunu kolayca güncellemek için master dalına geçebilir ya da daha en "güncel" içeriği içeren develop dalına. Ayrıca, tüm çalışmaların birleştirildiği bir integrate dalı oluşturarak bu anlayışı genişletebilirsiniz. Bu dal üzerindeki kod tabanı kararlı hale gelip, testleri geçtiğinde, bunu bir develop dalına birleştirebilirsiniz; ve burada kararlı durumu kanıtlandığında, master dalınızı bu noktaya doğru ileri sararsınız. Büyük Birleştirme İş Akışı Bu Git projesinde dört uzun ömürlü dal bulunmaktadır: master , next , yeni güncellemeler için pu (proposed updates) ve bakım geri portları için maint (maintenance). Yeni çalışma görücüye çıktığında, bunlar daha önce anlatılana benzer şekilde (bkz Çoklu paralel tema dallarının karmaşıklığını yönetmek. ) yürütücünün reposundaki tema dallarına toplanır (bkz. Çoklu paralel tema dallarının karmaşıklığını yönetmek. ). Bu noktada, çalışmalar, "güvenilir ve canlıya çıkmaya hazır mı, yoksa üzerinde biraz daha çalışılması mı gerekiyor" kararı verilmek üzere değerlendirilirler. Güvenilir olanlar next dalına birleştirilir ve bu dal herkesin deneyebilmesi için yukarı itilir. Görsel 78. Çoklu paralel tema dallarının karmaşıklığını yönetmek. Eğer konular halen geliştirilmeye ihtiyaç duyuyorsa, bunlar next yerine pu dalına birleştirilir. Tamamen istikrarlı oldukları belirlendiğinde, yeniden master dalına birleştirilirler. next ve pu dalları daha sonra master dalından yeniden inşa edilir. Bu, master dalının neredeyse her zaman ileri gitmesi, next dalının zaman zaman yeniden temellenmesi (rebase) ve pu dalının daha da sık yeniden temellenmesi, anlamına gelir: Görsel 79. Katkı sağlanan tema dallarını uzun ömürlü birleşim dallarına birleştirmek. Bir tema dalı nihayet master dalına birleştirildiğinde, artık repodan kaldırılır. Git projesinin ayrıca son sürümden çatallanmış maint adlı bir bakım dalı vardır. Bu dal, bir bakım sürümü gerektiğinde geriye dönük yamalar sağlamak için kullanılır. Bu sistemde, yürütücünün yeni katkıları değerlendirmesine yardımcı olmak için yapılandırılmış özelleştirilmiş bir iş akışı vardır. Git reposunu kopyaladığınızda, projeye nasıl katkıda bulunmak istediğinize veya geliştirme döngüsünde ne kadar ilerlemek istediğinize bağlı olarak; projenin farklı gelişim aşamalarını gözlemlemek amacıyla geçiş yapabileceğiniz, dört farklı dalınız olur. Bu iş akışını daha iyi anlamak için Git Yürütücü Kılavuzu 'nu inceleyebilirsiniz. Temelleme ve Ayıklama (Cherry-Picking) İş Akışları Diğer yürütücüler, doğrusal bir geçmişe sahip olmak için genellikle için katkılanan çalışmaları master dalının üstüne yeniden temellemeyi (rebase) veya ayıklamayı tercih ederler. Bir tema dalında birleştirmek istediğiniz bir çalışmanız varsa, o dala geçer ve değişiklikleri mevcut master (veya develop , vb.) dalı üstüne yeniden inşa etmek için temelleme (rebase) komutunu çalıştırırsınız. Bu işlem sorunsuz tamamlanırsa, master dalınızı ileri sarabilir ve sonuçta doğrusal bir proje geçmişine sahip olursunuz. Tanıtılan bir çalışmayı bir daldan başka bir dala taşımanın bir diğer yolu da onu ayıklamaktır. Git’te ayıklama işlemi, bir tek katkı için bir yeniden temelleme gibidir. Bir katkıyla yapılan değişiklikleri alır ve bunları şu anda bulunduğunuz dala tekrar uygulamaya çalışır. Bir tema dalında birkaç katkımız varsa ve bunları ayıklayıp yalnızca birini almak istiyorsanız veya bir tema dalında yalnızca bir katkınız varsa ve yeniden temellemek yerine bunu tercih etmek istiyorsanız, bu özellik kullanışlıdır. Örneğin, şöyle bir projeniz olduğunu varsayalım: Görsel 80. Ayıklama öncesi örnek geçmiş. Eğer e43a6 katkısını ana dalınıza çekmek istiyorsanız, şunu çalıştırabilirsiniz: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) Bu, e43a6 ile tanıtılan değişikliği çeker, ancak uygulanan tarihi farklı olduğu için yeni bir katkı SHA-1 değeri alırsınız. Artık geçmişiniz şöyle görünür: Görsel 81. Tema dalındaki katkı ayıklandıktan sonra geçmiş. Şimdi tema dalınızı kaldırabilir ve içe almak istemediğiniz katkıları atabilirsiniz. Rerere Eğer çok sayıda birleştirme ve yeniden temelleme yapıyorsanız veya uzun ömürlü bir tema dalını sürdürüyorsanız; Git’in rerere olarak adlandırılan yardımcı bir özelliği vardır. Rerere, "reuse recorded resolution" (kaydedilmiş çözümü yeniden kullan) anlamına gelir ve çakışmaları manuel olarak çözmeniz gerektiğinde kullanabileceğiniz kestirme bir yoldur. Rerere etkinleştirildiğinde, Git başarılı birleştirmelerin öncel ve ardıl pozlar kümesini saklar; ve eğer daha önce düzelttiğiniz bir çakışma ile tam olarak aynı görünen yeni bir çakışma fark ederse, sizi bununla meşgul etmeden, daha önceki çözümü kullanır. Bu özellik iki kısımdan oluşur: bir yapılandırma ayarı ve bir komut. Yapılandırma ayarı rerere.enabled şeklindedir ve genel yapılandırmanıza eklemek oldukça kullanışlıdır: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Böylece, çakışmaları çözen bir birleştirme yaptığınızda, bu çözüm gelecekte ihtiyaç duymanız ihtimaline binaen önbelleğe kaydedilecektir. İhtiyacınız olduğunda, git rerere komutunu kullanarak rerere önbelleğiyle etkileşime geçebilirsiniz. Tek başına çağrıldığında; Git, çözümler veritabanını kontrol ederek, mevcut birleştirme çatışmasıyla bir eşleşme bulmaya ve bunu çözmeye çalışır ( rerere.enabled yapılandırması true olarak ayarlandıysa, bu işlem otomatik olarak yapılır). Kaydedilecek ögeleri görmek, önbellekten belirli bir çözümü silmek veya tüm önbelleği temizlemek için kullanılabilecek, alt komutlar da vardır. rerere komutunu Rerere bölümünde daha detaylı olarak ele alacağız. Sürümü Etiketlemek Bir sürüm yayımlamaya karar verdiğinizde, bu sürümü gelecekte yeniden oluşturabilmek için etiketlemek isteyebilirsiniz. Yeni bir etiketi Git Temelleri bölümünde anlatıldığı gibi oluşturabilirsiniz. Eğer etiketi yürütücü olarak imzalamaya karar verirseniz, etiketleme işlemi şöyle görünebilir: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Etiketlerinizi imzalarsanız, etiketlerinizi imzalamak için kullandığınız genel PGP anahtarını dağıtma sorunuyla karşılaşabilirsiniz. Git proje yürütücüsü, genel anahtarlarını repoya bir blob olarak dahil edip, ardından doğrudan bu içeriğe işaret eden bir etiket ekleyerek bu sorunu çözmüştür. Bunu yapmak için, gpg --list-keys komutunu çalıştırarak hangi anahtarı kullanmak istediğinizi belirleyebilirsiniz: $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Daha sonra, anahtarı dışa aktarıp, bu içeriği git hash-object üzerinden yönlendirerek, anahtarı doğrudan Git veritabanına aktarabilirsiniz. Bu şekilde Git, bu içeriğe sahip yeni bir blob oluşturur ve blob’un SHA-1 değerini size geri verir: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Artık anahtar içeriğiniz Git’te olduğuna göre, hash-object komutunun size verdiği yeni SHA-1 değerini belirterek doğrudan ona işaret eden bir etiket oluşturabilirsiniz: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 git push --tags komutunu çalıştırırsanız, maintainer-pgp-pub etiketi herkesle paylaşılacaktır. Bir etiketi doğrulamak isteyen biri; PGP anahtarınızı doğrudan içe aktarmak için, blob’u veritabanından çekip, GPG’ye aktarabilir: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import Bu anahtar, imzalı tüm etiketlerinizi doğrulamak için kullanabilir. Ayrıca, etiket mesajında talimatlar eklerseniz; git show <etiket> komutuyla son kullanıcıya etiket doğrulaması hakkında daha belirli yönergeler verebilirsiniz. Yapı Numarası Oluşturma Git’in her katkıyla tekdüze olarak artan, v123 gibi numaraları veya benzer bir şeyi olmadığından; bir katkıyı insanlar tarafından okunabilir bir isimle eşleştirmek için, o katkı üzerinde git describe komutunu çalıştırabilirsiniz. Bunun sonucunda, Git; o katkıdan önceki en son etiketin adını, arkasından bu etiketten bu katkıya kadar işlenen katkı sayısını ve en arkaya da tanımlanan katkının kısmi SHA-1 değerini içeren bir dize oluşturur (en başa Git’i simgeleyen "g" harfi eklenir): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c Bu şekilde, bir poz veya derleme oluşturup okunaklı bir isim verebilirsiniz. Aslında, eğer Git’i kendi reposundan kopyaladığınız kaynak kodundan derlemişseniz, git --version komutu size şuna benzeyen bir çıktı verir. Eğer doğrudan etiketlediğiniz bir katkıyı tanımlıyorsanız, size sadece etiket adını verir. git describe komutu, varsayılan olarak, ( -a veya -s bayrağı ile oluşturulan) dipnotlu etiketlere ihtiyaç duyar. Eğer hafif (dipnotsuz) etiketlerden de faydalanmak istiyorsanız, komuta --tags seçeneğini ekleyin. Bu dizeyi git checkout veya git show komutunun hedefi olarak da kullanabilirsiniz, ancak sonundaki kısaltılmış SHA-1 değerine dayansa da sonsuza kadar geçerli olmayabilir. Örneğin, Linux çekirdeği son zamanlarda SHA-1 nesne benzersizliğini sağlamak için 8’den 10 karaktere geçti, bu nedenle eski git describe çıktı adları geçersiz hale geldi. Bir Sürüm Hazırlama Diyelimk ki şimdi bir sürüm yayımlamak istiyorsunuz. Bunun için yapmanız gerekenlerden biri, Git’i kullanmayan garibanlar için kodunuzun en son pozunun bir arşivini oluşturmaktır. Bunun için git archive komutunu kullanmalısınız: $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Eğer birisi bu sıkıştırılmış tar dosyasını açarsa, projenizin en son pozunu bir proje dizini altına almış olur. Aynı şekilde bir zip arşivi de oluşturabilirsiniz, ancak bunu git archive komutuna --format=zip seçeneğini bağlayarak yapabilirsiniz: $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Artık projenizin sürümünün, web sitenize yükleyebileceğiniz veya birilerine e-posta ile gönderebileceğiniz, güzel bir tar dosyası ve zip arşivi vardır. Kısa Günlük Artık, projenizdeki son değişiklikler hakkında bilgi sahibi olmak isteyenlere bir e-posta gönderme zamanı geldi. Son sürüm veya e-postanızdan bu yana projenizde yapılan değişiklikleri tutan değişim günlüğünü hızlıca elde etmek için git shortlog komutunu kullanabilirsiniz. Bu komut, veerdiğiniz aralıktaki tüm katkıları özetler. Örneğin, son sürümünüz v1.0.1 ise, aşağıdaki komut size son sürümünüzden bu yana yapılan tüm katkıların bir özetini verir: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 v1.0.1’den bu yana yapılan tüm katkıların yazarlarına göre gruplandırılmış temiz bir özet elde eder ve ardından bu özeti listenize e-posta olarak gönderebilirsiniz. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://sre.google/sre-book/automation-at-google#id-KpEu9IeF7s2 | Google SRE - Google Automation For Reliability Chapter 7 - The Evolution of Automation at Google Table of Contents Foreword Preface Part I - Introduction 1. Introduction 2. The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE Part II - Principles 3. Embracing Risk 4. Service Level Objectives 5. Eliminating Toil 6. Monitoring Distributed Systems 7. The Evolution of Automation at Google 8. Release Engineering 9. Simplicity Part III - Practices 10. Practical Alerting 11. Being On-Call 12. Effective Troubleshooting 13. Emergency Response 14. Managing Incidents 15. Postmortem Culture: Learning from Failure 16. Tracking Outages 17. Testing for Reliability 18. Software Engineering in SRE 19. Load Balancing at the Frontend 20. Load Balancing in the Datacenter 21. Handling Overload 22. Addressing Cascading Failures 23. Managing Critical State: Distributed Consensus for Reliability 24. Distributed Periodic Scheduling with Cron 25. Data Processing Pipelines 26. Data Integrity: What You Read Is What You Wrote 27. Reliable Product Launches at Scale Part IV - Management 28. Accelerating SREs to On-Call and Beyond 29. Dealing with Interrupts 30. Embedding an SRE to Recover from Operational Overload 31. Communication and Collaboration in SRE 32. The Evolving SRE Engagement Model Part V - Conclusions 33. Lessons Learned from Other Industries 34. Conclusion Appendix A. Availability Table Appendix B. A Collection of Best Practices for Production Services Appendix C. Example Incident State Document Appendix D. Example Postmortem Appendix E. Launch Coordination Checklist Appendix F. Example Production Meeting Minutes Bibliography The Evolution of Automation at Google Written by Niall Murphy with John Looney and Michael Kacirek Edited by Betsy Beyer Besides black art, there is only automation and mechanization. Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), Spanish poet and playwright For SRE, automation is a force multiplier, not a panacea. Of course, just multiplying force does not naturally change the accuracy of where that force is applied: doing automation thoughtlessly can create as many problems as it solves. Therefore, while we believe that software-based automation is superior to manual operation in most circumstances, better than either option is a higher-level system design requiring neither of them—an autonomous system. Or to put it another way, the value of automation comes from both what it does and its judicious application. We’ll discuss both the value of automation and how our attitude has evolved over time. The Value of Automation What exactly is the value of automation? 26 Consistency Although scale is an obvious motivation for automation, there are many other reasons to use it. Take the example of university computing systems, where many systems engineering folks started their careers. Systems administrators of that background were generally charged with running a collection of machines or some software, and were accustomed to manually performing various actions in the discharge of that duty. One common example is creating user accounts; others include purely operational duties like making sure backups happen, managing server failover, and small data manipulations like changing the upstream DNS servers’ resolv.conf , DNS server zone data, and similar activities. Ultimately, however, this prevalence of manual tasks is unsatisfactory for both the organizations and indeed the people maintaining systems in this way. For a start, any action performed by a human or humans hundreds of times won’t be performed the same way each time: even with the best will in the world, very few of us will ever be as consistent as a machine. This inevitable lack of consistency leads to mistakes, oversights, issues with data quality, and, yes, reliability problems. In this domain—the execution of well-scoped, known procedures the value of consistency is in many ways the primary value of automation. A Platform Automation doesn’t just provide consistency. Designed and done properly, automatic systems also provide a platform that can be extended, applied to more systems, or perhaps even spun out for profit. 27 (The alternative, no automation, is neither cost effective nor extensible: it is instead a tax levied on the operation of a system.) A platform also centralizes mistakes . In other words, a bug fixed in the code will be fixed there once and forever, unlike a sufficiently large set of humans performing the same procedure, as discussed previously. A platform can be extended to perform additional tasks more easily than humans can be instructed to perform them (or sometimes even realize that they have to be done). Depending on the nature of the task, it can run either continuously or much more frequently than humans could appropriately accomplish the task, or at times that are inconvenient for humans. Furthermore, a platform can export metrics about its performance, or otherwise allow you to discover details about your process you didn’t know previously, because these details are more easily measurable within the context of a platform. Faster Repairs There’s an additional benefit for systems where automation is used to resolve common faults in a system (a frequent situation for SRE-created automation). If automation runs regularly and successfully enough, the result is a reduced mean time to repair (MTTR) for those common faults. You can then spend your time on other tasks instead, thereby achieving increased developer velocity because you don’t have to spend time either preventing a problem or (more commonly) cleaning up after it. As is well understood in the industry, the later in the product lifecycle a problem is discovered, the more expensive it is to fix; see Testing for Reliability . Generally, problems that occur in actual production are most expensive to fix, both in terms of time and money, which means that an automated system looking for problems as soon as they arise has a good chance of lowering the total cost of the system, given that the system is sufficiently large. Faster Action In the infrastructural situations where SRE automation tends to be deployed, humans don’t usually react as fast as machines. In most common cases, where, for example, failover or traffic switching can be well defined for a particular application, it makes no sense to effectively require a human to intermittently press a button called “Allow system to continue to run.” (Yes, it is true that sometimes automatic procedures can end up making a bad situation worse, but that is why such procedures should be scoped over well-defined domains.) Google has a large amount of automation; in many cases, the services we support could not long survive without this automation because they crossed the threshold of manageable manual operation long ago. Time Saving Finally, time saving is an oft-quoted rationale for automation. Although people cite this rationale for automation more than the others, in many ways the benefit is often less immediately calculable. Engineers often waver over whether a particular piece of automation or code is worth writing, in terms of effort saved in not requiring a task to be performed manually versus the effort required to write it. 28 It’s easy to overlook the fact that once you have encapsulated some task in automation, anyone can execute the task. Therefore, the time savings apply across anyone who would plausibly use the automation. Decoupling operator from operation is very powerful. Joseph Bironas, an SRE who led Google’s datacenter turnup efforts for a time, forcefully argued: "If we are engineering processes and solutions that are not automatable, we continue having to staff humans to maintain the system. If we have to staff humans to do the work, we are feeding the machines with the blood, sweat, and tears of human beings. Think The Matrix with less special effects and more pissed off System Administrators." The Value for Google SRE All of these benefits and trade-offs apply to us just as much as anyone else, and Google does have a strong bias toward automation. Part of our preference for automation springs from our particular business challenges: the products and services we look after are planet-spanning in scale, and we don’t typically have time to engage in the same kind of machine or service hand-holding common in other organizations. 29 For truly large services, the factors of consistency, quickness, and reliability dominate most conversations about the trade-offs of performing automation. Another argument in favor of automation, particularly in the case of Google, is our complicated yet surprisingly uniform production environment, described in The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE . While other organizations might have an important piece of equipment without a readily accessible API, software for which no source code is available, or another impediment to complete control over production operations, Google generally avoids such scenarios. We have built APIs for systems when no API was available from the vendor. Even though purchasing software for a particular task would have been much cheaper in the short term, we chose to write our own solutions, because doing so produced APIs with the potential for much greater long-term benefits. We spent a lot of time overcoming obstacles to automatic system management, and then resolutely developed that automatic system management itself. Given how Google manages its source code [Pot16] , the availability of that code for more or less any system that SRE touches also means that our mission to “own the product in production” is much easier because we control the entirety of the stack. Of course, although Google is ideologically bent upon using machines to manage machines where possible, reality requires some modification of our approach. It isn’t appropriate to automate every component of every system, and not everyone has the ability or inclination to develop automation at a particular time. Some essential systems started out as quick prototypes, not designed to last or to interface with automation. The previous paragraphs state a maximalist view of our position, but one that we have been broadly successful at putting into action within the Google context. In general, we have chosen to create platforms where we could, or to position ourselves so that we could create platforms over time. We view this platform-based approach as necessary for manageability and scalability. The Use Cases for Automation In the industry, automation is the term generally used for writing code to solve a wide variety of problems, although the motivations for writing this code, and the solutions themselves, are often quite different. More broadly, in this view, automation is “meta-software”—software to act on software. As we implied earlier, there are a number of use cases for automation. Here is a non-exhaustive list of examples: User account creation Cluster turnup and turndown for services Software or hardware installation preparation and decommissioning Rollouts of new software versions Runtime configuration changes A special case of runtime config changes: changes to your dependencies This list could continue essentially ad infinitum . Google SRE’s Use Cases for Automation In Google, we have all of the use cases just listed, and more. However, within Google SRE, our primary affinity has typically been for running infrastructure, as opposed to managing the quality of the data that passes over that infrastructure. This line isn’t totally clear—for example, we care deeply if half of a dataset vanishes after a push, and therefore we alert on coarse-grain differences like this, but it’s rare for us to write the equivalent of changing the properties of some arbitrary subset of accounts on a system. Therefore, the context for our automation is often automation to manage the lifecycle of systems, not their data: for example, deployments of a service in a new cluster. To this extent, SRE’s automation efforts are not far off what many other people and organizations do, except that we use different tools to manage it and have a different focus (as we’ll discuss). Widely available tools like Puppet, Chef, cfengine, and even Perl, which all provide ways to automate particular tasks, differ mostly in terms of the level of abstraction of the components provided to help the act of automating. A full language like Perl provides POSIX-level affordances, which in theory provide an essentially unlimited scope of automation across the APIs accessible to the system, 30 whereas Chef and Puppet provide out-of-the-box abstractions with which services or other higher-level entities can be manipulated. The trade-off here is classic: higher-level abstractions are easier to manage and reason about, but when you encounter a “leaky abstraction,” you fail systemically, repeatedly, and potentially inconsistently. For example, we often assume that pushing a new binary to a cluster is atomic; the cluster will either end up with the old version, or the new version. However, real-world behavior is more complicated: that cluster’s network can fail halfway through; machines can fail; communication to the cluster management layer can fail, leaving the system in an inconsistent state; depending on the situation, new binaries could be staged but not pushed, or pushed but not restarted, or restarted but not verifiable. Very few abstractions model these kinds of outcomes successfully, and most generally end up halting themselves and calling for intervention. Truly bad automation systems don’t even do that. SRE has a number of philosophies and products in the domain of automation, some of which look more like generic rollout tools without particularly detailed modeling of higher-level entities, and some of which look more like languages for describing service deployment (and so on) at a very abstract level. Work done in the latter tends to be more reusable and be more of a common platform than the former, but the complexity of our production environment sometimes means that the former approach is the most immediately tractable option. A Hierarchy of Automation Classes Although all of these automation steps are valuable, and indeed an automation platform is valuable in and of itself, in an ideal world, we wouldn’t need externalized automation. In fact, instead of having a system that has to have external glue logic, it would be even better to have a system that needs no glue logic at all , not just because internalization is more efficient (although such efficiency is useful), but because it has been designed to not need glue logic in the first place. Accomplishing that involves taking the use cases for glue logic—generally “first order” manipulations of a system, such as adding accounts or performing system turnup—and finding a way to handle those use cases directly within the application. As a more detailed example, most turnup automation at Google is problematic because it ends up being maintained separately from the core system and therefore suffers from “bit rot,” i.e., not changing when the underlying systems change. Despite the best of intentions, attempting to more tightly couple the two (turnup automation and the core system) often fails due to unaligned priorities, as product developers will, not unreasonably, resist a test deployment requirement for every change. Secondly, automation that is crucial but only executed at infrequent intervals and therefore difficult to test is often particularly fragile because of the extended feedback cycle. Cluster failover is one classic example of infrequently executed automation: failovers might only occur every few months, or infrequently enough that inconsistencies between instances are introduced. The evolution of automation follows a path: 1) No automation Database master is failed over manually between locations. 2) Externally maintained system-specific automation An SRE has a failover script in his or her home directory. 3) Externally maintained generic automation The SRE adds database support to a "generic failover" script that everyone uses. 4) Internally maintained system-specific automation The database ships with its own failover script. 5) Systems that don’t need any automation The database notices problems, and automatically fails over without human intervention. SRE hates manual operations, so we obviously try to create systems that don’t require them. However, sometimes manual operations are unavoidable. There is additionally a subvariety of automation that applies changes not across the domain of specific system-related configuration, but across the domain of production as a whole. In a highly centralized proprietary production environment like Google’s, there are a large number of changes that have a non–service-specific scope—e.g., changing upstream Chubby servers, a flag change to the Bigtable client library to make access more reliable, and so on—which nonetheless need to be safely managed and rolled back if necessary. Beyond a certain volume of changes, it is infeasible for production-wide changes to be accomplished manually, and at some time before that point, it’s a waste to have manual oversight for a process where a large proportion of the changes are either trivial or accomplished successfully by basic relaunch-and-check strategies. Let’s use internal case studies to illustrate some of the preceding points in detail. The first case study is about how, due to some diligent, far-sighted work, we managed to achieve the self-professed nirvana of SRE: to automate ourselves out of a job. Automate Yourself Out of a Job: Automate ALL the Things! For a long while, the Ads products at Google stored their data in a MySQL database. Because Ads data obviously has high reliability requirements, an SRE team was charged with looking after that infrastructure. From 2005 to 2008, the Ads Database mostly ran in what we considered to be a mature and managed state. For example, we had automated away the worst, but not all, of the routine work for standard replica replacements. We believed the Ads Database was well managed and that we had harvested most of the low-hanging fruit in terms of optimization and scale. However, as daily operations became comfortable, team members began to look at the next level of system development: migrating MySQL onto Google’s cluster scheduling system, Borg. We hoped this migration would provide two main benefits: Completely eliminate machine/replica maintenance: Borg would automatically handle the setup/restart of new and broken tasks. Enable bin-packing of multiple MySQL instances on the same physical machine: Borg would enable more efficient use of machine resources via Containers. In late 2008, we successfully deployed a proof of concept MySQL instance on Borg. Unfortunately, this was accompanied by a significant new difficulty. A core operating characteristic of Borg is that its tasks move around automatically. Tasks commonly move within Borg as frequently as once or twice per week. This frequency was tolerable for our database replicas, but unacceptable for our masters. At that time, the process for master failover took 30–90 minutes per instance. Simply because we ran on shared machines and were subject to reboots for kernel upgrades, in addition to the normal rate of machine failure, we had to expect a number of otherwise unrelated failovers every week. This factor, in combination with the number of shards on which our system was hosted, meant that: Manual failovers would consume a substantial amount of human hours and would give us best-case availability of 99% uptime, which fell short of the actual business requirements of the product. In order to meet our error budgets, each failover would have to take less than 30 seconds of downtime. There was no way to optimize a human-dependent procedure to make downtime shorter than 30 seconds. Therefore, our only choice was to automate failover. Actually, we needed to automate more than just failover. In 2009 Ads SRE completed our automated failover daemon, which we dubbed “Decider.” Decider could complete MySQL failovers for both planned and unplanned failovers in less than 30 seconds 95% of the time. With the creation of Decider, MySQL on Borg (MoB) finally became a reality. We graduated from optimizing our infrastructure for a lack of failover to embracing the idea that failure is inevitable, and therefore optimizing to recover quickly through automation. While automation let us achieve highly available MySQL in a world that forced up to two restarts per week, it did come with its own set of costs. All of our applications had to be changed to include significantly more failure-handling logic than before. Given that the norm in the MySQL development world is to assume that the MySQL instance will be the most stable component in the stack, this switch meant customizing software like JDBC to be more tolerant of our failure-prone environment. However, the benefits of migrating to MoB with Decider were well worth these costs. Once on MoB, the time our team spent on mundane operational tasks dropped by 95%. Our failovers were automated, so an outage of a single database task no longer paged a human. The main upshot of this new automation was that we had a lot more free time to spend on improving other parts of the infrastructure. Such improvements had a cascading effect: the more time we saved, the more time we were able to spend on optimizing and automating other tedious work. Eventually, we were able to automate schema changes, causing the cost of total operational maintenance of the Ads Database to drop by nearly 95%. Some might say that we had successfully automated ourselves out of this job. The hardware side of our domain also saw improvement. Migrating to MoB freed up considerable resources because we could schedule multiple MySQL instances on the same machines, which improved utilization of our hardware. In total, we were able to free up about 60% of our hardware. Our team was now flush with hardware and engineering resources. This example demonstrates the wisdom of going the extra mile to deliver a platform rather than replacing existing manual procedures. The next example comes from the cluster infrastructure group, and illustrates some of the more difficult trade-offs you might encounter on your way to automating all the things. Soothing the Pain: Applying Automation to Cluster Turnups Ten years ago, the Cluster Infrastructure SRE team seemed to get a new hire every few months. As it turned out, that was approximately the same frequency at which we turned up a new cluster. Because turning up a service in a new cluster gives new hires exposure to a service’s internals, this task seemed like a natural and useful training tool. The steps taken to get a cluster ready for use were something like the following: Fit out a datacenter building for power and cooling. Install and configure core switches and connections to the backbone. Install a few initial racks of servers. Configure basic services such as DNS and installers, then configure a lock service, storage, and computing. Deploy the remaining racks of machines. Assign user-facing services resources, so their teams can set up the services. Steps 4 and 6 were extremely complex. While basic services like DNS are relatively simple, the storage and compute subsystems at that time were still in heavy development, so new flags, components, and optimizations were added weekly. Some services had more than a hundred different component subsystems, each with a complex web of dependencies. Failing to configure one subsystem, or configuring a system or component differently than other deployments, is a customer-impacting outage waiting to happen. In one case, a multi-petabyte Bigtable cluster was configured to not use the first (logging) disk on 12-disk systems, for latency reasons. A year later, some automation assumed that if a machine’s first disk wasn’t being used, that machine didn’t have any storage configured; therefore, it was safe to wipe the machine and set it up from scratch. All of the Bigtable data was wiped, instantly. Thankfully we had multiple real-time replicas of the dataset, but such surprises are unwelcome. Automation needs to be careful about relying on implicit "safety" signals. Early automation focused on accelerating cluster delivery. This approach tended to rely upon creative use of SSH for tedious package distribution and service initialization problems. This strategy was an initial win, but those free-form scripts became a cholesterol of technical debt. Detecting Inconsistencies with Prodtest As the numbers of clusters grew, some clusters required hand-tuned flags and settings. As a result, teams wasted more and more time chasing down difficult-to-spot misconfigurations. If a flag that made GFS more responsive to log processing leaked into the default templates, cells with many files could run out of memory under load. Infuriating and time-consuming misconfigurations crept in with nearly every large configuration change. The creative—though brittle—shell scripts we used to configure clusters were neither scaling to the number of people who wanted to make changes nor to the sheer number of cluster permutations that needed to be built. These shell scripts also failed to resolve more significant concerns before declaring that a service was good to take customer-facing traffic, such as: Were all of the service’s dependencies available and correctly configured? Were all configurations and packages consistent with other deployments? Could the team confirm that every configuration exception was desired? Prodtest (Production Test) was an ingenious solution to these unwelcome surprises. We extended the Python unit test framework to allow for unit testing of real-world services. These unit tests have dependencies, allowing a chain of tests, and a failure in one test would quickly abort. Take the test shown in Figure 7-1 as an example. Figure 7-1. ProdTest for DNS Service, showing how one failed test aborts the subsequent chain of tests A given team’s Prodtest was given the cluster name, and it could validate that team’s services in that cluster. Later additions allowed us to generate a graph of the unit tests and their states. This functionality allowed an engineer to see quickly if their service was correctly configured in all clusters, and if not, why. The graph highlighted the failed step, and the failing Python unit test output a more verbose error message. Any time a team encountered a delay due to another team’s unexpected misconfiguration, a bug could be filed to extend their Prodtest. This ensured that a similar problem would be discovered earlier in the future. SREs were proud to be able to assure their customers that all services—both newly turned up services and existing services with new configuration—would reliably serve production traffic. For the first time, our project managers could predict when a cluster could "go live," and had a complete understanding of why each clusters took six or more weeks to go from "network-ready" to "serving live traffic." Out of the blue, SRE received a mission from senior management: In three months, five new clusters will reach network-ready on the same day. Please turn them up in one week. Resolving Inconsistencies Idempotently A "One Week Turnup" was a terrifying mission. We had tens of thousands of lines of shell script owned by dozens of teams. We could quickly tell how unprepared any given cluster was, but fixing it meant that the dozens of teams would have to file hundreds of bugs, and then we had to hope that these bugs would be promptly fixed. We realized that evolving from "Python unit tests finding misconfigurations" to "Python code fixing misconfigurations" could enable us to fix these issues faster. The unit test already knew which cluster we were examining and the specific test that was failing, so we paired each test with a fix. If each fix was written to be idempotent, and could assume that all dependencies were met, resolving the problem should have been easy—and safe—to resolve. Requiring idempotent fixes meant teams could run their "fix script" every 15 minutes without fearing damage to the cluster’s configuration. If the DNS team’s test was blocked on the Machine Database team’s configuration of a new cluster, as soon as the cluster appeared in the database, the DNS team’s tests and fixes would start working. Take the test shown in Figure 7-2 as an example. If TestDnsMonitoringConfigExists fails, as shown, we can call FixDnsMonitoringCreateConfig , which scrapes configuration from a database, then checks a skeleton configuration file into our revision control system. Then TestDnsMonitoringConfigExists passes on retry, and the TestDnsMonitoringConfigPushed test can be attempted. If the test fails, the FixDnsMonitoringPushConfig step runs. If a fix fails multiple times, the automation assumes that the fix failed and stops, notifying the user. Armed with these scripts, a small group of engineers could ensure that we could go from "The network works, and machines are listed in the database" to "Serving 1% of websearch and ads traffic" in a matter of a week or two. At the time, this seemed to be the apex of automation technology. Looking back, this approach was deeply flawed; the latency between the test, the fix, and then a second test introduced flaky tests that sometimes worked and sometimes failed. Not all fixes were naturally idempotent, so a flaky test that was followed by a fix might render the system in an inconsistent state. Figure 7-2. ProdTest for DNS Service, showing that one failed test resulted in only running one fix The Inclination to Specialize Automation processes can vary in three respects: Competence , i.e., their accuracy Latency , how quickly all steps are executed when initiated Relevance , or proportion of real-world process covered by automation We began with a process that was highly competent (maintained and run by the service owners), high-latency (the service owners performed the process in their spare time or assigned it to new engineers), and very relevant (the service owners knew when the real world changed, and could fix the automation). To reduce turnup latency, many service owning teams instructed a single "turnup team" what automation to run. The turnup team used tickets to start each stage in the turnup so that we could track the remaining tasks, and who those tasks were assigned to. If the human interactions regarding automation modules occurred between people in the same room, cluster turnups could happen in a much shorter time. Finally, we had our competent, accurate, and timely automation process! But this state didn’t last long. The real world is chaotic: software, configuration, data, etc. changed, resulting in over a thousand separate changes a day to affected systems. The people most affected by automation bugs were no longer domain experts, so the automation became less relevant (meaning that new steps were missed) and less competent (new flags might have caused automation to fail). However, it took a while for this drop in quality to impact velocity. Automation code, like unit test code, dies when the maintaining team isn’t obsessive about keeping the code in sync with the codebase it covers. The world changes around the code: the DNS team adds new configuration options, the storage team changes their package names, and the networking team needs to support new devices. By relieving teams who ran services of the responsibility to maintain and run their automation code, we created ugly organizational incentives: A team whose primary task is to speed up the current turnup has no incentive to reduce the technical debt of the service-owning team running the service in production later. A team not running automation has no incentive to build systems that are easy to automate. A product manager whose schedule is not affected by low-quality automation will always prioritize new features over simplicity and automation. The most functional tools are usually written by those who use them. A similar argument applies to why product development teams benefit from keeping at least some operational awareness of their systems in production. Turnups were again high-latency, inaccurate, and incompetent—the worst of all worlds. However, an unrelated security mandate allowed us out of this trap. Much of distributed automation relied at that time on SSH. This is clumsy from a security perspective, because people must have root on many machines to run most commands. A growing awareness of advanced, persistent security threats drove us to reduce the privileges SREs enjoyed to the absolute minimum they needed to do their jobs. We had to replace our use of sshd with an authenticated, ACL-driven, RPC-based Local Admin Daemon, also known as Admin Servers, which had permissions to perform those local changes. As a result, no one could install or modify a server without an audit trail. Changes to the Local Admin Daemon and the Package Repo were gated on code reviews, making it very difficult for someone to exceed their authority; giving someone the access to install packages would not let them view colocated logs. The Admin Server logged the RPC requestor, any parameters, and the results of all RPCs to enhance debugging and security audits. Service-Oriented Cluster-Turnup In the next iteration, Admin Servers became part of service teams’ workflows, both as related to the machine-specific Admin Servers (for installing packages and rebooting) and cluster-level Admin Servers (for actions like draining or turning up a service). SREs moved from writing shell scripts in their home directories to building peer-reviewed RPC servers with fine-grained ACLs. Later on, after the realization that turnup processes had to be owned by the teams that owned the services fully sank in, we saw this as a way to approach cluster turnup as a Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) problem: service owners would be responsible for creating an Admin Server to handle cluster turnup/turndown RPCs, sent by the system that knew when clusters were ready. In turn, each team would provide the contract (API) that the turnup automation needed, while still being free to change the underlying implementation. As a cluster reached "network-ready," automation sent an RPC to each Admin Server that played a part in turning up the cluster. We now have a low-latency, competent, and accurate process; most importantly, this process has stayed strong as the rate of change, the number of teams, and the number of services seem to double each year. As mentioned earlier, our evolution of turnup automation followed a path: Operator-triggered manual action (no automation) Operator-written, system-specific automation Externally maintained generic automation Internally maintained, system-specific automation Autonomous systems that need no human intervention While this evolution has, broadly speaking, been a success, the Borg case study illustrates another way we have come to think of the problem of automation. Borg: Birth of the Warehouse-Scale Computer Another way to understand the development of our attitude toward automation, and when and where that automation is best deployed, is to consider the history of the development of our cluster management systems. 31 Like MySQL on Borg, which demonstrated the success of converting manual operations to automatic ones, and the cluster turnup process, which demonstrated the downside of not thinking carefully enough about where and how automation was implemented, developing cluster management also ended up demonstrating another lesson about how automation should be done. Like our previous two examples, something quite sophisticated was created as the eventual result of continuous evolution from simpler beginnings. Google’s clusters were initially deployed much like everyone else’s small networks of the time: racks of machines with specific purposes and heterogeneous configurations. Engineers would log in to some well-known “master” machine to perform administrative tasks; “golden” binaries and configuration lived on these masters. As we had only one colo provider, most naming logic implicitly assumed that location. As production grew, and we began to use multiple clusters, different domains (cluster names) entered the picture. It became necessary to have a file describing what each machine did, which grouped machines under some loose naming strategy. This descriptor file, in combination with the equivalent of a parallel SSH, allowed us to reboot (for example) all the search machines in one go. Around this time, it was common to get tickets like “search is done with machine x1 , crawl can have the machine now.” Automation development began. Initially automation consisted of simple Python scripts for operations such as the following: Service management: keeping services running (e.g., restarts after segfaults) Tracking what services were supposed to run on which machines Log message parsing: SSHing into each machine and looking for regexps Automation eventually mutated into a proper database that tracked machine state, and also incorporated more sophisticated monitoring tools. With the union set of the automation available, we could now automatically manage much of the lifecycle of machines: noticing when machines were broken, removing the services, sending them to repair, and restoring the configuration when they came back from repair. But to take a step back, this automation was useful yet profoundly limited, due to the fact that abstractions of the system were relentlessly tied to physical machines. We needed a new approach, hence Borg [Ver15] was born: a system that moved away from the relatively static host/port/job assignments of the previous world, toward treating a collection of machines as a managed sea of resources. Central to its success—and its conception—was the notion of turning cluster management into an entity for which API calls could be issued, to some central coordinator. This liberated extra dimensions of efficiency, flexibility, and reliability: unlike the previous model of machine “ownership,” Borg could allow machines to schedule, for example, batch and user-facing tasks on the same machine. This functionality ultimately resulted in continuous and automatic operating system upgrades with a very small amount of constant 32 effort—effort that does not scale with the total size of production deployments. Slight deviations in machine state are now automatically fixed; brokenness and lifecycle management are essentially no-ops for SRE at this point. Thousands of machines are born, die, and go into repairs daily with no SRE effort. To echo the words of Ben Treynor Sloss: by taking the approach that this was a software problem, the initial automation bought us enough time to turn cluster management into something autonomous, as opposed to automated. We achieved this goal by bringing ideas related to data distribution, APIs, hub-and-spoke architectures, and classic distributed system software development to bear upon the domain of infrastructure management. An interesting analogy is possible here: we can make a direct mapping between the single machine case and the development of cluster management abstractions. In this view, rescheduling on another machine looks a lot like a process moving from one CPU to another: of course, those compute resources happen to be at the other end of a network link, but to what extent does that actually matter? Thinking in these terms, rescheduling looks like an intrinsic feature of the system rather than something one would “automate”—humans couldn’t react fast enough anyway. Similarly in the case of cluster turnup: in this metaphor, cluster turnup is simply additional schedulable capacity, a bit like adding disk or RAM to a single computer. However, a single-node computer is not, in general, expected to continue operating when a large number of components fail. The global computer is—it must be self-repairing to operate once it grows past a certain size, due to the essentially statistically guaranteed large number of failures taking place every second. This implies that as we move systems up the hierarchy from manually triggered, to automatically triggered, to autonomous, some capacity for self-introspection is necessary to survive. Reliability Is the Fundamental Feature Of course, for effective troubleshooting, the details of internal operation that the introspection relies upon should also be exposed to the humans managing the overall system. Analogous discussions about the impact of automation in the noncomputer domain—for example, in airplane flight 33 or industrial applications—often point out the downside of highly effective automation: 34 human operators are progressively more relieved of useful direct contact with the system as the automation covers more and more daily activities over time. Inevitably, then, a situation arises in which the automation fails, and the humans are now unable to successfully operate the system. The fluidity of their reactions has been lost due to lack of practice, and their mental models of what the system should be doing no longer reflect the reality of what it is doing. 35 This situation arises more when the system is nonautonomous—i.e., where automation replaces manual actions, and the manual actions are presumed to be always performable and available just as they were before. Sadly, over time, this ultimately becomes false: those manual actions are not always performable because the functionality to permit them no longer exists. We, too, have experienced situations where automation has been actively harmful on a number of occasions—see Automation: Enabling Failure at Scale —but in Google’s experience, there are more systems for which automation or autonomous behavior are no longer optional extras. As you scale, this is of course the case, but there are still strong arguments for more autonomous behavior of systems irrespective of size. Reliability is the fundamental feature, and autonomous, resilient behavior is one useful way to get that. Recommendations You might read the examples in this chapter and decide that you need to be Google-scale before you have anything to do with automation whatsoever. This is untrue, for two reasons: automation provides more than just time saving, so it’s worth implementing in more cases than a simple time-expended versus time-saved calculation might suggest. But the approach with the highest leverage actually occurs in the design phase: shipping and iterating rapidly might allow you to implement functionality faster, yet rarely makes for a resilient system. Autonomous operation is difficult to convincingly retrofit to sufficiently large systems, but standard good practices in software engineering will help considerably: having decoupled subsystems, introducing APIs, minimizing side effects, and so on. Automation: Enabling Failure at Scale Google runs over a dozen of its own large datacenters, but we also depend on machines in many third-party colocation facilities (or "colos"). Our machines in these colos are used to terminate most incoming connections, or as a cache for our own Content Delivery Network, in order to lower end-user latency. At any point in time, a number of these racks are being installed or decommissioned; both of these processes are largely automated. One step during decommission involves overwriting the full content of the disk of all the machines in the rack, after which point an independent system verifies the successful erase. We call this process "Diskerase." Once upon a time, the automation in charge of decommissioning a particular rack failed, but only after the Diskerase step had completed successfully. Later, the decommission process was restarted from the beginning, to debug the failure. On that iteration, when trying to send the set of machines in the rack to Diskerase, the automation determined that the set of machines that still needed to be Diskerased was (correctly) empty. Unfortunately, the empty set was used as a special value, interpreted to mean "everything." This means the automation sent almost all the machines we have in all colos to Diskerase. Within minutes, the highly efficient Diskerase wiped the disks on all machines in our CDN, and the machines were no longer able to terminate connections from users (or do anything else useful). We were still able to serve all the users from our own datacenters, and after a few minutes the only effect visible externally was a slight increase in latency. As far as we could tell, very few users noticed the problem at all, thanks to good capacity planning (at least we got that right!). Meanwhile, we spent the better part of two days reinstalling the machines in the affected colo racks; then we spent the following weeks auditing and adding more sanity checks—including rate limiting—into our automation, and making our decommission workflow idempotent. 26 For readers who already feel they precisely understand the value of automation, skip ahead to The Value for Google SRE . However, note that our description contains some nuances that might be useful to keep in mind while reading the rest of the chapter. 27 The expertise acquired in building such automation is also valuable in itself; engineers both deeply understand the existing processes they have automated and can later automate novel processes more quickly. 28 See the following XKCD cartoon: https://xkcd.com/1205/ . 29 See, for example, https://blog.engineyard.com/2014/pets-vs-cattle . 30 Of course, not every system that needs to be managed actually provides callable APIs for management—forcing some tooling to use, e.g., CLI invocations or automated website clicks. 31 We have compressed and simplified this history to aid understanding. 32 As in a small, unchanging number. 33 See, e.g., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_France_Flight_447 . 34 See, e.g., [Bai83] and [Sar97] . 35 This is yet another good reason for regular practice drills; see Disaster Role Playing . Previous Chapter 6 - Monitoring Distributed Systems Next Chapter 8 - Release Engineering Copyright © 2017 Google, Inc. Published by O'Reilly Media, Inc. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://git-scm.com/book/it/v2/Distributed-Git-Maintaining-a-Project | Git - Maintaining a Project About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Per Iniziare 1.1 Il Controllo di Versione 1.2 Una Breve Storia di Git 1.3 Cos’é Git? 1.4 La riga di comando 1.5 Installing Git 1.6 First-Time Git Setup 1.7 Chiedere aiuto 1.8 Sommario 2. Git Basics 2.1 Getting a Git Repository 2.2 Recording Changes to the Repository 2.3 Viewing the Commit History 2.4 Undoing Things 2.5 Working with Remotes 2.6 Tagging 2.7 Git Aliases 2.8 Sommario 3. Git Branching 3.1 Branches in a Nutshell 3.2 Basic Branching and Merging 3.3 Branch Management 3.4 Branching Workflows 3.5 Remote Branches 3.6 Rebasing 3.7 Summary 4. Git on the Server 4.1 The Protocols 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Generating Your SSH Public Key 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Summary 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Distributed Workflows 5.2 Contributing to a Project 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Appendice A: Git in altri contesti A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Riassunto A2. Appendice B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendice C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Distributed Git - Maintaining a Project Maintaining a Project In addition to knowing how to effectively contribute to a project, you’ll likely need to know how to maintain one. This can consist of accepting and applying patches generated via format-patch and e-mailed to you, or integrating changes in remote branches for repositories you’ve added as remotes to your project. Whether you maintain a canonical repository or want to help by verifying or approving patches, you need to know how to accept work in a way that is clearest for other contributors and sustainable by you over the long run. Working in Topic Branches When you’re thinking of integrating new work, it’s generally a good idea to try it out in a topic branch – a temporary branch specifically made to try out that new work. This way, it’s easy to tweak a patch individually and leave it if it’s not working until you have time to come back to it. If you create a simple branch name based on the theme of the work you’re going to try, such as ruby_client or something similarly descriptive, you can easily remember it if you have to abandon it for a while and come back later. The maintainer of the Git project tends to namespace these branches as well – such as sc/ruby_client , where sc is short for the person who contributed the work. As you’ll remember, you can create the branch based off your master branch like this: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Or, if you want to also switch to it immediately, you can use the checkout -b option: $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Now you’re ready to add your contributed work into this topic branch and determine if you want to merge it into your longer-term branches. Applying Patches from E-mail If you receive a patch over e-mail that you need to integrate into your project, you need to apply the patch in your topic branch to evaluate it. There are two ways to apply an e-mailed patch: with git apply or with git am . Applying a Patch with apply If you received the patch from someone who generated it with the git diff or a Unix diff command (which is not recommended; see the next section), you can apply it with the git apply command. Assuming you saved the patch at /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , you can apply the patch like this: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch This modifies the files in your working directory. It’s almost identical to running a patch -p1 command to apply the patch, although it’s more paranoid and accepts fewer fuzzy matches than patch. It also handles file adds, deletes, and renames if they’re described in the git diff format, which patch won’t do. Finally, git apply is an “apply all or abort all” model where either everything is applied or nothing is, whereas patch can partially apply patchfiles, leaving your working directory in a weird state. git apply is overall much more conservative than patch . It won’t create a commit for you – after running it, you must stage and commit the changes introduced manually. You can also use git apply to see if a patch applies cleanly before you try actually applying it – you can run git apply --check with the patch: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply If there is no output, then the patch should apply cleanly. This command also exits with a non-zero status if the check fails, so you can use it in scripts if you want. Applying a Patch with am If the contributor is a Git user and was good enough to use the format-patch command to generate their patch, then your job is easier because the patch contains author information and a commit message for you. If you can, encourage your contributors to use format-patch instead of diff to generate patches for you. You should only have to use git apply for legacy patches and things like that. To apply a patch generated by format-patch , you use git am . Technically, git am is built to read an mbox file, which is a simple, plain-text format for storing one or more e-mail messages in one text file. It looks something like this: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 This is the beginning of the output of the format-patch command that you saw in the previous section. This is also a valid mbox e-mail format. If someone has e-mailed you the patch properly using git send-email, and you download that into an mbox format, then you can point git am to that mbox file, and it will start applying all the patches it sees. If you run a mail client that can save several e-mails out in mbox format, you can save entire patch series into a file and then use git am to apply them one at a time. However, if someone uploaded a patch file generated via format-patch to a ticketing system or something similar, you can save the file locally and then pass that file saved on your disk to git am to apply it: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function You can see that it applied cleanly and automatically created the new commit for you. The author information is taken from the e-mail’s From and Date headers, and the message of the commit is taken from the Subject and body (before the patch) of the e-mail. For example, if this patch was applied from the mbox example above, the commit generated would look something like this: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 The Commit information indicates the person who applied the patch and the time it was applied. The Author information is the individual who originally created the patch and when it was originally created. But it’s possible that the patch won’t apply cleanly. Perhaps your main branch has diverged too far from the branch the patch was built from, or the patch depends on another patch you haven’t applied yet. In that case, the git am process will fail and ask you what you want to do: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". This command puts conflict markers in any files it has issues with, much like a conflicted merge or rebase operation. You solve this issue much the same way – edit the file to resolve the conflict, stage the new file, and then run git am --resolved to continue to the next patch: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem If you want Git to try a bit more intelligently to resolve the conflict, you can pass a -3 option to it, which makes Git attempt a three-way merge. This option isn’t on by default because it doesn’t work if the commit the patch says it was based on isn’t in your repository. If you do have that commit – if the patch was based on a public commit – then the -3 option is generally much smarter about applying a conflicting patch: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. In this case, this patch had already been applied. Without the -3 option, it looks like a conflict. If you’re applying a number of patches from an mbox, you can also run the am command in interactive mode, which stops at each patch it finds and asks if you want to apply it: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all This is nice if you have a number of patches saved, because you can view the patch first if you don’t remember what it is, or not apply the patch if you’ve already done so. When all the patches for your topic are applied and committed into your branch, you can choose whether and how to integrate them into a longer-running branch. Checking Out Remote Branches If your contribution came from a Git user who set up their own repository, pushed a number of changes into it, and then sent you the URL to the repository and the name of the remote branch the changes are in, you can add them as a remote and do merges locally. For instance, if Jessica sends you an e-mail saying that she has a great new feature in the ruby-client branch of her repository, you can test it by adding the remote and checking out that branch locally: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client If she e-mails you again later with another branch containing another great feature, you can fetch and check out because you already have the remote setup. This is most useful if you’re working with a person consistently. If someone only has a single patch to contribute once in a while, then accepting it over e-mail may be less time consuming than requiring everyone to run their own server and having to continually add and remove remotes to get a few patches. You’re also unlikely to want to have hundreds of remotes, each for someone who contributes only a patch or two. However, scripts and hosted services may make this easier – it depends largely on how you develop and how your contributors develop. The other advantage of this approach is that you get the history of the commits as well. Although you may have legitimate merge issues, you know where in your history their work is based; a proper three-way merge is the default rather than having to supply a -3 and hope the patch was generated off a public commit to which you have access. If you aren’t working with a person consistently but still want to pull from them in this way, you can provide the URL of the remote repository to the git pull command. This does a one-time pull and doesn’t save the URL as a remote reference: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Determining What Is Introduced Now you have a topic branch that contains contributed work. At this point, you can determine what you’d like to do with it. This section revisits a couple of commands so you can see how you can use them to review exactly what you’ll be introducing if you merge this into your main branch. It’s often helpful to get a review of all the commits that are in this branch but that aren’t in your master branch. You can exclude commits in the master branch by adding the --not option before the branch name. This does the same thing as the master..contrib format that we used earlier. For example, if your contributor sends you two patches and you create a branch called contrib and applied those patches there, you can run this: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better To see what changes each commit introduces, remember that you can pass the -p option to git log and it will append the diff introduced to each commit. To see a full diff of what would happen if you were to merge this topic branch with another branch, you may have to use a weird trick to get the correct results. You may think to run this: $ git diff master This command gives you a diff, but it may be misleading. If your master branch has moved forward since you created the topic branch from it, then you’ll get seemingly strange results. This happens because Git directly compares the snapshots of the last commit of the topic branch you’re on and the snapshot of the last commit on the master branch. For example, if you’ve added a line in a file on the master branch, a direct comparison of the snapshots will look like the topic branch is going to remove that line. If master is a direct ancestor of your topic branch, this isn’t a problem; but if the two histories have diverged, the diff will look like you’re adding all the new stuff in your topic branch and removing everything unique to the master branch. What you really want to see are the changes added to the topic branch – the work you’ll introduce if you merge this branch with master. You do that by having Git compare the last commit on your topic branch with the first common ancestor it has with the master branch. Technically, you can do that by explicitly figuring out the common ancestor and then running your diff on it: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db However, that isn’t convenient, so Git provides another shorthand for doing the same thing: the triple-dot syntax. In the context of the diff command, you can put three periods after another branch to do a diff between the last commit of the branch you’re on and its common ancestor with another branch: $ git diff master...contrib This command shows you only the work your current topic branch has introduced since its common ancestor with master. That is a very useful syntax to remember. Integrating Contributed Work When all the work in your topic branch is ready to be integrated into a more mainline branch, the question is how to do it. Furthermore, what overall workflow do you want to use to maintain your project? You have a number of choices, so we’ll cover a few of them. Merging Workflows One simple workflow merges your work into your master branch. In this scenario, you have a master branch that contains basically stable code. When you have work in a topic branch that you’ve done or that someone has contributed and you’ve verified, you merge it into your master branch, delete the topic branch, and then continue the process. If we have a repository with work in two branches named ruby_client and php_client that looks like History with several topic branches. and merge ruby_client first and then php_client next, then your history will end up looking like After a topic branch merge. . Figura 73. History with several topic branches. Figura 74. After a topic branch merge. That is probably the simplest workflow, but it can possibly be problematic if you’re dealing with larger or more stable projects where you want to be really careful about what you introduce. If you have a more important project, you might want to use a two-phase merge cycle. In this scenario, you have two long-running branches, master and develop , in which you determine that master is updated only when a very stable release is cut and all new code is integrated into the develop branch. You regularly push both of these branches to the public repository. Each time you have a new topic branch to merge in ( Before a topic branch merge. ), you merge it into develop ( After a topic branch merge. ); then, when you tag a release, you fast-forward master to wherever the now-stable develop branch is ( After a project release. ). Figura 75. Before a topic branch merge. Figura 76. After a topic branch merge. Figura 77. After a project release. This way, when people clone your project’s repository, they can either check out master to build the latest stable version and keep up to date on that easily, or they can check out develop, which is the more cutting-edge stuff. You can also continue this concept, having an integrate branch where all the work is merged together. Then, when the codebase on that branch is stable and passes tests, you merge it into a develop branch; and when that has proven itself stable for a while, you fast-forward your master branch. Large-Merging Workflows The Git project has four long-running branches: master , next , and pu (proposed updates) for new work, and maint for maintenance backports. When new work is introduced by contributors, it’s collected into topic branches in the maintainer’s repository in a manner similar to what we’ve described (see Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. ). At this point, the topics are evaluated to determine whether they’re safe and ready for consumption or whether they need more work. If they’re safe, they’re merged into next , and that branch is pushed up so everyone can try the topics integrated together. Figura 78. Managing a complex series of parallel contributed topic branches. If the topics still need work, they’re merged into pu instead. When it’s determined that they’re totally stable, the topics are re-merged into master and are then rebuilt from the topics that were in next but didn’t yet graduate to master . This means master almost always moves forward, next is rebased occasionally, and pu is rebased even more often: Figura 79. Merging contributed topic branches into long-term integration branches. When a topic branch has finally been merged into master , it’s removed from the repository. The Git project also has a maint branch that is forked off from the last release to provide backported patches in case a maintenance release is required. Thus, when you clone the Git repository, you have four branches that you can check out to evaluate the project in different stages of development, depending on how cutting edge you want to be or how you want to contribute; and the maintainer has a structured workflow to help them vet new contributions. Rebasing and Cherry Picking Workflows Other maintainers prefer to rebase or cherry-pick contributed work on top of their master branch, rather than merging it in, to keep a mostly linear history. When you have work in a topic branch and have determined that you want to integrate it, you move to that branch and run the rebase command to rebuild the changes on top of your current master (or develop , and so on) branch. If that works well, you can fast-forward your master branch, and you’ll end up with a linear project history. The other way to move introduced work from one branch to another is to cherry-pick it. A cherry-pick in Git is like a rebase for a single commit. It takes the patch that was introduced in a commit and tries to reapply it on the branch you’re currently on. This is useful if you have a number of commits on a topic branch and you want to integrate only one of them, or if you only have one commit on a topic branch and you’d prefer to cherry-pick it rather than run rebase. For example, suppose you have a project that looks like this: Figura 80. Example history before a cherry-pick. If you want to pull commit e43a6 into your master branch, you can run $ git cherry-pick e43a6fd3e94888d76779ad79fb568ed180e5fcdf Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) This pulls the same change introduced in e43a6 , but you get a new commit SHA-1 value, because the date applied is different. Now your history looks like this: Figura 81. History after cherry-picking a commit on a topic branch. Now you can remove your topic branch and drop the commits you didn’t want to pull in. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called “rerere” that can help. Rerere stands for “reuse recorded resolution” – it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . Tagging Your Releases When you’ve decided to cut a release, you’ll probably want to drop a tag so you can re-create that release at any point going forward. You can create a new tag as discussed in Git Basics . If you decide to sign the tag as the maintainer, the tagging may look something like this: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 If you do sign your tags, you may have the problem of distributing the public PGP key used to sign your tags. The maintainer of the Git project has solved this issue by including their public key as a blob in the repository and then adding a tag that points directly to that content. To do this, you can figure out which key you want by running gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Then, you can directly import the key into the Git database by exporting it and piping that through git hash-object , which writes a new blob with those contents into Git and gives you back the SHA-1 of the blob: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Now that you have the contents of your key in Git, you can create a tag that points directly to it by specifying the new SHA-1 value that the hash-object command gave you: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 If you run git push --tags , the maintainer-pgp-pub tag will be shared with everyone. If anyone wants to verify a tag, they can directly import your PGP key by pulling the blob directly out of the database and importing it into GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import They can use that key to verify all your signed tags. Also, if you include instructions in the tag message, running git show <tag> will let you give the end user more specific instructions about tag verification. Generating a Build Number Because Git doesn’t have monotonically increasing numbers like v123 or the equivalent to go with each commit, if you want to have a human-readable name to go with a commit, you can run git describe on that commit. Git gives you the name of the nearest tag with the number of commits on top of that tag and a partial SHA-1 value of the commit you’re describing: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c This way, you can export a snapshot or build and name it something understandable to people. In fact, if you build Git from source code cloned from the Git repository, git --version gives you something that looks like this. If you’re describing a commit that you have directly tagged, it gives you the tag name. The git describe command favors annotated tags (tags created with the -a or -s flag), so release tags should be created this way if you’re using git describe , to ensure the commit is named properly when described. You can also use this string as the target of a checkout or show command, although it relies on the abbreviated SHA-1 value at the end, so it may not be valid forever. For instance, the Linux kernel recently jumped from 8 to 10 characters to ensure SHA-1 object uniqueness, so older git describe output names were invalidated. Preparing a Release Now you want to release a build. One of the things you’ll want to do is create an archive of the latest snapshot of your code for those poor souls who don’t use Git. The command to do this is git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz If someone opens that tarball, they get the latest snapshot of your project under a project directory. You can also create a zip archive in much the same way, but by passing the --format=zip option to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip You now have a nice tarball and a zip archive of your project release that you can upload to your website or e-mail to people. The Shortlog It’s time to e-mail your mailing list of people who want to know what’s happening in your project. A nice way of quickly getting a sort of changelog of what has been added to your project since your last release or e-mail is to use the git shortlog command. It summarizes all the commits in the range you give it; for example, the following gives you a summary of all the commits since your last release, if your last release was named v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 You get a clean summary of all the commits since v1.0.1, grouped by author, that you can e-mail to your list. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:21 |
https://w3techs.com/technologies/cross/operating_system/data_center | Usage Survey of Operating Systems broken down by Data Center Providers advertise here provided by Q-Success Home Technologies Reports API Sites Quality Users Blog Forum FAQ Search Featured products and services advertise here Technologies Content Management Server-side Languages Client-side Languages JavaScript Libraries CSS Frameworks Web Servers Web Panels Operating Systems Web Hosting Data Centers Reverse Proxies DNS Servers Email Servers SSL Certificate Authorities Content Delivery Traffic Analysis Tools Advertising Networks Tag Managers Social Widgets Site Elements Structured Data Markup Languages Character Encodings Image File Formats Top Level Domains Server Locations Content Languages Related Reports Transposition Technologies > Operating Systems > by Data Centers Usage of operating systems broken down by data center providers Detailed statistics in our extensive operating systems market report. Learn more This diagram shows the percentages of websites using various operating systems broken down by data center providers. Cross-technology reports only include technologies with more than 1% usage to ensure statistical significance of the results. See technologies overview for explanations on the methodologies used in the surveys. How to read the diagram: Unix is used by 90.8% of all the websites whose operating system we know. Unix is used by 90.3% of all the websites whose operating system we know and that use Amazon as data center provider. Unix 90.8% 90.3% 99.5% 100.0% 92.9% 93.3% 95.4% 84.5% 66.0% 81.9% 60.8% 99.5% 95.0% 99.2% 30.0% 95.2% 59.6% Windows 9.4% 10.1% 0.7% 0.1% 7.3% 6.8% 4.8% 15.8% 34.3% 18.4% 39.5% 0.8% 5.1% 0.8% 72.9% 4.9% 40.8% W3Techs.com, 13 January 2026 Overall Amazon Google Hostinger OVH United Internet Hetzner Squarespace Newfold Digital Group team.blue GoDaddy Group DigitalOcean XServer GMO Internet Group Microsoft Sakura Aruba Group Percentages of websites using various operating systems broken down by data center providers Note: a website may use more than one operating system More detailed statistics You can find complete breakdown reports of 33 operating systems in our operating systems market reports . Share this page Technology Brief Operating Systems An operating system of a computer is the underlying program, that performs its basic user interactions and forms the basis of all other programs. Latest related posting read all Web Technologies of the Year 2025 5 January 2026 We compiled the list of web technologies that saw the largest increase in usage in 2025. » more advertise here About Us Disclaimer Terms of Use Privacy Policy Advertising Contact W3Techs on LinkedIn Mastodon Bluesky Copyright © 2009-2026 Q-Success | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/pl/v2/Rozproszony-Git-Utrzymywanie-projektu | Git - Utrzymywanie projektu About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Pierwsze kroki 1.1 Wprowadzenie do kontroli wersji 1.2 Krótka historia Git 1.3 Podstawy Git 1.4 Linia poleceń 1.5 Instalacja Git 1.6 Wstępna konfiguracja Git 1.7 Uzyskiwanie pomocy 1.8 Podsumowanie 2. Podstawy Gita 2.1 Pierwsze repozytorium Gita 2.2 Rejestrowanie zmian w repozytorium 2.3 Podgląd historii rewizji 2.4 Cofanie zmian 2.5 Praca ze zdalnym repozytorium 2.6 Tagowanie 2.7 Aliasy 2.8 Podsumowanie 3. Gałęzie Gita 3.1 Czym jest gałąź 3.2 Podstawy rozgałęziania i scalania 3.3 Zarządzanie gałęziami 3.4 Sposoby pracy z gałęziami 3.5 Gałęzie zdalne 3.6 Zmiana bazy 3.7 Podsumowanie 4. Git na serwerze 4.1 Protokoły 4.2 Uruchomienie Git na serwerze 4.3 Generowanie Twojego publicznego klucza SSH 4.4 Konfigurowanie serwera 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Inne opcje hostowania przez podmioty zewnętrzne 4.10 Podsumowanie 5. Rozproszony Git 5.1 Rozproszone przepływy pracy 5.2 Wgrywanie zmian do projektu 5.3 Utrzymywanie projektu 5.4 Podsumowanie 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Narzędzia Gita 7.1 Wskazywanie rewizji 7.2 Interaktywne używanie przechowali 7.3 Schowek i czyszczenie 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Przepisywanie historii 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugowanie z Gitem 7.11 Moduły zależne 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Podsumowanie 8. Dostosowywanie Gita 8.1 Konfiguracja Gita 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git i inne systemy 9.1 Git jako klient 9.2 Migracja do Gita 9.3 Podsumowanie 10. Mechanizmy wewnętrzne w Git 10.1 Komendy typu plumbing i porcelain 10.2 Obiekty Gita 10.3 Referencje w Git 10.4 Spakowane pliki (packfiles) 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Protokoły transferu 10.7 Konserwacja i odzyskiwanie danych 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Podsumowanie A1. Appendix A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Summary A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 5.3 Rozproszony Git - Utrzymywanie projektu Utrzymywanie projektu Oprócz wiedzy, jak efektywnie przyczynić się do rozwoju projektu, prawdopodobnie będziesz musiał wiedzieć, jak go utrzymać. Składa się na to akceptowanie i nakładanie łat wygenerowanych przez format-patch i wysłanych do Ciebie, lub łączenie zmian z zewnętrznych repozytoriów które dodałeś w projekcie. Nieważne czy prowadzisz zwykłe repozytorium, lub chcesz pomóc przy weryfikacji i integrowaniu łat, musisz wiedzieć w jaki sposób akceptować zmiany innych w taki sposób, który będzie przejrzysty dla innych i spójny w dłuższym okresie. Praca z gałęziami tematycznymi Jeżeli zamierzasz włączyć nowe zmiany, dobrym pomysłem jest stworzenie do tego nowej tymczasowej gałęzi – specjalnie przygotowanej do tego, aby przetestować te zmiany. W ten sposób najłatwiej dostosować pojedyncze zmiany, lub zostawić je jeżeli nie działają, do czasu aż będziesz mógł się tym ponownie zająć. Jeżeli stworzysz nową gałąź bazując na głównym motywie wprowadzanych zmian które chcesz przetestować, np. ruby_client lub coś podobnego, możesz łatwo zapamiętać czy musiałeś ją zostawić aby później do niej wrócić. Opiekun projektu Git często tworzy oddzielną przestrzeń nazw dla nich – np. sc/ruby_client , gdzie sc jest skrótem od osoby która udostępniła zmianę. Jak pamiętasz, możesz stworzyć nową gałąź bazując na swojej gałęzi master, w taki sposób: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Ewentualnie, jeżeli chcesz się od razu na nią przełączyć, możesz użyć komendy checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Teraz jesteś gotowy do tego, aby dodać do niej udostępnione zmiany i zdecydować czy chcesz je włączyć do jednej ze swoich gałęzi. Wprowadzanie poprawek z wiadomości e-mail Jeżeli otrzymasz poprawkę poprzez wiadomość e-mail, którą musisz włączyć do swojego projektu, musisz wprowadzić ją do gałęzi tematycznej w celu przetestowania. Istnieją dwa sposoby aby włączyć takie zmiany: przy użyciu git apply lub git am . Wprowadzanie poprawki za pomocą apply Jeżeli otrzymałeś poprawkę od kogoś, kto wygenerował ją za pomocą komendy git diff lub uniksowej diff , możesz zaaplikować ją za pomocą komendy git apply . Zakładając, że zapisałeś plik w /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , możesz go nałożyć w taki sposób: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Ta komenda zmodyfikuje pliki znajdujące się w obecnym katalogu. Jest ona prawie identyczna do komendy patch -p1 w celu nałożenia poprawki, ale jest bardziej restrykcyjna pod względem akceptowanych zmian. Obsługuje również dodawanie plików, usuwanie, oraz zmiany nazw jeżeli zostały zapisane w formacie git diff , czego komenda patch nie zrobi. Wreszcie, git apply ma zasadę "zaakceptuj lub odrzuć wszystko", gdzie albo wszystko jest zaakceptowane albo nic, a patch może częściowo nałożyć zmiany zostawiając projekt z niespójnym stanem. Komenda git apply jest z zasady bardziej restrykcyjna niż patch . Nie stworzy za Ciebie commita – po uruchomieniu, musisz zatwierdzić wprowadzone zmiany ręcznie. Możesz również użyć git apply aby zobaczyć, czy poprawka nałoży się czysto zanim ją zaaplikujesz – jeżeli uruchomisz git apply --check z poprawką: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Jeżeli nie zostanie wygenerowany żaden komunikat, to poprawka wdroży się poprawnie. Ta komenda również kończy działanie z niezerowym statusem w przypadku błędu, możesz więc jeśli chcesz, możesz użyć jej w skryptach. Wprowadzanie poprawki za pomocą am Jeżeli otrzymałeś poprawkę wygenerowaną przez użytkownika używającego Gita, który stworzył go za pomocą format-patch , Twoja praca będzie prostsza ponieważ poprawka zawiera już informacje o autorze oraz komentarz do zmiany. Jeżeli możesz, namawiaj swoich współpracowników aby używali format-patch zamiast diff do generowania dla Ciebie poprawek. Powinieneś móc użyć jedynie git apply dla takich poprawek. Aby zaaplikować poprawkę wygenerowaną przez format-patch , użyj git am . Technicznie rzecz biorąc, git am został stworzony, aby odczytywać plik w formacie mbox , który jest prostym, tekstowym formatem zawierającym jedną lub więcej wiadomości e-mail w jednym pliku. Wygląda on podobnie do: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 To są pierwsze linie z wyniku komendy format-patch , którą zobaczyłeś w poprzedniej sekcji. Jest to również poprawny plik w formacie mbox . Jeżeli ktoś poprawnie przesłał do Ciebie poprawkę za pomocą git send-email , możesz ją zapisać w formacie mbox , następnie wskazać git am ten plik, a Git zacznie aplikować wszystkie znalezione poprawki. Jeżeli używasz klienta pocztowego, który potrafi zapisać kilka wiadomości e-mail w formacie mbox , możesz zapisać serię poprawek do pliku i użyć git am aby jest nałożyć wszystkie poprawki za jednym zamachem. Również, jeżeli ktoś wgrał poprawkę wygenerowaną poprzez format-patch do systemu zgłoszeń błędów lub czegoś podobnego, możesz zapisać lokalnie ten plik i potem przekazać go do git am , tak aby zaaplikować go: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function Możesz zauważyć, że poprawka została zaaplikowana bez problemu i została automatycznie zatwierdzona. Informacje o autorze zostały pobrane z wiadomości e-mail z nagłówków From i Date , a treść komentarz została pobrana z tematu i treści (przed poprawką) e-maila. Na przykład, jeżeli ta poprawka została zaaplikowana z pliku mbox , który przed chwilą pokazaliśmy, to wygenerowany commit będzie wyglądał mniej więcej tak: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Linie zaczynające się od Commit pokazują osobę która zaaplikowała poprawkę oraz czas kiedy to zrobiła. Linie rozpoczynające się od Author pokazują osobę która stworzyła poprawkę wraz z dokładną datą. Jednak możliwa jest również sytuacja, w której poprawka nie zostanie bez problemów nałożona. Być może Twoja gałąź zbyt mocno się zmieniła, w stosunku do gałęzi, na której poprawka została stworzona, albo zależna jest ona od innej poprawki, której jeszcze nie nałożyłeś. W takiej sytuacji komenda git am zakończy się błędem i zapyta co robić dalej: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Ta komenda zaznacza pliku z którymi miała problemy, podobnie do konfliktów występujących podczas komend merge lub rebase . Rozwiązujesz takie sytuacja również analogicznie – zmień plik w celu rozwiązania konfliktu, dodaj do przechowalni nowe pliki i następnie uruchom git am --resolved aby kontynuować działanie do następnej poprawki: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem Jeżeli chcesz aby Git spróbował w bardziej inteligentny sposób rozwiązać konflikty, dodaj opcję -3 do komendy, która daje Gitowi możliwość spróbowania trójstronnego łączenia. Opcja ta nie jest domyślnie włączona, ponieważ nie działa poprawnie w sytuacji gdy w twoim repozytorium nie ma commitu, na którym bazuje poprawka. Jeżeli go masz – jeżeli poprawka bazowała na publicznym commicie – to dodanie -3 zazwyczaj pozwala na dużo mądrzejsze zaaplikowanie konfliktującej poprawki: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. W tym przypadku, ta poprawka została już zastosowana. Bez podanej opcji -3 wyglądało to na konflikt. Jeżeli włączasz większą liczbę poprawek z pliku mbox , możesz użyć komendy am w trybie interaktywnym, który zatrzymuje się na każdej poprawce, którą znajdzie, i pyta czy chcesz ją zastosować: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all Jest to całkiem dobre jeżeli masz zapisaną większą liczbę poprawek, ponieważ możesz najpierw zobaczyć poprawkę jeżeli nie pamiętasz do czego była, lub nie aplikować jej jeżeli już to zrobiłeś. Kiedy wszystkie poprawki zostaną wgrane i commitnięte w Twojej gałęzi, możesz zastanowić się w jaki sposób i czy chcesz integrować je do jednej z głównych gałęzi. Checking Out Remote Branches Jeżeli zmiana przyszła od użytkownika Gita który ma skonfigurowane własne repozytorium, wgrał do niego już jakąś liczbę zmian i następnie wysłał do Ciebie adres URL repozytorium oraz nazwę zdalnej gałęzi zawierającej zmiany, możesz ją dodać jako zdalną i połączyć zmiany lokalnie. Na przykład, jeżeli Jessica wysyła Ci wiadomość e-mail w której pisze, że ma nową funkcjonalność w gałęzi ruby-client w swoim repozytorium, możesz je przetestować dodając zdalne repozytorium i sprawdzając tą gałąź lokalnie: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Jeżeli napisze do Ciebie ponownie z nową gałęzią która zawiera kolejną funkcjonalność, możesz ją pobrać i sprawdzić ponieważ masz już dodane zdalne repozytorium. Jest to bardzo pomocne w sytuacji, w której współpracujesz z jakąś osobą na stałe. Jeżeli ktoś ma tylko pojedyncze łatki które udostępnia raz na jakiś czas, to akceptowanie ich poprzez e-mail może być szybsze, niż zmuszanie wszystkich do tego aby mieli własny serwer, jak również dodawanie i usuwanie zdalnych repozytoriów aby otrzymać jedną lub dwie łatki. Jednakże, skrypty oraz usługi udostępniane mogą uczynić to prostszym – zależy od tego w taki sposób pracujesz, oraz jak pracują Twoi współpracownicy. Kolejną zaletą takiego podejścia jest to, że otrzymujesz również całą historię zmian. Chociaż mogą zdarzyć się uzasadnione problemy ze scalaniem zmian, wiesz na którym etapie historii ich praca bazowała; prawidłowe trójstronne scalenie jest domyślne, nie musisz więc podawać -3 i mieć nadzieję że łatka została wygenerowana z publicznie dostępnego commitu/zmiany. Jeżeli nie współpracujesz z jakąś osobą na stałe, ale mimo wszystko chcesz pobrać od niej zmiany w ten sposób, możesz podać URL repozytorium do komendy git pull . Wykona ona jednokrotne zaciągnięcie zmian i nie zapisze URL repozytorium jako zdalnego: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Ustalenie co zostało wprowadzone Teraz posiadać gałąź tematyczną która zawiera otrzymane zmiany. W tym momencie możesz zdecydować co chcesz z nimi zrobić. Ta sekcja przywołuje kilka komend, tak abyś mógł zobaczyć w jaki sposób ich użyć, aby przejrzeć dokładnie co będziesz włączał do głównej gałęzi. Często pomocne jest przejrzenie wszystkich zmian które są w tej gałęzi, ale nie ma ich w gałęzi master . Możesz wyłączyć zmiany z gałęzi master poprzez dodanie opcji --not przed jej nazwą. Działa to tak samo co format master..contrib , którego używaliśmy wcześniej. Na przykład, jeżeli Twój współpracownik prześle ci dwie poprawki, a Ty stworzysz nową gałąź contrib i włączysz te łatki tam, możesz uruchomić: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better Aby zobaczyć jakie zmiany każdy z commitów wniósł, zapamiętaj że możesz dodać opcję -p do git log , a otrzymasz również w wyniku różnice w kodzie. Aby zobaczyć różnice tego co się stanie, jeżeli chciałbyś połączyć tą gałąź z inną, będziesz musiał użyć całkiem ciekawych sztuczek aby otrzymać poprawne wyniki. Możesz pomyśleć, aby uruchomić: $ git diff master Ta komenda pokaże ci różnice w kodzie, ale może to być mylące. Jeżeli Twoja gałąź master zmieniła się od czasu stworzenia gałęzi tematycznej, otrzymasz dziwne wyniki. Tak dzieje się dlatego, ponieważ Git porównuje bezpośrednio ostatnią migawkę z gałęzi tematycznej, z ostatnią migawkę w gałęzi master . Na przykład, jeżeli dodasz linię w pliku w gałęzi master , bezpośrednie porównanie pokaże, że gałąź tematyczna zamierza usunąć tą linię. Jeżeli master jest bezpośrednim przodkiem Twojej gałęzi tematycznej, nie stanowi to problemu; jeżeli jednak obie linie się rozjechały, wynik diff pokaże dodawane wszystkie zmiany z gałęzi tematycznej, a usuwane wszystkie unikalne z master . Wynik którego naprawdę oczekujesz, to ten, pokazujący zmiany będące w gałęzi tematycznej – zmiany które wprowadzisz jeżeli scalisz tą gałąź z master . Możesz to zrobić, poprzez porównanie ostatniego commitu z gałęzi tematycznej, z pierwszym wspólnym przodkiem z gałęzi master . Technicznie rzecz ujmując, możesz to zrobić poprzez wskazanie wspólnego przodka i uruchomienie na nim diff : $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db Jednak to nie jest wygodne rozwiązanie, dlatego Git udostępnia krótszą metodę aby to osiągnąć: składnie z potrójną kropką. W kontekście komendy diff , możesz wstawić trzy kropki po nazwie gałęzi z którą chcesz porównać, aby otrzymać różnice z ostatniej zmiany z gałęzi na której się znajdujesz a wspólnym przodkiem tej drugiej: $ git diff master...contrib Ta komenda pokaże zmiany wprowadzone tylko w gałęzi tematycznej, od czasu jej stworzenia. Jest to bardzo użyteczna składnia warta zapamiętania. Integrowanie otrzymanych zmian Kiedy zakończysz prace nad zmianami w gałęzi tematycznej i będą one gotowe do włączenia do głównej, pozostaje pytanie w jaki sposób to zrobić. Ponadto, jaki rodzaj przepływu pracy chcesz stosować w swoim projekcie? Masz różne możliwości, opiszemy więc kilka z nich. Przepływ pracy podczas scalania zmian Jednym z prostszych przepływów pracy jest scalenie zmian z twoją gałęzią master . W tym scenariuszu, posiadasz gałąź master , która zawiera stabilny kod. Kiedy masz zmiany w jednej z gałęzi tematycznych które wykonałeś, lub ktoś Ci przesłał a Ty je zweryfikowałeś, scalasz je z gałęzią master , usuwasz gałąź i kontynuujesz pracę. Jeżeli mielibyśmy repozytorium ze zmianami w dwóch gałęziach ruby_client oraz php_client (zob. Historia zmian z kilkoma gałęziami tematycznymi. ) i mielibyśmy scalić najpierw ruby_client , a w następnej kolejności php_client , to Twoja historia zmian wyglądała by podobnie do Po scaleniu gałęzi tematycznej. . Figure 73. Historia zmian z kilkoma gałęziami tematycznymi. Figure 74. Po scaleniu gałęzi tematycznej. To jest prawdopodobnie najprostszy schemat pracy, ale jest on również problematyczny jeżeli masz do czynienia z dużymi repozytoriami lub projektami. Jeżeli masz większą ilość programistów lub większy projekt, będziesz chciał pewnie używał przynajmniej dwufazowego cyklu scalania. W tym scenariuszu, posiadasz funkcjonujące już długo dwie gałęzie master oraz develop , z których master jest aktualizowana tylko z bardzo stabilnymi zmianami, a cały nowy kod jest włączany do gałęzi develop . Regularnie wysyłasz ("push") obie te gałęzie do publicznego repozytorium. Za każdym razem gdy masz nową gałąź tematyczną do zintegrowania ( Przed scaleniem gałęzi tematycznej. ), włączasz ją do develop ( Po scaleniu gałęzi tematycznej. ); a kiedy tagujesz kolejną wersję, przesuwasz master za pomocą fast-forward o punktu w którym jest gałąź develop ( Po utworzeniu kolejnej wersji. ). Figure 75. Przed scaleniem gałęzi tematycznej. Figure 76. Po scaleniu gałęzi tematycznej. Figure 77. Po utworzeniu kolejnej wersji. W ten sposób, kiedy ludzie klonują Twoje repozytorium, mogą albo pobrać master aby zbudować najnowszą stabilną wersję i utrzymywać ją uaktualnioną, lub mogą pobrać develop która zawiera mniej stabilne zmiany. Możesz rozbudować tą koncepcję, poprzez dodanie gałęzi służącej do integracji. Wtedy jeżeli kod w znajdujący się w niej jest stabilny i przechodzi wszystkie testy, scalasz ją do gałęzi develop ; a jeżeli ta okaże się również stabilna, przesuwasz master za pomocą fast-forward. Przepływ pracy przy scalaniu dużych zmian Projekt Gita ma cztery długo funkcjonujące już gałęzie: master , next , pu (z ang. proposed updates , czyli proponowane zmiany) dla nowych funkcjonalności, oraz maint do wprowadzania poprawek z nowszej wersji na starszą. Kiedy nowe zmiany są dostarczone przez deweloperów, zbierane są do gałęzi tematycznych w repozytorium opiekuna, w sposób podobny do tego który opisałem (zob. Zarządzanie złożoną serią równoczesnych zmian w gałęziach tematycznych. ). W tym momencie, są one weryfikowane i sprawdzane czy mogą być użyte, lub czy nadal wymagają dalszych prac. Jeżeli są gotowe, są włączona do next , a ta gałąź jest wypychana dalej, tak aby każdy mógł wypróbować nowe funkcjonalności. Figure 78. Zarządzanie złożoną serią równoczesnych zmian w gałęziach tematycznych. Jeżeli funkcjonalność potrzebuje jeszcze kolejnych zmian, są one włączane do gałęzi pu . Kiedy okaże się, że cały kod działa już poprawnie, zmiany są włączane do master oraz przebudowywane włącznie ze zmianami z gałęzi next , które nie znalazły się jeszcze w master . Oznacza to, że master praktycznie zawsze przesuwa się do przodu, next tylko czasami ma zmienianą bazę poprzez "rebase", a pu najczęściej z nich może się przesunąć w innym kierunku Figure 79. Włączanie gałęzi tematycznych do długo funkcjonujących gałęzi. Z chwilą, gdy gałąź tematycznie zostanie włączona do master , jest usuwana z repozytorium. Projekt Gita ma również gałąź maint , która jest tworzona z ostatniej wersji, w celu dostarczania zmian w sytuacji gdy trzeba wydać wersję poprawkową. Dlatego kopiując repozytorium Gita masz cztery gałęzie, w których możesz zobaczyć projekt w różnych stadiach rozwoju, w zależności od tego jak stabilny kod chcesz używać, lub nad którym pracować; a opiekun ma ułatwiony przepływ zmian pomagający panować nad nowymi zmianami. Zmiana bazy oraz wybiórcze pobieranie zmian Część opiekunów woli używać rebase lub cherry-pick w celu włączania zmian w gałęzi master , zamiast przy użyciu merge , aby zachować bardziej liniową historię. Kiedy masz zmiany w gałęzi tematycznej i decydujesz się zintegrować je, przenosisz gałąź i uruchamiasz rebase aby nałożyć zmiany na górze swojej gałęzi master (lub develop , czy innej). Jeżeli to zadziała poprawnie, możesz przesunąć swoją gałąź master i otrzymasz praktycznie liniową historię. Drugim sposobem na przeniesienie zmian z jednej gałęzi do drugiej jest zrobienie tego za pomocą komendy cherry-pick . Komenda ta jest podobna do rebase , ale dla pojedynczej zmiany. Pobiera ona zmianę która została wprowadzona i próbuje ją ponownie nałożyć na gałąź na której obecnie pracujesz. Jest to całkiem przydatne, w sytuacji gdy masz większą ilość zmian w gałęzi tematycznej, a chcesz zintegrować tylko jedną z nich, lub jeżeli masz tylko jedną zmianę w gałęzi i wolisz używać cherry-pick zamiast rebase. Dla przykładu, załóżmy że masz projekt, który wygląda jak poniżej: Figure 80. Przykładowa historia przez wybiórczym zaciąganiem zmian Jeżeli chcesz pobrać zmianę e43a6 do swojej gałęzi master , możesz uruchomić: $ git cherry-pick e43a6fd3e94888d76779ad79fb568ed180e5fcdf Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) To pobierze tylko zmiany z commita e43a6 , ale otrzyma nową sumę SHA-1, ze względu na nową datę nałożenia. Teraz Twoja historia zmian wygląda tak: Figure 81. Historia po wybiórczym zaciągnięciu zmiany z gałęzi tematycznej. Teraz możesz usunąć swoją gałąź tematyczną oraz zmiany, których nie chciałeś pobierać. Rerere If you’re doing lots of merging and rebasing, or you’re maintaining a long-lived topic branch, Git has a feature called "rerere" that can help. Rerere stands for "reuse recorded resolution" – it’s a way of shortcutting manual conflict resolution. When rerere is enabled, Git will keep a set of pre- and post-images from successful merges, and if it notices that there’s a conflict that looks exactly like one you’ve already fixed, it’ll just use the fix from last time, without bothering you with it. This feature comes in two parts: a configuration setting and a command. The configuration setting is rerere.enabled , and it’s handy enough to put in your global config: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Now, whenever you do a merge that resolves conflicts, the resolution will be recorded in the cache in case you need it in the future. If you need to, you can interact with the rerere cache using the git rerere command. When it’s invoked alone, Git checks its database of resolutions and tries to find a match with any current merge conflicts and resolve them (although this is done automatically if rerere.enabled is set to true ). There are also subcommands to see what will be recorded, to erase specific resolution from the cache, and to clear the entire cache. We will cover rerere in more detail in Rerere . Etykietowanie Twoich wydań Kiedy zdecydowałeś, że wydasz nową wersję, najprawdopodobniej będziesz chciał stworzyć etykietę, tak abyś mógł odtworzyć tą wersję w każdym momencie. Możesz stworzyć nową etykietę, tak jak zostało to opisane w rozdziale Podstawy Gita . Jeżeli zdecydujesz się na utworzenie etykiety jako opiekun, komenda powinna wyglądać podobnie do poniższej: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Jeżeli podpisujesz swoje etykiety, możesz mieć problem z dystrybucją swojego publicznego klucza PGP, który został użyty. Można rozwiązać ten problem poprzez dodanie obiektu binarnego (ang. blob ) w repozytorium, a następnie stworzenie etykiety kierującej dokładnie na jego zawartość. Aby to zrobić, musisz wybrać klucz za pomocą komendy gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Następnie, możesz bezpośrednio zaimportować wybrany klucz do Gita, poprzez eksport i przekazanie go do git hash-object , który zapisuje nowy obiekt binarny i zwraca jego sumę SHA-1: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Teraz, gdy masz zawartość swojego klucza w Gitcie, możesz utworzyć etykietę wskazującą bezpośrednio na ten klucz, poprzez podanie sumy SHA-1 zwróconej przez hash-object : $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Po uruchomieniu git push --tags , etykieta maintainer-pgp-pub zostanie udostępniona dla wszystkich. Jeżeli ktoś chciałby zweryfikować etykietę, może bezpośrednio zaimportować Twój klucz PGP poprzez pobranie zawartości z bazy danych i import do GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import Możesz używać tego klucza do weryfikacji wszystkich podpisanych etykiet. Możesz również dodać do komentarza do etykiety dodatkowe informacje, które będą możliwe do odczytania po uruchomieniu git show <tag> i pozwolą na prostszą weryfikację. Generowanie numeru wersji Ponieważ Git nie zwiększa stale numerów, np. v123 lub w podobny sposób, jeżeli chcesz mieć łatwiejszą do używania nazwę dla konkretnej zmiany, możesz uruchomić git describe na commitcie. Git poda Ci nazwę najbliższej etykiety, wraz z ilością zmian, oraz skróconą sumą SHA-1: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c W ten sposób, możesz udostępnić konkretną wersję lub kompilację pod nazwą łatwiejszą do użycia przez ludzi. W rzeczywistości, jeżeli masz Gita zbudowanego ze źródeł pobranych z jego repozytorium, komenda git --version pokaże wynik podobny do powyższego. Jeżeli zamierzasz opisać zmianę, której wprost nadałeś etykietę, pokaże ona nazwę etykiety. Komenda git describe faworyzuje etykiety stworzone przy użyciu opcji -a lub -s , więc etykiety dotyczące konkretnych wersji powinny być tworzone w ten sposób, jeżeli używasz git describe w celu zapewnienia poprawnych nazw commitów. Możesz również używać tej nazwy do komend checkout lub show , choć polegają one na skróconej wartości SHA-1, mogą więc nie być wiecznie poprawne. Na przykład, projekt jądra Linuksa przeszedł ostatnio z 8 na 10 znaków aby zapewnić unikalność sum SHA-1, więc poprzednie nazwy wygenerowane za pomocą git describe zostały unieważnione. Przygotowywanie wydania nowej wersji Teraz chcesz stworzyć nową wersję. Jedną z rzeczy które będziesz musiał zrobić, jest przygotowanie spakowanego archiwum z ostatnią zawartością kodu, dla tych, którzy nie używają Gita. Komenda która to umożliwia to git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Jeżeli ktoś otworzy spakowany plik, otrzyma ostatnią wersję kodu w podkatalogu z nazwą projektu. Możesz również stworzyć archiwum zip w podobny sposób, dodając parametr --format=zip do git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Masz teraz spakowane pliki projektu w formatach tar i zip, które możesz łatwo wgrać na serwer lub wysłać do ludzi. Komenda shortlog Nadszedł czas na wysłanie e-maila do listy mailingowej osób, które chcą wiedzieć co się dzieje w Twoim projekcie. Fajnym sposobem na szybkie uzyskanie czegoś w rodzaju dziennika zmian, co zostało dodane do projektu od ostatniego wydania lub e-maila, jest użycie polecenia git shortlog . Podsumowuje ono wszystkie commity w podanym przez Ciebie zakresie; na przykład, poniższe polecenie daje Ci podsumowanie wszystkich commitów od ostatniego wydania, jeśli Twoje ostatnie wydanie nosiło nazwę v1.0.1 : $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Możesz pobrać podsumowanie wszystkich zmian począwszy od wersji v1.0.1 pogrupowanych po autorze, które jest gotowe do wysłania na listę. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. 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https://www.linkedin.com/products/freshworks-inc-freshsales/?trk=products_details_guest_other_products_by_org_section_product_link_result-card_image-click#main-content | Freshsales | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Freshworks in Asan Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Join now Sign in Freshsales Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software by Freshworks See who's skilled in this Add as skill Get started Report this product About Freshsales provides a context-driven CRM solution for businesses of all sizes. We do this by taking a fresh approach to building and delivering an AI-driven and cost-effective omnichannel software—empowering sales teams to engage, nurture, and create delighted customers, to drive clear business results. This product is intended for Chief Revenue Officer Vice President of Sales Director of Sales And Business Development Business Development Representative Sales Development Representative Sales Executive Account Manager Account Executive Regional Business Head Head of Sales Media Products media viewer No more previous content Lead management Deal management FSA No more next content Featured customers of Freshsales Klarna Software Development 390,433 followers Kongskilde Industries Industrial Machinery Manufacturing 3,260 followers TKF (BV Twentsche Kabelfabriek) Manufacturing 11,621 followers Dunzo Technology, Information and Internet 356,114 followers Dyson Appliances, Electrical, and Electronics Manufacturing 494,915 followers Opteon AUS & NZ Real Estate 10,808 followers NorQuest College Higher Education 25,824 followers Sify Technologies Limited. Information Technology & Services 107,192 followers PharmEasy Health, Wellness & Fitness 273,281 followers Blue Nile Retail 33,285 followers Show more Show less Similar products Sales Cloud Sales Cloud Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Zoho CRM Zoho CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Bigin by Zoho CRM Bigin by Zoho CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Experian DataShare Experian DataShare Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Odoo CRM Odoo CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Clickup Clickup Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Sign in to see more Show more Show less Freshworks products Freshchat Freshchat Live Chat Software Freshdesk Freshdesk Help Desk Software Freshdesk Omni Freshdesk Omni Help Desk Software Freshmarketer Freshmarketer Marketing Automation Software Freshservice Freshservice Service Desk Software Show more Show less LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines English (English) Language | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=bs | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상�� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/bg/v2/Git-%d0%b8%d0%bd%d1%81%d1%82%d1%80%d1%83%d0%bc%d0%b5%d0%bd%d1%82%d0%b8-Stashing-%d0%b8-Cleaning | Git - Stashing и Cleaning About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Начало 1.1 За Version Control системите 1.2 Кратка история на Git 1.3 Какво е Git 1.4 Конзолата на Git 1.5 Инсталиране на Git 1.6 Първоначална настройка на Git 1.7 Помощна информация в Git 1.8 Обобщение 2. Основи на Git 2.1 Създаване на Git хранилище 2.2 Запис на промени в хранилището 2.3 Преглед на историята на действията 2.4 Възстановяване на направени действия 2.5 Работа с отдалечени хранилища 2.6 Тагове в Git 2.7 Псевдоними в Git 2.8 Обобщение 3. Клонове в Git 3.1 Накратко за разклоненията 3.2 Основи на клоновете код и сливането 3.3 Управление на клонове 3.4 Стратегии за работа с клонове код 3.5 Отдалечени клонове 3.6 Управление на проект 3.7 Обобщение 4. GitHub 4.1 Създаване и настройка на акаунт 4.2 Как да сътрудничим в проект 4.3 Управление на проект 4.4 Управление на организация 4.5 Автоматизиране с GitHub 4.6 Обобщение 5. Git инструменти 5.1 Избор на къмити 5.2 Интерактивно индексиране 5.3 Stashing и Cleaning 5.4 Подписване на вашата работа 5.5 Търсене 5.6 Манипулация на историята 5.7 Мистерията на командата Reset 5.8 Сливане за напреднали 5.9 Rerere 5.10 Дебъгване с Git 5.11 Подмодули 5.12 Пакети в Git (Bundling) 5.13 Заместване 5.14 Credential Storage система 5.15 Обобщение 6. Настройване на Git 6.1 Git конфигурации 6.2 Git атрибути 6.3 Git Hooks 6.4 Примерна Git-Enforced политика 6.5 Обобщение 7. Git и други системи 7.1 Git като клиент 7.2 Миграция към Git 7.3 Обобщение 8. Git на ниско ниво 8.1 Plumbing и Porcelain команди 8.2 Git обекти 8.3 Git референции 8.4 Packfiles 8.5 Refspec спецификации 8.6 Транспортни протоколи 8.7 Поддръжка и възстановяване на данни 8.8 Environment променливи 8.9 Обобщение 9. Приложение A: Git в други среди 9.1 Графични интерфейси 9.2 Git във Visual Studio 9.3 Git във Visual Studio Code 9.4 Git in IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine 9.5 Git в Sublime Text 9.6 Git в Bash 9.7 Git в Zsh 9.8 Git в PowerShell 9.9 Обобщение 10. Приложение B: Вграждане на Git в приложения 10.1 Git от команден ред 10.2 Libgit2 10.3 JGit 10.4 go-git 10.5 Dulwich A1. Приложение C: Git команди A1.1 Настройки и конфигурация A1.2 Издърпване и създаване на проекти A1.3 Snapshotting A1.4 Клонове и сливане A1.5 Споделяне и обновяване на проекти A1.6 Инспекция и сравнение A1.7 Дебъгване A1.8 Patching A1.9 Email команди A1.10 Външни системи A1.11 Административни команди A1.12 Plumbing команди 2nd Edition 5.3 Git инструменти - Stashing и Cleaning Stashing и Cleaning Често докато работите по дадена част от вашия проект, нещата стават заплетени и в недовършен статус и може да поискате да спрете работата по текущия проблем за известно време за да свършите нещо друго, в друг клон на хранилището. Проблемът е в това, че не желаете да къмитвате половинчати работи само за да можете да се върнете към моментното им състояние по-късно. Отговорът на този проблем идва с командата git stash . Stashing-ът е процес, при който Git взема вашия моментен статус на извършена работа (това са модифицираните проследявани файлове в едно с индексираните такива) — и го съхранява в нещо като стек от недовършени промени, които след това може да се приложат обратно по всяко време, дори и върху различен клон. Правейки това, работната директория се маркира като чиста и можете да превключите към друг клон. На stashing-а може да гледате като временно маскиране/скриване на промените. Забележка Миграция към git stash push Към октомври 2017 в мейлинг листата на Git имаше оживена дискусия, в резултат на което git stash save сега се счита за отхвърлена (deprecated) и се препоръчва алтернативната git stash push . Основната причина за това е, че git stash push предоставя опцията за stashing на избрани pathspecs , нещо което git stash save не поддържа. Обаче, имайте предвид, че git stash save няма да изчезне скоро като команда. Добре е да опитате да преминете към push алтернативата просто за да сте в тон с новата функционалност. Stashing на промените За да демонстрираме процеса по маскирането, ще поработим в нашия проект по няколко файла и можем да индексираме някои от промените. Ако изпълним git status , можем да видим нашия недовършен (dirty) статус: $ git status Changes to be committed: (use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage) modified: index.html Changes not staged for commit: (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed) (use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory) modified: lib/simplegit.rb Сега имаме модифицирани файлове както и индексирани промени и искаме да превключим клоновете, но без да къмитваме. Ще се наложи да ги маскираме. За да вкараме нов stash в стека ни, изпълняваме git stash или git stash push : $ git stash Saved working directory and index state \ "WIP on master: 049d078 Create index file" HEAD is now at 049d078 Create index file (To restore them type "git stash apply") Вече можем да видим, че работната ни директория е чиста, в статус clean: $ git status # On branch master nothing to commit, working directory clean В този момент, вече можем да превключим към друг клон, а промените ни ще се пазят в стека. За да видим какви stash-ове има там, изпълняваме git stash list : $ git stash list stash@{0}: WIP on master: 049d078 Create index file stash@{1}: WIP on master: c264051 Revert "Add file_size" stash@{2}: WIP on master: 21d80a5 Add number to log В този случай можем да видим, че имаме два stash-а съхранени преди последния, така че имаме достъп до три предишни състояния на проекта. Можете да възстановите обратно последната маскирана работа използвайки командата от помощния изход отпечатан в момента, в който направихме маскирането: git stash apply . Ако искате да възстановите по-стара версия, може да я укажете с името ѝ, например така: git stash apply stash@{2} . Ако не укажете име, Git подразбира най-новия stash и опитва да приложи него: $ git stash apply On branch master Changes not staged for commit: (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed) (use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory) modified: index.html modified: lib/simplegit.rb no changes added to commit (use "git add" and/or "git commit -a") Ще видите, че Git модифицира файловете и ги връща до състоянието им, в което са били по време на съхранението на stash-а. В този случай имахме чиста работна директория в момента, в който се опитахме да възстановим stash-а и се опитахме да го приложим върху същия клон, от който го записахме. Обаче, чистата работна директория и същия клон не са задължително условие за успешно прилагане на stash. В действителност можете да запишете stash в един клон, да превключите към друг по-късно и да опитате да възстановите stash-а в него. Също така можете да имате модифицирани и некъмитнати файлове в работната директория при опита да приложите stash — Git ще ви даде merge конфликти, ако нещо не се прилага чисто. Може би сте забелязали, че файловете ви са възстановени, но файлът който беше индексиран преди вече не е индексиран. Ако искате да е, ще трябва да изпълните git stash apply с параметъра --index и Git ще се опита да възстанови и промените по индекса. Така че, ако бяхте изпълнили тази последна команда, ще се върнете в изцяло оригиналната позиция: $ git stash apply --index On branch master Changes to be committed: (use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage) modified: index.html Changes not staged for commit: (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed) (use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory) modified: lib/simplegit.rb Опцията apply само се опитва да приложи съхранената по-рано работа — но вие продължавате да я имате в стека. За да я махнете от там, може да изпълните git stash drop с името на stash-a, който искате да изтриете: $ git stash list stash@{0}: WIP on master: 049d078 Create index file stash@{1}: WIP on master: c264051 Revert "Add file_size" stash@{2}: WIP on master: 21d80a5 Add number to log $ git stash drop stash@{0} Dropped stash@{0} (364e91f3f268f0900bc3ee613f9f733e82aaed43) Друг вариант е да изпълните git stash pop , което прилага stash-а и веднага след това го изтрива от стека. Креативен Stashing Има няколко stash варианта, които могат да бъдат полезни. Първият от тях, който е доста популярен, е опцията --keep-index към командата git stash . Това указва на Git не само да включи в stash-а индексираното съдържание, но едновременно с това да го остави в индекса. $ git status -s M index.html M lib/simplegit.rb $ git stash --keep-index Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: 1b65b17 added the index file HEAD is now at 1b65b17 added the index file $ git status -s M index.html Друга често използвана опция е да се stash-нат едновременно проследяваните и непроследяваните от Git файлове. По подразбиране, git stash ще съхрани в stash стека само променените и индексирани проследявани файлове. Ако укажете --include-untracked или -u , Git ще включи в новия stash и файловете, които не следи Обаче, включването на непроследяващи се файлове в stash-a все пак няма да добави изрично игнорираните файлове. За да присъедините и тях, използвайте флага --all (или само -a ). $ git status -s M index.html M lib/simplegit.rb ?? new-file.txt $ git stash -u Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: 1b65b17 added the index file HEAD is now at 1b65b17 added the index file $ git status -s $ Накрая, ако подадете параметъра --patch към командата, Git няма да включи всичко променено, а ще ви пита интерактивно кои от промените искате да включите в stash-а и кои да оставите в работната директория. $ git stash --patch diff --git a/lib/simplegit.rb b/lib/simplegit.rb index 66d332e..8bb5674 100644 --- a/lib/simplegit.rb +++ b/lib/simplegit.rb @@ -16,6 +16,10 @@ class SimpleGit return `\#{git_cmd} 2>&1`.chomp end end + + def show(treeish = 'master') + command("git show #{treeish}") + end end test Stash this hunk [y,n,q,a,d,/,e,?]? y Saved working directory and index state WIP on master: 1b65b17 added the index file Създаване на клон от Stash Ако stash-нете някаква ваша работа, изоставите я за повече време и продължите да работите по клона, от който сте го направили — може да се окаже, че обратното ѝ прилагане причинява проблеми. Ако процесът по възстановяването се опита да промени файл, който е бил редактиран след stash-а, ще получите merge конфликт и ще трябва да го разрешите. Обаче, ако търсите по-лесен начин да тествате маскираните промени отново, можете да изпълните git stash branch <new branchname> , което ще създаде нов клон с избраното име, ще извлече в работната директория къмита в който сте били, когато сте направили stash-а, ще приложи обратно работата ви там и ще изтрие stash-а, ако се приложи успешно: $ git stash branch testchanges M index.html M lib/simplegit.rb Switched to a new branch 'testchanges' On branch testchanges Changes to be committed: (use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage) modified: index.html Changes not staged for commit: (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed) (use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory) modified: lib/simplegit.rb Dropped refs/stash@{0} (29d385a81d163dfd45a452a2ce816487a6b8b014) Това е лесен и удобен начин за възстановяване на stash-ната работа. Почистване на работната директория Накрая, може да не искате да маскирате определени файлове от работната директория а просто да се отървете от тях. Командата git clean ще ви помогне за това. Чести случаи за подобна необходимост са генерирани временни файлови от външни инструменти или компилация, които искате да махнете, за да остане чист вариант на вашата работа. Трябва да внимавате с тази команда, защото тя е проектирана да изтрива непроследявани файлове от работната директория. Ако решите по-късно, че те ви трябват, често няма връщане назад. По-безопасен вариант е git stash --all за да изтриете всичко, но да си го запазите за всеки случай в stash. Ако решите да чистите въпреки тези съображения, използвайте git clean . Изпълнението на git clean -f -d премахва всички непроследявани файлове от работната директория, както и всички поддиректории, които могат да се окажат празни в резултат. Флагът -f означава 'force' или “really do this” и се изисква, ако конфигурационната променлива на Git clean.requireForce не е изрично указана като false. Ако все пак искате да видите предварително какъв ще е резултата от изпълнението на командата, добавете флага -n (или --dry-run ) за да направите “dry run” и да видите какво ще се изтрие преди да е станало късно. $ git clean -d -n Would remove test.o Would remove tmp/ По подразбиране, git clean ще изтрие само файловете, които не се следят и не се игнорират. Всеки файл, който съвпада с маска от .gitignore или други ignore файлове няма да бъде изтрит. Ако искате да премахнете и тези файлове (като например .o файлове генерирани от компилатора) така, че да имате чиста версия на проекта, добавете флага -x към командата. $ git status -s M lib/simplegit.rb ?? build.TMP ?? tmp/ $ git clean -n -d Would remove build.TMP Would remove tmp/ $ git clean -n -d -x Would remove build.TMP Would remove test.o Would remove tmp/ Ако не сте сигурни в крайния резултат, добре е винаги да използвате -n флага преди да почистите окончателно. Командата също така може да се изпълнява интерактивно с флага -i или “interactive”, което също може да е полезно като предпазно средство. Така ще може лично да потвърждавате изтриването на всеки обект. $ git clean -x -i Would remove the following items: build.TMP test.o *** Commands *** 1: clean 2: filter by pattern 3: select by numbers 4: ask each 5: quit 6: help What now> По този начин минавате през всеки файл постъпково или може да укажете шаблон за търсене интерактивно. Забележка Съществуват специфични ситуации, в които трябва да сте по-настойчиви за да накарате Git да ви почисти работната директория. Ако сте в работна директория, под която сте копирали или клонирали други Git хранилища (вероятно като под-модули), дори git clean -fd ще откаже да ги изтрие. В случаи като този, трябва да добавите втори -f флаг за да потвърдите. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://sre.google/sre-book/automation-at-google#id-BWDuNFjFxcV | Google SRE - Google Automation For Reliability Chapter 7 - The Evolution of Automation at Google Table of Contents Foreword Preface Part I - Introduction 1. Introduction 2. The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE Part II - Principles 3. Embracing Risk 4. Service Level Objectives 5. Eliminating Toil 6. Monitoring Distributed Systems 7. The Evolution of Automation at Google 8. Release Engineering 9. Simplicity Part III - Practices 10. Practical Alerting 11. Being On-Call 12. Effective Troubleshooting 13. Emergency Response 14. Managing Incidents 15. Postmortem Culture: Learning from Failure 16. Tracking Outages 17. Testing for Reliability 18. Software Engineering in SRE 19. Load Balancing at the Frontend 20. Load Balancing in the Datacenter 21. Handling Overload 22. Addressing Cascading Failures 23. Managing Critical State: Distributed Consensus for Reliability 24. Distributed Periodic Scheduling with Cron 25. Data Processing Pipelines 26. Data Integrity: What You Read Is What You Wrote 27. Reliable Product Launches at Scale Part IV - Management 28. Accelerating SREs to On-Call and Beyond 29. Dealing with Interrupts 30. Embedding an SRE to Recover from Operational Overload 31. Communication and Collaboration in SRE 32. The Evolving SRE Engagement Model Part V - Conclusions 33. Lessons Learned from Other Industries 34. Conclusion Appendix A. Availability Table Appendix B. A Collection of Best Practices for Production Services Appendix C. Example Incident State Document Appendix D. Example Postmortem Appendix E. Launch Coordination Checklist Appendix F. Example Production Meeting Minutes Bibliography The Evolution of Automation at Google Written by Niall Murphy with John Looney and Michael Kacirek Edited by Betsy Beyer Besides black art, there is only automation and mechanization. Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), Spanish poet and playwright For SRE, automation is a force multiplier, not a panacea. Of course, just multiplying force does not naturally change the accuracy of where that force is applied: doing automation thoughtlessly can create as many problems as it solves. Therefore, while we believe that software-based automation is superior to manual operation in most circumstances, better than either option is a higher-level system design requiring neither of them—an autonomous system. Or to put it another way, the value of automation comes from both what it does and its judicious application. We’ll discuss both the value of automation and how our attitude has evolved over time. The Value of Automation What exactly is the value of automation? 26 Consistency Although scale is an obvious motivation for automation, there are many other reasons to use it. Take the example of university computing systems, where many systems engineering folks started their careers. Systems administrators of that background were generally charged with running a collection of machines or some software, and were accustomed to manually performing various actions in the discharge of that duty. One common example is creating user accounts; others include purely operational duties like making sure backups happen, managing server failover, and small data manipulations like changing the upstream DNS servers’ resolv.conf , DNS server zone data, and similar activities. Ultimately, however, this prevalence of manual tasks is unsatisfactory for both the organizations and indeed the people maintaining systems in this way. For a start, any action performed by a human or humans hundreds of times won’t be performed the same way each time: even with the best will in the world, very few of us will ever be as consistent as a machine. This inevitable lack of consistency leads to mistakes, oversights, issues with data quality, and, yes, reliability problems. In this domain—the execution of well-scoped, known procedures the value of consistency is in many ways the primary value of automation. A Platform Automation doesn’t just provide consistency. Designed and done properly, automatic systems also provide a platform that can be extended, applied to more systems, or perhaps even spun out for profit. 27 (The alternative, no automation, is neither cost effective nor extensible: it is instead a tax levied on the operation of a system.) A platform also centralizes mistakes . In other words, a bug fixed in the code will be fixed there once and forever, unlike a sufficiently large set of humans performing the same procedure, as discussed previously. A platform can be extended to perform additional tasks more easily than humans can be instructed to perform them (or sometimes even realize that they have to be done). Depending on the nature of the task, it can run either continuously or much more frequently than humans could appropriately accomplish the task, or at times that are inconvenient for humans. Furthermore, a platform can export metrics about its performance, or otherwise allow you to discover details about your process you didn’t know previously, because these details are more easily measurable within the context of a platform. Faster Repairs There’s an additional benefit for systems where automation is used to resolve common faults in a system (a frequent situation for SRE-created automation). If automation runs regularly and successfully enough, the result is a reduced mean time to repair (MTTR) for those common faults. You can then spend your time on other tasks instead, thereby achieving increased developer velocity because you don’t have to spend time either preventing a problem or (more commonly) cleaning up after it. As is well understood in the industry, the later in the product lifecycle a problem is discovered, the more expensive it is to fix; see Testing for Reliability . Generally, problems that occur in actual production are most expensive to fix, both in terms of time and money, which means that an automated system looking for problems as soon as they arise has a good chance of lowering the total cost of the system, given that the system is sufficiently large. Faster Action In the infrastructural situations where SRE automation tends to be deployed, humans don’t usually react as fast as machines. In most common cases, where, for example, failover or traffic switching can be well defined for a particular application, it makes no sense to effectively require a human to intermittently press a button called “Allow system to continue to run.” (Yes, it is true that sometimes automatic procedures can end up making a bad situation worse, but that is why such procedures should be scoped over well-defined domains.) Google has a large amount of automation; in many cases, the services we support could not long survive without this automation because they crossed the threshold of manageable manual operation long ago. Time Saving Finally, time saving is an oft-quoted rationale for automation. Although people cite this rationale for automation more than the others, in many ways the benefit is often less immediately calculable. Engineers often waver over whether a particular piece of automation or code is worth writing, in terms of effort saved in not requiring a task to be performed manually versus the effort required to write it. 28 It’s easy to overlook the fact that once you have encapsulated some task in automation, anyone can execute the task. Therefore, the time savings apply across anyone who would plausibly use the automation. Decoupling operator from operation is very powerful. Joseph Bironas, an SRE who led Google’s datacenter turnup efforts for a time, forcefully argued: "If we are engineering processes and solutions that are not automatable, we continue having to staff humans to maintain the system. If we have to staff humans to do the work, we are feeding the machines with the blood, sweat, and tears of human beings. Think The Matrix with less special effects and more pissed off System Administrators." The Value for Google SRE All of these benefits and trade-offs apply to us just as much as anyone else, and Google does have a strong bias toward automation. Part of our preference for automation springs from our particular business challenges: the products and services we look after are planet-spanning in scale, and we don’t typically have time to engage in the same kind of machine or service hand-holding common in other organizations. 29 For truly large services, the factors of consistency, quickness, and reliability dominate most conversations about the trade-offs of performing automation. Another argument in favor of automation, particularly in the case of Google, is our complicated yet surprisingly uniform production environment, described in The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE . While other organizations might have an important piece of equipment without a readily accessible API, software for which no source code is available, or another impediment to complete control over production operations, Google generally avoids such scenarios. We have built APIs for systems when no API was available from the vendor. Even though purchasing software for a particular task would have been much cheaper in the short term, we chose to write our own solutions, because doing so produced APIs with the potential for much greater long-term benefits. We spent a lot of time overcoming obstacles to automatic system management, and then resolutely developed that automatic system management itself. Given how Google manages its source code [Pot16] , the availability of that code for more or less any system that SRE touches also means that our mission to “own the product in production” is much easier because we control the entirety of the stack. Of course, although Google is ideologically bent upon using machines to manage machines where possible, reality requires some modification of our approach. It isn’t appropriate to automate every component of every system, and not everyone has the ability or inclination to develop automation at a particular time. Some essential systems started out as quick prototypes, not designed to last or to interface with automation. The previous paragraphs state a maximalist view of our position, but one that we have been broadly successful at putting into action within the Google context. In general, we have chosen to create platforms where we could, or to position ourselves so that we could create platforms over time. We view this platform-based approach as necessary for manageability and scalability. The Use Cases for Automation In the industry, automation is the term generally used for writing code to solve a wide variety of problems, although the motivations for writing this code, and the solutions themselves, are often quite different. More broadly, in this view, automation is “meta-software”—software to act on software. As we implied earlier, there are a number of use cases for automation. Here is a non-exhaustive list of examples: User account creation Cluster turnup and turndown for services Software or hardware installation preparation and decommissioning Rollouts of new software versions Runtime configuration changes A special case of runtime config changes: changes to your dependencies This list could continue essentially ad infinitum . Google SRE’s Use Cases for Automation In Google, we have all of the use cases just listed, and more. However, within Google SRE, our primary affinity has typically been for running infrastructure, as opposed to managing the quality of the data that passes over that infrastructure. This line isn’t totally clear—for example, we care deeply if half of a dataset vanishes after a push, and therefore we alert on coarse-grain differences like this, but it’s rare for us to write the equivalent of changing the properties of some arbitrary subset of accounts on a system. Therefore, the context for our automation is often automation to manage the lifecycle of systems, not their data: for example, deployments of a service in a new cluster. To this extent, SRE’s automation efforts are not far off what many other people and organizations do, except that we use different tools to manage it and have a different focus (as we’ll discuss). Widely available tools like Puppet, Chef, cfengine, and even Perl, which all provide ways to automate particular tasks, differ mostly in terms of the level of abstraction of the components provided to help the act of automating. A full language like Perl provides POSIX-level affordances, which in theory provide an essentially unlimited scope of automation across the APIs accessible to the system, 30 whereas Chef and Puppet provide out-of-the-box abstractions with which services or other higher-level entities can be manipulated. The trade-off here is classic: higher-level abstractions are easier to manage and reason about, but when you encounter a “leaky abstraction,” you fail systemically, repeatedly, and potentially inconsistently. For example, we often assume that pushing a new binary to a cluster is atomic; the cluster will either end up with the old version, or the new version. However, real-world behavior is more complicated: that cluster’s network can fail halfway through; machines can fail; communication to the cluster management layer can fail, leaving the system in an inconsistent state; depending on the situation, new binaries could be staged but not pushed, or pushed but not restarted, or restarted but not verifiable. Very few abstractions model these kinds of outcomes successfully, and most generally end up halting themselves and calling for intervention. Truly bad automation systems don’t even do that. SRE has a number of philosophies and products in the domain of automation, some of which look more like generic rollout tools without particularly detailed modeling of higher-level entities, and some of which look more like languages for describing service deployment (and so on) at a very abstract level. Work done in the latter tends to be more reusable and be more of a common platform than the former, but the complexity of our production environment sometimes means that the former approach is the most immediately tractable option. A Hierarchy of Automation Classes Although all of these automation steps are valuable, and indeed an automation platform is valuable in and of itself, in an ideal world, we wouldn’t need externalized automation. In fact, instead of having a system that has to have external glue logic, it would be even better to have a system that needs no glue logic at all , not just because internalization is more efficient (although such efficiency is useful), but because it has been designed to not need glue logic in the first place. Accomplishing that involves taking the use cases for glue logic—generally “first order” manipulations of a system, such as adding accounts or performing system turnup—and finding a way to handle those use cases directly within the application. As a more detailed example, most turnup automation at Google is problematic because it ends up being maintained separately from the core system and therefore suffers from “bit rot,” i.e., not changing when the underlying systems change. Despite the best of intentions, attempting to more tightly couple the two (turnup automation and the core system) often fails due to unaligned priorities, as product developers will, not unreasonably, resist a test deployment requirement for every change. Secondly, automation that is crucial but only executed at infrequent intervals and therefore difficult to test is often particularly fragile because of the extended feedback cycle. Cluster failover is one classic example of infrequently executed automation: failovers might only occur every few months, or infrequently enough that inconsistencies between instances are introduced. The evolution of automation follows a path: 1) No automation Database master is failed over manually between locations. 2) Externally maintained system-specific automation An SRE has a failover script in his or her home directory. 3) Externally maintained generic automation The SRE adds database support to a "generic failover" script that everyone uses. 4) Internally maintained system-specific automation The database ships with its own failover script. 5) Systems that don’t need any automation The database notices problems, and automatically fails over without human intervention. SRE hates manual operations, so we obviously try to create systems that don’t require them. However, sometimes manual operations are unavoidable. There is additionally a subvariety of automation that applies changes not across the domain of specific system-related configuration, but across the domain of production as a whole. In a highly centralized proprietary production environment like Google’s, there are a large number of changes that have a non–service-specific scope—e.g., changing upstream Chubby servers, a flag change to the Bigtable client library to make access more reliable, and so on—which nonetheless need to be safely managed and rolled back if necessary. Beyond a certain volume of changes, it is infeasible for production-wide changes to be accomplished manually, and at some time before that point, it’s a waste to have manual oversight for a process where a large proportion of the changes are either trivial or accomplished successfully by basic relaunch-and-check strategies. Let’s use internal case studies to illustrate some of the preceding points in detail. The first case study is about how, due to some diligent, far-sighted work, we managed to achieve the self-professed nirvana of SRE: to automate ourselves out of a job. Automate Yourself Out of a Job: Automate ALL the Things! For a long while, the Ads products at Google stored their data in a MySQL database. Because Ads data obviously has high reliability requirements, an SRE team was charged with looking after that infrastructure. From 2005 to 2008, the Ads Database mostly ran in what we considered to be a mature and managed state. For example, we had automated away the worst, but not all, of the routine work for standard replica replacements. We believed the Ads Database was well managed and that we had harvested most of the low-hanging fruit in terms of optimization and scale. However, as daily operations became comfortable, team members began to look at the next level of system development: migrating MySQL onto Google’s cluster scheduling system, Borg. We hoped this migration would provide two main benefits: Completely eliminate machine/replica maintenance: Borg would automatically handle the setup/restart of new and broken tasks. Enable bin-packing of multiple MySQL instances on the same physical machine: Borg would enable more efficient use of machine resources via Containers. In late 2008, we successfully deployed a proof of concept MySQL instance on Borg. Unfortunately, this was accompanied by a significant new difficulty. A core operating characteristic of Borg is that its tasks move around automatically. Tasks commonly move within Borg as frequently as once or twice per week. This frequency was tolerable for our database replicas, but unacceptable for our masters. At that time, the process for master failover took 30–90 minutes per instance. Simply because we ran on shared machines and were subject to reboots for kernel upgrades, in addition to the normal rate of machine failure, we had to expect a number of otherwise unrelated failovers every week. This factor, in combination with the number of shards on which our system was hosted, meant that: Manual failovers would consume a substantial amount of human hours and would give us best-case availability of 99% uptime, which fell short of the actual business requirements of the product. In order to meet our error budgets, each failover would have to take less than 30 seconds of downtime. There was no way to optimize a human-dependent procedure to make downtime shorter than 30 seconds. Therefore, our only choice was to automate failover. Actually, we needed to automate more than just failover. In 2009 Ads SRE completed our automated failover daemon, which we dubbed “Decider.” Decider could complete MySQL failovers for both planned and unplanned failovers in less than 30 seconds 95% of the time. With the creation of Decider, MySQL on Borg (MoB) finally became a reality. We graduated from optimizing our infrastructure for a lack of failover to embracing the idea that failure is inevitable, and therefore optimizing to recover quickly through automation. While automation let us achieve highly available MySQL in a world that forced up to two restarts per week, it did come with its own set of costs. All of our applications had to be changed to include significantly more failure-handling logic than before. Given that the norm in the MySQL development world is to assume that the MySQL instance will be the most stable component in the stack, this switch meant customizing software like JDBC to be more tolerant of our failure-prone environment. However, the benefits of migrating to MoB with Decider were well worth these costs. Once on MoB, the time our team spent on mundane operational tasks dropped by 95%. Our failovers were automated, so an outage of a single database task no longer paged a human. The main upshot of this new automation was that we had a lot more free time to spend on improving other parts of the infrastructure. Such improvements had a cascading effect: the more time we saved, the more time we were able to spend on optimizing and automating other tedious work. Eventually, we were able to automate schema changes, causing the cost of total operational maintenance of the Ads Database to drop by nearly 95%. Some might say that we had successfully automated ourselves out of this job. The hardware side of our domain also saw improvement. Migrating to MoB freed up considerable resources because we could schedule multiple MySQL instances on the same machines, which improved utilization of our hardware. In total, we were able to free up about 60% of our hardware. Our team was now flush with hardware and engineering resources. This example demonstrates the wisdom of going the extra mile to deliver a platform rather than replacing existing manual procedures. The next example comes from the cluster infrastructure group, and illustrates some of the more difficult trade-offs you might encounter on your way to automating all the things. Soothing the Pain: Applying Automation to Cluster Turnups Ten years ago, the Cluster Infrastructure SRE team seemed to get a new hire every few months. As it turned out, that was approximately the same frequency at which we turned up a new cluster. Because turning up a service in a new cluster gives new hires exposure to a service’s internals, this task seemed like a natural and useful training tool. The steps taken to get a cluster ready for use were something like the following: Fit out a datacenter building for power and cooling. Install and configure core switches and connections to the backbone. Install a few initial racks of servers. Configure basic services such as DNS and installers, then configure a lock service, storage, and computing. Deploy the remaining racks of machines. Assign user-facing services resources, so their teams can set up the services. Steps 4 and 6 were extremely complex. While basic services like DNS are relatively simple, the storage and compute subsystems at that time were still in heavy development, so new flags, components, and optimizations were added weekly. Some services had more than a hundred different component subsystems, each with a complex web of dependencies. Failing to configure one subsystem, or configuring a system or component differently than other deployments, is a customer-impacting outage waiting to happen. In one case, a multi-petabyte Bigtable cluster was configured to not use the first (logging) disk on 12-disk systems, for latency reasons. A year later, some automation assumed that if a machine’s first disk wasn’t being used, that machine didn’t have any storage configured; therefore, it was safe to wipe the machine and set it up from scratch. All of the Bigtable data was wiped, instantly. Thankfully we had multiple real-time replicas of the dataset, but such surprises are unwelcome. Automation needs to be careful about relying on implicit "safety" signals. Early automation focused on accelerating cluster delivery. This approach tended to rely upon creative use of SSH for tedious package distribution and service initialization problems. This strategy was an initial win, but those free-form scripts became a cholesterol of technical debt. Detecting Inconsistencies with Prodtest As the numbers of clusters grew, some clusters required hand-tuned flags and settings. As a result, teams wasted more and more time chasing down difficult-to-spot misconfigurations. If a flag that made GFS more responsive to log processing leaked into the default templates, cells with many files could run out of memory under load. Infuriating and time-consuming misconfigurations crept in with nearly every large configuration change. The creative—though brittle—shell scripts we used to configure clusters were neither scaling to the number of people who wanted to make changes nor to the sheer number of cluster permutations that needed to be built. These shell scripts also failed to resolve more significant concerns before declaring that a service was good to take customer-facing traffic, such as: Were all of the service’s dependencies available and correctly configured? Were all configurations and packages consistent with other deployments? Could the team confirm that every configuration exception was desired? Prodtest (Production Test) was an ingenious solution to these unwelcome surprises. We extended the Python unit test framework to allow for unit testing of real-world services. These unit tests have dependencies, allowing a chain of tests, and a failure in one test would quickly abort. Take the test shown in Figure 7-1 as an example. Figure 7-1. ProdTest for DNS Service, showing how one failed test aborts the subsequent chain of tests A given team’s Prodtest was given the cluster name, and it could validate that team’s services in that cluster. Later additions allowed us to generate a graph of the unit tests and their states. This functionality allowed an engineer to see quickly if their service was correctly configured in all clusters, and if not, why. The graph highlighted the failed step, and the failing Python unit test output a more verbose error message. Any time a team encountered a delay due to another team’s unexpected misconfiguration, a bug could be filed to extend their Prodtest. This ensured that a similar problem would be discovered earlier in the future. SREs were proud to be able to assure their customers that all services—both newly turned up services and existing services with new configuration—would reliably serve production traffic. For the first time, our project managers could predict when a cluster could "go live," and had a complete understanding of why each clusters took six or more weeks to go from "network-ready" to "serving live traffic." Out of the blue, SRE received a mission from senior management: In three months, five new clusters will reach network-ready on the same day. Please turn them up in one week. Resolving Inconsistencies Idempotently A "One Week Turnup" was a terrifying mission. We had tens of thousands of lines of shell script owned by dozens of teams. We could quickly tell how unprepared any given cluster was, but fixing it meant that the dozens of teams would have to file hundreds of bugs, and then we had to hope that these bugs would be promptly fixed. We realized that evolving from "Python unit tests finding misconfigurations" to "Python code fixing misconfigurations" could enable us to fix these issues faster. The unit test already knew which cluster we were examining and the specific test that was failing, so we paired each test with a fix. If each fix was written to be idempotent, and could assume that all dependencies were met, resolving the problem should have been easy—and safe—to resolve. Requiring idempotent fixes meant teams could run their "fix script" every 15 minutes without fearing damage to the cluster’s configuration. If the DNS team’s test was blocked on the Machine Database team’s configuration of a new cluster, as soon as the cluster appeared in the database, the DNS team’s tests and fixes would start working. Take the test shown in Figure 7-2 as an example. If TestDnsMonitoringConfigExists fails, as shown, we can call FixDnsMonitoringCreateConfig , which scrapes configuration from a database, then checks a skeleton configuration file into our revision control system. Then TestDnsMonitoringConfigExists passes on retry, and the TestDnsMonitoringConfigPushed test can be attempted. If the test fails, the FixDnsMonitoringPushConfig step runs. If a fix fails multiple times, the automation assumes that the fix failed and stops, notifying the user. Armed with these scripts, a small group of engineers could ensure that we could go from "The network works, and machines are listed in the database" to "Serving 1% of websearch and ads traffic" in a matter of a week or two. At the time, this seemed to be the apex of automation technology. Looking back, this approach was deeply flawed; the latency between the test, the fix, and then a second test introduced flaky tests that sometimes worked and sometimes failed. Not all fixes were naturally idempotent, so a flaky test that was followed by a fix might render the system in an inconsistent state. Figure 7-2. ProdTest for DNS Service, showing that one failed test resulted in only running one fix The Inclination to Specialize Automation processes can vary in three respects: Competence , i.e., their accuracy Latency , how quickly all steps are executed when initiated Relevance , or proportion of real-world process covered by automation We began with a process that was highly competent (maintained and run by the service owners), high-latency (the service owners performed the process in their spare time or assigned it to new engineers), and very relevant (the service owners knew when the real world changed, and could fix the automation). To reduce turnup latency, many service owning teams instructed a single "turnup team" what automation to run. The turnup team used tickets to start each stage in the turnup so that we could track the remaining tasks, and who those tasks were assigned to. If the human interactions regarding automation modules occurred between people in the same room, cluster turnups could happen in a much shorter time. Finally, we had our competent, accurate, and timely automation process! But this state didn’t last long. The real world is chaotic: software, configuration, data, etc. changed, resulting in over a thousand separate changes a day to affected systems. The people most affected by automation bugs were no longer domain experts, so the automation became less relevant (meaning that new steps were missed) and less competent (new flags might have caused automation to fail). However, it took a while for this drop in quality to impact velocity. Automation code, like unit test code, dies when the maintaining team isn’t obsessive about keeping the code in sync with the codebase it covers. The world changes around the code: the DNS team adds new configuration options, the storage team changes their package names, and the networking team needs to support new devices. By relieving teams who ran services of the responsibility to maintain and run their automation code, we created ugly organizational incentives: A team whose primary task is to speed up the current turnup has no incentive to reduce the technical debt of the service-owning team running the service in production later. A team not running automation has no incentive to build systems that are easy to automate. A product manager whose schedule is not affected by low-quality automation will always prioritize new features over simplicity and automation. The most functional tools are usually written by those who use them. A similar argument applies to why product development teams benefit from keeping at least some operational awareness of their systems in production. Turnups were again high-latency, inaccurate, and incompetent—the worst of all worlds. However, an unrelated security mandate allowed us out of this trap. Much of distributed automation relied at that time on SSH. This is clumsy from a security perspective, because people must have root on many machines to run most commands. A growing awareness of advanced, persistent security threats drove us to reduce the privileges SREs enjoyed to the absolute minimum they needed to do their jobs. We had to replace our use of sshd with an authenticated, ACL-driven, RPC-based Local Admin Daemon, also known as Admin Servers, which had permissions to perform those local changes. As a result, no one could install or modify a server without an audit trail. Changes to the Local Admin Daemon and the Package Repo were gated on code reviews, making it very difficult for someone to exceed their authority; giving someone the access to install packages would not let them view colocated logs. The Admin Server logged the RPC requestor, any parameters, and the results of all RPCs to enhance debugging and security audits. Service-Oriented Cluster-Turnup In the next iteration, Admin Servers became part of service teams’ workflows, both as related to the machine-specific Admin Servers (for installing packages and rebooting) and cluster-level Admin Servers (for actions like draining or turning up a service). SREs moved from writing shell scripts in their home directories to building peer-reviewed RPC servers with fine-grained ACLs. Later on, after the realization that turnup processes had to be owned by the teams that owned the services fully sank in, we saw this as a way to approach cluster turnup as a Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) problem: service owners would be responsible for creating an Admin Server to handle cluster turnup/turndown RPCs, sent by the system that knew when clusters were ready. In turn, each team would provide the contract (API) that the turnup automation needed, while still being free to change the underlying implementation. As a cluster reached "network-ready," automation sent an RPC to each Admin Server that played a part in turning up the cluster. We now have a low-latency, competent, and accurate process; most importantly, this process has stayed strong as the rate of change, the number of teams, and the number of services seem to double each year. As mentioned earlier, our evolution of turnup automation followed a path: Operator-triggered manual action (no automation) Operator-written, system-specific automation Externally maintained generic automation Internally maintained, system-specific automation Autonomous systems that need no human intervention While this evolution has, broadly speaking, been a success, the Borg case study illustrates another way we have come to think of the problem of automation. Borg: Birth of the Warehouse-Scale Computer Another way to understand the development of our attitude toward automation, and when and where that automation is best deployed, is to consider the history of the development of our cluster management systems. 31 Like MySQL on Borg, which demonstrated the success of converting manual operations to automatic ones, and the cluster turnup process, which demonstrated the downside of not thinking carefully enough about where and how automation was implemented, developing cluster management also ended up demonstrating another lesson about how automation should be done. Like our previous two examples, something quite sophisticated was created as the eventual result of continuous evolution from simpler beginnings. Google’s clusters were initially deployed much like everyone else’s small networks of the time: racks of machines with specific purposes and heterogeneous configurations. Engineers would log in to some well-known “master” machine to perform administrative tasks; “golden” binaries and configuration lived on these masters. As we had only one colo provider, most naming logic implicitly assumed that location. As production grew, and we began to use multiple clusters, different domains (cluster names) entered the picture. It became necessary to have a file describing what each machine did, which grouped machines under some loose naming strategy. This descriptor file, in combination with the equivalent of a parallel SSH, allowed us to reboot (for example) all the search machines in one go. Around this time, it was common to get tickets like “search is done with machine x1 , crawl can have the machine now.” Automation development began. Initially automation consisted of simple Python scripts for operations such as the following: Service management: keeping services running (e.g., restarts after segfaults) Tracking what services were supposed to run on which machines Log message parsing: SSHing into each machine and looking for regexps Automation eventually mutated into a proper database that tracked machine state, and also incorporated more sophisticated monitoring tools. With the union set of the automation available, we could now automatically manage much of the lifecycle of machines: noticing when machines were broken, removing the services, sending them to repair, and restoring the configuration when they came back from repair. But to take a step back, this automation was useful yet profoundly limited, due to the fact that abstractions of the system were relentlessly tied to physical machines. We needed a new approach, hence Borg [Ver15] was born: a system that moved away from the relatively static host/port/job assignments of the previous world, toward treating a collection of machines as a managed sea of resources. Central to its success—and its conception—was the notion of turning cluster management into an entity for which API calls could be issued, to some central coordinator. This liberated extra dimensions of efficiency, flexibility, and reliability: unlike the previous model of machine “ownership,” Borg could allow machines to schedule, for example, batch and user-facing tasks on the same machine. This functionality ultimately resulted in continuous and automatic operating system upgrades with a very small amount of constant 32 effort—effort that does not scale with the total size of production deployments. Slight deviations in machine state are now automatically fixed; brokenness and lifecycle management are essentially no-ops for SRE at this point. Thousands of machines are born, die, and go into repairs daily with no SRE effort. To echo the words of Ben Treynor Sloss: by taking the approach that this was a software problem, the initial automation bought us enough time to turn cluster management into something autonomous, as opposed to automated. We achieved this goal by bringing ideas related to data distribution, APIs, hub-and-spoke architectures, and classic distributed system software development to bear upon the domain of infrastructure management. An interesting analogy is possible here: we can make a direct mapping between the single machine case and the development of cluster management abstractions. In this view, rescheduling on another machine looks a lot like a process moving from one CPU to another: of course, those compute resources happen to be at the other end of a network link, but to what extent does that actually matter? Thinking in these terms, rescheduling looks like an intrinsic feature of the system rather than something one would “automate”—humans couldn’t react fast enough anyway. Similarly in the case of cluster turnup: in this metaphor, cluster turnup is simply additional schedulable capacity, a bit like adding disk or RAM to a single computer. However, a single-node computer is not, in general, expected to continue operating when a large number of components fail. The global computer is—it must be self-repairing to operate once it grows past a certain size, due to the essentially statistically guaranteed large number of failures taking place every second. This implies that as we move systems up the hierarchy from manually triggered, to automatically triggered, to autonomous, some capacity for self-introspection is necessary to survive. Reliability Is the Fundamental Feature Of course, for effective troubleshooting, the details of internal operation that the introspection relies upon should also be exposed to the humans managing the overall system. Analogous discussions about the impact of automation in the noncomputer domain—for example, in airplane flight 33 or industrial applications—often point out the downside of highly effective automation: 34 human operators are progressively more relieved of useful direct contact with the system as the automation covers more and more daily activities over time. Inevitably, then, a situation arises in which the automation fails, and the humans are now unable to successfully operate the system. The fluidity of their reactions has been lost due to lack of practice, and their mental models of what the system should be doing no longer reflect the reality of what it is doing. 35 This situation arises more when the system is nonautonomous—i.e., where automation replaces manual actions, and the manual actions are presumed to be always performable and available just as they were before. Sadly, over time, this ultimately becomes false: those manual actions are not always performable because the functionality to permit them no longer exists. We, too, have experienced situations where automation has been actively harmful on a number of occasions—see Automation: Enabling Failure at Scale —but in Google’s experience, there are more systems for which automation or autonomous behavior are no longer optional extras. As you scale, this is of course the case, but there are still strong arguments for more autonomous behavior of systems irrespective of size. Reliability is the fundamental feature, and autonomous, resilient behavior is one useful way to get that. Recommendations You might read the examples in this chapter and decide that you need to be Google-scale before you have anything to do with automation whatsoever. This is untrue, for two reasons: automation provides more than just time saving, so it’s worth implementing in more cases than a simple time-expended versus time-saved calculation might suggest. But the approach with the highest leverage actually occurs in the design phase: shipping and iterating rapidly might allow you to implement functionality faster, yet rarely makes for a resilient system. Autonomous operation is difficult to convincingly retrofit to sufficiently large systems, but standard good practices in software engineering will help considerably: having decoupled subsystems, introducing APIs, minimizing side effects, and so on. Automation: Enabling Failure at Scale Google runs over a dozen of its own large datacenters, but we also depend on machines in many third-party colocation facilities (or "colos"). Our machines in these colos are used to terminate most incoming connections, or as a cache for our own Content Delivery Network, in order to lower end-user latency. At any point in time, a number of these racks are being installed or decommissioned; both of these processes are largely automated. One step during decommission involves overwriting the full content of the disk of all the machines in the rack, after which point an independent system verifies the successful erase. We call this process "Diskerase." Once upon a time, the automation in charge of decommissioning a particular rack failed, but only after the Diskerase step had completed successfully. Later, the decommission process was restarted from the beginning, to debug the failure. On that iteration, when trying to send the set of machines in the rack to Diskerase, the automation determined that the set of machines that still needed to be Diskerased was (correctly) empty. Unfortunately, the empty set was used as a special value, interpreted to mean "everything." This means the automation sent almost all the machines we have in all colos to Diskerase. Within minutes, the highly efficient Diskerase wiped the disks on all machines in our CDN, and the machines were no longer able to terminate connections from users (or do anything else useful). We were still able to serve all the users from our own datacenters, and after a few minutes the only effect visible externally was a slight increase in latency. As far as we could tell, very few users noticed the problem at all, thanks to good capacity planning (at least we got that right!). Meanwhile, we spent the better part of two days reinstalling the machines in the affected colo racks; then we spent the following weeks auditing and adding more sanity checks—including rate limiting—into our automation, and making our decommission workflow idempotent. 26 For readers who already feel they precisely understand the value of automation, skip ahead to The Value for Google SRE . However, note that our description contains some nuances that might be useful to keep in mind while reading the rest of the chapter. 27 The expertise acquired in building such automation is also valuable in itself; engineers both deeply understand the existing processes they have automated and can later automate novel processes more quickly. 28 See the following XKCD cartoon: https://xkcd.com/1205/ . 29 See, for example, https://blog.engineyard.com/2014/pets-vs-cattle . 30 Of course, not every system that needs to be managed actually provides callable APIs for management—forcing some tooling to use, e.g., CLI invocations or automated website clicks. 31 We have compressed and simplified this history to aid understanding. 32 As in a small, unchanging number. 33 See, e.g., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_France_Flight_447 . 34 See, e.g., [Bai83] and [Sar97] . 35 This is yet another good reason for regular practice drills; see Disaster Role Playing . Previous Chapter 6 - Monitoring Distributed Systems Next Chapter 8 - Release Engineering Copyright © 2017 Google, Inc. Published by O'Reilly Media, Inc. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=es_EC | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=el | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 및 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=es_CR | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
http://www.trello.com/teams | Trello Use Cases: Learn How Teams Use Trello | Trello Skip to main content Features Solutions Plans Pricing Resources Explore the features that help your team succeed Inbox Capture every vital detail from emails, Slack, and more directly into your Trello Inbox. Planner Sync your calendar and allocate focused time slots to boost productivity. Automation Automate tasks and workflows with Trello. Power-Ups Power up your teams by linking their favorite tools with Trello plugins. Templates Give your team a blueprint for success with easy-to-use templates from industry leaders and the Trello community. Integrations Find the apps your team is already using or discover new ways to get work done in Trello. Meet Trello Trello makes it easy for your team to get work done. No matter the project, workflow, or type of team, Trello can help keep things organized. It’s simple – sign-up, create a board, and you’re off! Productivity awaits. Check out Trello Take a page out of these pre-built Trello playbooks designed for all teams Marketing teams Whether launching a new product, campaign, or creating content, Trello helps marketing teams succeed. Product management Use Trello’s management boards and roadmap features to simplify complex projects and processes. Engineering teams Ship more code, faster, and give your developers the freedom to be more agile with Trello. Design teams Empower your design teams by using Trello to streamline creative requests and promote more fluid cross-team collaboration. Startups From hitting revenue goals to managing workflows, small businesses thrive with Trello. Remote teams Keep your remote team connected and motivated, no matter where they’re located around the world. See all teams Our product in action Use case: Task management Track progress of tasks in one convenient place with a visual layout that adds ‘ta-da’ to your to-do’s. Use case: Resource hub Save hours when you give teams a well-designed hub to find information easily and quickly. Use case: Project management Keep projects organized, deadlines on track, and teammates aligned with Trello. See all use cases Standard For teams that need to manage more work and scale collaboration. Premium Best for teams up to 100 that need to track multiple projects and visualize work in a variety of ways. Enterprise Everything your enterprise teams and admins need to manage projects. Free plan For individuals or small teams looking to keep work organized. Take a tour of Trello Compare plans & pricing Whether you’re a team of 2 or 2,000, Trello’s flexible pricing model means you only pay for what you need. View Trello pricing Learn & connect Trello guide Our easy to follow workflow guide will take you from project set-up to Trello expert in no time. Remote work guide The complete guide to setting up your team for remote work success. Webinars Enjoy our free Trello webinars and become a productivity professional. Customer stories See how businesses have adopted Trello as a vital part of their workflow. Developers The sky's the limit in what you can deliver to Trello users in your Power-Up! Help resources Need help? Articles and FAQs to get you unstuck. Back Navigation Features Solutions Plans Pricing Resources Explore the features that help your team succeed Inbox Capture every vital detail from emails, Slack, and more directly into your Trello Inbox. Planner Sync your calendar and allocate focused time slots to boost productivity. Automation Automate tasks and workflows with Trello. Power-Ups Power up your teams by linking their favorite tools with Trello plugins. Templates Give your team a blueprint for success with easy-to-use templates from industry leaders and the Trello community. Integrations Find the apps your team is already using or discover new ways to get work done in Trello. Meet Trello Trello makes it easy for your team to get work done. No matter the project, workflow, or type of team, Trello can help keep things organized. It’s simple – sign-up, create a board, and you’re off! Productivity awaits. Check out Trello Take a page out of these pre-built Trello playbooks designed for all teams Marketing teams Whether launching a new product, campaign, or creating content, Trello helps marketing teams succeed. Product management Use Trello’s management boards and roadmap features to simplify complex projects and processes. Engineering teams Ship more code, faster, and give your developers the freedom to be more agile with Trello. Design teams Empower your design teams by using Trello to streamline creative requests and promote more fluid cross-team collaboration. Startups From hitting revenue goals to managing workflows, small businesses thrive with Trello. Remote teams Keep your remote team connected and motivated, no matter where they’re located around the world. See all teams Our product in action Read though our use cases to make the most of Trello on your team. See all use cases Standard For teams that need to manage more work and scale collaboration. Premium Best for teams up to 100 that need to track multiple projects and visualize work in a variety of ways. Enterprise Everything your enterprise teams and admins need to manage projects. Free plan For individuals or small teams looking to keep work organized. Take a tour of Trello Compare plans & pricing Whether you’re a team of 2 or 2,000, Trello’s flexible pricing model means you only pay for what you need. View Trello pricing Learn & connect Trello guide Our easy to follow workflow guide will take you from project set-up to Trello expert in no time. Remote work guide The complete guide to setting up your team for remote work success. Webinars Enjoy our free Trello webinars and become a productivity professional. Customer stories See how businesses have adopted Trello as a vital part of their workflow. Developers The sky's the limit in what you can deliver to Trello users in your Power-Up! Help resources Need help? Articles and FAQs to get you unstuck. Helping teams work better, together Discover Trello use cases, productivity tips, best practices for team collaboration, and expert remote work advice. Check out the Trello blog Trello Solutions For All Teams It’s easy to get your entire team up and running with Trello. Click on a team type below to uncover all of the boards, techniques, and integrations you need to succeed. New to Trello? Check out our guide to get started with your digital workspace. Design From creative requests to cross-team collaboration, learn how Trello helps design teams deliver with style. Engineering Ship more code and enable your team to be more agile with Trello for developers. 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Team Management From project coordination to your next virtual party, level up team productivity and management practices with Trello. NOW AVAILABLE A 14 Day Free Trial of Premium! Get unlimited boards, Trello views, and limitless automation, plus a ton more. Try it today Companies of all shapes and sizes use Trello. Check out some of our customer stories here . Well, what are you waiting for? Head over to your boards and start getting things done! Log In About Trello What’s behind the boards. Jobs Learn about open roles on the Trello team. Apps Download the Trello App for your Desktop or Mobile devices. Contact us Need anything? Get in touch and we can help. Čeština Deutsch English Español Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands Norsk (bokmål) Polski Português (Brasil) Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt Türkçe Русский Українська ภาษาไทย 中文 (简体) 中文 (繁體) 日本語 Notice at Collection Privacy Policy Terms Copyright © 2024 Atlassian | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://www.linkedin.com/help/linkedin/topic/a151002 | Account Access | LinkedIn Help Attention screen reader users, you are in a mobile optimized view and content may not appear where you expect it to be. To return the screen to its desktop view, please maximize your browser. Skip to content Skip to search Close jump menu Help LinkedIn Help Dropdown menu, expand to explore help for other LinkedIn products Close menu Get help with: LinkedIn Corporate Billing Learning Marketing Solutions Recruiter Sales Navigator Talent Insights Go to LinkedIn Sign in Sign in Tagged in “Account Access” 24 articles No access to email address Basics and Account Access When you create a LinkedIn profile, we suggest adding a secondary email address or phone number to your account that you can use as a recovery method. After you add a recovery method to your account, you can use these credentials to sign in to … Reset your password Account Access You can reset your password on the Sign in page. You may be asked for a two-factor authentication code if you have it enabled on your account. You may also be prompted for additional challenges for added security for your account. These challenges… Next steps to close and delete a LinkedIn account Settings, Account Settings, and Account Access It looks like something needs to be resolved before we can close your account. Your LinkedIn account is currently associated with a LinkedIn enterprise account. This could be because you have previously purchased or used an enterprise product such… Turn two-factor authentication on and off Data and Privacy and Account Access If you choose to add two-factor authentication as an additional layer of security, you'll be asked to select an option for the second type of authentication method you prefer. 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https://sre.google/workbook/implementing-slos/ | Google SRE - Continuous Improvement To Get Reliability Chapter 2 - Implementing SLOs Table of Contents Foreword I Foreword II Preface 1. How SRE Relates to DevOps Part I - Foundations 2. Implementing SLOs 3. SLO Engineering Case Studies 4. Monitoring 5. Alerting on SLOs 6. Eliminating Toil 7. Simplicity Part II - Practices 8. On-Call 9. Incident Response 10. Postmortem Culture: Learning from Failure 11. Managing Load 12. Introducing Non-Abstract Large System Design 13. Data Processing Pipelines 14. Configuration Design and Best Practices 15. Configuration Specifics 16. Canarying Releases Part III - Processes 17. Identifying and Recovering from Overload 18. SRE Engagement Model 19. SRE: Reaching Beyond Your Walls 20. SRE Team Lifecycles 21. Organizational Change Management in SRE Conclusion Appendix A. Example SLO Document Appendix B. Example Error Budget Policy Appendix C. Results of Postmortem Analysis Index About the Editors Colophon Implementing SLOs By Steven Thurgood and David Ferguson with Alex Hidalgo and Betsy Beyer Service level objectives (SLOs) specify a target level for the reliability of your service. Because SLOs are key to making data-driven decisions about reliability, they’re at the core of SRE practices. In many ways, this is the most important chapter in this book. Once you’re equipped with a few guidelines, setting up initial SLOs and a process for refining them can be straightforward. Chapter 4 in our first book introduced the topic of SLOs and SLIs (service level indicators), and gave some advice on how to use them. After discussing the motivation behind SLOs and error budgets, this chapter provides a step-by-step recipe to get you started thinking about SLOs, and also some advice about how to iterate from there. We’ll then cover how to use SLOs to make effective business decisions, and explore some advanced topics. Finally, we’ll give you some examples of SLOs for different types of services and some pointers on how to create more sophisticated SLOs in specific situations. 1 Why SREs Need SLOs Engineers are a scarce resource at even the largest organizations. Engineering time should be invested in the most important characteristics of the most important services. Striking the right balance between investing in functionality that will win new customers or retain current ones, versus investing in the reliability and scalability that will keep those customers happy, is difficult. At Google, we’ve learned that a well-thought-out and adopted SLO is key to making data-informed decisions about the opportunity cost of reliability work, and to determining how to appropriately prioritize that work. SREs’ core responsibilities aren’t merely to automate “all the things” and hold the pager. Their day-to-day tasks and projects are driven by SLOs: ensuring that SLOs are defended in the short term and that they can be maintained in the medium to long term. One could even claim that without SLOs, there is no need for SREs. SLOs are a tool to help determine what engineering work to prioritize. For example, consider the engineering tradeoffs for two reliability projects: automating rollbacks and moving to a replicated data store. By calculating the estimated impact on our error budget, we can determine which project is most beneficial to our users. See the section Decision Making Using SLOs and Error Budgets for more detail on this, and “Managing Risk” in Site Reliability Engineering . Getting Started As a starting point for establishing a basic set of SLOs , let’s assume that your service is some form of code that has been compiled and released and is running on networked infrastructure that users access via the web. Your system’s maturity level might be one of the following: A greenfield development, with nothing currently deployed A system in production with some monitoring to notify you when things go awry, but no formal objectives, no concept of an error budget, and an unspoken goal of 100% uptime A running deployment with an SLO below 100%, but without a common understanding about its importance or how to leverage it to make continuous improvement choices—in other words, an SLO without teeth In order to adopt an error budget-based approach to Site Reliability Engineering, you need to reach a state where the following hold true: There are SLOs that all stakeholders in the organization have approved as being fit for the product. The people responsible for ensuring that the service meets its SLO have agreed that it is possible to meet this SLO under normal circumstances. The organization has committed to using the error budget for decision making and prioritizing. This commitment is formalized in an error budget policy. There is a process in place for refining the SLO. Otherwise, you won’t be able to adopt an error budget–based approach to reliability. SLO compliance will simply be another KPI (key performance indicator) or reporting metric, rather than a decision-making tool. Reliability Targets and Error Budgets The first step in formulating appropriate SLOs is to talk about what an SLO should be, and what it should cover. An SLO sets a target level of reliability for the service’s customers. Above this threshold, almost all users should be happy with your service (assuming they are otherwise happy with the utility of the service). 2 Below this threshold, users are likely to start complaining or to stop using the service. Ultimately, user happiness is what matters—happy users use the service, generate revenue for your organization, place low demands on your customer support teams, and recommend the service to their friends. We keep our services reliable to keep our customers happy. Customer happiness is a rather fuzzy concept; we can’t measure it precisely. Often we have very little visibility into it at all, so how do we begin? What do we use for our first SLO? Our experience has shown that 100% reliability is the wrong target: If your SLO is aligned with customer satisfaction, 100% is not a reasonable goal. Even with redundant components, automated health checking, and fast failover, there is a nonzero probability that one or more components will fail simultaneously, resulting in less than 100% availability. Even if you could achieve 100% reliability within your system, your customers would not experience 100% reliability. The chain of systems between you and your customers is often long and complex, and any of these components can fail. 3 This also means that as you go from 99% to 99.9% to 99.99% reliability, each extra nine comes at an increased cost, but the marginal utility to your customers steadily approaches zero. If you do manage to create an experience that is 100% reliable for your customers, and want to maintain that level of reliability, you can never update or improve your service. The number one source of outages is change: pushing new features, applying security patches, deploying new hardware, and scaling up to meet customer demand will impact that 100% target. Sooner or later, your service will stagnate and your customers will go elsewhere, which is not great for anyone’s bottom line. An SLO of 100% means you only have time to be reactive. You literally cannot do anything other than react to Once you have an SLO target below 100%, it needs to be owned by someone in the organization who is empowered to make tradeoffs between feature velocity and reliability. In a small organization, this may be the CTO; in larger organizations, this is normally the product owner (or product manager). What to Measure: Using SLIs Once you agree that 100% is the wrong number, how do you determine the right number? And what are you measuring, anyway? Here, service level indicators come into play: an SLI is an indicator of the level of service that you are providing. While many numbers can function as an SLI, we generally recommend treating the SLI as the ratio of two numbers: the number of good events divided by the total number of events. For example: Number of successful HTTP requests / total HTTP requests (success rate) Number of gRPC calls that completed successfully in Number of search results that used the entire corpus / total number of search results, including those that degraded gracefully Number of “stock check count” requests from product searches that used stock data fresher than 10 minutes / total number of stock check requests Number of “good user minutes” according to some extended list of criteria for that metric / total number of user minutes SLIs of this form have a couple of particularly useful properties. The SLI ranges from 0% to 100%, where 0% means nothing works, and 100% means nothing is broken. We have found this scale intuitive, and this style lends itself easily to the concept of an error budget: the SLO is a target percentage and the error budget is 100% minus the SLO. For example, if you have a 99.9% success ratio SLO, then a service that receives 3 million requests over a four-week period had a budget of 3,000 (0.1%) errors over that period. If a single outage is responsible for 1,500 errors, that error costs 50% of the error budget. 4 In addition, making all of your SLIs follow a consistent style allows you to take better advantage of tooling: you can write alerting logic, SLO analysis tools, error budget calculation, and reports to expect the same inputs: numerator, denominator, and threshold. Simplification is a bonus here. When attempting to formulate SLIs for the first time, you might find it useful to further divide SLIs into SLI specification and SLI implementation : SLI specification The assessment of service outcome that you think matters to users, independent of how it is measured. For example: Ratio of home page requests that loaded in SLI implementation The SLI specification and a way to measure it. For example: Ratio of home page requests that loaded in Ratio of home page requests that loaded in Ratio of home page requests that loaded in As you can see, a single SLI specification might have multiple SLI implementations, each with its own set of pros and cons in terms of quality (how accurately they capture the experience of a customer), coverage (how well they capture the experience of all customers), and cost. Your first attempt at an SLI and SLO doesn’t have to be correct; the most important goal is to get something in place and measured, and to set up a feedback loop so you can improve. (We dive deeper into this topic in Continuous Improvement of SLO Targets .) In our first book , we advise against picking an SLO based upon current performance, because this can commit you to unnecessarily strict SLOs. While that advice is true, your current performance can be a good place to start if you don’t have any other information, and if you have a good process for iterating in place (which we’ll cover later). However, don’t let current performance limit you as you refine your SLO: your customers will also come to expect your service to perform at its SLO, so if your service returns successful requests 99.999% of the time in less than 10 ms, any significant regression from that baseline may make them unhappy. To create your first set of SLOs, you need to decide upon a few key SLI specifications that matter to your service. Availability and latency SLOs are pretty common; freshness, durability, correctness, quality, and coverage SLOs also have their place (we’ll talk more about those later). If you are having trouble figuring out what sort of SLIs to start with, it helps to start simple: Choose one application for which you want to define SLOs. If your product comprises many applications, you can add those later. Decide clearly who the “users” are in this situation. These are the people whose happiness you are optimizing. Consider the common ways your users interact with your system—common tasks and critical activities. Draw a high-level architecture diagram of your system; show the key components, the request flow, the data flow, and the critical dependencies. Group these components into categories listed in the following section (there may be some overlap and ambiguity; use your intuition and don’t let perfect be the enemy of the good). You should think carefully about exactly what you select as your SLIs, but you also shouldn’t overcomplicate things. Especially if you’re just starting your SLI journey, pick an aspect of your system that’s relevant but easy to measure—you can always iterate and refine later. Types of components The easiest way to get started with setting SLIs is to abstract your system into a few common types of components. You can then use our list of suggested SLIs for each component to choose the ones most relevant to your service: Request-driven The user creates some type of event and expects a response. For example, this could be an HTTP service where the user interacts with a browser or an API for a mobile application. Pipeline A system that takes records as input, mutates them, and places the output somewhere else. This might be a simple process that runs on a single instance in real time, or a multistage batch process that takes many hours. Examples include: A system that periodically reads data from a relational database and writes it into a distributed hash table for optimized serving A video processing service that converts video from one format to another A system that reads in log files from many sources to generate reports A monitoring system that pulls metrics from remote servers and generates time series and alerts Storage A system that accepts data (e.g., bytes, records, files, videos) and makes it available to be retrieved at a later date. A Worked Example Consider a simplified architecture for a mobile phone game, shown in Figure 2-1 . Figure 2-1. Architecture for an example mobile phone game The app running on the user’s phone interacts with an HTTP API running in the cloud. The API writes state changes to a permanent storage system. A pipeline periodically runs over this data to generate league tables that provide high scores for today, this week, and all time. This data is written to a separate league table data store, and the results are available via the mobile app (for in-game scores) and a website. Users can upload custom avatars, which are used both in-game via the API and in the high score website, to the User Data table. Given this setup, we can start thinking about how users interact with the system, and what sort of SLIs would measure the various aspects of a user’s experience. Some of these SLIs may overlap: a request-driven service may have a correctness SLI, a pipeline may have an availability SLI, and durability SLIs might be viewed as a variant on correctness SLIs. We recommend choosing a small number (five or fewer) of SLI types that represent the most critical functionality to your customers. In order to capture both the typical user experience and the long tail, we also recommend using multiple grades of SLOs for some types of SLIs. For example, if 90% of users’ requests return within 100 ms, but the remaining 10% take 10 seconds, many users will be unhappy. A latency SLO can capture this user base by setting multiple thresholds: 90% of requests are faster than 100 ms, and 99% of requests are faster than 400 ms. This principle applies to all SLIs with parameters that measure user unhappiness. Table 2-1 provides some common SLIs for different types of services. Table 2-1. Potential SLIs for different types of components Type of service Type of SLI Description Request-driven Availability The proportion of requests that resulted in a successful response. Request-driven Latency The proportion of requests that were faster than some threshold. Request-driven Quality If the service degrades gracefully when overloaded or when backends are unavailable, you need to measure the proportion of responses that were served in an undegraded state. For example, if the User Data store is unavailable, the game is still playable but uses generic imagery. Pipeline Freshness The proportion of the data that was updated more recently than some time threshold. Ideally this metric counts how many times a user accessed the data, so that it most accurately reflects the user experience. Pipeline Correctness The proportion of records coming into the pipeline that resulted in the correct value coming out. Pipeline Coverage For batch processing, the proportion of jobs that processed above some target amount of data. For streaming processing, the proportion of incoming records that were successfully processed within some time window. Storage Durability The proportion of records written that can be successfully read. Take particular care with durability SLIs: the data that the user wants may be only a small portion of the data that is stored. For example, if you have 1 billion records for the previous 10 years, but the user wants only the records from today (which are unavailable), then they will be unhappy even though almost all of their data is readable. Moving from SLI Specification to SLI Implementation Now that we know our SLI specifications, we need to start thinking about how to implement them. For your first SLIs, choose something that requires a minimum of engineering work. If your web server logs are already available, but setting up probes would take weeks and instrumenting your JavaScript would take months, use the logs. You need enough information to measure the SLI: for availability, you need the success/failure status; for slow requests, you need the time taken to serve the request. You may need to reconfigure your web server to record this information. If you’re using a cloud-based service, some of this information may already be available in a monitoring dashboard. There are various options for SLI implementations for our example architecture, each with its own pros and cons. The following sections detail SLIs for the three types of components in our system. API and HTTP server availability and latency For all of the considered SLI implementations, we base the response success on the HTTP status code. 5XX responses count against SLO, while all other requests are considered successful. Our availability SLI is the proportion of successful requests, and our latency SLIs are the proportion of requests that are faster than defined thresholds. Your SLIs should be specific and measurable. To summarize the list of potential candidates provided in What to Measure: Using SLIs , your SLIs can use one or more of the following sources: Application server logs Load balancer monitoring Black-box monitoring Client-side instrumentation Our example uses the load balancer monitoring, as the metrics are already available and provide SLIs that are closer to the user’s experience than those from the application server’s logs. Pipeline freshness, coverage, and correctness When our pipeline updates the league table, it records a watermark containing the timestamp of when the data was updated. Some example SLI implementations: Run a periodic query across the league table, counting the total number of fresh records and the total number of records. This will treat each stale record as equally important, regardless of how many users saw the data. Make all clients of the league table check the watermark when they request fresh data and increment a metric counter saying that data was requested. Increment another counter if the data was fresher than a predefined threshold. From these two options, our example uses the client-side implementation, as it gives SLIs that are much more closely correlated with user experience and are straightforward to add. To calculate our coverage SLI, our pipeline exports the number of records that it should have processed and the number of records that it successfully processed. This metric may miss records that our pipeline did not know about due to misconfiguration. We have a couple potential approaches to measure correctness: Inject data with known outputs into the system, and count the proportion of times that the output matches our expectations. Use a method to calculate correct output based on input that is distinct from our pipeline itself (and likely more expensive, and therefore not suitable for our pipeline). Use this to sample input/output pairs, and count the proportion of correct output records. This methodology assumes that creating such a system is both possible and practical. Our example bases its correctness SLI on some manually curated data in the game state database, with known good outputs that are tested every time the pipeline runs. Our SLI is the proportion of correct entries for our test data. In order for this SLI to be representative of the actual user experience, we need to make sure that our manually curated data is representative of real-world data. Measuring the SLIs Figure 2-2 shows how our white-box monitoring system collects metrics from the various components of the example application. Figure 2-2. How our monitoring system collects SLI metrics Let’s walk through an example of using metrics from our monitoring system to calculate our starter SLOs. While our example uses availability and latency metrics, the same principles apply to all other potential SLOs. For a full list of the metrics that our system uses, see Example SLO Document . All of our examples use Prometheus notation . Load balancer metrics Total requests by backend ( "api" or "web" ) and response code: http_requests_total{host="api", status="500"} Total latency, as a cumulative histogram; each bucket counts the number of requests that took less than or equal to that time: http_request_duration_seconds{host="api", le="0.1"} http_request_duration_seconds{host="api", le="0.2"} http_request_duration_seconds{host="api", le="0.4"} Generally speaking, it is better to count the slow requests than to approximate them with a histogram. But, because that information isn’t available, we use the histogram provided by our monitoring system. Another approach would be to base explicit slow request counts on the various slowness thresholds in the load balancer’s configuration (e.g., for thresholds of 100 ms and 500 ms). This strategy would provide more accurate numbers but require more configuration, which makes changing the thresholds retroactively harder. http_request_duration_seconds{host="api", le="0.1"} http_request_duration_seconds{host="api", le="0.5"} Calculating the SLIs Using the preceding metrics, we can calculate our current SLIs over the previous seven days, as shown in Table 2-2 . Table 2-2. Calculations for SLIs over the previous seven days Availability sum(rate(http_requests_total{host="api", status!~"5.."}[7d])) / sum(rate(http_requests_total{host="api"}[7d]) Latency histogram_quantile(0.9, rate(http_request_duration_seconds_bucket[7d])) histogram_quantile(0.99, rate(http_request_duration_seconds_bucket[7d])) Using the SLIs to Calculate Starter SLOs We can round down these SLIs to manageable numbers (e.g., two significant figures of availability, or up to 50 ms 5 of latency) to obtain our starting SLOs. For example, over four weeks, the API metrics show: Total requests: 3,663,253 Total successful requests: 3,557,865 (97.123%) 90th percentile latency: 432 ms 99th percentile latency: 891 ms We repeat this process for the other SLIs, and create a proposed SLO for the API, shown in Table 2-3 . Table 2-3. Proposed SLOs for the API SLO type Objective Availability 97% Latency 90% of requests Latency 99% of requests Example SLO Document provides a full example of an SLO document. This document includes SLI implementations, which we omitted here for brevity. Based upon this proposed SLI, we can calculate our error budget over those four weeks, as shown in Table 2-4 . Table 2-4. Error budget over four weeks SLO Allowed failures 97% availability 109,897 90% of requests faster than 450 ms 366,325 99% of requests faster than 900 ms 36,632 Choosing an Appropriate Time Window SLOs can be defined over various time intervals, and can use either a rolling window or a calendar-aligned window (e.g., a month). There are several factors you need to account for when choosing the window. Rolling windows are more closely aligned with user experience: if you have a large outage on the final day of a month, your user doesn’t suddenly forget about it on the first day of the following month. We recommend defining this period as an integral number of weeks so it always contains the same number of weekends. For example, if you use a 30-day window, some periods might include four weekends while others include five weekends. If weekend traffic differs significantly from weekday traffic, your SLIs may vary for uninteresting reasons. Calendar windows are more closely aligned with business planning and project work. For example, you might evaluate your SLOs every quarter to determine where to focus the next quarter’s project headcount. Calendar windows also introduce some element of uncertainty: in the middle of the quarter, it is impossible to know how many requests you will receive for the rest of the quarter. Therefore, decisions made mid-quarter must speculate as to how much error budget you’ll spend in the remainder of the quarter. Shorter time windows allow you to make decisions more quickly: if you missed your SLO for the previous week, then small course corrections—prioritizing relevant bugs, for example—can help avoid SLO violations in future weeks. Longer time periods are better for more strategic decisions: for example, if you could choose only one of three large projects, would you be better off moving to a high-availability distributed database, automating your rollout and rollback procedure, or deploying a duplicate stack in another zone? You need more than a week’s worth of data to evaluate large multiquarter projects; the amount of data required is roughly commensurate with the amount of engineering work being proposed to fix it. We have found a four-week rolling window to be a good general-purpose interval. We complement this time frame with weekly summaries for task prioritization and quarterly summarized reports for project planning. If the data source allows, you can then use this proposed SLO to calculate your actual SLO performance over that interval: if you set your initial SLO based on actual measurements, by design, you met your SLO. But we can also gather interesting information about the distribution. Were there any days during the past four weeks when our service did not meet its SLO? Do these days correlate with actual incidents? Was there (or should there have been) some action taken on those days in response to incidents? If you do not have logs, metrics, or any other source of historical performance, you need to configure a data source. For example, as a low-fidelity solution for HTTP services, you can set up a remote monitoring service that performs some kind of periodic health check on the service (a ping or an HTTP GET) and reports back the number of successful requests. A number of online services can easily implement this solution. Getting Stakeholder Agreement In order for a proposed SLO to be useful and effective, you will need to get all stakeholders to agree to it: The product managers have to agree that this threshold is good enough for users—performance below this value is unacceptably low and worth spending engineering time to fix. The product developers need to agree that if the error budget has been exhausted, they will take some steps to reduce risk to users until the service is back in budget (as discussed in Establishing an Error Budget Policy ). The team responsible for the production environment who are tasked with defending this SLO have agreed that it is defensible without Herculean effort, excessive toil, and burnout—all of which are damaging to the long-term health of the team and service. Once all of these points are agreed upon, the hard part is done. 6 You have started your SLO journey, and the remaining steps entail iterating from this starting point. To defend your SLO you will need to set up monitoring and alerting (see Alerting on SLOs ) so that engineers receive timely notifications of threats to the error budget before those threats become deficits. Establishing an Error Budget Policy Once you have an SLO, you can use the SLO to derive an error budget. In order to use this error budget, you need a policy outlining what to do when your service runs out of budget. Getting the error budget policy approved by all key stakeholders—the product manager, the development team, and the SREs—is a good test for whether the SLOs are fit for purpose: If the SREs feel that the SLO is not defensible without undue amounts of toil, they can make a case for relaxing some of the objectives. If the development team and product manager feel that the increased resources they’ll have to devote to fixing reliability will cause feature release velocity to fall below acceptable levels, then they can also argue for relaxing objectives. Remember that lowering the SLOs also lowers the number of situations to which the SREs will respond; the product manager needs to understand this tradeoff. If the product manager feels that the SLO will result in a bad experience for a significant number of users before the error budget policy prompts anyone to address an issue, the SLOs are likely not tight enough. If all three parties do not agree to enforce the error budget policy, you need to iterate on the SLIs and SLOs until all stakeholders are happy. Decide how to move forward and what you need to make the decision: more data, more resources, or a change to the SLI or SLO? When we talk about enforcing an error budget, we mean that once you exhaust your error budget (or come close to exhausting it), you should do something in order to restore stability to your system. To make error budget enforcement decisions, you need to start with a written policy. This policy should cover the specific actions that must be taken when a service has consumed its entire error budget for a given period of time, and specify who will take them. Common owners and actions might include: The development team gives top priority to bugs relating to reliability issues over the past four weeks. The development team focuses exclusively on reliability issues until the system is within SLO. This responsibility comes with high-level approval to push back on external feature requests and mandates. To reduce the risk of more outages, a production freeze halts certain changes to the system until there is sufficient error budget to resume changes. Sometimes a service consumes the entirety of its error budget, but not all stakeholders agree that enacting the error budget policy is appropriate. If this happens, you need to return to the error budget policy approval stage. Documenting the SLO and Error Budget Policy An appropriately defined SLO should be documented in a prominent location where other teams and stakeholders can review it. This documentation should include the following information: The authors of the SLO, the reviewers (who checked it for technical accuracy), and the approvers (who made the business decision about whether it is the right SLO). The date on which it was approved, and the date when it should next be reviewed. A brief description of the service to give the reader context. The details of the SLO: the objectives and the SLI implementations. The details of how the error budget is calculated and consumed. The rationale behind the numbers, and whether they were derived from experimental or observational data. Even if the SLOs are totally ad hoc, this fact should be documented so that future engineers reading the document don’t make bad decisions based upon ad hoc data. How often you review an SLO document depends on the maturity of your SLO culture. When starting out, you should probably review the SLO frequently—perhaps every month. Once the appropriateness of the SLO becomes more established, you can likely reduce reviews to happen quarterly or even less frequently. The error budget policy should also be documented, and should include the following information: The policy authors, reviewers, and approvers The date on which it was approved, and the date when it should next be reviewed A brief description of the service to give the reader context The actions to be taken in response to budget exhaustion A clear escalation path to follow if there is disagreement on the calculation or whether the agreed-upon actions are appropriate in the circumstances Depending upon the audience’s level of error budget experience and expertise, it may be beneficial to include an overview of error budgets. See Example SLO Document for an example of an SLO document and an error budget policy. Dashboards and Reports In addition to the published SLO and error budget policy documents, it is useful to have reports and dashboards that provide in-time snapshots of the SLO compliance of your services, for communicating with other teams and for spotting problematic areas. The report in Figure 2-3 shows the overall compliance of several services: whether they met all of their quarterly SLOs for the previous year (the numbers in parentheses indicate the number of objectives that were met, and the total number of objectives), and whether their SLIs were trending upward or downward in relation to the previous quarter and the same quarter last year. Figure 2-3. SLO compliance report It is also useful to have dashboards showing SLI trends. These dashboards indicate if you are consuming budget at a higher-than-usual rate, or if there are patterns or trends you need to be aware of. The dashboard in Figure 2-4 shows the error budget for a single quarter, midway through that quarter. Here we see that a single event consumed around 15% of the error budget over the course of two days. Figure 2-4. Error budget dashboard Error budgets can be useful for quantifying these events—for example, “this outage consumed 30% of my quarterly error budget,” or “these are the top three incidents this quarter, ordered by how much error budget they consumed.” Continuous Improvement of SLO Targets Every service can benefit from continuous improvement. This is one of the central service goals in ITIL , for example. Before you can improve your SLO targets, you need a source of information about user satisfaction with your service. There are a huge range of options: You can count outages that were discovered manually, posts on public forums, support tickets, and calls to customer service. You can attempt to measure user sentiment on social media. You can add code to your system to periodically sample user happiness. You can conduct face-to-face user surveys and samples. The possibilities are endless, and the optimal method depends on your service. We recommend starting with a measurement that’s cheap to collect and iterating from that starting point. Asking your product manager to include reliability into their existing discussions with customers about pricing and functionality is an excellent place to start. Improving the Quality of Your SLO Count your manually detected outages. If you have support tickets, count those too. Look at periods when you had a known outage or incident. Check that these periods correlate with steep drops in error budget. Likewise, look at times when your SLIs indicate an issue, or your service fell out of SLO. Do these time periods correlate with known outages or an increase in support tickets? If you are familiar with statistical analysis, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient can be a useful way to quantify this relationship. Figure 2-5 shows a graph of the number of support tickets raised per day versus the measured loss in our error budget on that day. While not all tickets are related to reliability issues, there is a correlation between tickets and error budget loss. We see two outliers: one day with only 5 tickets, where we lost 10% of our error budget, and one day with 40 tickets, on which we lost no error budget. Both warrant closer investigation. Figure 2-5. Graph showing the number of support tickets per day versus the budget loss on that day If some of your outages and ticket spikes are not captured in any SLI or SLO, or if you have SLI dips and SLO misses that don’t map to user-facing issues, this is a strong sign that your SLO lacks coverage. This situation is totally normal and should be expected. Your SLIs and SLOs should change over time as realities about the service they represent change. Don’t be afraid to examine and refine them over time! There are several courses of action you can take if your SLO lacks coverage: Change your SLO If your SLIs indicated a problem, but your SLOs didn’t prompt anyone to notice or respond, you may need to tighten your SLO. If the incident on that date was large enough that it needs to be addressed, look at the SLI values during the periods of interest. Calculate what SLO would have resulted in a notification on those dates. Apply that SLO to your historic SLIs, and see what other events this adjustment would have captured. It’s pointless to improve the recall of your system if you lower the precision such that the team must constantly respond to unimportant events. 7 Likewise, for false-positive days, consider relaxing the SLO. If changing the SLO in either direction results in too many false positives or false negatives, then you also need to improve the SLI implementation. Change your SLI implementation There are two ways to change your SLI implementation: either move the measurement closer to the user to improve the quality of the metric, or improve coverage so you capture a higher percentage of user interactions. For example: Instead of measuring success/latency at the server, measure it at the load balancer or on the client. Instead of measuring availability with a simple HTTP GET request, use a health-checking handler that exercises more functionality of the system, or a test that executes all of the client-side JavaScript. Institute an aspirational SLO Sometimes you determine that you need a tighter SLO to make your users happy, but improving your product to meet that SLO will take some time. If you implement the tighter SLO, you’ll be permanently out of SLO and subject to your error budget policy. In this situation, you can make the refined SLO an aspirational SLO —measured and tracked alongside your current SLO, but explicitly called out in your error budget policy as not requiring action. This way you can track your progress toward meeting the aspirational SLO, but you won’t be in a perpetual state of emergency. Iterate There are many different ways to iterate, and your review sessions will identify many potential improvements. Pick the option that’s most likely to give the highest return on investment. Especially during the first few iterations, err on the side of quicker and cheaper; doing so reduces the uncertainty in your metrics and helps you determine if you need more expensive metrics. Iterate as many times as you need to. Decision Making Using SLOs and Error Budgets Once you have SLOs, you can start using them for decision making. The obvious decisions start from what to do when you’re not meeting your SLO—that is, when you’ve exhausted your error budget. As already discussed, the appropriate course of action when you exhaust your error budget should be covered by the error budget policy. Common policies include stopping feature launches until the service is once again within SLO or devoting some or all engineering time to working on reliability-related bugs. In extreme circumstances, a team can declare an emergency with high-level approval to deprioritize all external demands (requests from other teams, for example) until the service meets exit criteria—typically that the service is within SLO and that you’ve taken steps to decrease the chances of a subsequent SLO miss. These steps may include improving monitoring, improving testing, removing dangerous dependencies, or rearchitecting the system to remove known failure types. You can determine the scale of the incident according to the proportion of the error budget it consumed, and use this data to identify the most critical incidents that merit closer investigation. For example, imagine a release of a new API version causes 100% NullPointerException s until the system can be reverted four hours later. 8 Inspecting the raw server logs indicates that the issue caused 14,066 errors. Using the numbers from our 97% SLO earlier, and our budget of 109,897 errors, this single event used 13% of our error budget. Or perhaps the server on which our singly homed state database is stored fails, and restoring from backups takes 20 hours. We estimate (based upon historical traffic over that period) that this outage caused us 72,000 errors, or 65% of our error budget. Imagine that our example company had only one server failure in five years, but typically experiences two or three bad releases that require rollbacks per year. We can estimate that, on average, bad pushes cost twice as much error budget as database failures. The numbers prove that addressing the release problem provides much more benefit than investing resources in investigating the server failure. If the service is running flawlessly and needs little oversight, then it may be time to move the service to a less hands-on tier of support. You might continue to provide incident response management and high-level oversight, but you no longer need to be as closely involved with the product on a day-to-day basis. Therefore, you can focus your efforts on other systems that need more SRE support. Table 2-5 provides suggested courses of action based on three key dimensions: Performance against SLO The amount of toil required to operate the service The level of customer satisfaction with the service Table 2-5. SLO decision matrix SLO Toil Customer satisfaction Action Met Low High Choose to (a) relax release and deployment processes and increase velocity, or (b) step back from the engagement and focus engineering time on services that need more reliability. Met Low Low Tighten SLO. Met High High If alerting is generating false positives, reduce sensitivity. Otherwise, temporarily loosen the SLOs (or offload toil) and fix product and/or improve automated fault mitigation. Met High Low Tighten SLO. Missed Low High Loosen SLO. Missed Low Low Increase alerting sensitivity. Missed High High Loosen SLO. Missed High Low Offload toil and fix product and/or improve automated fault mitigation. Advanced Topics Once you have a healthy and mature SLO and error budget culture, you can continue to improve and refine how you measure and discuss the reliability of your services. Modeling User Journeys While all of the techniques discussed in this chapter will be beneficial to your organization, ultimately SLOs should center on improving the customer experience. Therefore, you should write SLOs in terms of user-centric actions. You can use critical user journeys to help capture the experience of your customers. A critical user journey is a sequence of tasks that is a core part of a given user’s experience and an essential aspect of the service. For example, for an online shopping experience, critical user journeys might include: Searching for a product Adding a product to a shopping cart Completing a purchase These tasks will almost certainly not map well to your existing SLIs; each task requires multiple complex steps that can fail at any point, and inferring the success (or failure) of these actions from logs can be extremely difficult. (For example, how do you determine if the user failed at the third step, or if they simply got distracted by cat videos in another tab?) However, we need to identify what matters to the user before we can start making sure that aspect of the service is reliable. Once you identify user-centric events, you can solve the problem of measuring them. You might measure them by joining distinct log events together, using advanced JavaScript probing, using client-side instrumentation, or using some other process. Once you can measure an event, it becomes just another SLI, which you can track alongside your existing SLIs and SLOs. Critical user journeys can improve your recall without affecting your precision. Grading Interaction Importance Not all requests are considered equal. The HTTP request from a mobile app that checks for account notifications (where notifications are generated by a daily pipeline) is important to your user, but is not as important as a billing-related request by your advertiser. We need a way to distinguish certain classes of requests from others. You can use bucketing to accomplish this—that is, adding more labels to your SLIs, and then applying different SLOs to those different labels. Table 2-6 shows an example. Table 2-6. Bucketing by tier Customer tier Availability SLO Premium 99.99% Free 99.9% You can split requests by expected responsiveness, as shown in Table 2-7 Table 2-7. Bucketing by expected responsiveness Responsiveness Latency SLO Interactive (i.e., requests that block page load) 90% of requests complete in 100 ms CSV download 90% of downloads start within 5 s If you have the data available to apply your SLO to each customer independently, you can track the number of customers who are in SLO at any given time. Note that this number can be highly variable—customers who send a very low number of requests will have either 100% availability (because they were lucky enough to experience no failures) or very low availability (because the one failure they experienced was a significant percentage of their requests). Individual customers can fail to meet their SLO for uninteresting reasons, but in aggregate, tracking problems that affect a wide number of customers’ SLO compliance can be a useful signal. Modeling Dependencies Large systems have many components. A single system may have a presentation layer, an application layer, a business logic layer, and a data persistence layer. Each of these layers may consist of many services or microservices. While your prime concern is implementing a user-centric SLO that covers the entire stack, SLOs can also be a useful way to coordinate and implement reliability requirements between different components in the stack. For example, if a single component is a critical dependency 9 for a particularly high-value interaction, its reliability guarantee should be at least as high as the reliability guarantee of the dependent action. The team that runs that particular component needs to own and manage its service’s SLO in the same way as the overarching product SLO. If a particular component has inherent reliability limitations, the SLO can communicate that limitation. If the user journey that depends upon it needs a higher level of availability than that component can reasonably provide, you need to engineer around that condition. You can either use a different component or add sufficient defenses (caching, offline store-and-forward processing, graceful degradation, etc.) to handle failures in that component. It can be tempting to try to math your way out of these problems. If you have a service that offers 99.9% availability in a single zone, and you need 99.95% availability, simply deploying the service in two zones should solve that requirement. The probability that both services will experience an outage at the same time is so low that two zones should provide 99.9999% availability. However, this reasoning assumes that both services are wholly independent, which is almost never the case. The two instances of your app will have common dependencies, common failure domains, shared fate, and global control planes—all of which can cause an outage in both systems, no matter how carefully it is designed and managed. Unless each of these dependencies and failure patterns is carefully enumerated and accounted for, any such calculations will be deceptive. There are two schools of thought regarding how an error budget policy should address a missed SLO when the failure is caused by a dependency that’s handled by another team: Your team should not halt releases or devote more time to reliability, as your system didn’t cause the issue. You should enact a change freeze in order to minimize the chances of future outages, regardless of the cause of that outage. The second approach will make your users happier. You have some flexibility in how you apply this principle. Depending on the nature of the outage and dependency, freezing changes may not be practical. Decide what is most appropriate for your service and its dependencies, and record that decision for posterity in your documented error budget. For an example of how this might work in practice, see the example error budget policy in Example Error Budget Policy . Experimenting with Relaxing Your SLOs You may want to experiment with the reliability of your application and measure which changes in reliability (e.g., adding latency into page load times) have a measurably adverse impact on user behavior (e.g., percentage of users completing a purchase). We recommend performing this sort of analysis only if you are confident that you have error budget to burn. There are many subtle interactions between latency, availability, customers, business domains, and competition (or lack thereof). To make a choice to deliberately lower the perceived customer experience is a Rubicon to be crossed extremely thoughtfully, if at all. While this exercise might seem scary (nobody wants to lose sales!), the knowledge you can gain by performing such experiments will allow you to impr | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://sre.google/sre-book/bibliography#Pot16 | Google SRE - SRE Book for Must Techniques & Practices Bibliography Table of Contents Foreword Preface Part I - Introduction 1. Introduction 2. The Production Environment at Google, from the Viewpoint of an SRE Part II - Principles 3. Embracing Risk 4. Service Level Objectives 5. Eliminating Toil 6. Monitoring Distributed Systems 7. The Evolution of Automation at Google 8. Release Engineering 9. Simplicity Part III - Practices 10. Practical Alerting 11. Being On-Call 12. Effective Troubleshooting 13. Emergency Response 14. Managing Incidents 15. Postmortem Culture: Learning from Failure 16. Tracking Outages 17. Testing for Reliability 18. Software Engineering in SRE 19. Load Balancing at the Frontend 20. Load Balancing in the Datacenter 21. Handling Overload 22. Addressing Cascading Failures 23. Managing Critical State: Distributed Consensus for Reliability 24. Distributed Periodic Scheduling with Cron 25. Data Processing Pipelines 26. Data Integrity: What You Read Is What You Wrote 27. Reliable Product Launches at Scale Part IV - Management 28. Accelerating SREs to On-Call and Beyond 29. Dealing with Interrupts 30. Embedding an SRE to Recover from Operational Overload 31. Communication and Collaboration in SRE 32. The Evolving SRE Engagement Model Part V - Conclusions 33. Lessons Learned from Other Industries 34. Conclusion Appendix A. Availability Table Appendix B. A Collection of Best Practices for Production Services Appendix C. Example Incident State Document Appendix D. Example Postmortem Appendix E. Launch Coordination Checklist Appendix F. Example Production Meeting Minutes Bibliography Bibliography [Ada15] Bram Adams, Stephany Bellomo, Christian Bird, Tamara Marshall-Keim, Foutse Khomh, and Kim Moir, "The Practice and Future of Release Engineering: A Roundtable with Three Release Engineers" , IEEE Software , vol. 32, no. 2 (March/April 2015), pp. 42–49. [Agu10] M. K. 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[Zoo14] ZooKeeper Project (Apache Foundation), "ZooKeeper Recipes and Solutions" , in ZooKeeper 3.4 documentation, 2014. Previous Appendix F - Example Production Meeting Minutes Copyright © 2017 Google, Inc. Published by O'Reilly Media, Inc. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
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https://git-scm.com/book/es/v2/Git-en-entornos-distribuidos-Manteniendo-un-proyecto | Git - Manteniendo un proyecto About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Inicio - Sobre el Control de Versiones 1.1 Acerca del Control de Versiones 1.2 Una breve historia de Git 1.3 Fundamentos de Git 1.4 La Línea de Comandos 1.5 Instalación de Git 1.6 Configurando Git por primera vez 1.7 ¿Cómo obtener ayuda? 1.8 Resumen 2. Fundamentos de Git 2.1 Obteniendo un repositorio Git 2.2 Guardando cambios en el Repositorio 2.3 Ver el Historial de Confirmaciones 2.4 Deshacer Cosas 2.5 Trabajar con Remotos 2.6 Etiquetado 2.7 Alias de Git 2.8 Resumen 3. Ramificaciones en Git 3.1 ¿Qué es una rama? 3.2 Procedimientos Básicos para Ramificar y Fusionar 3.3 Gestión de Ramas 3.4 Flujos de Trabajo Ramificados 3.5 Ramas Remotas 3.6 Reorganizar el Trabajo Realizado 3.7 Recapitulación 4. Git en el Servidor 4.1 Los Protocolos 4.2 Configurando Git en un servidor 4.3 Generando tu clave pública SSH 4.4 Configurando el servidor 4.5 El demonio Git 4.6 HTTP Inteligente 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git en un alojamiento externo 4.10 Resumen 5. Git en entornos distribuidos 5.1 Flujos de trabajo distribuidos 5.2 Contribuyendo a un Proyecto 5.3 Manteniendo un proyecto 5.4 Resumen 6. GitHub 6.1 Creación y configuración de la cuenta 6.2 Participando en Proyectos 6.3 Mantenimiento de un proyecto 6.4 Gestión de una organización 6.5 Scripting en GitHub 6.6 Resumen 7. Herramientas de Git 7.1 Revisión por selección 7.2 Organización interactiva 7.3 Guardado rápido y Limpieza 7.4 Firmando tu trabajo 7.5 Buscando 7.6 Reescribiendo la Historia 7.7 Reiniciar Desmitificado 7.8 Fusión Avanzada 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Haciendo debug con Git 7.11 Submódulos 7.12 Agrupaciones 7.13 Replace 7.14 Almacenamiento de credenciales 7.15 Resumen 8. Personalización de Git 8.1 Configuración de Git 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Puntos de enganche en Git 8.4 Un ejemplo de implantación de una determinada política en Git 8.5 Recapitulación 9. Git y Otros Sistemas 9.1 Git como Cliente 9.2 Migración a Git 9.3 Resumen 10. Los entresijos internos de Git 10.1 Fontanería y porcelana 10.2 Los objetos Git 10.3 Referencias Git 10.4 Archivos empaquetadores 10.5 Las especificaciones para hacer referencia a… (refspec) 10.6 Protocolos de transferencia 10.7 Mantenimiento y recuperación de datos 10.8 Variables de entorno 10.9 Recapitulación A1. Apéndice A: Git en otros entornos A1.1 Interfaces gráficas A1.2 Git en Visual Studio A1.3 Git en Eclipse A1.4 Git con Bash A1.5 Git en Zsh A1.6 Git en Powershell A1.7 Resumen A2. Apéndice B: Integrando Git en tus Aplicaciones A2.1 Git mediante Línea de Comandos A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Apéndice C: Comandos de Git A3.1 Configuración A3.2 Obtener y Crear Proyectos A3.3 Seguimiento Básico A3.4 Ramificar y Fusionar A3.5 Compartir y Actualizar Proyectos A3.6 Inspección y Comparación A3.7 Depuración A3.8 Parcheo A3.9 Correo Electrónico A3.10 Sistemas Externos A3.11 Administración A3.12 Comandos de Fontanería 2nd Edition 5.3 Git en entornos distribuidos - Manteniendo un proyecto Manteniendo un proyecto Además de saber cómo contribuir de manera efectiva a un proyecto, probablemente necesitarás saber cómo mantenerlo. Esto puede comprender desde aceptar y aplicar parches generados vía format-patch enviados por e-mail, hasta integrar cambios en ramas remotas para repositorios que has añadido como remotos a tu proyecto. Tanto si mantienes un repositorio canónico como si quieres ayudar verificando o aprobando parches, necesitas conocer cómo aceptar trabajo de otros colaboradores de la forma más clara y sostenible posible a largo plazo. Trabajando en ramas puntuales Cuando estás pensando en integrar nuevo trabajo, generalmente es una buena idea probarlo en una rama puntual (topic branch) - una rama temporal específicamente creada para probar ese nuevo trabajo. De esta forma, es fácil ajustar un parche individualmente y abandonarlo si no funciona hasta que tengas tiempo de retomarlo. Si creas una rama simple con un nombre relacionado con el trabajo que vas a probar, como ruby_client o algo igualmente descriptivo, puedes recordarlo fácilmente si tienes que abandonarlo y retomarlo posteriormente. El responsable del mantenimiento del proyecto Git también tiende a usar una nomenclatura con este formato – como sc/ruby_client , donde sc es la abreviatura de la persona que envió el trabajo. Como recordarás, puedes crear la rama a partir de la rama master de la siguiente forma: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master O, si quieres cambiar inmediatamente a la nueva rama, puedes usar la opción checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Ahora estás listo para añadir el trabajo recibido en esta rama puntual y decidir si quieres incorporarlo en tus ramas de largo recorrido. Aplicando parches recibidos por e-mail Si recibes por e-mail un parche que necesitas integrar en tu proyecto, deberías aplicarlo en tu rama puntual para evaluarlo. Hay dos formas de aplicar un parche enviado por e-mail: con git apply o git am . Aplicando un parche con apply Si recibiste el parche de alguien que lo generó con git diff o con el comando Unix diff (lo cual no se recomienda; consulta la siguiente sección), puedes aplicarlo con el comando git apply . Suponiendo que guardaste el parche en /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , puedes aplicarlo de esta forma: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Esto modifica los archivos en tu directorio de trabajo. Es casi idéntico a ejecutar un comando patch -p1 para aplicar el parche, aunque es más paranoico y acepta menos coincidencias aproximadas que patch. También puede manejar archivos nuevos, borrados y renombrados si están descritos en formato git diff mientras que patch no puede hacerlo. Por último, git apply sigue un modelo “aplica todo o aborta todo”, donde se aplica todo o nada, mientras que patch puede aplicar parches parcialemente, dejando tu directorio de trabajo en un estado inconsistente. git apply es en general mucho más conservador que patch . No creará un commit por ti – tras ejecutarlo, debes preparar (stage) y confirmar (commit) manualmente los cambios introducidos. También puedes usar git apply para comprobar si un parche se aplica de forma limpia antes de aplicarlo realmente – puedes ejecutar git apply --check indicando el parche: $ git apply --check 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Si no obtienes salida, entonces el parche debería aplicarse limpiamente. Este comando también devuelve un estado distinto de cero si la comprobación falla, por lo que puedes usarlo en scripts. Aplicando un parche con am Si el colaborador es usuario de Git y conoce lo suficiente como para usar el comando format-patch para generar el parche, entonces tu trabajo es más sencillo, puesto que el parche ya contiene información del autor y un mensaje de commit. Si puedes, anima a tus colaboradores a usar format-patch en lugar de diff para generar parches. Sólo deberías usar git apply para parches antiguos y cosas similares. Para aplicar un parche generado con format-patch , usa git am . Técnicamente, git am se construyó para leer de un archivo mbox (buzón de correo). Es un formato de texto plano simple para almacenar uno o más mensajes de correo en un archivo de texto. Es algo parecido a esto: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Esto es el comienzo de la salida del comando format-patch que viste en la sección anterior. También es un formato mbox válido. Si alguien te ha enviado el parche por e-mail usando git send-email y lo has descargado en formato mbox, entonces puedes pasar ese archivo a git am y comenzará a aplicar todos los parches que encuentre. Si usas un cliente de correo que puede guardar varios e-mails en formato mbox, podrías guardar conjuntos completos de parches en un único archivo y a continuación usar git am para aplicarlos de uno en uno. Sin embargo, si alguien subió a un sistema de gestión de incidencias o algo parecido un parche generado con format-patch , podrías guardar localmente el archivo y posteriormente pasarlo a git am para aplicarlo: $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: add limit to log function Puedes ver que aplicó el parche limpiamente y creó automáticamente un nuevo commit. La información del autor se toma de las cabeceras From y Date del e-mail, y el mensaje del commit sale del Subject y el cuerpo del e-mail (antes del parche). Por ejemplo, si se aplicó este parche desde el archivo mbox del ejemplo anterior, el commit generado sería algo como esto: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 El campo Commit indica la persona que aplicó el parche y cuándo lo aplicó. El campo Author es la persona que creó originalmente el parche y cuándo fué creado. Pero es posible que el parche no se aplique limpiamente. Quizás tu rama principal es muy diferente de la rama a partir de la cual se creó el parche, o el parche depende de otro parche que aún no has aplicado. En ese caso, el proceso git am fallará y te preguntará qué hacer: $ git am 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Este comando marca los conflictos en cualquier archivo para el cual detecte problemas, como si fuera una operación merge o rebase . Estos problemas se solucionan de la misma forma - edita el archivo para resolver el conflicto, prepara (stage) el nuevo archivo y por último ejecuta git am --resolved para continuar con el siguiente parche: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: seeing if this helps the gem Si quieres que Git intente resolver el conflicto de forma un poco más inteligente, puedes indicar la opción -3 para que Git intente hacer un merge a tres bandas. Esta opción no está activa por defecto, ya que no funciona si el commit en que el parche está basado no está en tu repositorio. Si tienes ese commit – si el parche partió de un commit público – entonces la opción -3 es normalmente mucho más inteligente a la hora de aplicar un parche conflictivo: $ git am -3 0001-seeing-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: seeing if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. En este caso, el parche ya ha sido aplicado. Sin la opción -3 , aparecería un conflicto. Si estás aplicando varios parches a partir de un archivo mbox, también puedes ejecutar el comando am en modo interactivo, el cual se detiene en cada parche para preguntar si quieres aplicarlo: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- seeing if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all Esto está bien si tienes guardados varios parches, ya que puedes revisar el parche previamente y no aplicarlo si ya lo has hecho. Una vez aplicados y confirmados todos los parches de tu rama puntual, puedes decidir cómo y cuándo integrarlos en una rama de largo recorrido. Recuperando ramas remotas Si recibes una contribución de un usuario de Git que configuró su propio repositorio, realizó cambios en él y envió la URL del repositorio junto con el nombre de la rama remota donde están los cambios, puedes añadirlo como una rama remota y hacer integraciones (merges) de forma local. Por ejemplo, si Jessica te envía un e-mail diciendo que tiene una nueva funcionalidad muy interesante en la rama ruby-client de su repositorio, puedes probarla añadiendo el repositorio remoto y recuperando localmente dicha rama: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Si más tarde te envía otro e-mail con una nueva funcionalidad en otra rama, puedes recuperarla (fetch y check out) directamente porque ya tienes el repositorio remoto configurado. Esto es más útil cuando trabajas regularmente con una persona. Sin embargo, si alguien sólo envía un parche de forma ocasional, aceptarlo vía e-mail podría llevar menos tiempo que obligar a todo el mundo a ejecutar su propio servidor y tener que añadir y eliminar repositorios remotos continuamente para obtener unos cuantos parches. Además, probablemente no quieras tener cientos de repositorios remotos, uno por cada persona que envía uno o dos parches. En cualquier caso, los scripts y los servicios alojados pueden facilitar todo esto — depende en gran medida de cómo desarrollan el trabajo tanto tus colaboradores como tú mismo — Otra ventaja de esta opción es que además puedes obtener un historial de commits. Aunque pueden surgir los problemas habituales durante la integración (merge), al menos sabes en qué punto de tu historial se basa su trabajo. Por defecto, se realiza una integración a tres bandas, en lugar de indicar un -3 y esperar que el parche se generará a partir de un commit público al que tengas acceso. Si no trabajas regularmente con alguien pero aún así quieres obtener sus contribuciones de esta manera, puedes pasar la URL del repositorio remoto al comando git pull . Esto recupera los cambios de forma puntual (pull) sin guardar la URL como una referencia remota: $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by recursive. Decidiendo qué introducir Ahora tienes una rama puntual con trabajo de los colaboradores. En este punto, puedes decidir qué quieres hacer con ella. Esta sección repasa un par de comandos para que puedas ver cómo se usan para revisar exactamente qué se va a introducir si integras los cambios en tu rama principal. A menudo es muy útil obtener una lista de todos los commits de una rama que no están en tu rama principal. Puedes excluir de dicha lista los commits de tu rama principal anteponiendo la opción --not al nombre de la rama. El efecto de esto es el mismo que el formato master..contrib que usamos anteriormente. Por ejemplo, si un colaborador te envía dos parches y creas una rama llamada contrib para aplicar los parches, puedes ejecutar esto: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 seeing if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 updated the gemspec to hopefully work better Para ver qué cambios introduce cada commit, recuerda que puedes indicar la opción -p a git log , y añadirá las diferencias introducidas en cada commit. Para tener una visión completa de qué ocurriría si integraras esta rama puntual en otra rama, podrías usar un sencillo truco para obtener los resultados correctos. Podrías pensar en ejecutar esto: $ git diff master Este comando te da las diferencias, pero los resultados podrían ser confusos. Si tu rama master ha avanzado desde que creaste la rama puntual, entonces obtendrás resultados aparentemente extraños. Esto ocurre porque Git compara directamente las instantáneas del último commit de la rama puntual en la que estás con la instantánea del último commit de la rama master . Por ejemplo, si has añadido una línea a un archivo en la rama master , al hacer una comparación directa de las instantáneas parecerá que la rama puntual va a eliminar esa línea. Si master es un ancestro de tu rama puntual, esto no supone un problema; pero si los dos historiales divergen, al hacer una comparación directa parecerá que estás añadiendo todos los cambios nuevos en tu rama puntual y eliminándolos de la rama master . Lo que realmente necesitas ver son los cambios añadidos en tu rama puntual – el trabajo que introducirás si integras esta rama en la master . Para conseguir esto, Git compara el último commit de tu rama puntual con el primer ancestro en común respecto a la rama master . Técnicamente puedes hacer esto averiguando explícitamente el ancestro común y ejecutando el diff sobre dicho ancestro: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db Sin embargo, eso no es lo más conveniente, así que Git ofrece un atajo para hacer eso mismo: la sintaxis del triple-punto. En el contexto del comando diff , puedes poner tres puntos tras el nombre de una rama para hacer un diff entre el último commit de la rama en la que estás y su ancestro común con otra rama: $ git diff master...contrib Este comando sólo muestra el trabajo introducido en tu rama puntual actual desde su ancestro común con la rama master . Es una sintaxis muy útil a recordar. Integrando el trabajo de los colaboradores Cuando todo el trabajo de tu rama puntual está listo para ser integrado en una rama de largo recorrido, la cuestión es cómo hacerlo. Es más, ¿qué flujo de trabajo general quieres seguir para mantener el proyecto? Tienes varias opciones y vamos a ver algunas de ellas. Integrando flujos de trabajo Un flujo de trabajo sencillo integra tu trabajo en tu rama master . En este escenario, tienes una rama master que contiene básicamente código estable. Cuando tienes trabajo propio en una rama puntual o trabajo aportado por algún colaborador que ya has verificado, lo integras en tu rama master , borras la rama puntual y continúas el proceso. Si tenemos un repositorio con trabajo en dos ramas llamadas ruby_client y php_client , tal y como se muestra en Historial con varias ramas puntuales. e integramos primero ruby_client y luego php_client , entonces tu historial terminará con este aspecto Tras integrar una rama puntual. . Figura 73. Historial con varias ramas puntuales. Figura 74. Tras integrar una rama puntual. Este es probablemente el flujo de trabajo más simple y puede llegar a causar problemas si estás tratando con proyectos de mayor envergadura o más estables, donde hay que ser realmente cuidadoso al introducir cambios. Si tienes un proyecto más importante, podrías preferir usar un ciclo de integración en dos fases. En este escenario, tienes dos ramas de largo recorrido, master y develop , y decides que la rama master sólo se actualiza cuando se llega a una versión muy estable y todo el código nuevo está integrado en la rama develop . Ambas ramas se envían habitualmente al repositorio público. Cada vez que tengas una nueva rama puntual para integrar en ( Antes de integrar una rama puntual. ), primero la fusionas con la rama develop ( Tras integrar una rama puntual. ); luego, tras etiquetar la versión, avanzas la rama master hasta el punto donde se encuentre la ahora estable rama develop ( Tras el lanzamiento de una rama puntual. ). Figura 75. Antes de integrar una rama puntual. Figura 76. Tras integrar una rama puntual. Figura 77. Tras el lanzamiento de una rama puntual. De esta forma, cuando alguien clone el repositorio de tu proyecto, puede recuperar la rama master para construir la última versión estable y mantenerla actualizada fácilmente, o bien puede recuperar la rama develop , que es la que tiene los últimos desarrollos. Puedes ir un paso más allá y crear una rama de integración integrate , donde integres todo el trabajo. Entonces, cuando el código de esa rama sea estable y pase las pruebas, lo puedes integrar en una rama de desarrollo; y cuando se demuestre que efectivamente permanece estable durante un tiempo, avanzas la rama master . Flujos de trabajo con grandes integraciones El proyecto Git tiene cuatro ramas de largo recorrido: master , next , y pu (proposed updates, actualizaciones propuestas) para trabajos nuevos, y maint para trabajos de mantenimiento de versiones anteriores. Cuando los colaboradores introducen nuevos trabajos, se recopilan en ramas puntuales en el repositorio del responsable de mantenimiento, de manera similar a la que se ha descrito (ver Gestionando un conjunto complejo de ramas puntuales paralelas. ). En este punto, los nuevos trabajos se evalúan para decidir si son seguros y si están listos para los usuarios o si por el contrario necesitan más trabajo. Si son seguros, se integran en la rama next , y se envía dicha rama al repositorio público para que todo el mundo pueda probar las nuevas funcionalidades ya integradas. Figura 78. Gestionando un conjunto complejo de ramas puntuales paralelas. Si las nuevas funcionalidades necesitan más trabajo, se integran en la rama pu . Cuando se decide que estas funcionalidades son totalmente estables, se integran de nuevo en la rama master , construyéndolas a partir de las funcionalidades en la rama next que aún no habían pasado a la rama master . Esto significa que la rama master casi siempre avanza, next se reorganiza ocasionalmente y pu se reorganiza mucho más a menudo: Figura 79. Fusionando ramas puntuales en ramas de integración de largo recorrido. Cuando una rama puntual se ha integrado en la rama master , se elimina del repositorio. El proyecto Git también tiene una rama maint creada a partir de la última versión para ofrecer parches, en caso de que fuera necesaria una versión de mantenimiento. Así, cuando clonas el repositorio de Git, tienes cuatro ramas que puedes recuperar para evaluar el proyecto en diferentes etapas de desarrollo, dependiendo de si quieres tener una versión muy avanzada o de cómo quieras contribuir. De esta forma, el responsable de mantenimiento tiene un flujo de trabajo estructurado para ayudarle a aprobar las nuevas contribuciones. Flujos de trabajo reorganizando o entresacando Otros responsables de mantenimiento prefieren reorganizar o entresacar el nuevo trabajo en su propia rama master , en lugar de integrarlo, para mantener un historial prácticamente lineal. Cuando tienes trabajo en una rama puntual y has decidido que quieres integrarlo, te posicionas en esa rama y ejecutas el comando rebase para reconstruir los cambios en tu rama master (o develop , y así sucesivamente). Si ese proceso funciona bien, puedes avanzar tu rama master , consiguiendo un historial lineal en tu proyecto. Otra forma de mover trabajo de una rama a otra es entresacarlo (cherry-pick). En Git, "entresacar" es como hacer un rebase para un único commit. Toma el parche introducido en un commit e intenta reaplicarlo en la rama en la que estás actualmente. Esto es útil si tienes varios commits en una rama puntual y sólo quieres integrar uno de ellos, o si sólo tienes un commit en una rama puntual y prefieres entresacarlo en lugar de hacer una reorganización (rebase). Por ejemplo, imagina que tienes un proyecto como éste: Figura 80. Ejemplo de historial, antes de entresacar. Si sólo deseas integrar el commit e43a6 en tu rama master , puedes ejecutar $ git cherry-pick e43a6fd3e94888d76779ad79fb568ed180e5fcdf Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) Esto introduce el mismo cambio introducido en e43a6 , pero genera un nuevo valor SHA-1 de confirmación, ya que la fecha en que se ha aplicado es distinta. Ahora tu historial queda así: Figura 81. Historial tras entresacar un commit de una rama puntual. En este momento ya puedes eliminar tu rama puntual y descartar los commits que no quieres integrar. Rerere Git dispone de una utilidad llamada “rerere” que puede resultar útil si estás haciendo muchas integraciones y reorganizaciones, o si mantienes una rama puntual de largo recorrido. Rerere significa “reuse recorded resolution” (reutilizar resolución grabada) – es una forma de simplificar la resolución de conflictos. Cuando “rerere” está activo, Git mantendrá un conjunto de imágenes anteriores y posteriores a las integraciones correctas, de forma que si detecta que hay un conflicto que parece exactamente igual a otro ya corregido previamente, usará esa misma corrección sin causarte molestias. Esta funcionalidad consta de dos partes: un parámetro de configuración y un comando. El parámetro de configuración es rerere.enabled y es bastante útil ponerlo en tu configuración global: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true Ahora, cuando hagas una integración que resuelva conflictos, la resolución se grabará en la caché por si la necesitas en un futuro. Si fuera necesario, puedes interactuar con la caché de “rerere” usando el comando git rerere . Cuando se invoca sin ningún parámetro adicional, Git comprueba su base de datos de resoluciones en busca de coincidencias con cualquier conflicto durante la integración actual e intenta resolverlo (aunque se hace automáticamente en caso de que rerere.enabled sea true ). También existen subcomandos para ver qué se grabará, para eliminar de la caché una resolución específica y para limpiar completamante la caché. Veremos más detalles sobre “rerere” en Rerere . Etiquetando tus versiones Cuando decides lanzar una versión, probablemente quieras etiquetarla para poder generarla más adelante en cualquier momento. Puedes crear una nueva etiqueta siguiendo los pasos descritos en [ch02-git-basics] . Si decides firmar la etiqueta como responsable de mantenimiento, el etiquetado sería algo así: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Si firmas tus etiquetas podrías tener problemas a la hora de distribuir la clave PGP pública usada para firmarlas. El responsable de mantenimiento del proyecto Git ha conseguido solucionar este problema incluyendo su clave pública como un objeto binario en el repositorio, añadiendo a continuación una etiqueta que apunta directamente a dicho contenido. Para hacer esto, puedes averiguar qué clave necesitas lanzando el comando gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Ahora ya puedes importar directamente la clave en la base de datos de Git, exportándola y redirigiéndola a través del comando git hash-object , que escribe en Git un nuevo objeto binario con esos contenidos y devuelve la firma SHA-1 de dicho objeto. $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Una vez que tienes los contenidos de tu clave en Git, puedes crear una etiqueta que apunte directamente a dicha clave indicando el nuevo valor SHA-1 que devolvió el comando hash-object : $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Si ejecutas git push --tags , la etiqueta maintainer-pgp-pub será compartida con todo el mundo. Si alguien quisiera verificar una etiqueta, puede importar tu clave PGP recuperando directamente el objeto binario de la base de datos e importándolo en GPG: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import Esa clave se puede usar para verificar todas tus etiquetas firmadas. Además, si incluyes instrucciones en el mensaje de la etiqueta, el comando git show <tag> permitirá que el usuario final obtenga instrucciones más específicas sobre el proceso de verificación de etiquetas. Generando un número de compilación Como Git no genera una serie de números monótonamente creciente como v123 o similar con cada commit, si quieres tener un nombre más comprensible para un commit, puedes ejecutar el comando git describe sobre dicho commit. Git devolverá el nombre de la etiqueta más próxima junto con el número de commits sobre esa etiqueta y una parte del valor SHA-1 del commit que estás describiendo: $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c De esta forma, puedes exportar una instantánea o generar un nombre comprensible para cualquier persona. De hecho, si construyes Git a partir del código fuente clonado del repositorio Git, git --version devuelve algo parecido a esto. Si estás describiendo un commit que has etiquetado directamente, te dará el nombre de la etiqueta. El comando git describe da preferencia a etiquetas anotadas (etiquetas creadas con las opciones -a o -s ), por lo que las etiquetas de versión deberían crearse de esta forma si estás usando git describe , para garantizar que el commit es nombrado adecuadamente cuando se describe. También puedes usar esta descripción como objetivo de un comando checkout o show , aunque depende de la parte final del valor SHA-1 abreviado, por lo que podría no ser válida para siempre. Por ejemplo, recientemente el núcleo de Linux pasó de 8 a 10 caracteres para asegurar la unicidad del objeto SHA-1, por lo que los nombres antiguos devueltos por git describe fueron invalidados. Preparando una versión Ahora quieres lanzar una versión. Una cosa que querrás hacer será crear un archivo con la última instantánea del código para esas pobres almas que no usan Git. El comando para hacerlo es git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Si alguien abre el archivo tar, obtiene la última instantánea de tu proyecto bajo un directorio project . También puedes crear un archivo zip de la misma manera, pero añadiendo la opción --format=zip a git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip Ahora tienes tanto un archivo tar como zip con la nueva versión de tu proyecto, listos para subirlos a tu sitio web o para enviarlos por e-mail. El registro resumido Es el momento de enviar un mensaje a tu lista de correo informando sobre el estado de tu proyecto. Una buena opción para obtener rápidamente una especie de lista con los cambios introducidos en tu proyecto desde la última versión o e-mail es usar el comando git shortlog . Dicho comando resume todos los commits en el rango que se le indique; por ejemplo, el siguiente comando devuelve un resumen de todos los commits desde tu última versión, suponiendo que fuera la v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (8): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 Consigues un resumen limpio de todos los commits desde la versión v1.0.1, agrupados por autor, que puedes enviar por correo electrónico a tu lista. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=de | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 � | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=en_ZA | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/ru/v2/%d0%a0%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%bf%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b4%d0%b5%d0%bb%d1%91%d0%bd%d0%bd%d1%8b%d0%b9-Git-%d0%a1%d0%be%d0%bf%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b6%d0%b4%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b5-%d0%bf%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b5%d0%ba%d1%82%d0%b0 | Git - Сопровождение проекта About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Введение 1.1 О системе контроля версий 1.2 Краткая история Git 1.3 Что такое Git? 1.4 Командная строка 1.5 Установка Git 1.6 Первоначальная настройка Git 1.7 Как получить помощь? 1.8 Заключение 2. Основы Git 2.1 Создание Git-репозитория 2.2 Запись изменений в репозиторий 2.3 Просмотр истории коммитов 2.4 Операции отмены 2.5 Работа с удалёнными репозиториями 2.6 Работа с тегами 2.7 Псевдонимы в Git 2.8 Заключение 3. Ветвление в Git 3.1 О ветвлении в двух словах 3.2 Основы ветвления и слияния 3.3 Управление ветками 3.4 Работа с ветками 3.5 Удалённые ветки 3.6 Перебазирование 3.7 Заключение 4. Git на сервере 4.1 Протоколы 4.2 Установка Git на сервер 4.3 Генерация открытого SSH ключа 4.4 Настраиваем сервер 4.5 Git-демон 4.6 Умный HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git-хостинг 4.10 Заключение 5. Распределённый Git 5.1 Распределённый рабочий процесс 5.2 Участие в проекте 5.3 Сопровождение проекта 5.4 Заключение 6. GitHub 6.1 Настройка и конфигурация учётной записи 6.2 Внесение собственного вклада в проекты 6.3 Сопровождение проекта 6.4 Управление организацией 6.5 Создание сценариев GitHub 6.6 Заключение 7. Инструменты Git 7.1 Выбор ревизии 7.2 Интерактивное индексирование 7.3 Припрятывание и очистка 7.4 Подпись 7.5 Поиск 7.6 Перезапись истории 7.7 Раскрытие тайн reset 7.8 Продвинутое слияние 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Обнаружение ошибок с помощью Git 7.11 Подмодули 7.12 Создание пакетов 7.13 Замена 7.14 Хранилище учётных данных 7.15 Заключение 8. Настройка Git 8.1 Конфигурация Git 8.2 Атрибуты Git 8.3 Хуки в Git 8.4 Пример принудительной политики Git 8.5 Заключение 9. Git и другие системы контроля версий 9.1 Git как клиент 9.2 Переход на Git 9.3 Заключение 10. Git изнутри 10.1 Сантехника и Фарфор 10.2 Объекты Git 10.3 Ссылки в Git 10.4 Pack-файлы 10.5 Спецификации ссылок 10.6 Протоколы передачи данных 10.7 Обслуживание репозитория и восстановление данных 10.8 Переменные окружения 10.9 Заключение A1. Приложение A: Git в других окружениях A1.1 Графические интерфейсы A1.2 Git в Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git в Eclipse A1.5 Git в IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.6 Git в Sublime Text A1.7 Git в Bash A1.8 Git в Zsh A1.9 Git в PowerShell A1.10 Заключение A2. Приложение B: Встраивание Git в ваши приложения A2.1 Git из командной строки A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Приложение C: Команды Git A3.1 Настройка и конфигурация A3.2 Клонирование и создание репозиториев A3.3 Основные команды A3.4 Ветвление и слияния A3.5 Совместная работа и обновление проектов A3.6 Осмотр и сравнение A3.7 Отладка A3.8 Внесение исправлений A3.9 Работа с помощью электронной почты A3.10 Внешние системы A3.11 Администрирование A3.12 Низкоуровневые команды 2nd Edition 5.3 Распределённый Git - Сопровождение проекта Сопровождение проекта В дополнение к эффективному участию в проекте, было бы неплохо знать как его сопровождать. Сопровождение может включать в себя принятие и применение патчей, сгенерированных с помощью format-patch и отправленных вам по почте, или интеграцию изменений в ветках удалённых репозиториев. Независимо от того, поддерживаете ли вы канонический репозиторий или просто хотите помочь в проверке или применении патчей, вам необходимо знать каким образом следует принимать работу, чтобы это было наиболее понятно для других участников и было бы приемлемым для вас в долгосрочной перспективе. Работа с тематическими ветками Перед интеграцией новых изменений желательно проверить их в тематической ветке — временной ветке, специально созданной для проверки работоспособности новых изменений. Таким образом, можно применять патчи по одному и пропускать неработающие, пока не найдётся время к ним вернуться. Если вы создадите ветку с коротким и понятным названием, основанным на тематике изменений, например, ruby_client или что-то похожее, то без труда можно будет вернуться к ней, если пришлось на какое-то время отказаться от работы с ней. Сопровождающему Git проекта свойственно использовать пространство имён для веток, например, sc/ruby_client , где sc — это сокращение от имени того, кто проделал работу. Как известно, ветки можно создавать на основании базовой ветки, например: $ git branch sc/ruby_client master Если вы хотите сразу переключиться на создаваемую ветку, то используйте опцию checkout -b : $ git checkout -b sc/ruby_client master Теперь вы можете добавить новые изменения в созданную тематическую ветку и определить хотите ли слить эти изменения в ваши долгосрочные ветки. Применение патчей, полученных по почте Если вы получили патч по почте и его нужно интегрировать в проект, то следует проанализировать его, применив сначала в тематической ветке. Существует два варианта применения полученного по почте патча: git apply или git am . Применение патча командой apply Если полученный по почте патч был создан командой git diff или Unix командой diff (что не рекомендуется делать), то применить его можно командой git apply . Предположим, патч сохранён здесь /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch , тогда применить его можно вот так: $ git apply /tmp/patch-ruby-client.patch Это действие модифицирует файлы в вашем рабочем каталоге. Выполнение команды практически эквивалентно выполнению команды patch -p1 , однако, является более параноидальным и принимает меньше неточных совпадений, чем patch . При этом обрабатываются добавления, удаления и переименования файлов, указанные в формате git diff , тогда как patch этого не делает. Наконец, git apply использует модель «применить всё или отменить всё», где изменения либо применяются полностью, либо не применяются вообще, тогда как patch может частично применить патч файлы, приведя ваш рабочий каталог в непонятное состояние. В целом, git apply более консервативен, чем patch . После выполнения команды новый коммит не создаётся и его нужно делать вручную. Командой git apply можно проверить корректность применения патча до его фактического применения, используя git apply --check : $ git apply --check 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Если ошибок не выведено, то патч может быть применён без проблем. Так же, в случае ошибки эта команда возвращает отличное от 0 значение, что позволяет использовать её в скриптах. Применение патча командой am Если участник проекта пользователь Git и умеет пользоваться командой format-patch для генерации патчей, то вам будет легче, так как в патч включается информация об авторе и сообщение коммита. Если возможно, требуйте от ваших участников использовать команду format-patch вместо diff для генерации патчей. Вам останется использовать git apply только для устаревших патчей и подобного им. Для применения патча, созданного с помощью format-patch , используйте git am (команда названа am потому что применяет «apply» набор патчей в формате «mailbox»). С технической точки зрения она просто читает mbox-файл, в котором в виде обычного текста хранится одно или несколько электронных писем. Этот файл имеет следующий вид: From 330090432754092d704da8e76ca5c05c198e71a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> Date: Sun, 6 Apr 2008 10:17:23 -0700 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Это начало вывода команды format-patch , которая рассматривалась в предыдущем разделе; это так же представляет собой валидный формат mbox. Если кто-то отправил патч, корректно сформированный командой git send-email , и вы сохранили его в формате mbox, то можно указать передать этот файл в качестве аргумента команде git am , которая начнёт применять все найденные в файле патчи. Если вы используете почтовый клиент, который умеет сохранять несколько писем в формате mbox, то можно сохранить сразу серию патчей в один файл, а затем применить их за раз, используя git am . Так или иначе, если кто-нибудь загрузит созданный с помощью format-patch патч файл в систему управления задачами, то вы сможете сохранить его себе и применить локально с помощью git am : $ git am 0001-limit-log-function.patch Applying: Add limit to log function Как вы могли заметить, патч применился без конфликтов, а так же был создан новый коммит. Информация об авторе была извлечена из заголовков письма From и Date , а сообщение коммита — из заголовка Subject и тела письма (до патча). Например, для применённого патча из примера выше коммит будет выглядеть следующим образом: $ git log --pretty=fuller -1 commit 6c5e70b984a60b3cecd395edd5b48a7575bf58e0 Author: Jessica Smith <jessica@example.com> AuthorDate: Sun Apr 6 10:17:23 2008 -0700 Commit: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> CommitDate: Thu Apr 9 09:19:06 2009 -0700 Add limit to log function Limit log functionality to the first 20 Commit информация указывает на того, кто применил патч и когда это было сделано. Author информация указывает на того, кто изначально создал патч и когда это было сделано. Однако, возможна ситуация, когда патч не может быть бесконфликтно применён. Возможно, ваша основная ветка сильно расходится с той веткой, на основании которой был создан патч, или он зависит от другого, ещё не применённого патча. В таком случае работа git am будет прервана, а так же выведена подсказка со списком возможных действий: $ git am 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Patch failed at 0001. When you have resolved this problem run "git am --resolved". If you would prefer to skip this patch, instead run "git am --skip". To restore the original branch and stop patching run "git am --abort". Эта команда добавит соответствующие маркеры во все файлы где есть конфликты, аналогично конфликтам слияния или перебазирования. Для решения такой проблемы используется аналогичный подход — отредактируйте файлы исправив конфликты, добавьте их в индекс и выполните команду git am --resolved для перехода к следующему патчу: $ (fix the file) $ git add ticgit.gemspec $ git am --resolved Applying: See if this helps the gem При желании, вы можете указать опцию -3 , чтобы Git попробовал провести трёхстороннее слияние. Эта опция не включена по умолчанию, так как она не будет работать, если коммит, на который ссылается патч, отсутствует в вашем репозитории. Если у вас есть тот коммит, на который ссылается конфликтующий патч, то использование опции -3 приводит к более умному применению конфликтующего патча: $ git am -3 0001-see-if-this-helps-the-gem.patch Applying: See if this helps the gem error: patch failed: ticgit.gemspec:1 error: ticgit.gemspec: patch does not apply Using index info to reconstruct a base tree... Falling back to patching base and 3-way merge... No changes -- Patch already applied. В данном случае, без использования опции -3 патч будет расценён как конфликтующий. При использовании опции -3 патч будет применён без конфликтов. Если вы применяете несколько патчей из файла mbox, то можно запустить git am в интерактивном режиме, в котором перед обработкой каждого патча будет задаваться вопрос о дальнейших действиях: $ git am -3 -i mbox Commit Body is: -------------------------- See if this helps the gem -------------------------- Apply? [y]es/[n]o/[e]dit/[v]iew patch/[a]ccept all Это отличная возможность посмотреть содержимое патча перед его применением или пропустить его, если он уже был применён. Когда все патчи применены и созданы коммиты в текущей ветке, вы уже можете решить стоит ли и как интегрировать их в более долгоживущую ветку. Извлечение удалённых веток Если участник проекта создал свой Git репозиторий, отправил в него свои изменения, а затем прислал вам ссылку и название ветки, куда были отправлены изменения, то вы можете добавить этот репозиторий как удалённый и провести слияние локально. К примеру, Джессика отправила вам письмо, в котором сказано, у неё есть новый функционал в ветке ruby-client её репозитория. Добавив удалённый репозиторий и получив изменения из этой ветки, вы можете протестировать изменения извлекая их локально: $ git remote add jessica git://github.com/jessica/myproject.git $ git fetch jessica $ git checkout -b rubyclient jessica/ruby-client Если она снова пришлёт вам письмо с указанием на новый функционал уже в другой ветке, то для его получения достаточно fetch и checkout , так как удалённый репозиторий уже подключён. Это очень полезно, когда вы постоянно работаете с этим человеком. Однако, от тех, кто редко отправляет небольшие патчи, будет проще принимать их по почте, чем требовать от всех поддержания собственных серверов с репозиториями, постоянно добавлять их как удалённые, а затем удалять и всё это ради нескольких патчей. Так же вы вряд ли захотите иметь сотни удалённых репозиториев, каждый из которых нужен только для одного или нескольких патчей. К счастью, скрипты и различные сервисы облегчают задачу, но во многом зависят от того как работаете вы и участники вашего проекта. Отличительным преимуществом данного подхода является получение истории коммитов. Хоть возникновение конфликтов слияния и закономерно, но вы знаете с какого момента это произошло; корректное трёхстороннее слияние более предпочтительно, чем указать опцию -3 и надеяться, что патч основан на коммите, к которому у вас есть доступ. Если вы с кем-то не работаете постоянно, но всё равно хотите использовать удалённый репозиторий, то можно указать ссылку на него в команде git pull . Это приведёт к однократному выполнению, а ссылка на репозиторий сохранена не будет. $ git pull https://github.com/onetimeguy/project From https://github.com/onetimeguy/project * branch HEAD -> FETCH_HEAD Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. Определение применяемых изменений На текущий момент у вас есть тематическая ветка, содержащая предоставленные изменения. Сейчас вы можете определиться что с ними делать. В этом разделе рассматривается набор команд, которые помогут вам увидеть что именно будет интегрировано, если вы решите слить изменения в основную ветку. Обычно, полезно просмотреть все коммиты текущей ветки, которые ещё не включены в основную. Вы можете исключить коммиты, которые уже есть в вашей основной ветке добавив опцию --not перед её названием. Это аналогично указанию использовавшегося ранее формата master..contrib . Например, если участник проекта отправил вам два патча, а вы создали ветку с названием contrib и применили их, то можно выполнить следующую команду: $ git log contrib --not master commit 5b6235bd297351589efc4d73316f0a68d484f118 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Fri Oct 24 09:53:59 2008 -0700 See if this helps the gem commit 7482e0d16d04bea79d0dba8988cc78df655f16a0 Author: Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> Date: Mon Oct 22 19:38:36 2008 -0700 Update gemspec to hopefully work better Для просмотра изменений, представленных в каждом коммите, можно использовать опцию -p команды git log , которая выведет разницу по каждому коммиту. Для просмотра полной разницы того, что произойдёт если вы сольёте изменения в другую ветку, вам понадобится использовать возможно странный способ для получения корректных результатов: $ git diff master Эта команда может вводить в заблуждение, но точно покажет разницу. Если ваша master ветка продвинулась вперёд с тех пор как вы создали тематическую ветку, то вы получите на первый взгляд странные результаты. Это происходит потому, что Git непосредственно сравнивает снимки последних коммитов текущей и master веток. Например, если вы добавили строку в файл в ветке master , то прямое сравнение снимков будет выглядеть как будто тематическая ветка собирается удалить эту строку. Это не проблема, если ветка master является непосредственным родителем вашей тематической ветки, но если история обоих веток изменилась, то разница будет выглядеть как добавление всех изменений из тематической ветки и удаление всего нового из master ветки. Что действительно нужно видеть, так это изменения тематической ветки, которые предстоит слить в master ветку. Это можно сделать, сказав Git сравнивать последний коммит тематической ветки с первым общим родителем для обоих веток. Технически это делается за счёт явного указания общего коммита и применения разницы к нему: $ git merge-base contrib master 36c7dba2c95e6bbb78dfa822519ecfec6e1ca649 $ git diff 36c7db или более кратко: $ git diff $(git merge-base contrib master) Однако это не удобно, поэтому Git предоставляет более короткий способ: синтаксис троеточия. При выполнении команды diff , следует поставить три точки после имени ветки для получения разницы между ней и текущей веткой, относительно общего родителя с другой веткой: $ git diff master...contrib Данная команда отобразит проделанную работу только из тематической ветки, относительно общего родителя с веткой master . Полезно запомнить указанный синтаксис. Интеграция совместной работы Когда все изменения в текущей тематической ветке готовы к интеграции с основной веткой, возникает вопрос как это сделать. Кроме этого, какой рабочий процесс вы хотите использовать при сопровождении вашего проекта? У вас несколько вариантов, давайте рассмотрим некоторые из них. Схемы слияния В простом рабочем процессе проделанная работа просто сливается в ветку master . При таком сценарии у вас есть ветка master , которая содержит стабильный код. Когда работа в тематической ветке завершена или вы проверили чью-то работу, вы сливаете её в ветку master и удаляете, затем процесс повторяется. Если в репозитории присутствуют две ветки ruby_client и php_client с проделанной работой, как показано на рисунке История с несколькими тематическими ветками , и вы сначала сливаете ветку ruby_client , а затем php_client , то состояние вашего репозитория будет выглядеть как показано на рисунке Слияние тематической ветки . Рисунок 72. История с несколькими тематическими ветками Рисунок 73. Слияние тематической ветки Это, пожалуй, простейший рабочий процесс и его использование проблематично в больших или более стабильных проектах, где вы должны быть более осторожны с предоставленными изменениями. Если у вас очень важный проект, то возможно вам стоит использовать двухступенчатый цикл слияния. При таком сценарии у вас имеются две долгоживущие ветки master и develop , где в master сливаются только очень стабильные изменения, а все новые доработки интегрируются в ветку develop . Обе ветки регулярно отправляются в публичный репозиторий. Каждый раз, когда новая тематическая ветка готова к слиянию ( Перед слиянием тематической ветки ), вы сливаете её в develop ( После слияния тематической ветки ); затем, когда вы выпускаете релиз, ветка master смещается на стабильное состояние ветки develop ( После релиза проекта ). Рисунок 74. Перед слиянием тематической ветки Рисунок 75. После слияния тематической ветки Рисунок 76. После релиза проекта Таким образом, люди могут клонировать репозиторий вашего проекта и использовать ветку master для сборки последнего стабильного состояния и получения актуальных изменений или использовать ветку develop , которая содержит самые последние изменения. Вы также можете продолжить эту концепцию, имея интеграционную ветку integrate , в которой объединяется вся работа. После того, как кодовая база указанной ветки стабильна и пройдены все тесты, она сливается в ветку develop , а после того, как стабильность слитых изменений доказана, вы перемещаете состояние ветки master на стабильное. Схема с большим количеством слияний В проекте Git присутствуют четыре долгоживущие ветки: master , next , seen (ранее pu — предложенные обновления) для новой работы и maint для поддержки обратной совместимости. Предложенные участниками проекта наработки накапливаются в тематических ветках основного репозитория по ранее описанному принципу (рис. Управление сложным набором параллельно разрабатываемых тематических веток ). На этом этапе производится оценка содержимого тематических веток, чтобы определить, работают ли предложенные фрагменты так, как положено, или им требуется доработка. Если всё в порядке, тематические ветки сливаются в ветку next , которая отправляется на сервер, чтобы у каждого была возможность опробовать результат интеграции. Рисунок 77. Управление сложным набором параллельно разрабатываемых тематических веток Если содержимое тематических веток требует доработки, оно сливается в ветку seen . Когда выясняется, что предложенный код полностью стабилен, он сливается в ветку master . Затем ветки next и seen перестраиваются на основании master . Это означает, что master практически всегда двигается только вперёд, next время от времени перебазируется, а seen перебазируется ещё чаще: Рисунок 78. Слияние тематических веток в долгоживущие ветки интеграции После того, как тематическая ветка окончательно слита в master , она удаляется из репозитория. Репозиторий также содержит ветку maint , которая ответвляется от последнего релиза для предоставления патчей, если требуется поддержка обратной совместимости. Таким образом, после клонирования проекта у вас будет четыре ветки, дающие возможность перейти на разные стадии его разработки, в зависимости от того, на сколько передовым вы хотите быть или как вы собираетесь участвовать в проекте; вместе с этим, рабочий процесс структурирован, что помогает сопровождающему проекта проверять поступающий код. Рабочий процесс проекта Git специфицирован. Для полного понимания процесса обратитесь к Git Maintainer’s guide . Схема с перебазированием и отбором Некоторые сопровождающие предпочитают перебазировать или выборочно применять (cherry-pick) изменения относительно ветки master вместо слияния, что позволяет поддерживать историю проекта в линейном виде. Когда проделанная работа из тематической ветки готова к интеграции, вы переходите на эту ветку и перебазируете её относительно ветки master (или develop и т. д.). Если конфликты отсутствуют, то вы можете просто сдвинуть состояние ветки master , что обеспечивает линейность истории проекта. Другим способом переместить предлагаемые изменений из одной ветки в другую является их отбор коммитов (cherry-pick). Отбор в Git похож на перебазирование для одного коммита. В таком случае формируется патч для выбранного коммита и применяется к текущей ветке. Это полезно, когда в тематической ветке присутствует несколько коммитов, а вы хотите взять только один из них, или в тематической ветке только один коммит и вы предпочитаете использовать отбор вместо перебазирования. Предположим, ваш проект выглядит так: Рисунок 79. Пример истории, из которой нужно отобрать отдельные коммиты Для применения коммита e43a6 к ветке master выполните команду: $ git cherry-pick e43a6 Finished one cherry-pick. [master]: created a0a41a9: "More friendly message when locking the index fails." 3 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) Это действие применит изменения, содержащиеся в коммите e43a6 , но будет сформирован новый коммит с другим значением SHA-1. После этого история будет выглядеть так: Рисунок 80. История после отбора коммита из тематической ветки Теперь тематическую ветку можно удалить, отбросив коммиты, которые вы не собираетесь включать в проект. Возможность «Rerere» Если вы часто производите перебазирование и слияние или поддерживаете долгоживущие тематические ветки, то в Git есть специальная возможность под названием «rerere», призванная вам помочь. Rerere означает «reuse recorded resolution» (повторно использовать сохранённое решение) — это способ сокращения количества операций ручного разрешения конфликтов. Когда эта опция включена, Git будет сохранять набор образов до и после успешного слияния, а также разрешать конфликты самостоятельно, если аналогичные конфликты уже были разрешены ранее. Эта возможность реализована как команда и как параметр конфигурации. Параметр конфигурации называется rerere.enabled , который можно включить глобально следующим образом: $ git config --global rerere.enabled true После этого любое разрешение конфликта слияния будет записано на случай повторного использования. Если нужно, вы можете обращаться к кэшу «rerere» напрямую, используя команду git rerere . Когда команда вызвана без параметров, Git проверяет базу данных и пытается найти решение для разрешения текущего конфликта слияния (точно так же как и при установленной настройке rerere.enabled в значение true ). Существует множество дополнительных команд для просмотра, что именно будет записано, удаления отдельных записей из кэша, а так же его полной очистки. Более детально «rerere» будет рассмотрено в разделе Rerere главы 7. Помечайте свои релизы После выпуска релиза, возможно, вы захотите пометить текущее состояние так, чтобы можно было вернуться к нему в любой момент. Для этого можно добавить тег, как было описано в главе Основы Git . Кроме этого, вы можете добавить цифровую подпись для тега, выглядеть это будет вот так: $ git tag -s v1.5 -m 'my signed 1.5 tag' You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for user: "Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com>" 1024-bit DSA key, ID F721C45A, created 2009-02-09 Если вы используете цифровую подпись при расстановке тегов, то возникает проблема распространения публичной части PGP ключа, использованного при создании подписи. Сопровождающий Git проекта может решить эту проблему добавив в репозиторий свой публичный ключ как бинарный объект и установив ссылающийся на него тег. Чтобы это сделать, выберите нужный ключ из списка доступных, который можно получить с помощью команды gpg --list-keys : $ gpg --list-keys /Users/schacon/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------------- pub 1024D/F721C45A 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] uid Scott Chacon <schacon@gmail.com> sub 2048g/45D02282 2009-02-09 [expires: 2010-02-09] Затем экспортируйте выбранный ключ и поместите его непосредственно в базу данных Git при помощи команды git hash-object , которая создаст новый объект с содержимым ключа и вернёт SHA-1 этого объекта: $ gpg -a --export F721C45A | git hash-object -w --stdin 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Теперь, когда ваш публичный ключ находится в репозитории, можно поставить указывающий на него тег, используя полученное ранее значение SHA-1: $ git tag -a maintainer-pgp-pub 659ef797d181633c87ec71ac3f9ba29fe5775b92 Выполнив команду git push --tags , maintainer-pgp-pub тег станет общедоступным. Теперь все, кто захочет проверить вашу подпись, могут импортировать ваш публичный ключ, предварительно получив его из репозитория: $ git show maintainer-pgp-pub | gpg --import После этого можно проверять цифровую подпись ваших тегов. Кроме этого, вы можете включить дополнительные инструкции по проверке вашей подписи в сообщение тега, которое будет отображаться каждый раз при вызове команды git show <tag> . Генерация номера сборки Git не использует монотонно возрастающие идентификаторы для коммитов, поэтому если вы хотите получить читаемые имена коммитов, то воспользуйтесь командой git describe для нужного коммита. Git вернёт имя ближайшего тега, количество коммитов после него и частичное значение SHA-1 для указанного коммита (с префиксом в виде буквы «g» — означает Git): $ git describe master v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c Таким образом, вы можете сделать снимок или собрать сборку и дать ей понятное для человека название. К слову, если вы клонируете репозиторий Git и соберёте его из исходного кода, то вывод команды git --version будет примерно таким же. Если попытаться получить имя коммита, которому назначен тег, то результатом будет название самого тега. По умолчанию, команда git describe поддерживает только аннотированные теги (созданные с использованием опций -a или -s ); если вы хотите использовать легковесные (не аннотированные) теги, то укажите команде параметр --tags . Также это название можно использовать при выполнении команд git checkout и git show , но в будущем они могут перестать работать из-за сокращённого значения SHA-1. К примеру, ядро Linux недавно перешло к использованию 10 символов в SHA-1 вместо 8 чтобы обеспечить уникальность каждого объекта, таким образом предыдущие результаты git describe стали недействительными. Подготовка релиза Время делать релиз сборки. Возможно, вы захотите сделать архив последнего состояния вашего кода для тех, кто не использует Git. Для создания архива выполните команду git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' | gzip > `git describe master`.tar.gz $ ls *.tar.gz v1.6.2-rc1-20-g8c5b85c.tar.gz Открывший этот tarball-архив пользователь получит последнее состояние кода проекта в каталоге project . Точно таким же способом можно создать zip-архив, просто добавив опцию --format=zip для команды git archive : $ git archive master --prefix='project/' --format=zip > `git describe master`.zip В итоге получим tarball- и zip-архивы с релизом проекта, которые можно загрузить на сайт или отправить по почте. Краткая история (Shortlog) Сейчас самое время оповестить людей из списка рассылки, которые хотят знать что происходит с вашим проектом. С помощью команды git shortlog можно быстро получить список изменений, внесённых в проект с момента последнего релиза или предыдущей рассылки. Она собирает все коммиты в заданном интервале; например, следующая команда выведет список коммитов с момента последнего релиза с названием v1.0.1: $ git shortlog --no-merges master --not v1.0.1 Chris Wanstrath (6): Add support for annotated tags to Grit::Tag Add packed-refs annotated tag support. Add Grit::Commit#to_patch Update version and History.txt Remove stray `puts` Make ls_tree ignore nils Tom Preston-Werner (4): fix dates in history dynamic version method Version bump to 1.0.2 Regenerated gemspec for version 1.0.2 И так, у вас есть готовая к отправке сводка коммитов начиная с версии v1.0.1, сгруппированных по авторам. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=hu | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://www.linkedin.com/products/freshworks-inc-freshsales/ | Freshsales | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Freshworks in Asan Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Join now Sign in Freshsales Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software by Freshworks See who's skilled in this Add as skill Get started Report this product About Freshsales provides a context-driven CRM solution for businesses of all sizes. We do this by taking a fresh approach to building and delivering an AI-driven and cost-effective omnichannel software—empowering sales teams to engage, nurture, and create delighted customers, to drive clear business results. This product is intended for Chief Revenue Officer Vice President of Sales Director of Sales And Business Development Business Development Representative Sales Development Representative Sales Executive Account Manager Account Executive Regional Business Head Head of Sales Media Products media viewer No more previous content Lead management Deal management FSA No more next content Featured customers of Freshsales Klarna Software Development 390,433 followers Kongskilde Industries Industrial Machinery Manufacturing 3,260 followers TKF (BV Twentsche Kabelfabriek) Manufacturing 11,621 followers Dunzo Technology, Information and Internet 356,114 followers Dyson Appliances, Electrical, and Electronics Manufacturing 494,915 followers Opteon AUS & NZ Real Estate 10,808 followers NorQuest College Higher Education 25,824 followers Sify Technologies Limited. Information Technology & Services 107,192 followers PharmEasy Health, Wellness & Fitness 273,281 followers Blue Nile Retail 33,285 followers Show more Show less Similar products Sales Cloud Sales Cloud Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Zoho CRM Zoho CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Bigin by Zoho CRM Bigin by Zoho CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Experian DataShare Experian DataShare Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Odoo CRM Odoo CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Clickup Clickup Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software Sign in to see more Show more Show less Freshworks products Freshchat Freshchat Live Chat Software Freshdesk Freshdesk Help Desk Software Freshdesk Omni Freshdesk Omni Help Desk Software Freshmarketer Freshmarketer Marketing Automation Software Freshservice Freshservice Service Desk Software Show more Show less LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines English (English) Language | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=en_AU | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 �� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/ko/v2/Git-%eb%b8%8c%eb%9e%9c%ec%b9%98-%eb%b8%8c%eb%9e%9c%ec%b9%98%eb%9e%80-%eb%ac%b4%ec%97%87%ec%9d%b8%ea%b0%80 | Git - 브랜치란 무엇인가 About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 시작하기 1.1 버전 관리란? 1.2 짧게 보는 Git의 역사 1.3 Git 기초 1.4 CLI 1.5 Git 설치 1.6 Git 최초 설정 1.7 도움말 보기 1.8 요약 2. Git의 기초 2.1 Git 저장소 만들기 2.2 수정하고 저장소에 저장하기 2.3 커밋 히스토리 조회하기 2.4 되돌리기 2.5 리모트 저장소 2.6 태그 2.7 Git Alias 2.8 요약 3. Git 브랜치 3.1 브랜치란 무엇인가 3.2 브랜치와 Merge 의 기초 3.3 브랜치 관리 3.4 브랜치 워크플로 3.5 리모트 브랜치 3.6 Rebase 하기 3.7 요약 4. Git 서버 4.1 프로토콜 4.2 서버에 Git 설치하기 4.3 SSH 공개키 만들기 4.4 서버 설정하기 4.5 Git 데몬 4.6 스마트 HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 또 다른 선택지, 호스팅 4.10 요약 5. 분산 환경에서의 Git 5.1 분산 환경에서의 워크플로 5.2 프로젝트에 기여하기 5.3 프로젝트 관리하기 5.4 요약 6. GitHub 6.1 계정 만들고 설정하기 6.2 GitHub 프로젝트에 기여하기 6.3 GitHub 프로젝트 관리하기 6.4 Organization 관리하기 6.5 GitHub 스크립팅 6.6 요약 7. Git 도구 7.1 리비전 조회하기 7.2 대화형 명령 7.3 Stashing과 Cleaning 7.4 내 작업에 서명하기 7.5 검색 7.6 히스토리 단장하기 7.7 Reset 명확히 알고 가기 7.8 고급 Merge 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Git으로 버그 찾기 7.11 서브모듈 7.12 Bundle 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential 저장소 7.15 요약 8. Git맞춤 8.1 Git 설정하기 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 정책 구현하기 8.5 요약 9. Git과 여타 버전 관리 시스템 9.1 Git: 범용 Client 9.2 Git으로 옮기기 9.3 요약 10. Git의 내부 10.1 Plumbing 명령과 Porcelain 명령 10.2 Git 개체 10.3 Git Refs 10.4 Packfile 10.5 Refspec 10.6 데이터 전송 프로토콜 10.7 운영 및 데이터 복구 10.8 환경변수 10.9 요약 A1. 부록 A: 다양한 환경에서 Git 사용하기 A1.1 GUI A1.2 Visual Studio A1.3 Eclipse A1.4 Bash A1.5 Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 요약 A2. 부록 B: 애플리케이션에 Git 넣기 A2.1 Git 명령어 A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A3. 부록 C: Git 명령어 A3.1 설치와 설정 A3.2 프로젝트 가져오기와 생성하기 A3.3 스냅샷 다루기 A3.4 Branch와 Merge A3.5 공유하고 업데이트하기 A3.6 보기와 비교 A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patch 하기 A3.9 Email A3.10 다른 버전 관리 시스템 A3.11 관리 A3.12 Plumbing 명령어 2nd Edition 3.1 Git 브랜치 - 브랜치란 무엇인가 모든 버전 관리 시스템은 브랜치를 지원한다. 개발을 하다 보면 코드를 여러 개로 복사해야 하는 일이 자주 생긴다. 코드를 통째로 복사하고 나서 원래 코드와는 상관없이 독립적으로 개발을 진행할 수 있는데, 이렇게 독립적으로 개발하는 것이 브랜치다. 사람들은 브랜치 모델이 Git의 최고의 장점이라고, Git이 다른 것들과 구분되는 특징이라고 말한다. 당최 어떤 점이 그렇게 특별한 것일까. Git의 브랜치는 매우 가볍다. 순식간에 브랜치를 새로 만들고 브랜치 사이를 이동할 수 있다. 다른 버전 관리 시스템과는 달리 Git은 브랜치를 만들어 작업하고 나중에 Merge 하는 방법을 권장한다. 심지어 하루에 수십 번씩해도 괜찮다. Git 브랜치에 능숙해지면 개발 방식이 완전히 바뀌고 다른 도구를 사용할 수 없게 된다. 브랜치란 무엇인가 Git이 브랜치를 다루는 과정을 이해하려면 우선 Git이 데이터를 어떻게 저장하는지 알아야 한다. Git은 데이터를 Change Set이나 변경사항(Diff)으로 기록하지 않고 일련의 스냅샷으로 기록한다는 것을 시작하기 에서 보여줬다. 커밋하면 Git은 현 Staging Area에 있는 데이터의 스냅샷에 대한 포인터, 저자나 커밋 메시지 같은 메타데이터, 이전 커밋에 대한 포인터 등을 포함하는 커밋 개체(커밋 Object)를 저장한다. 이전 커밋 포인터가 있어서 현재 커밋이 무엇을 기준으로 바뀌었는지를 알 수 있다. 최초 커밋을 제외한 나머지 커밋은 이전 커밋 포인터가 적어도 하나씩 있고 브랜치를 합친 Merge 커밋 같은 경우에는 이전 커밋 포인터가 여러 개 있다. 파일이 3개 있는 디렉토리가 하나 있고 이 파일을 Staging Area에 저장하고 커밋하는 예제를 살펴 보자. 파일을 Stage 하면 Git 저장소에 파일을 저장하고(Git은 이것을 Blob이라고 부른다) Staging Area에 해당 파일의 체크섬을 저장한다( 시작하기 에서 살펴본 SHA-1을 사용한다). $ git add README test.rb LICENSE $ git commit -m 'The initial commit of my project' git commit 으로 커밋하면 먼저 루트 디렉토리와 각 하위 디렉토리의 트리 개체를 체크섬과 함께 저장소에 저장한다. 그다음에 커밋 개체를 만들고 메타데이터와 루트 디렉토리 트리 개체를 가리키는 포인터 정보를 커밋 개체에 넣어 저장한다. 그래서 필요하면 언제든지 스냅샷을 다시 만들 수 있다. 이 작업을 마치고 나면 Git 저장소에는 다섯 개의 데이터 개체가 생긴다. 각 파일에 대한 Blob 세 개, 파일과 디렉토리 구조가 들어 있는 트리 개체 하나, 메타데이터와 루트 트리를 가리키는 포인터가 담긴 커밋 개체 하나이다. 그림 9. 커밋과 트리 데이터 다시 파일을 수정하고 커밋하면 이전 커밋이 무엇인지도 저장한다. 그림 10. 커밋과 이전 커밋 Git의 브랜치는 커밋 사이를 가볍게 이동할 수 있는 어떤 포인터 같은 것이다. 기본적으로 Git은 master 브랜치를 만든다. 처음 커밋하면 이 master 브랜치가 생성된 커밋을 가리킨다. 이후 커밋을 만들면 master 브랜치는 자동으로 가장 마지막 커밋을 가리킨다. 노트 Git 버전 관리 시스템에서 “master” 브랜치는 특별하지 않다. 다른 브랜치와 다른 것이 없다. 다만 모든 저장소에서 “master” 브랜치가 존재하는 이유는 git init 명령으로 초기화할 때 자동으로 만들어진 이 브랜치를 애써 다른 이름으로 변경하지 않기 때문이다. 그림 11. 브랜치와 커밋 히스토리 새 브랜치 생성하기 브랜치를 하나 새로 만들면 어떨까. 브랜치를 하나 만들어서 놀자. 아래와 같이 git branch 명령으로 testing 브랜치를 만든다. $ git branch testing 새로 만든 브랜치도 지금 작업하고 있던 마지막 커밋을 가리킨다. 그림 12. 한 커밋 히스토리를 가리키는 두 브랜치 지금 작업 중인 브랜치가 무엇인지 Git은 어떻게 파악할까. 다른 버전 관리 시스템과는 달리 Git은 'HEAD’라는 특수한 포인터가 있다. 이 포인터는 지금 작업하는 로컬 브랜치를 가리킨다. 브랜치를 새로 만들었지만, Git은 아직 master 브랜치를 가리키고 있다. git branch 명령은 브랜치를 만들기만 하고 브랜치를 옮기지 않는다. 그림 13. 현재 작업 중인 브랜치를 가리키는 HEAD git log 명령에 --decorate 옵션을 사용하면 쉽게 브랜치가 어떤 커밋을 가리키는지도 확인할 수 있다. $ git log --oneline --decorate f30ab (HEAD -> master, testing) add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the central interface 34ac2 Fixed bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions 98ca9 The initial commit of my project “master” 와 “testing” 이라는 브랜치가 f30ab 커밋 옆에 위치하여 이런식으로 브랜치가 가리키는 커밋을 확인할 수 있다. 브랜치 이동하기 git checkout 명령으로 다른 브랜치로 이동할 수 있다. 한번 testing 브랜치로 바꿔보자. $ git checkout testing 이렇게 하면 HEAD는 testing 브랜치를 가리킨다. 그림 14. HEAD는 testing 브랜치를 가리킴 자, 이제 핵심이 보일 거다! 커밋을 새로 한 번 해보자. $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made a change' 그림 15. HEAD가 가리키는 testing 브랜치가 새 커밋을 가리킴 이 부분이 흥미롭다. 새로 커밋해서 testing 브랜치는 앞으로 이동했다. 하지만, master 브랜치는 여전히 이전 커밋을 가리킨다. master 브랜치로 되돌아가보자. $ git checkout master 그림 16. HEAD가 Checkout 한 브랜치로 이동함 방금 실행한 명령이 한 일은 두 가지다. master 브랜치가 가리키는 커밋을 HEAD가 가리키게 하고 워킹 디렉토리의 파일도 그 시점으로 되돌려 놓았다. 앞으로 커밋을 하면 다른 브랜치의 작업들과 별개로 진행되기 때문에 testing 브랜치에서 임시로 작업하고 원래 master 브랜치로 돌아와서 하던 일을 계속할 수 있다. 노트 브랜치를 이동하면 워킹 디렉토리의 파일이 변경된다 브랜치를 이동하면 워킹 디렉토리의 파일이 변경된다는 점을 기억해두어야 한다. 이전에 작업했던 브랜치로 이동하면 워킹 디렉토리의 파일은 그 브랜치에서 가장 마지막으로 했던 작업 내용으로 변경된다. 파일 변경시 문제가 있어 브랜치를 이동시키는게 불가능한 경우 Git은 브랜치 이동 명령을 수행하지 않는다. 파일을 수정하고 다시 커밋을 해보자. $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made other changes' 프로젝트 히스토리는 분리돼 진행한다( 갈라지는 브랜치 ). 우리는 브랜치를 하나 만들어 그 브랜치에서 일을 좀 하고, 다시 원래 브랜치로 되돌아와서 다른 일을 했다. 두 작업 내용은 서로 독립적으로 각 브랜치에 존재한다. 커밋 사이를 자유롭게 이동하다가 때가 되면 두 브랜치를 Merge 한다. 간단히 branch , checkout , commit 명령을 써서 말이다. 그림 17. 갈라지는 브랜치 git log 명령으로 쉽게 확인할 수 있다. 현재 브랜치가 가리키고 있는 히스토리가 무엇이고 어떻게 갈라져 나왔는지 보여준다. git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all 이라고 실행하면 히스토리를 출력한다. $ git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all * c2b9e (HEAD, master) made other changes | * 87ab2 (testing) made a change |/ * f30ab add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the * 34ac2 fixed bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions * 98ca9 initial commit of my project 실제로 Git의 브랜치는 어떤 한 커밋을 가리키는 40글자의 SHA-1 체크섬 파일에 불과하기 때문에 만들기도 쉽고 지우기도 쉽다. 새로 브랜치를 하나 만드는 것은 41바이트 크기의 파일을(40자와 줄 바꿈 문자) 하나 만드는 것에 불과하다. 브랜치가 필요할 때 프로젝트를 통째로 복사해야 하는 다른 버전 관리 도구와 Git의 차이는 극명하다. 통째로 복사하는 작업은 프로젝트 크기에 따라 다르겠지만 수십 초에서 수십 분까지 걸린다. 그에 비해 Git은 순식간이다. 게다가 커밋을 할 때마다 이전 커밋의 정보를 저장하기 때문에 Merge 할 때 어디서부터(Merge Base) 합쳐야 하는지 안다. 이런 특징은 개발자들이 수시로 브랜치를 만들어 사용하게 한다. 이제 왜 그렇게 브랜치를 수시로 만들고 사용해야 하는지 알아보자. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. 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https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=cs | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/fr/v2/Git-sur-le-serveur-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Démarrage rapide 1.1 À propos de la gestion de version 1.2 Une rapide histoire de Git 1.3 Rudiments de Git 1.4 La ligne de commande 1.5 Installation de Git 1.6 Paramétrage à la première utilisation de Git 1.7 Obtenir de l’aide 1.8 Résumé 2. Les bases de Git 2.1 Démarrer un dépôt Git 2.2 Enregistrer des modifications dans le dépôt 2.3 Visualiser l’historique des validations 2.4 Annuler des actions 2.5 Travailler avec des dépôts distants 2.6 Étiquetage 2.7 Les alias Git 2.8 Résumé 3. Les branches avec Git 3.1 Les branches en bref 3.2 Branches et fusions : les bases 3.3 Gestion des branches 3.4 Travailler avec les branches 3.5 Branches de suivi à distance 3.6 Rebaser (Rebasing) 3.7 Résumé 4. Git sur le serveur 4.1 Protocoles 4.2 Installation de Git sur un serveur 4.3 Génération des clés publiques SSH 4.4 Mise en place du serveur 4.5 Démon (Daemon) Git 4.6 HTTP intelligent 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git hébergé 4.10 Résumé 5. Git distribué 5.1 Développements distribués 5.2 Contribution à un projet 5.3 Maintenance d’un projet 5.4 Résumé 6. GitHub 6.1 Configuration et paramétrage d’un compte 6.2 Contribution à un projet 6.3 Maintenance d’un projet 6.4 Gestion d’un regroupement 6.5 Écriture de scripts pour GitHub 6.6 Résumé 7. Utilitaires Git 7.1 Sélection des versions 7.2 Indexation interactive 7.3 Remisage et nettoyage 7.4 Signer votre travail 7.5 Recherche 7.6 Réécrire l’historique 7.7 Reset démystifié 7.8 Fusion avancée 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Déboguer avec Git 7.11 Sous-modules 7.12 Empaquetage (bundling) 7.13 Replace 7.14 Stockage des identifiants 7.15 Résumé 8. Personnalisation de Git 8.1 Configuration de Git 8.2 Attributs Git 8.3 Crochets Git 8.4 Exemple de politique gérée par Git 8.5 Résumé 9. Git et les autres systèmes 9.1 Git comme client 9.2 Migration vers Git 9.3 Résumé 10. Les tripes de Git 10.1 Plomberie et porcelaine 10.2 Les objets de Git 10.3 Références Git 10.4 Fichiers groupés 10.5 La refspec 10.6 Les protocoles de transfert 10.7 Maintenance et récupération de données 10.8 Les variables d’environnement 10.9 Résumé A1. Annexe A: Git dans d’autres environnements A1.1 Interfaces graphiques A1.2 Git dans Visual Studio A1.3 Git dans Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git dans IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git dans Sublime Text A1.6 Git dans Bash A1.7 Git dans Zsh A1.8 Git dans PowerShell A1.9 Résumé A2. Annexe B: Embarquer Git dans vos applications A2.1 Git en ligne de commande A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Commandes Git A3.1 Installation et configuration A3.2 Obtention et création des projets A3.3 Capture d’instantané basique A3.4 Création de branches et fusion A3.5 Partage et mise à jour de projets A3.6 Inspection et comparaison A3.7 Débogage A3.8 Patchs A3.9 Courriel A3.10 Systèmes externes A3.11 Administration A3.12 Commandes de plomberie 2nd Edition 4.8 Git sur le serveur - GitLab GitLab GitWeb reste tout de même simpliste. Si vous cherchez un serveur Git plus moderne et complet, il existe quelques solutions libres pertinentes. Comme GitLab est un des plus populaires, nous allons prendre son installation et son utilisation comme exemple. Cette solution est plus complexe que l’option GitWeb et demandera indubitablement plus de maintenance, mais elle est aussi plus complète. Installation GitLab est une application web reposant sur une base de données, ce qui rend son installation un peu plus lourde que certains autres serveurs Git. Celle-ci est heureusement très bien documentée et supportée. GitLab recommande fortement d’installer GitLab sur votre serveur via le paquet officiel Omnibus GitLab. Les autres options d’installation de GitLab sont : GitLab Helm chart, pour une utilisation avec Kubernetes, des paquets GitLab dockerisés pour une utilisation dans Docker, depuis les fichiers source, Avec un fournisseur Cloud tel que AWS, Google Cloud Platform, Azure, OpenShift et Digital Ocean. Pour de plus amples informations, référez-vous au readme de GitLab Community Edition (CE) . Administration L’interface d’administration de GitLab passe par le web. Pointez simplement votre navigateur sur le nom d’hôte ou l’adresse IP où GitLab est hébergé et identifiez-vous comme administrateur. L’utilisateur par défaut est admin@local.host et le mot de passe par défaut est 5iveL!fe (qu’il vous sera demandé de changer dès la première connexion). Une fois identifié, cliquez sur l’icône « Admin area » dans le menu en haut à droite. Figure 50. L’entrée « Admin area » dans le menu GitLab. Utilisateurs Les utilisateurs dans GitLab sont des comptes qui correspondent à des personnes. Les comptes utilisateurs ne sont pas très complexes ; ce sont principalement des collections d’informations personnelles rattachées à chaque information d’identification. Chaque compte utilisateur fournit un espace de nommage , qui est un rassemblement logique des projets appartenant à cet utilisateur. Si l’utilisateur jane a un projet appelé projet, l’URL du projet est https://serveur/jane/projet . Figure 51. L’écran d’administration des utilisateurs GitLab. Il existe deux manières de supprimer un utilisateur. Bloquer ( Blocking ) un utilisateur l’empêche de s’identifier sur l’instance Gitlab, mais toutes les données sous l’espace de nom de cet utilisateur sont préservées, et les commits signés avec l’adresse courriel de cet utilisateur renverront à son profil. Détruire ( Destroying ) un utilisateur, par contre, l’efface complètement de la base de données et du système de fichiers. Tous les projets et les données situées dans son espace de nom sont effacés et tous les groupes qui lui appartiennent sont aussi effacés. Il s’agit clairement d’une action plus destructive et permanente, et son usage est assez rare. Groupes Un groupe GitLab est un assemblage de projets, accompagné des informations de droits d’accès à ces projets. Chaque groupe a un espace de nom de projet (de la même manière que les utilisateurs), donc si le groupe formation a un projet matériel, son URL sera https://serveur/formation/matériel . Figure 52. L’écran d’administration des groupes GitLab. Chaque groupe est associé à des utilisateurs, dont chacun dispose d’un niveau de permissions sur les projets du groupe et sur le groupe lui-même. Ces niveaux s’échelonnent de invité : Guest (tickets et discussions seulement) à propriétaire : Owner (contrôle complet du groupe, ses membres et ses projets). Les types de permissions sont trop nombreux pour être énumérés ici, mais GitLab fournit un lien très utile sur son écran d’administration. Projets Un projet GitLab correspond grossièrement à un dépôt Git unique. Tous les projets appartiennent à un espace de nom unique, que ce soit un utilisateur ou un groupe. Si le projet appartient à un utilisateur, le propriétaire du projet contrôle directement les droits d’accès au projet ; si le projet appartient à un groupe, le niveau de permission de l’utilisateur pour le groupe est aussi pris en compte. Tous les projets ont un niveau de visibilité qui permet de contrôler qui a accès en lecture aux pages et au dépôt de ce projet. Si un projet est privé ( Private ), l’accès au projet doit être explicitement accordé par le propriétaire du projet à chaque utilisateur. Un projet interne ( Internal ) est visible par tout utilisateur identifié, et un projet public ( Public ) est un projet visible par tout le monde. Notez que ces droits contrôlent aussi bien les accès pour git fetch que les accès à l’interface utilisateur web du projet. Crochets ( Hooks ) GitLab inclut le support pour les crochets, tant au niveau projet que système. Pour ces deux niveaux, le serveur GitLab lance des requêtes HTTP POST contenant un JSON de description lorsque certains événements précis arrivent. C’est une excellent moyen de connecter vos dépôts Git et votre instance GitLab avec le reste de vos automatisations de développement, telles que serveurs d’intégration continue, forum de discussion et outils de déploiement. Usage de base La première chose à faire avec GitLab est de créer un nouveau projet. Pour cela, il suffit de cliquer sur l’icône + sur la barre d’outils. On vous demande le nom du projet, à quel espace de nom il appartient, et son niveau de visibilité. La plupart des configurations demandées ici ne sont pas permanentes et peuvent être réajustées plus tard grâce à l’interface de paramétrage. Cliquez sur Create Project pour achever la création. Une fois le projet créé, on peut le connecter à un dépôt Git local. Chaque projet est accessible sur HTTPS ou SSH, qui peuvent donc être utilisés pour un dépôt distant. Les URLs sont visibles en haut de la page du projet. Pour un dépôt local existant, cette commande crée un dépôt distant nommé gitlab pointant vers l’hébergement distant : $ git remote add gitlab https://serveur/espace_de_nom/projet.git Si vous n’avez pas de copie locale du dépôt, vous pouvez simplement taper ceci : $ git clone https://serveur/espace_de_nom/projet.git L’interface utilisateur web donne accès à différentes vues utiles du dépôt lui-même. La page d’accueil de chaque projet montre l’activité récente et des liens alignés en haut vous mènent aux fichiers du projet et au journal des commits . Coopérer Le moyen le plus simple de coopérer sur un projet GitLab consiste à donner à un autre utilisateur un accès direct en écriture sur le dépôt Git. Vous pouvez ajouter un utilisateur à un projet en sélectionnant la section Members des paramètres du projet et en associant le nouvel utilisateur à un niveau d’accès (les différents niveaux d’accès sont abordés dans Groupes ). En donnant un niveau d’accès Developer ou plus à un utilisateur, cet utilisateur peut pousser des commits et des branches directement sur le dépôt sans restriction. Un autre moyen plus découplé de collaborer est d’utiliser des requêtes de tirage ( pull request ). Cette fonction permet à n’importe quel utilisateur qui peut voir le projet d’y contribuer de manière contrôlée. Les utilisateurs avec un accès direct peuvent simplement créer une branche, pousser des commits dessus et ouvrir une requête de tirage depuis leur branche vers master ou toute autre branche. Les utilisateurs qui n’ont pas la permission de pousser sur un dépôt peuvent en faire un fork (créer leur propre copie), pousser des commits sur cette copie et ouvrir une requête de tirage depuis leur fork vers le projet principal. Ce modèle permet au propriétaire de garder le contrôle total sur ce qui entre dans le dépôt et quand, tout en autorisant les contributions des utilisateurs non fiables. Les requêtes de fusion ( merge requests ) et les problèmes ( issues ) sont les principaux moyens pour mener des discussions au long cours dans GitLab. Chaque requête de fusion permet une discussion ligne par ligne sur les modifications proposées (qui permettent une sorte de revue de code légère), ainsi qu’un fil de discussion général. Requêtes de fusion et problèmes peuvent être assignés à des utilisateurs ou assemblés en jalons ( milestones ). Cette section se concentre principalement sur les parties de GitLab dédiées à Git, mais c’est un système assez mature qui fournit beaucoup d’autres fonctions qui peuvent aider votre équipe à coopérer. Parmi celles-ci figurent les wikis, les murs de discussion et des outils de maintenance du système. Un des bénéfices de GitLab est que, une fois le serveur paramétré et en marche, vous n’aurez pas besoin de bricoler un fichier de configuration ou d’accéder au serveur via SSH ; la plupart des tâches générales ou d’administration peuvent se réaliser à travers l’interface web. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
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https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=my | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English (United States)) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play�� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=ja | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 P | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=es_UY | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 � | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://telegram.org/dl?tme=6ab38df4f7afe6f219_187774606685152867 | Telegram Applications English Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands O‘zbek Polski Português (Brasil) Türkçe Беларуская Русский Українська Қазақша العربية فارسی 한국어 Twitter Home FAQ Apps API Moderation Telegram Applications Telegram apps are open source and support reproducible builds . Anyone can independently verify that Telegram apps you download from App Store or Google Play were built using the exact same code that we publish. Mobile apps Telegram for Android Telegram for iPhone and iPad Desktop apps Telegram for Windows/Mac/Linux Telegram for macOS Web apps Telegram WebK Telegram WebA Telegram Database Library (TDLib) TDLib – a cross-platform client designed to facilitate creating custom apps on the Telegram platform. Telegram X for Android – a slick experimental Telegram client based on TDLib. Unofficial apps Unigram, a client optimized for Windows (based on TDLib ) Telegram CLI for Linux MadelineProto Source code This code allows security researchers to fully evaluate our end-to-end encryption implementation . It is also possible to independently verify that Telegram apps available on Google Play and App Store are built using the same code that we publish on GitHub. Telegram Database Library Cross-platform library for building custom Telegram apps, see TDLib for details. Licensed under Boost 1.0 . GitHub » Telegram for Android Official Android App, see Google Play Market page for full description. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 2 or later . GitHub » Download APK File » Telegram for iOS Licensed under GNU GPL v. 2 or later . GitHub » Telegram for macOS Native macOS client. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 2 . GitHub » Telegram for Web browsers Telegram Web, Version K . Mac, Windows, Linux, Mobile. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 3 . GitHub » Telegram Web, Version A . Mac, Windows, Linux, Mobile. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 3 . GitHub » Legacy JavaScript client . Mac, Windows, Linux. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 3 . GitHub » Telegram React JavaScript client for browsers. Mac, Windows, Linux. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 3 . GitHub » Telegram Desktop Qt-based desktop client. Mac, Windows, Linux. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 3 . GitHub » Telegram for WP Licensed under GNU GPL v. 2 or later . GitHub » Telegram X for Android Alternative Telegram client for Android based on TDLib. Licensed under GPL v.3.0 GitHub » Unofficial apps Telegram CLI (Unofficial) Linux Command-line interface for Telegram. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 2 . GitHub » Unigram (Unofficial) A Telegram client optimized for Windows. Licensed under GNU GPL v. 3 or later . GitHub » MadelineProto (Unofficial) A PHP MTProto Telegram client. Licensed under GNU AGPL v. 3 . GitHub » Bug Bounty Program Telegram welcomes developers and the security research community to audit its services, code and protocol seeking vulnerabilities or security-related issues. Learn more about our Bug Bounty Program here . Telegram Telegram is a cloud-based mobile and desktop messaging app with a focus on security and speed. About FAQ Privacy Press Mobile Apps iPhone/iPad Android Mobile Web Desktop Apps PC/Mac/Linux macOS Web-browser Platform API Translations Instant View About Blog Press Moderation | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=ne | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상�� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/tr/v2/Git-Dallar%c4%b1-Dallar | Git - Dallar About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Başlangıç 1.1 Sürüm Denetimi 1.2 Git’in Kısa Tarihçesi 1.3 Git Nedir? 1.4 Komut Satırı 1.5 Git’i Yüklemek 1.6 Git’i İlk Defa Kurmak 1.7 Yardım Almak 1.8 Özet 2. Git Temelleri 2.1 Bir Git Reposu Oluşturma/Kopyalama 2.2 Değişikliklerin Repoya Kaydedilmesi 2.3 Katkı Geçmişini Görüntüleme 2.4 Değişiklikleri Geri Alma 2.5 Uzak Repo ile Çalışmak 2.6 Etiketleme 2.7 Komut Kısayolu (Alias) Ayarlama 2.8 Özet 3. Git Dalları 3.1 Dallar 3.2 Kısaca Dallandırma ve Birleştirme Temelleri 3.3 Dal Yönetimi 3.4 İş Akışı Dallandırması 3.5 Uzak Dallar 3.6 Yeniden Temelleme (rebase) 3.7 Özet 4. Bir Sunucuda Git Kurma 4.1 İletişim Kuralları (Protocols) 4.2 Bir Sunucuda Git Kurma 4.3 SSH Ortak Anahtarınızı Oluşturma 4.4 Sunucu Kurma 4.5 Git Cini (Daemon) 4.6 Akıllı HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Üçüncü Taraf Barındırma (Hosting) Seçenekleri 4.10 Özet 5. Dağıtık Git 5.1 Dağıtık İş Akışları 5.2 Projenin Gelişiminde Rol Almak 5.3 Bir Projeyi Yürütme 5.4 Özet 6. GitHub 6.1 Bir Projeye Katkıda Bulunmak 6.2 Proje Bakımı 6.3 Kurumsal Yönetim 6.4 GitHub’ı otomatikleştirme 6.5 Özet 7. Git Araçları 7.1 Düzeltme Seçimi 7.2 Etkileşimli İzlemleme (Staging) 7.3 Saklama ve Silme 7.4 Çalışmanızı İmzalama 7.5 Arama 7.6 Geçmişi Yeniden Yazma 7.7 Reset Komutunun Gizemleri 7.8 İleri Seviye Birleştirme 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Git’le Hata Ayıklama 7.11 Alt Modüller 7.12 Demetleme (Bundling) 7.13 Git Nesnesini Değiştirme 7.14 Kimlik Bilgisi Depolama 7.15 Özet 8. Git’i Özelleştirmek 8.1 Git Yapılandırması 8.2 Git Nitelikleri 8.3 Git Kancaları (Hooks) 8.4 Bir Örnek: Mecburi Git Politikası 8.5 Özet 9. Git ve Diğer Sistemler 9.1 İstemci Olarak Git 9.2 Git’e Geçiş 9.3 Özet 10. Dahili Git Ögeleri 10.1 Tesisat ve Döşeme (Plumbing ve Porcelain) 10.2 Git Nesneleri 10.3 Git Referansları 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protokolleri 10.7 Bakım ve Veri Kurtarma 10.8 Ortam Değişkenleri 10.9 Özet A1. Ek bölüm A: Diğer Ortamlarda Git A1.1 Görsel Arayüzler A1.2 Visual Studio ile Git A1.3 Visual Studio Code ile Git A1.4 Eclipse ile Git A1.5 Sublime Text ile Git A1.6 Bash ile Git A1.7 Zsh ile Git A1.8 PowerShell ile Git A1.9 Özet A2. Ek bölüm B: Git’i Uygulamalarınıza Gömmek A2.1 Git Komut Satırı A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Ek bölüm C: Git Komutları A3.1 Kurulum ve Yapılandırma Komutları A3.2 Proje Oluşturma Komutları A3.3 Kısaca Poz (Snapshot) Alma A3.4 Dallandırma ve Birleştirme Komutları A3.5 Projeleri Paylaşma ve Güncelleme Komutları A3.6 İnceleme ve Karşılaştırma Komutları A3.7 Hata Ayıklama (Debugging) Komutları A3.8 Yamalama (Patching) A3.9 E-Posta Komutları A3.10 Harici Sistemler A3.11 Yönetim A3.12 Tesisat (Plumbing) Komutları 2nd Edition 3.1 Git Dalları - Dallar Neredeyse her sürüm kontrol sisteminin (VCS) bir tür dal desteği vardır. Dal oluşturmak, ana geliştirme hattından ayrılıp, bu ana hatla oynamadan çalışmalarımıza devam etmek anlamına gelir. Birçok sürüm kontrol sistemi aracında bu, genellikle kaynak kodu dizininin yeni bir kopyasını oluşturmanızı gerektiren ve büyük projeler için uzun zaman alabilen, maliyetli bir süreçtir. Bazı insanlar Git’in dalma modelini "ölümcül özellik" olarak adlandırır ve kuşkusuz Git’i VCS topluluğunda öne çıkarır. Peki bu neden bu kadar özeldir? Git’in dallanma şekli son derece hafiftir, bu da dallandırma işlemlerinin neredeyse anlık hale gelmesini sağlar ve genellikle dallar arasında hızlı bir şekilde geçiş yapılabilir. Diğer birçok sürüm kontrol sisteminin aksine, Git iş akışlarında sık sık dal açma ve birleştirmeyi teşvik eder, hatta gün içerisinde bir çok kez. Bu özelliği anlamak ve ustalaşmak size güçlü ve benzersiz bir araç sağlar ve geliştirme şeklinizi tamamen değiştirebilir. Dallar Git’in dallanma yöntemini gerçekten anlamak için bir adım geriye çekilip Git’in verileri nasıl sakladığını incelememiz gerekiyor. Başlangıç bölümünden hatırlayabileceğiniz gibi Git, verileri bir dizi değişiklik veya farklılık olarak değil, bir dizi poz olarak saklar. Git, bir katkı işlediğinizde, izleme (stage) aldığınız içeriğin pozunun işaretçisini içeren bir katkı nesnesi saklar. Bu nesne aynı zamanda yazarın adını ve e-posta adresini, katkı mesajını ve öncel katkı veya katkılara ilişkin işaretçileri içerir. İlk katkı (first commit) için sıfır; normal bir katkı için bir; ve birden fazla dalın birleşmesinden kaynaklanan bir katkı içinse çoklu öncel katkı bulunur. Bunu görselleştirmek için, üç dosya içeren bir dizine sahip olduğumuzu ve bunların hepsini izleme alıp, katkı olarak işlediğinizi varsayalım. Dosyaları izlemlemek, her bir dosya için bir sağlama toplamı (checksum) hesaplar ( Başlangıç bölümünde bahsettiğimiz SHA-1 karması), dosyanın bu sürümünü Git reposunda saklar (Git bunlara blobs olarak atıfta bulunur)(Binary Large OBject: ikilik geniş nesne), ve bu sağlama toplamını izlem alanına ekler: $ git add README test.rb LICENSE $ git commit -m 'The initial commit of my project' git commit komutunu çalıştırarak bir katkı oluşturduğunuzda, Git her alt dizinin (bu durumda sadece kök (root) proje dizini) doğrular ve bunları Git reposunda bir ağaç nesnesi (tree object) olarak saklar. Git daha sonra meta verileri ve kök proje ağacının işaretçisini içeren bir katkı nesnesi oluşturur. Böylece gerektiğinde pozu yeniden oluşturabilir. Git reponuz artık beş nesne içeriyor: - Her biri üç dosyadan birinin içeriğini temsil eden üç blob - Dizinin içeriğini ve hangi dosya adlarının hangi blob olarak depolandığını listeleyen bir ağaç - Kök ağacın işaretçisini ve tüm katkı metaverisini içeren bir katkı Görsel 9. Bir katkı ve onun ağacı Eğer bazı değişiklikler yaparsanız ve tekrar katkı olarak işlerseniz, sonraki katkı, kendinden hemen önceki katkıya işaret eden bir işaretçiyi depolar. Görsel 10. Katkı ve öncel katkılar Git’teki bir dal, temel olarak üzerindeki katkılardan birinin hafif ve taşınabilir bir işaretçisidir. Git’te varsayılan dal master adıyla ifade edilir (anadal). Katkıları işlemeye başladığınızda, en son işlediğiniz katkıyı gösteren bir master dalı alırsınız. Her katkı işlediğinizde, master dalı işaretçisi otomatik olarak ileri hareket eder. Not Git’teki master dalı özel bir dal değildir. Tam olarak diğer diğer dallar gibi davranır. Hemen hemen her repoda bulunmasının tek nedeni, git init komutunun varsayılan olarak onu oluşturması ve çoğu insanın bunu değiştirmeye uğraşmamasıdır. Görsel 11. Bir dal ve katkı geçmişi Yeni bir Dal Açma Yeni bir dal oluşturduğunuzda ne olur? Öncelikle, bu size etrafında dolaşabileceğiniz yeni bir işaretçi oluşturur. Diyelim ki testing adında yeni bir dal oluşturmak istiyorsunuz. Bunu git branch komutu ile yaparsınız: $ git branch testing Bu, şu anda işlediğiniz katkı için yeni bir işaretçi oluşturur. Görsel 12. Aynı katkı dizisine işaret eden iki dal Git, şu anda hangi dalda olduğunuzu nasıl bilir? Bunu HEAD adlı özel bir işaretçiyi kullanarak yapar. Yalnız bu Subversion veya CVS gibi alışkın olduğunuz diğer sürüm denetleyicilerindeki (VCS) HEAD kavramından çok farklıdır. Git’te bu, şu anda üzerinde çalıştığınız yerel dalın bir işaretçisidir. Mevcut senaryomuzda halen master dalındasınız. git branch komutu sadece yeni bir dal oluşturdu ama henüz o dala geçiş yapmadı. Görsel 13. Bir dala işaret eden HEAD Dal işaretçilerinin nereye işaret ettiğini görmek için en basitinden bir git log komutu çalıştırabilirsiniz. Bu seçenek, --decorate olarak adlandırılır. $ git log --oneline --decorate f30ab (HEAD -> master, testing) add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the central interface 34ac2 Fixed bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions 98ca9 The initial commit of my project f30ab katkısının hemen yanında master ve testing dallarını görebilirsiniz. Dallararası Geçiş Var olan bir dala geçmek için git checkout komutunu çalıştırırsınız. Hadi yeni oluşturduğumuz testing dalına geçelim: $ git checkout testing Bu komut HEAD işaretçisinin yönünü testing dalına çevirir. Görsel 14. Mevcut dalı gösteren HEAD işaretçisi Peki bunun önemi nedir? Hadi şimdi başka bir katkı işleyelim: $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made a change' Görsel 15. Bir katkı işlendiğinde HEAD 'in işaret ettiği dal ileriye doğru hareket eder. İlginç bir şekilde, testing dalınız ileri hareket etti ancak master dalınız halen en son bıraktığımız halde ( testing dalına geçiş yaptığınız anda üzerinde bulunduğunuz katkıya işaret ediyor). Hadi master dalımıza tekrar geçelim: $ git checkout master Görsel 16. Başka dala geçtiğinizde (git checkout) HEAD’in yönü değişir Bu komut iki şey yaptı: İlk olarak, HEAD işaretçisini tekrar master dalına çevirdi ve ikinci olarak, çalışma dizinindeki dosyaları master 'ın işaret ettiği poza geri dönderdi. Bu aynı zamanda, şu andan itibaren yapacağınız değişikliklerin projenin eski bir sürümünden sapacağı anlamına gelir. Bu testing dalındaki yaptığınız çalışmayı geri sararak daha farklı bir yöne gidebilmenizi sağlar. Not Dallar arasında geçiş yapmak çalışma dizinindeki dosyaları değiştirir Git’te dallar arasında geçiş yaparken, çalışma dizininizdeki dosyaların değişeceğini unutmamalısınız! Eğer daha eski bir dala geçerseniz, çalışma dizininiz o dalda son katkı işlediğiniz ana geri döner. Eğer Git bunu temiz bir şekilde gerçekleştiremezse, geçiş yapmanıza hiç izin vermez. Hadi bir kaç değişiklik yapalım ve katkı işleyelim: $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made other changes' Şimdi projenizin geçmişi sapmış durumda (bakınız Ayrık geçmiş (Divergent history) ). Bir dal oluşturdunuz, ona geçtiniz, üzerinde çalıştınız, ardından ana dalınıza geri döndünüz ve bambaşka bir iş yaptınız. Her iki değişiklik farklı dallarda yalıtılmış durumdadır: Dallar arasında geçiş yapabilirsiniz ve istediğinizde onları birleştirebilecek durumdasınız. Bunların hepsini basit branch , checkout ve commit komutları ile yaptınız. Görsel 17. Ayrık geçmiş (Divergent history) Bu durumu git log komutuyla kolayca görebilirsiniz. Eğer git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all komutunu çalıştırırsanız; katkı geçmişiniz, dal işaretçilerinin nereye baktığı ve geçmişinizin nasıl ayrıldığı ekranda yazacaktır. $ git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all * c2b9e (HEAD, master) made other changes | * 87ab2 (testing) made a change |/ * f30ab add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the * 34ac2 fixed bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions * 98ca9 initial commit of my project Git’teki bir dal, aslında işaret ettiği katkının 40 karakterlik SHA-1 sağlamasını tutan basit bir dosya olduğu için, dalları oluşturmak ve yok etmek Git için çok kolaydır. Yeni bir dal oluşturmak, bir dosyaya 41 bayt yazmak kadar hızlı ve basittir (40 karakter ve bir satırbaşı). Bu, yöntem olarak projenin tüm dosyalarını ikinci bir dizine yedeklemeyi seçen, çoğu eski VCS aracının kullandığı yolun kesin bir zıttıdır. Yedekleme yöntemi, projenin boyutuna bağlı olarak birkaç saniye veya hatta dakika bile sürebilir. Oysa Git’te katkı işlemi her zaman anlık olarak gerçekleşir. Ayrıca, katkı işlerken öncel katkıları da kaydettiğimiz için, birleştirmek için uygun bir nokta bulma işlemi otomatik olarak yapılır ve genellikle çok kolaydır. Bu özellikler, geliştiricileri sık sık dallar oluşturmaları ve kullanmaları yönünde cesaretlendirir. Haydi, neden bunu yapmanız gerektiğini görelim. Not Tek komutla dal oluşturmak ve o dala geçiş yapmak Yeni bir dal oluşturmak ve aynı anda o yeni dala geçmek sık karşılaşılan bir durumdur. Bunu tek komutla gerçekleştirebiliriz: git checkout -b <newbranchname> . prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
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https://git-scm.com/book/ko/v2/%ec%8b%9c%ec%9e%91%ed%95%98%ea%b8%b0-CLI | Git - CLI About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 시작하기 1.1 버전 관리란? 1.2 짧게 보는 Git의 역사 1.3 Git 기초 1.4 CLI 1.5 Git 설치 1.6 Git 최초 설정 1.7 도움말 보기 1.8 요약 2. Git의 기초 2.1 Git 저장소 만들기 2.2 수정하고 저장소에 저장하기 2.3 커밋 히스토리 조회하기 2.4 되돌리기 2.5 리모트 저장소 2.6 태그 2.7 Git Alias 2.8 요약 3. Git 브랜치 3.1 브랜치란 무엇인가 3.2 브랜치와 Merge 의 기초 3.3 브랜치 관리 3.4 브랜치 워크플로 3.5 리모트 브랜치 3.6 Rebase 하기 3.7 요약 4. Git 서버 4.1 프로토콜 4.2 서버에 Git 설치하기 4.3 SSH 공개키 만들기 4.4 서버 설정하기 4.5 Git 데몬 4.6 스마트 HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 또 다른 선택지, 호스팅 4.10 요약 5. 분산 환경에서의 Git 5.1 분산 환경에서의 워크플로 5.2 프로젝트에 기여하기 5.3 프로젝트 관리하기 5.4 요약 6. GitHub 6.1 계정 만들고 설정하기 6.2 GitHub 프로젝트에 기여하기 6.3 GitHub 프로젝트 관리하기 6.4 Organization 관리하기 6.5 GitHub 스크립팅 6.6 요약 7. Git 도구 7.1 리비전 조회하기 7.2 대화형 명령 7.3 Stashing과 Cleaning 7.4 내 작업에 서명하기 7.5 검색 7.6 히스토리 단장하기 7.7 Reset 명확히 알고 가기 7.8 고급 Merge 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Git으로 버그 찾기 7.11 서브모듈 7.12 Bundle 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential 저장소 7.15 요약 8. Git맞춤 8.1 Git 설정하기 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 정책 구현하기 8.5 요약 9. Git과 여타 버전 관리 시스템 9.1 Git: 범용 Client 9.2 Git으로 옮기기 9.3 요약 10. Git의 내부 10.1 Plumbing 명령과 Porcelain 명령 10.2 Git 개체 10.3 Git Refs 10.4 Packfile 10.5 Refspec 10.6 데이터 전송 프로토콜 10.7 운영 및 데이터 복구 10.8 환경변수 10.9 요약 A1. 부록 A: 다양한 환경에서 Git 사용하기 A1.1 GUI A1.2 Visual Studio A1.3 Eclipse A1.4 Bash A1.5 Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 요약 A2. 부록 B: 애플리케이션에 Git 넣기 A2.1 Git 명령어 A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A3. 부록 C: Git 명령어 A3.1 설치와 설정 A3.2 프로젝트 가져오기와 생성하기 A3.3 스냅샷 다루기 A3.4 Branch와 Merge A3.5 공유하고 업데이트하기 A3.6 보기와 비교 A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patch 하기 A3.9 Email A3.10 다른 버전 관리 시스템 A3.11 관리 A3.12 Plumbing 명령어 2nd Edition 1.4 시작하기 - CLI CLI Git을 사용하는 방법은 많다. CLI로 사용할 수도 있고 GUI를 사용할 수도 있다. 이 책에서는 Git CLI 사용법을 설명한다. Git의 모든 기능을 지원하는 것은 CLI 뿐이다. GUI 프로그램의 대부분은 Git 기능 중 일부만 구현하기 때문에 비교적 단순하다. CLI를 사용할 줄 알면 GUI도 사용할 수 있지만 반대는 성립하지 않는다. GUI를 사용하고 싶더라도 CLI가 기본으로 설치되는 도구이기 때문에 CLI기준으로 설명하겠다. 그래서 우리는 Mac의 Terminal이나 Windows의 CMD나 Powershell을 실행시키는 방법은 알고 있을 거라고 가정했다. 만약 이 말이 무슨 말인지 모르겠다면 일단 여기서 멈추고 Terminal이나 Powershell에 대해 알아보기 바란다. 그래야 이 책의 설명을 따라올 수 있다. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=ms | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 및 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/es/v2/Git-en-el-Servidor-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Inicio - Sobre el Control de Versiones 1.1 Acerca del Control de Versiones 1.2 Una breve historia de Git 1.3 Fundamentos de Git 1.4 La Línea de Comandos 1.5 Instalación de Git 1.6 Configurando Git por primera vez 1.7 ¿Cómo obtener ayuda? 1.8 Resumen 2. Fundamentos de Git 2.1 Obteniendo un repositorio Git 2.2 Guardando cambios en el Repositorio 2.3 Ver el Historial de Confirmaciones 2.4 Deshacer Cosas 2.5 Trabajar con Remotos 2.6 Etiquetado 2.7 Alias de Git 2.8 Resumen 3. Ramificaciones en Git 3.1 ¿Qué es una rama? 3.2 Procedimientos Básicos para Ramificar y Fusionar 3.3 Gestión de Ramas 3.4 Flujos de Trabajo Ramificados 3.5 Ramas Remotas 3.6 Reorganizar el Trabajo Realizado 3.7 Recapitulación 4. Git en el Servidor 4.1 Los Protocolos 4.2 Configurando Git en un servidor 4.3 Generando tu clave pública SSH 4.4 Configurando el servidor 4.5 El demonio Git 4.6 HTTP Inteligente 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git en un alojamiento externo 4.10 Resumen 5. Git en entornos distribuidos 5.1 Flujos de trabajo distribuidos 5.2 Contribuyendo a un Proyecto 5.3 Manteniendo un proyecto 5.4 Resumen 6. GitHub 6.1 Creación y configuración de la cuenta 6.2 Participando en Proyectos 6.3 Mantenimiento de un proyecto 6.4 Gestión de una organización 6.5 Scripting en GitHub 6.6 Resumen 7. Herramientas de Git 7.1 Revisión por selección 7.2 Organización interactiva 7.3 Guardado rápido y Limpieza 7.4 Firmando tu trabajo 7.5 Buscando 7.6 Reescribiendo la Historia 7.7 Reiniciar Desmitificado 7.8 Fusión Avanzada 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Haciendo debug con Git 7.11 Submódulos 7.12 Agrupaciones 7.13 Replace 7.14 Almacenamiento de credenciales 7.15 Resumen 8. Personalización de Git 8.1 Configuración de Git 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Puntos de enganche en Git 8.4 Un ejemplo de implantación de una determinada política en Git 8.5 Recapitulación 9. Git y Otros Sistemas 9.1 Git como Cliente 9.2 Migración a Git 9.3 Resumen 10. Los entresijos internos de Git 10.1 Fontanería y porcelana 10.2 Los objetos Git 10.3 Referencias Git 10.4 Archivos empaquetadores 10.5 Las especificaciones para hacer referencia a… (refspec) 10.6 Protocolos de transferencia 10.7 Mantenimiento y recuperación de datos 10.8 Variables de entorno 10.9 Recapitulación A1. Apéndice A: Git en otros entornos A1.1 Interfaces gráficas A1.2 Git en Visual Studio A1.3 Git en Eclipse A1.4 Git con Bash A1.5 Git en Zsh A1.6 Git en Powershell A1.7 Resumen A2. Apéndice B: Integrando Git en tus Aplicaciones A2.1 Git mediante Línea de Comandos A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Apéndice C: Comandos de Git A3.1 Configuración A3.2 Obtener y Crear Proyectos A3.3 Seguimiento Básico A3.4 Ramificar y Fusionar A3.5 Compartir y Actualizar Proyectos A3.6 Inspección y Comparación A3.7 Depuración A3.8 Parcheo A3.9 Correo Electrónico A3.10 Sistemas Externos A3.11 Administración A3.12 Comandos de Fontanería 2nd Edition 4.8 Git en el Servidor - GitLab GitLab GitWeb es muy simple. Si buscas un servidor Git más moderno, con todas las funciones, tienes algunas soluciones de código abierto que puedes utilizar en su lugar. Puesto que GitLab es una de las más populares, vamos a ver aquí cómo se instala y se usa, a modo de ejemplo. Es algo más complejo que GitWeb y requiere algo más de mantenimiento, pero es una opción con muchas más funciones. Instalación GitLab es una aplicación web con base de datos, por lo que su instalación es algo más complicada. Por suerte, es un proceso muy bien documentado y soportado. Hay algunos métodos que puedes seguir para instalar GitLab. Para tener algo rápidamente, puedes descargar una máquina virtual o un instalador one-click desde https://bitnami.com/stack/gitlab , y modificar la configuración para tu caso particular. La pantalla de inicio de Bitnami (a la que se accede con alt-→); te dirá la dirección IP y el usuario y contraseña utilizados para instalar GitLab. Figura 50. Página de login de la máquina virtual Bitnami. Para las demás cosas, utiliza como guía los archivos readme de la edición Community de GitLab, que se pueden encontrar en https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/tree/master . Aquí encontrarás ayuda para instalar Gitlab usando recetas Chef, una máquina virtual para Digital Ocean, y paquetes RPM y DEB (los cuales, en el momento de escribir esto, aun estaban en beta). También hay guías “no oficiales” para configurar GitLab en sistemas operativos o con bases de datos no estándar, un script de instalación completamente manual y otros muchos temas. Administración La interfaz de administración de GitLab se accede mediante la web. Simplemente abre en tu navegador la IP o el nombre de máquina donde has instalado Gitlab, y entra con el usuario administrador. El usuario predeterminado es admin@local.host , con la contraseña 5iveL!fe (que te pedirá cambiar cuando entres por primera vez). Una vez dentro, pulsa en el icono “Admin area” del menú superior derecho. Figura 51. El icono “Admin area” del menú de GitLab. Usuarios Los usuarios en Gitlab son las cuentas que abre la gente. Las cuentas de usuario no tienen ninguna complicación: viene a ser una colección de información personal unida a la información de login. Cada cuenta tiene un espacio de nombres (namespace) que es una agrupación lógica de los proyectos que pertenecen al usuario. De este modo, si el usuario jane tiene un proyecto llamado project , la URL de ese proyecto sería http://server/jane/project. Figura 52. Pantalla de administración de usuarios en GitLab. Tenemos dos formas de borrar usuarios. “Bloquear” un usuario evita que el usuario entre en Gitlab, pero los datos de su espacio de nombres se conservan, y los commits realizados por el usuario seguirán a su nombre y relacionados con su perfil. “Destruir” un usuario, por su parte, borra completamente al usuario de la base de datos y el sistema de archivos. Todos los proyectos y datos de su espacio de nombres se perderán, así como cualquier grupo que le pertenezca. Esto es, por supuesto, la acción más permanente, destructiva y casi nunca se usa. Grupos Un grupo de GitLab es un conjunto de proyectos, junto con los datos acerca de los usuarios que tienen acceso. Cada grupo tiene también un espacio de nombres específico (al igual que los usuarios). Por ejemplo, si el grupo formacion tuviese un proyecto materiales su URL sería: http://server/formacion/materiales. Figura 53. Pantalla de administración de grupos en GitLab. Cada grupo se asocia con un conjunto de usuarios, donde cada usuario tiene un nivel de permisos sobre los proyectos así como el propio grupo. Estos permisos van desde el de “Invitado” (que solo permite manejar incidencias y chat) hasta el de “Propietario” (con control absoluto del grupo, sus miembros y sus proyectos). Los tipos de permisos son muy numerosos para detallarlos aquí, pero en la ayuda de la pantalla de administración de GitLab los encontraremos fácilmente. Proyectos Un proyecto en GitLab corresponde con un repositorio Git. Cada proyecto pertenece a un espacio de nombres, bien sea de usuario o de grupo. Si el proyecto pertenece a un usuario, el propietario del mismo tendrá control directo sobre quién tiene acceso al proyecto; si el proyecto pertenece a un grupo, los permisos de acceso por parte de los usuarios estarán también determinados por los niveles de acceso de los miembros del grupo. Cada proyecto tiene también un nivel de visibilidad, que controla quién tiene acceso de lectura a las páginas del proyecto y al propio repositorio. Si un proyecto es Privado , el propietario debe conceder los accesos para que determinados usuarios tengan permisos. Un proyecto Interno es visible a cualquier usuario identificado, y un proyecto Público es visible a todos, incluso usuarios no identificados y visitantes. Observa que esto controla también el acceso de lectura git (“fetch”) así como el acceso a la página web del proyecto. Enganches (hooks) GitLab tiene soporte para los enganches (hooks), tanto a nivel de proyecto como del sistema. Para cualquiera de ellos, el servidor GitLab realizará una petición HTTP POST con determinados datos JSON cuando ocurran ciertos eventos. Es una manera interesante de conectar los repositorios y la instancia de GitLab con el resto de los mecanismos automáticos de desarrollo, como servidores de integración continua (CI), salas de charla y otras utilidades de despliegue. Uso básico Lo primero que tienes que hacer en GitLab es crear un nuevo proyecto. Esto lo consigues pulsando el icono “+” en la barra superior. Te preguntará por el nombre del proyecto, el espacio de nombres al que pertenece y qué nivel de visibilidad debe tener. Esta información, en su mayoría, no es fija y puedes cambiarla más tarde en la pantalla de ajustes. Pulsa en “Create Project” y habrás terminado. Una vez que tengas el proyecto, querrás usarlo para un repositorio local de Git. Cada proyecto se puede acceder por HTTPS o SSH, protocolos que podemos configurar en nuestro repositorio como un Git remoto. La URL la encontrarás al principio de la página principal del proyecto. Para un repositorio local existente, puedes crear un remoto llamado gitlab del siguiente modo: $ git remote add gitlab https://server/namespace/project.git Si no tienes copia local del repositorio, puedes hacer esto: $ git clone https://server/namespace/project.git La interfaz web te permite acceder a diferentes vistas interesantes del repositorio. Además, la página principal del proyecto muestra la actividad reciente, así como enlaces que permiten acceder a los archivos del proyecto y a los diferentes commits. Trabajando con GitLab Para trabajar en un proyecto GitLab lo más simple es tener acceso de escritura (push) sobre el repositorio git. Puedes añadir usuarios al proyecto en la sección “Members” de los ajustes del mismo, y asociar el usuario con un nivel de acceso (los niveles los hemos visto en Grupos ). Cualquier nivel de acceso tipo “Developer” o superior, permite al usuario enviar commits y ramas sin ninguna limitación. Otra forma de colaboración, más desacoplada, es mediante las peticiones de fusión (merge requests). Esta característica permite a cualquier usuario con acceso de lectura, participar de manera controlada. Los usuarios con acceso directo pueden, simplemente, crear la rama, enviar commits y luego abrir una petición de fusión desde su rama hacia la rama master u otra cualquiera. Los usuarios sin permiso de push pueden hacer un “fork” (es decir, su propia copia del repositorio), enviar sus cambios a esa copia , y abrir una petición de fusión desde su fork hacia el proyecto del que partió. Este modelo permite al propietario tener un control total de lo que entra en el repositorio, permitiendo a su vez la cooperación de usuarios a los que no se confía el acceso total. Las peticiones de fusión y las incidencias (issues) son las principales fuentes de discusión en los proyectos de GitLab. Cada petición de fusión permite una discusión sobre el cambio propuesto (similar a una revisión de código), así como un hilo de discusión general. Ambas pueden asignarse a usuarios, o ser organizadas en hitos (milestones). Esta sección se ha enfocado principalmente hacia las características de GitLab relacionadas con Git, pero como proyecto ya maduro, tiene muchas otras características para ayudar en la coordinación de grupos de trabajo, como wikis de proyecto y utilidades de mantenimiento. Una ventaja de GitLab es que, una vez que el servidor está configurado y funcionando, rara vez tendrás que tocar un archivo de configuración o acceder al servidor mediante SSH; casi toda la administración y uso se realizará mediante el navegador web. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 � | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/sl/v2/Git-na-stre%c5%beniku-GitWeb | Git - GitWeb About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Začetek 1.1 O nadzoru različic 1.2 Kratka zgodovina Gita 1.3 Kaj je Git? 1.4 Ukazna vrstica 1.5 Namestitev Gita 1.6 Prva nastavitev Gita 1.7 Pridobivanje pomoči 1.8 Povzetek 2. Osnove Git 2.1 Pridobivanje repozitorija Git 2.2 Snemanje sprememb v repozitorij 2.3 Pregled zgodovine potrditev 2.4 Razveljavljanje stvari 2.5 Delo z daljavami 2.6 Označevanje 2.7 Aliasi Git 2.8 Povzetek 3. Veje Git 3.1 Veje na kratko 3.2 Osnove vej in združevanja 3.3 Upravljanje vej 3.4 Poteki dela z vejami 3.5 Oddaljene veje 3.6 Ponovno baziranje 3.7 Povzetek 4. Git na strežniku 4.1 Protokoli 4.2 Pridobitev Gita na strežniku 4.3 Generiranje vaših javnih ključev SSH 4.4 Nastavitev strežnika 4.5 Prikriti proces Git 4.6 Pametni HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Možnosti gostovanja pri tretjih ponudnikih 4.10 Povzetek 5. Porazdeljeni Git 5.1 Porazdeljeni poteki dela 5.2 Prispevek k projektu 5.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 5.4 Povzetek 6. GitHub 6.1 Namestitev in konfiguracija računa 6.2 Prispevek k projektu 6.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 6.4 Upravljanje organizacije 6.5 Skriptni GitHub 6.6 Povzetek 7. Orodja Git 7.1 Izbira revizije 7.2 Interaktivno pripravljanje 7.3 Shranjevanje na varno (angl. stashing) in čiščenje 7.4 Podpisovanje vašega dela 7.5 Iskanje 7.6 Prepisovanje zgodovine 7.7 Demistifikacija ponastavitve 7.8 Napredno združevanje 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Razhroščevanje z Gitom 7.11 Podmoduli 7.12 Povezovanje v pakete 7.13 Zamenjava 7.14 Shramba poverilnic 7.15 Povzetek 8. Prilagoditev Gita 8.1 Konfiguracija Git 8.2 Atributi Git 8.3 Kljuke Git 8.4 Primer pravilnika, ki ga uveljavlja Git 8.5 Povzetek 9. Git in ostali sistemi 9.1 Git kot odjemalec 9.2 Migracija na Git 9.3 Povzetek 10. Notranjost Gita 10.1 Napeljava in keramika 10.2 Objekti Git 10.3 Reference Git 10.4 Packfiles (datoteke zmanjšanih podatkov) 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Protokoli prenosa 10.7 Vzdrževanje in obnovitev podatkov 10.8 Spremenljivke okolja 10.9 Povzetek A1. Dodatek A: Git v drugih okoljih A1.1 Grafični vmesniki A1.2 Git v Visual Studio A1.3 Git v Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git v IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git v Sublime Text A1.6 Git v Bashu A1.7 Git v Zsh A1.8 Git v Powershellu A1.9 Povzetek A2. Dodatek B: Vdelava Gita v vašo aplikacijo A2.1 Git v ukazni vrstici A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Dodatek C: Ukazi Git A3.1 Nastavitev in konfiguracija A3.2 Pridobivanje in ustvarjanje projektov A3.3 Osnove posnetkov A3.4 Veje in združevanje A3.5 Deljenje in posodabljanje projektov A3.6 Pregled in primerjava A3.7 Razhroščevanje A3.8 Popravljanje A3.9 E-pošta A3.10 Zunanji sistemi A3.11 Administracija A3.12 Orodja za sisteme napeljave 2nd Edition 4.7 Git na strežniku - GitWeb GitWeb Sedaj, ko imate dostop osnovnega branja/pisanja in samo branja do svojega projekta, boste morda želeli nastaviti enostaven spletno osnovani vizualizator. Git prihaja s skriptom CGI imenovanim GitWeb, ki je včasih uporabljen za to. Slika 49. Spletno osnovani uporabniški vmesnik GitWeb Če želite preveriti, kako bi GitWeb izgledal za vaš projekt, Git vsebuje ukaz za pogon začasne instance, če imate na svojem sistemu enostaven strežnik, kot je lighttpd ali webrick . Na napravah Linux je lighttpd pogostokrat nameščen, tako da ga lahko morda dobite, če poženete git instaweb v vašem projektnem direktoriju. Če poganjate macOS, ima Leopard že vnaprej nameščen Ruby, tako da je webrick lahko vaša najboljša izbira. Da poženete instaweb s krmilnikom brez lighttpd, ga lahko poženete z možnostjo --httpd . $ git instaweb --httpd=webrick [2009-02-21 10:02:21] INFO WEBrick 1.3.1 [2009-02-21 10:02:21] INFO ruby 1.8.6 (2008-03-03) [universal-darwin9.0] To požene strežnik HTTPD na vratih 1234 in nato avtomatično poženete spletni brskalnik, ki se odpre na tej strani. Z vaše strani je to precej enostavno. Ko končate in želite strežnik zapreti, lahko poženete enak ukaz z možnostjo --stop : $ git instaweb --httpd=webrick --stop Če želite poganjati spletni vmesnik na strežniku ves čas za vso svojo ekipo ali za odprtokodni projekt, ki ga gostujete, boste morali nastaviti skript CGI, ki ga postreže vaš običajni spletni strežnik. Nekatere distribucije Linux imajo paket gitweb , ki ga lahko morda namestite preko apt ali dnf , tako da morda poskusite najprej to. Zelo hitro bomo šli skozi ročno namestitev GitWeba. Najprej morate dobiti izvorno kodo Git, s katero prihaja GitWeb, in generirati skript CGI po meri: $ git clone https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git $ cd git/ $ make GITWEB_PROJECTROOT="/srv/git" prefix=/usr gitweb SUBDIR gitweb SUBDIR ../ make[2]: `GIT-VERSION-FILE' is up to date. GEN gitweb.cgi GEN static/gitweb.js $ sudo cp -Rf gitweb /var/www/ Bodite pozorni, saj morate ukazu povedati s spremenljivko GITWEB_PROJECTROOT , kje najde vaše repozitorije Git. Sedaj morate pripraviti Apache, da uporabi CGI za ta skript, za kar lahko dodate VirtualHost: <VirtualHost *:80> ServerName gitserver DocumentRoot /var/www/gitweb <Directory /var/www/gitweb> Options +ExecCGI +FollowSymLinks +SymLinksIfOwnerMatch AllowOverride All order allow,deny Allow from all AddHandler cgi-script cgi DirectoryIndex gitweb.cgi </Directory> </VirtualHost> Ponovno, GitWeb je lahko strežen s katerimkoli spletnim strežnikom, ki zmore CGI ali Perl; če raje uporabljate kaj drugega, ga ne bi smelo biti pretežko nastaviti. Na tej točki, bi morali uspeti obiskati http://gitserver/ za ogled vaših repozitorijev na spletu. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=en_IN | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English (United States)) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play�� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=es_HN | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/zh/v2/%e6%9c%8d%e5%8a%a1%e5%99%a8%e4%b8%8a%e7%9a%84-Git-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 起步 1.1 关于版本控制 1.2 Git 简史 1.3 Git 是什么？ 1.4 命令行 1.5 安装 Git 1.6 初次运行 Git 前的配置 1.7 获取帮助 1.8 总结 2. Git 基础 2.1 获取 Git 仓库 2.2 记录每次更新到仓库 2.3 查看提交历史 2.4 撤消操作 2.5 远程仓库的使用 2.6 打标签 2.7 Git 别名 2.8 总结 3. Git 分支 3.1 分支简介 3.2 分支的新建与合并 3.3 分支管理 3.4 分支开发工作流 3.5 远程分支 3.6 变基 3.7 总结 4. 服务器上的 Git 4.1 协议 4.2 在服务器上搭建 Git 4.3 生成 SSH 公钥 4.4 配置服务器 4.5 Git 守护进程 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 第三方托管的选择 4.10 总结 5. 分布式 Git 5.1 分布式工作流程 5.2 向一个项目贡献 5.3 维护项目 5.4 总结 6. GitHub 6.1 账户的创建和配置 6.2 对项目做出贡献 6.3 维护项目 6.4 管理组织 6.5 脚本 GitHub 6.6 总结 7. Git 工具 7.1 选择修订版本 7.2 交互式暂存 7.3 贮藏与清理 7.4 签署工作 7.5 搜索 7.6 重写历史 7.7 重置揭密 7.8 高级合并 7.9 Rerere 7.10 使用 Git 调试 7.11 子模块 7.12 打包 7.13 替换 7.14 凭证存储 7.15 总结 8. 自定义 Git 8.1 配置 Git 8.2 Git 属性 8.3 Git 钩子 8.4 使用强制策略的一个例子 8.5 总结 9. Git 与其他系统 9.1 作为客户端的 Git 9.2 迁移到 Git 9.3 总结 10. Git 内部原理 10.1 底层命令与上层命令 10.2 Git 对象 10.3 Git 引用 10.4 包文件 10.5 引用规范 10.6 传输协议 10.7 维护与数据恢复 10.8 环境变量 10.9 总结 A1. 附录 A: 在其它环境中使用 Git A1.1 图形界面 A1.2 Visual Studio 中的 Git A1.3 Visual Studio Code 中的 Git A1.4 IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine 中的 Git A1.5 Sublime Text 中的 Git A1.6 Bash 中的 Git A1.7 Zsh 中的 Git A1.8 PowerShell 中的 Git A1.9 总结 A2. 附录 B: 在你的应用中嵌入 Git A2.1 命令行 Git 方式 A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. 附录 C: Git 命令 A3.1 设置与配置 A3.2 获取与创建项目 A3.3 快照基础 A3.4 分支与合并 A3.5 项目分享与更新 A3.6 检查与比较 A3.7 调试 A3.8 补丁 A3.9 邮件 A3.10 外部系统 A3.11 管理 A3.12 底层命令 2nd Edition 4.8 服务器上的 Git - GitLab GitLab 虽然 GitWeb 相当简单。 但如果你正在寻找一个更现代，功能更全的 Git 服务器，这里有几个开源的解决方案可供你选择安装。 因为 GitLab 是其中最出名的一个，我们将它作为示例并讨论它的安装和使用。 这比 GitWeb 要复杂的多并且需要更多的维护，但它的确是一个功能更全的选择。 安装 GitLab 是一个数据库支持的 web 应用，所以相比于其他 git 服务器，它的安装过程涉及到更多的东西。 幸运的是，这个过程有非常详细的文档说明和支持。 这里有一些可参考的方法帮你安装 GitLab 。 为了更快速的启动和运行，你可以下载虚拟机镜像或者在 https://bitnami.com/stack/gitlab 上获取一键安装包，同时调整配置使之符合你特定的环境。 Bitnami 的一个优点在于它的登录界面（通过 alt+→ 键进入）， 它会告诉你安装好的 GitLab 的 IP 地址以及默认的用户名和密码。 Figure 50. Bitnami GitLab 虚拟机登录界面。 无论如何，跟着 GitLab 社区版的 readme 文件一步步来，你可以在这里找到它 https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ce/tree/master 。 在这里你将会在主菜单中找到安装 GitLab 的帮助，一个可以在 Digital Ocean 上运行的虚拟机，以及 RPM 和 DEB 包（都是测试版）。 这里还有 “非官方” 的引导让 GitLab 运行在非标准的操作系统和数据库上，一个全手动的安装脚本，以及许多其他的话题。 管理 GitLab 的管理界面是通过网络进入的。 将你的浏览器转到已经安装 GitLab 的 主机名或 IP 地址，然后以管理员身份登录即可。 默认的用户名是 admin@local.host ，默认的密码是 5iveL!fe （你会得到类似 请登录后尽快更换密码 的提示）。 登录后，点击主栏上方靠右位置的 “Admin area” 图标进行管理。 Figure 51. GitLab 主栏的 “Admin area” 图标。 使用者 GitLab 上的用户指的是对应协作者的帐号。 用户帐号没有很多复杂的地方，主要是包含登录数据的用户信息集合。 每一个用户账号都有一个 命名空间 ，即该用户项目的逻辑集合。 如果一个叫 jane 的用户拥有一个名称是 project 的项目，那么这个项目的 url 会是 http://server/jane/project 。 Figure 52. GitLab 用户管理界面。 移除一个用户有两种方法。 “屏蔽（Blocking）” 一个用户阻止他登录 GitLab 实例，但是该用户命名空间下的所有数据仍然会被保存， 并且仍可以通过该用户提交对应的登录邮箱链接回他的个人信息页。 而另一方面，“销毁（Destroying）” 一个用户，会彻底的将他从数据库和文件系统中移除。 他命名空间下的所有项目和数据都会被删除，拥有的任何组也会被移除。 这显然是一个更永久且更具破坏力的行为，所以很少用到这种方法。 组 一个 GitLab 的组是一些项目的集合，连同关于多少用户可以访问这些项目的数据。 每一个组都有一个项目命名空间（与用户一样），所以如果一个叫 training 的组拥有一个名称是 materials 的项目，那么这个项目的 url 会是 http://server/training/materials 。 Figure 53. GitLab 组管理界面。 每一个组都有许多用户与之关联，每一个用户对组中的项目以及组本身的权限都有级别区分。 权限的范围从 “访客”（仅能提问题和讨论） 到 “拥有者”（完全控制组、成员和项目）。 权限的种类太多以至于难以在这里一一列举，不过在 GitLab 的管理界面上有帮助链接。 项目 一个 GitLab 的项目相当于 git 的版本库。 每一个项目都属于一个用户或者一个组的单个命名空间。 如果这个项目属于一个用户，那么这个拥有者对所有可以获取这个项目的人拥有直接管理权； 如果这个项目属于一个组，那么该组中用户级别的权限也会起作用。 每一个项目都有一个可视级别，控制着谁可以看到这个项目页面和仓库。 如果一个项目是 私有 的，这个项目的拥有者必须明确授权从而使特定的用户可以访问。 一个 内部 的项目可以被所有登录的人看到，而一个 公开 的项目则是对所有人可见的。 注意，这种控制既包括 git fetch 的使用也包括对项目 web 用户界面的访问。 钩子 GitLab 在项目和系统级别上都支持钩子程序。 对任意级别，当有相关事件发生时，GitLab 的服务器会执行一个包含描述性 JSON 数据的 HTTP 请求。 这是自动化连接你的 git 版本库和 GitLab 实例到其他的开发工具，比如 CI 服务器，聊天室，或者部署工具的一个极好方法。 基本用途 你想要在 GitLab 做的第一件事就是建立一个新项目。 这通过点击工具栏上的 “+” 图标完成。 你需要填写项目名称，项目所属命名空间，以及它的可视层级。 绝大多数的设定并不是永久的，可以通过设置界面重新调整。 点击 “Create Project”，你就完成了。 项目存在后，你可能会想将它与本地的 Git 版本库连接。 每一个项目都可以通过 HTTPS 或者 SSH 连接，任意两者都可以被用来配置远程 Git。 在项目主页的顶栏可以看到这个项目的 URLs。 对于一个存在的本地版本库，这个命令将会向主机位置添加一个叫 gitlab 的远程仓库： $ git remote add gitlab https://server/namespace/project.git 如果你的本地没有版本库的副本，你可以这样做： $ git clone https://server/namespace/project.git web 用户界面提供了几个有用的获取版本库信息的网页。 每一个项目的主页都显示了最近的活动，并且通过顶部的链接可以使你浏览项目文件以及提交日志。 一起工作 在一个 GitLab 项目上一起工作的最简单方法就是赋予协作者对 git 版本库的直接 push 权限。 你可以通过项目设定的 “Members（成员）” 部分向一个项目添加协作者， 并且将这个新的协作者与一个访问级别关联（不同的访问级别在 组 中已简单讨论）。 通过赋予一个协作者 “Developer（开发者）” 或者更高的访问级别， 这个用户就可以毫无约束地直接向版本库或者向分支进行提交。 另外一个让合作更解耦的方法就是使用合并请求。 它的优点在于让任何能够看到这个项目的协作者在被管控的情况下对这个项目作出贡献。 可以直接访问的协作者能够简单的创建一个分支，向这个分支进行提交，也可以开启一个向 master 或者其他任何一个分支的合并请求。 对版本库没有推送权限的协作者则可以 “fork” 这个版本库（即创建属于自己的这个库的副本），向 那个 副本进行提交，然后从那个副本开启一个到主项目的合并请求。 这个模型使得项目拥有者完全控制着向版本库的提交，以及什么时候允许加入陌生协作者的贡献。 在 GitLab 中合并请求和问题是一个长久讨论的主要部分。 每一个合并请求都允许在提出改变的行进行讨论（它支持一个轻量级的代码审查），也允许对一个总体性话题进行讨论。 两者都可以被分配给用户，或者组织到 milestones（里程碑） 界面。 这个部分主要聚焦于在 GitLab 中与 Git 相关的特性，但是 GitLab 作为一个成熟的系统， 它提供了许多其他产品来帮助你协同工作，例如项目 wiki 与系统维护工具。 GitLab 的一个优点在于，服务器设置和运行以后，你将很少需要调整配置文件或通过 SSH 连接服务器。 绝大多数的管理和日常使用都可以在浏览器界面中完成。 prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/sv/v2/Git-p%c3%a5-servern-GitWeb | Git - GitWeb About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Kom igång 1.1 Om versionshantering 1.2 En kort historik av Git 1.3 Vad är Git? 1.4 Kommandoraden 1.5 Installera Git 1.6 Använda Git för första gången 1.7 Få hjälp 1.8 Sammanfattning 2. Grunder i Git 2.1 Skaffa ett Git-förvar 2.2 Spara ändringar till förvaret 2.3 Visa historiken 2.4 Ångra saker 2.5 Jobba med fjärrförvar 2.6 Taggning 2.7 Git alias 2.8 Sammanfattning 3. Git förgreningar 3.1 Grenar i ett nötskal 3.2 Grundläggande förgrening och sammanslagning 3.3 Hantera grenar 3.4 Arbetsflöde med grenar 3.5 Fjärrgrenar 3.6 Grenflytt 3.7 Sammanfattning 4. Git på servern 4.1 Protokollen 4.2 Skaffa Git på en server 4.3 Generera din publika SSH-nyckel 4.4 Konvigurera servern 4.5 Git Daemonen 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Alternativ tillhandahållna av tredje part 4.10 Sammanfattning 5. Distribuerade Git 5.1 Distribuerade arbetsflöden 5.2 Medverka i ett projekt 5.3 Underhålla ett projekt 5.4 Sammanfattning 6. GitHub 6.1 Account Setup and Configuration 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Summary 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Bilaga A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in PowerShell A1.7 Summary A2. Bilaga B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Bilaga C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 4.7 Git på servern - GitWeb GitWeb Nu när du har grundläggande läs- och skriv- samt enbart läsrättigheter till ditt projekt kanske du vill konfigurera enkel webbaserad visualisering. Git kommer med ett CGI-skript kallat GitWeb som ibland används för detta. Figur 49. GitWebs webbaserada användargränssnitt. Om du vill se hur GitWeb ser ut för ett projekt har Git ett kommando för att starta en temporär instans om du har en lättviktig webserver på ditt system som t.ex. lighttpd eller webrick . På Linuxmaskiner är ofta lighttpd installerat så du kanske kan få igång den genom att köra git instaweb i din projektkatalog. Om du kör Mac, kommer Leopard med Ruby förinstallerat, så webrick kan vara ditt första val. För att starta instaweb med en icke-lighttpd-hanterare kan du köra den med flaggan --httpd . $ git instaweb --httpd=webrick [2009-02-21 10:02:21] INFO WEBrick 1.3.1 [2009-02-21 10:02:21] INFO ruby 1.8.6 (2008-03-03) [universal-darwin9.0] Det starta upp en HTTPD-server på port 1234 och startar sedan automatiskt en webbläsare som visar den sidan. Det är ganska enkelt. När du är klar och vill stänga ner servern, kan du köra samma kommando med flaggan --stop : $ git instaweb --httpd=webrick --stop Om du vill köra webbgränssnittet på en server hela tiden för ditt team eller för ett öppen källkodsprojekt du är värd för, kommer du behöva konfigurera CGI-skriptet till att tillhandahållas av din vanliga webserver. Några Linuxdistrubutioner har ett gitweb -paket som du kan installera via apt eller dnf , så du kan pröva det först. Vi kommer gå igenom manuell installation av GitWeb ganska snabbt. Först behöver du källkoden till Git, i vilken GitWeb kommer med, och generera ett skräddarsytt CGI-skript: $ git clone git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git $ cd git/ $ make GITWEB_PROJECTROOT="/srv/git" prefix=/usr gitweb SUBDIR gitweb SUBDIR ../ make[2]: `GIT-VERSION-FILE' is up to date. GEN gitweb.cgi GEN static/gitweb.js $ sudo cp -Rf gitweb /var/www/ Notera att du behöver tala om för kommandot var du hittar dina Gitrepon genom variabeln GITWEB_PROJECTROOT . Nu måste du få Apache att använda CGI för det skriptet, för vilket du kan lägga till en VirtualHost: <VirtualHost *:80> ServerName gitserver DocumentRoot /var/www/gitweb <Directory /var/www/gitweb> Options +ExecCGI +FollowSymLinks +SymLinksIfOwnerMatch AllowOverride All order allow,deny Allow from all AddHandler cgi-script cgi DirectoryIndex gitweb.cgi </Directory> </VirtualHost> Återigen, GitWeb kan tillhandahållas med vilken CGI- eller Perlkapabel webserver som helst, om du föredrar att använda något annat, skall det inte vara svårare att konfigurera. Nu skall du kunna besöka http://gitserver/ för att visa dina repon online. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/de/v2/Git-auf-dem-Server-GitWeb | Git - GitWeb About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Erste Schritte 1.1 Was ist Versionsverwaltung? 1.2 Kurzer Überblick über die Historie von Git 1.3 Was ist Git? 1.4 Die Kommandozeile 1.5 Git installieren 1.6 Git Basis-Konfiguration 1.7 Hilfe finden 1.8 Zusammenfassung 2. Git Grundlagen 2.1 Ein Git-Repository anlegen 2.2 Änderungen nachverfolgen und im Repository speichern 2.3 Anzeigen der Commit-Historie 2.4 Ungewollte Änderungen rückgängig machen 2.5 Mit Remotes arbeiten 2.6 Taggen 2.7 Git Aliases 2.8 Zusammenfassung 3. Git Branching 3.1 Branches auf einen Blick 3.2 Einfaches Branching und Merging 3.3 Branch-Management 3.4 Branching-Workflows 3.5 Remote-Branches 3.6 Rebasing 3.7 Zusammenfassung 4. Git auf dem Server 4.1 Die Protokolle 4.2 Git auf einem Server einrichten 4.3 Erstellung eines SSH-Public-Keys 4.4 Einrichten des Servers 4.5 Git-Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Von Drittanbietern gehostete Optionen 4.10 Zusammenfassung 5. Verteiltes Git 5.1 Verteilter Arbeitsablauf 5.2 An einem Projekt mitwirken 5.3 Ein Projekt verwalten 5.4 Zusammenfassung 6. GitHub 6.1 Einrichten und Konfigurieren eines Kontos 6.2 Mitwirken an einem Projekt 6.3 Ein Projekt betreuen 6.4 Verwalten einer Organisation 6.5 Skripte mit GitHub 6.6 Zusammenfassung 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revisions-Auswahl 7.2 Interaktives Stagen 7.3 Stashen und Bereinigen 7.4 Deine Arbeit signieren 7.5 Suchen 7.6 Den Verlauf umschreiben 7.7 Reset entzaubert 7.8 Fortgeschrittenes Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debuggen mit Git 7.11 Submodule 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace (Ersetzen) 7.14 Anmeldeinformationen speichern 7.15 Zusammenfassung 8. Git einrichten 8.1 Git Konfiguration 8.2 Git-Attribute 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 Beispiel für Git-forcierte Regeln 8.5 Zusammenfassung 9. Git und andere VCS-Systeme 9.1 Git als Client 9.2 Migration zu Git 9.3 Zusammenfassung 10. Git Interna 10.1 Basisbefehle und Standardbefehle (Plumbing and Porcelain) 10.2 Git Objekte 10.3 Git Referenzen 10.4 Packdateien (engl. Packfiles) 10.5 Die Referenzspezifikation (engl. Refspec) 10.6 Transfer Protokolle 10.7 Wartung und Datenwiederherstellung 10.8 Umgebungsvariablen 10.9 Zusammenfassung A1. Anhang A: Git in anderen Umgebungen A1.1 Grafische Schnittstellen A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git in IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git in Sublime Text A1.6 Git in Bash A1.7 Git in Zsh A1.8 Git in PowerShell A1.9 Zusammenfassung A2. Anhang B: Git in deine Anwendungen einbetten A2.1 Die Git-Kommandozeile A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Anhang C: Git Kommandos A3.1 Setup und Konfiguration A3.2 Projekte importieren und erstellen A3.3 Einfache Snapshot-Funktionen A3.4 Branching und Merging A3.5 Projekte gemeinsam nutzen und aktualisieren A3.6 Kontrollieren und Vergleichen A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patchen bzw. Fehlerkorrektur A3.9 E-mails A3.10 Externe Systeme A3.11 Administration A3.12 Basisbefehle 2nd Edition 4.7 Git auf dem Server - GitWeb GitWeb Nun, da du über einen einfachen Lese-/Schreibzugriff und Lesezugriff auf dein Projekt verfügst, kannst eine einfache webbasierten Git-GUI einrichten. Git wird mit einem CGI-Skript namens GitWeb ausgeliefert, das dafür verwendet werden kann. Abbildung 49. Die webbasierte Benutzeroberfläche von GitWeb Du kannst sehr einfach ausprobieren, wie GitWeb für dein Projekt aussehen würde. Es gibt einen Befehl, um eine temporäre Instanz zu starten. Dazu benötigst du auf deinem System einen simplen Webserver wie lighttpd oder webrick . Auf Linux-Maschinen wird lighttpd oft installiert, so dass du ihn wahrscheinlich direkt starten kannst, indem du git instaweb in deinem Projektverzeichnis eingibst. Wenn du einen Mac verwenden, wird Leopard mit Ruby vorinstalliert geliefert, so dass webrick dein Favorit sein sollte. Um instaweb mit einem nicht-lighttpd Handler zu starten, kannst du es mit der Option --httpd versuchen. $ git instaweb --httpd=webrick [2009-02-21 10:02:21] INFO WEBrick 1.3.1 [2009-02-21 10:02:21] INFO ruby 1.8.6 (2008-03-03) [universal-darwin9.0] Dies startet einen HTTPD-Server auf Port 1234 und öffnet ein Webbrowser, der die Seite anzeigt. Das Vorgehen ist ziemlich einfach. Wenn du fertig bist und den Server herunterfahren möchtest, kannst du den gleichen Befehl mit der Option --stop ausführen: $ git instaweb --httpd=webrick --stop Wenn du das Web-Interface kontinuierlich auf einem Server für dein Team oder für ein gehostetes Open-Source-Projekt ausführen möchtest, musst du das CGI-Skript so einrichten, dass es von deinem Webserver zur Verfügung gestellt wird. Einige Linux-Distributionen haben ein gitweb Paket, das du möglicherweise über apt oder dnf installieren kannst, so dass du das zuerst ausprobieren solltest. Wir werden die manuelle Installation von GitWeb nur sehr kurz abhandeln. Zuerst musst du den Git-Quellcode, der im Lieferumfang von GitWeb enthalten ist, herunterladen und das benutzerdefinierte CGI-Skript generieren: $ git clone https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git $ cd git/ $ make GITWEB_PROJECTROOT="/srv/git" prefix=/usr gitweb SUBDIR gitweb SUBDIR ../ make[2]: `GIT-VERSION-FILE' is up to date. GEN gitweb.cgi GEN static/gitweb.js $ sudo cp -Rf gitweb /var/www/ Beachte, dass du dem Befehl mit der Variablen GITWEB_PROJECTROOT mitteilen musst, wo dein Git-Repositorys zu finden ist. Nun musst du Apache dazu bringen, CGI für dieses Skript zu verwenden. Dazu kannst du einen VirtualHost hinzufügen: <VirtualHost *:80> ServerName gitserver DocumentRoot /var/www/gitweb <Directory /var/www/gitweb> Options +ExecCGI +FollowSymLinks +SymLinksIfOwnerMatch AllowOverride All order allow,deny Allow from all AddHandler cgi-script cgi DirectoryIndex gitweb.cgi </Directory> </VirtualHost> Auch hier kann GitWeb mit jedem CGI- oder Perl-fähigen Webserver zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Wenn du etwas anderes bevorzugst, sollte es nicht schwierig einzurichten sein. Nun solltest du in der Lage sein, http://gitserver/ zu besuchen, um deine Repositorien online zu betrachten. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=mr | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=it | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | <a class="tN8c4d" href="https://www.f | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
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https://git-scm.com/book/cs/v2/GitHub-Managing-an-organization | Git - Managing an organization About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Úvod 1.1 Správa verzí 1.2 Stručná historie systému Git 1.3 Základy systému Git 1.4 Příkazový řádek 1.5 Instalace systému Git 1.6 První nastavení systému Git 1.7 Získání nápovědy 1.8 Shrnutí 2. Základy práce se systémem Git 2.1 Získání repozitáře Git 2.2 Nahrávání změn do repozitáře 2.3 Zobrazení historie revizí 2.4 Návrat do předchozího stavu 2.5 Práce se vzdálenými repozitáři 2.6 Používání značek 2.7 Aliasy v Gitu 2.8 Shrnutí 3. Větve v systému Git 3.1 Větve v kostce 3.2 Základy větvení a slučování 3.3 Správa větví 3.4 Postupy při práci s větvemi 3.5 Vzdálené větve 3.6 Přeskládání 3.7 Shrnutí 4. Git na serveru 4.1 Protokoly 4.2 Zprovoznění Gitu na serveru 4.3 Generování veřejného klíče SSH 4.4 Nastavení serveru 4.5 Démon Git 4.6 Chytrý HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Možnosti hostování u třetí strany 4.10 Shrnutí 5. Distribuovaný Git 5.1 Distribuované pracovní postupy 5.2 Přispívání do projektu 5.3 Správa projektu 5.4 Shrnutí 6. GitHub 6.1 Zřízení účtu a úprava konfigurace 6.2 Přispívání do projektu 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Shrnutí 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Ladění v systému Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Shrnutí 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Atributy Git 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Shrnutí 9. Git a ostatní systémy 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Shrnutí 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Balíčkové soubory 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Přenosové protokoly 10.7 Správa a obnova dat 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Shrnutí A1. Appendix A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Shrnutí A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 6.4 GitHub - Managing an organization Managing an organization In addition to single-user accounts, GitHub has what are called Organizations. Like personal accounts, Organizational accounts have a namespace where all their projects exist, but many other things are different. These accounts represent a group of people with shared ownership of projects, and there are many tools to manage subgroups of those people. Normally these accounts are used for Open Source groups (such as “perl” or “rails”) or companies (such as “google” or “twitter”). Organization Basics An organization is pretty easy to create; just click on the “+” icon at the top-right of any GitHub page, and select “New organization” from the menu. Figure 126. The “New organization” menu item. First you’ll need to name your organization and provide an email address for a main point of contact for the group. Then you can invite other users to be co-owners of the account if you want to. Follow these steps and you’ll soon be the owner of a brand-new organization. Like personal accounts, organizations are free if everything you plan to store there will be open source. As an owner in an organization, when you fork a repository, you’ll have the choice of forking it to your organization’s namespace. When you create new repositories you can create them either under your personal account or under any of the organizations that you are an owner in. You also automatically “watch” any new repository created under these organizations. Just like in Your Avatar , you can upload an avatar for your organization to personalize it a bit. Also just like personal accounts, you have a landing page for the organization that lists all of your repositories and can be viewed by other people. Now let’s cover some of the things that are a bit different with an organizational account. Teams Organizations are associated with individual people by way of teams, which are simply a grouping of individual user accounts and repositories within the organization and what kind of access those people have in those repositories. For example, say your company has three repositories: frontend , backend , and deployscripts . You’d want your HTML/CSS/JavaScript developers to have access to frontend and maybe backend , and your Operations people to have access to backend and deployscripts . Teams make this easy, without having to manage the collaborators for every individual repository. The Organization page shows you a simple dashboard of all the repositories, users and teams that are under this organization. Figure 127. The Organization page. To manage your Teams, you can click on the Teams sidebar on the right hand side of the page in The Organization page. . This will bring you to a page you can use to add members to the team, add repositories to the team or manage the settings and access control levels for the team. Each team can have read only, read/write or administrative access to the repositories. You can change that level by clicking the “Settings” button in The Team page. . Figure 128. The Team page. When you invite someone to a team, they will get an email letting them know they’ve been invited. Additionally, team @mentions (such as @acmecorp/frontend ) work much the same as they do with individual users, except that all members of the team are then subscribed to the thread. This is useful if you want the attention from someone on a team, but you don’t know exactly who to ask. A user can belong to any number of teams, so don’t limit yourself to only access-control teams. Special-interest teams like ux , css , or refactoring are useful for certain kinds of questions, and others like legal and colorblind for an entirely different kind. Audit Log Organizations also give owners access to all the information about what went on under the organization. You can go to the Audit Log tab and see what events have happened at an organization level, who did them and where in the world they were done. Figure 129. The Audit log. You can also filter down to specific types of events, specific places or specific people. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://www.linkedin.com/products/categories/product-management-software?trk=products_details_guest_other_products_by_org_section_product_link_result-card_subtitle-click#main-content | Best Product Management Software | Products | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Join now Sign in Clear text Used by Used by Product Manager (33) Product Owner (15) Chief Product Officer (14) Project Manager (11) Software Engineer (11) See all products Find top products in Product Management Software category Software used to streamline the creation and development of products. - Oversee product lifecycle from start to finish - Manage concept development, workflow planning, and communication between teams - Develop strategies to improve productivity 114 results Productboard Product Management Software by Productboard Productboard is the leading customer-centric product management platform that empowers teams to get the right products to market, faster. It provides a complete solution for product teams to understand user needs, prioritize what to build next, align everyone on the roadmap, and engage with their customers. Productboard is easy to use, enables company-wide collaboration, and integrates into existing workflows. Over 6,000 organizations around the world use Productboard to build excellent products. Get started with a two week free trial! View product Aha! Academy Product Management Software by Aha! Aha! Academy is the best way to learn about product management and Aha! software. Get certified and be recognized as an expert. View product Product Portfolio Management Product Management Software by Planview Planview’s product portfolio management solution enables R&D leaders and product organizations to optimize product portfolios and accelerate time-to-market with an integrated solution that connects product strategy, planning, ideation, prioritization, and development to delivery. View product Producer Product Management Software by Toon Boom Animation Producer 20 provides real-time access to the progress of your animated features and series, making it easier to manage global production processes. Track tasks, assets, scenes, production progress, team management, efficiencies across departments, reporting and more. Plus, Producer seamlessly integrates with the software your team needs to get the job done including Storyboard Pro and Harmony. View product Dovetail Product Management Software by Dovetail Dovetail is the world’s leading AI-first customer insights hub, giving thousands of teams the answers they need to build the next big thing. By centralizing user feedback and providing smart features that uncover valuable insights faster, Dovetail helps you identify problems faster, prioritize roadmaps more confidently, and supercharge your strategy to make better product decisions. From user interviews to sales calls to support tickets and beyond, transform messy customer data into insights that scale. View product Find products trusted by professionals in your network See which products are used by connections in your network and those that share similar job titles Sign in to view full insights Interim Product Managers Product Management Software by Product People Our Interim/Fractional Product Managers/Owners, Product Ops, or Product Leaders cover parental leaves, scale your Product Management team quickly, or lead key initiatives while bridging the gap until a full-time employee joins. We onboard fast, align teams and deliver outcomes. We’re not recruiters. We don’t source candidates, this would be a conflict of interest with our interim work. Our in-house Product Managers acting as Interims in your company can appraise/create a hiring process and onboard your hires once they join. We’re not a freelance marketplace. We play long-term games with long-term people. Our team is full-time on our payroll. They join us via a 7-step recruitment process. We tender to their career growth with coaching and 360 feedback every 3 months. We’re not a software development agency. We specialize in Interim Product Management (including Product Ops). If you need developers or designers, we can connect you to a few firms we’ve worked with. View product Aha! Discovery Product Management Software by Aha! Aha! Discovery is the new way to manage customer interviews — centralize meeting transcripts, uncover key product insights, and link them to your roadmap. View product SmartSuite | Product Management Solutions Product Management Software by SmartSuite SmartSuite for Product Management allows businesses to turn their product vision into reality faster by managing every development process in one place. Create a product roadmap, plan requirements, manage your sprints, assign tasks to your team and deliver high-quality products on time and under budget. Monitor everything with real-time dashboards, flexible views, and powerful reports. Get Started with a free trial - no credit card required. View product ProductPlan Product Management Software by ProductPlan ProductPlan is the easiest way to build and share beautiful product roadmaps. Get started today with a free trial and 20+ roadmap templates. View product Prodgy Product Management Software by Programmers Meet Prodgy, the AI Agents platform designed to transform the way teams run Product Ops. From Discovery to Delivery, Prodgy automates the entire process while connecting seamlessly with the tools you already use — Jira, DevOps, Slack, Teams, and more. With a unified knowledge base at its core, Prodgy empowers organizations to accelerate product development, enhance collaboration, and deliver real impact faster. View product See more How it works Explore Discover the best product for your need from a growing catalog of 25,000 products and categories trusted by LinkedIn professionals Learn Evaluate new tools, explore trending products in your industry and see who in your network is skilled in the product Grow Join communities of product users to learn best practices, celebrate your progress and accelerate your career LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines English Language | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=lv | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=es_SV | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 �� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=en_IE | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=fi | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English (United States)) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/ru/v2/%d0%92%d0%b5%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b5-%d0%b2-Git-%d0%9e-%d0%b2%d0%b5%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b8-%d0%b2-%d0%b4%d0%b2%d1%83%d1%85-%d1%81%d0%bb%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%b0%d1%85 | Git - О ветвлении в двух словах About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Введение 1.1 О системе контроля версий 1.2 Краткая история Git 1.3 Что такое Git? 1.4 Командная строка 1.5 Установка Git 1.6 Первоначальная настройка Git 1.7 Как получить помощь? 1.8 Заключение 2. Основы Git 2.1 Создание Git-репозитория 2.2 Запись изменений в репозиторий 2.3 Просмотр истории коммитов 2.4 Операции отмены 2.5 Работа с удалёнными репозиториями 2.6 Работа с тегами 2.7 Псевдонимы в Git 2.8 Заключение 3. Ветвление в Git 3.1 О ветвлении в двух словах 3.2 Основы ветвления и слияния 3.3 Управление ветками 3.4 Работа с ветками 3.5 Удалённые ветки 3.6 Перебазирование 3.7 Заключение 4. Git на сервере 4.1 Протоколы 4.2 Установка Git на сервер 4.3 Генерация открытого SSH ключа 4.4 Настраиваем сервер 4.5 Git-демон 4.6 Умный HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git-хостинг 4.10 Заключение 5. Распределённый Git 5.1 Распределённый рабочий процесс 5.2 Участие в проекте 5.3 Сопровождение проекта 5.4 Заключение 6. GitHub 6.1 Настройка и конфигурация учётной записи 6.2 Внесение собственного вклада в проекты 6.3 Сопровождение проекта 6.4 Управление организацией 6.5 Создание сценариев GitHub 6.6 Заключение 7. Инструменты Git 7.1 Выбор ревизии 7.2 Интерактивное индексирование 7.3 Припрятывание и очистка 7.4 Подпись 7.5 Поиск 7.6 Перезапись истории 7.7 Раскрытие тайн reset 7.8 Продвинутое слияние 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Обнаружение ошибок с помощью Git 7.11 Подмодули 7.12 Создание пакетов 7.13 Замена 7.14 Хранилище учётных данных 7.15 Заключение 8. Настройка Git 8.1 Конфигурация Git 8.2 Атрибуты Git 8.3 Хуки в Git 8.4 Пример принудительной политики Git 8.5 Заключение 9. Git и другие системы контроля версий 9.1 Git как клиент 9.2 Переход на Git 9.3 Заключение 10. Git изнутри 10.1 Сантехника и Фарфор 10.2 Объекты Git 10.3 Ссылки в Git 10.4 Pack-файлы 10.5 Спецификации ссылок 10.6 Протоколы передачи данных 10.7 Обслуживание репозитория и восстановление данных 10.8 Переменные окружения 10.9 Заключение A1. Приложение A: Git в других окружениях A1.1 Графические интерфейсы A1.2 Git в Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git в Eclipse A1.5 Git в IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.6 Git в Sublime Text A1.7 Git в Bash A1.8 Git в Zsh A1.9 Git в PowerShell A1.10 Заключение A2. Приложение B: Встраивание Git в ваши приложения A2.1 Git из командной строки A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Приложение C: Команды Git A3.1 Настройка и конфигурация A3.2 Клонирование и создание репозиториев A3.3 Основные команды A3.4 Ветвление и слияния A3.5 Совместная работа и обновление проектов A3.6 Осмотр и сравнение A3.7 Отладка A3.8 Внесение исправлений A3.9 Работа с помощью электронной почты A3.10 Внешние системы A3.11 Администрирование A3.12 Низкоуровневые команды 2nd Edition 3.1 Ветвление в Git - О ветвлении в двух словах Почти каждая система контроля версий в той или иной форме поддерживает ветвление. Используя ветвление, Вы отклоняетесь от основной линии разработки и продолжаете работу независимо от неё, не вмешиваясь в основную линию. Во многих системах контроля версий создание веток — это очень затратный процесс, часто требующий создания новой копии каталога с исходным кодом, что может занять много времени для большого проекта. Некоторые люди, говоря о модели ветвления Git, называют её «киллер-фича», что выгодно выделяет Git на фоне остальных систем контроля версий. Что в ней такого особенного? Ветвление Git очень легковесно: операция создания ветки выполняется почти мгновенно, переключение между ветками туда-сюда, обычно, также быстро. В отличие от многих других систем контроля версий, Git поощряет процесс работы, при котором ветвление и слияние выполняется часто, даже по несколько раз в день. Понимание и владение этой функциональностью даёт вам уникальный и мощный инструмент, который может полностью изменить привычный процесс разработки. О ветвлении в двух словах Для точного понимания механизма ветвлений, необходимо вернуться назад и изучить то, как Git хранит данные. Как вы можете помнить из Что такое Git? , Git не хранит данные в виде последовательности изменений, он использует набор снимков (snapshot). Когда вы делаете коммит, Git сохраняет его в виде объекта, который содержит указатель на снимок (snapshot) подготовленных данных. Этот объект так же содержит имя автора и email, сообщение и указатель на коммит или коммиты непосредственно предшествующие данному (его родителей): отсутствие родителя для первоначального коммита, один родитель для обычного коммита, и несколько родителей для результатов слияния двух и более веток. Предположим, у вас есть каталог с тремя файлами и вы добавляете их все в индекс и создаёте коммит. Во время индексации вычисляется контрольная сумма каждого файла (SHA-1 как мы узнали из Что такое Git? ), затем каждый файл сохраняется в репозиторий (Git называет такой файл блоб — большой бинарный объект), а контрольная сумма попадёт в индекс: $ git add README test.rb LICENSE $ git commit -m 'Initial commit' Когда вы создаёте коммит командой git commit , Git вычисляет контрольные суммы каждого подкаталога (в нашем случае, только основной каталог проекта) и сохраняет его в репозитории как объект дерева каталогов. Затем Git создаёт объект коммита с метаданными и указателем на основное дерево проекта для возможности воссоздать этот снимок в случае необходимости. Ваш репозиторий Git теперь хранит пять объектов: три блоб объекта (по одному на каждый файл), объект дерева каталогов, содержащий список файлов и соответствующих им блобов, а так же объект коммита , содержащий метаданные и указатель на объект дерева каталогов. Рисунок 9. Коммит и его дерево Если вы сделаете изменения и создадите ещё один коммит, то он будет содержать указатель на предыдущий коммит. Рисунок 10. Коммит и его родители Ветка в Git — это простой перемещаемый указатель на один из таких коммитов. По умолчанию, имя основной ветки в Git — master . Как только вы начнёте создавать коммиты, ветка master будет всегда указывать на последний коммит. Каждый раз при создании коммита указатель ветки master будет передвигаться на следующий коммит автоматически. Примечание Ветка «master» в Git — это не какая-то особенная ветка. Она точно такая же, как и все остальные ветки. Она существует почти во всех репозиториях только лишь потому, что её создаёт команда git init , а большинство людей не меняют её название. Рисунок 11. Ветка и история коммитов Создание новой ветки Что же на самом деле происходит при создании ветки? Всего лишь создаётся новый указатель для дальнейшего перемещения. Допустим вы хотите создать новую ветку с именем testing . Вы можете это сделать командой git branch : $ git branch testing В результате создаётся новый указатель на текущий коммит. Рисунок 12. Две ветки указывают на одну и ту же последовательность коммитов Как Git определяет, в какой ветке вы находитесь? Он хранит специальный указатель HEAD . Имейте ввиду, что в Git концепция HEAD значительно отличается от других систем контроля версий, которые вы могли использовать раньше (Subversion или CVS). В Git — это указатель на текущую локальную ветку. В нашем случае мы всё ещё находимся в ветке master . Команда git branch только создаёт новую ветку, но не переключает на неё. Рисунок 13. HEAD указывает на ветку Вы можете легко это увидеть при помощи простой команды git log , которая покажет вам куда указывают указатели веток. Эта опция называется --decorate . $ git log --oneline --decorate f30ab (HEAD -> master, testing) Add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the central interface 34ac2 Fix bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions 98ca9 Initial commit Здесь можно увидеть указывающие на коммит f30ab ветки: master и testing . Переключение веток Для переключения на существующую ветку выполните команду git checkout . Давайте переключимся на ветку testing : $ git checkout testing В результате указатель HEAD переместится на ветку testing . Рисунок 14. HEAD указывает на текущую ветку Какой в этом смысл? Давайте сделаем ещё один коммит: $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made a change' Рисунок 15. Указатель на ветку HEAD переместился вперёд после коммита Интересная ситуация: указатель на ветку testing переместился вперёд, а master указывает на тот же коммит, где вы были до переключения веток командой git checkout . Давайте переключимся назад на ветку master : $ git checkout master Примечание git log не показывает все ветки по умолчанию Если выполнить команду git log прямо сейчас, то в её выводе только что созданная ветка «testing» фигурировать не будет. Ветка никуда не исчезла; просто Git не знает, что именно она вас интересует, и выводит наиболее полезную по его мнению информацию. Другими словами, по умолчанию git log отобразит историю коммитов только для текущей ветки. Для просмотра истории коммитов другой ветки необходимо явно указать её имя: git log testing Чтобы посмотреть историю по всем веткам — выполните команду с дополнительным флагом: git log --all . Рисунок 16. HEAD перемещается когда вы делаете checkout Эта команда сделала две вещи: переместила указатель HEAD назад на ветку master и вернула файлы в рабочем каталоге в то состояние, на снимок которого указывает master . Это также означает, что все вносимые с этого момента изменения будут относиться к старой версии проекта. Другими словами, вы откатили все изменения ветки testing и можете продолжать в другом направлении. Примечание Переключение веток меняет файлы в рабочем каталоге Важно запомнить, что при переключении веток в Git происходит изменение файлов в рабочем каталоге. Если вы переключаетесь на старую ветку, то рабочий каталог будет выглядеть так же, как выглядел на момент последнего коммита в ту ветку. Если Git по каким-то причинам не может этого сделать — он не позволит вам переключиться вообще. Давайте сделаем ещё несколько изменений и создадим очередной коммит: $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made other changes' Теперь история вашего проекта разошлась (см Разветвлённая история ). Вы создали ветку и переключились на неё, поработали, а затем вернулись в основную ветку и поработали в ней. Эти изменения изолированы друг от друга: вы можете свободно переключаться туда и обратно, а когда понадобится — объединить их. И всё это делается простыми командами: branch , checkout и commit . Рисунок 17. Разветвлённая история Все описанные действия можно визуализировать с помощью команды git log . Для отображения истории коммитов, текущего положения указателей веток и истории ветвления выполните команду git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all . $ git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all * c2b9e (HEAD, master) Made other changes | * 87ab2 (testing) Made a change |/ * f30ab Add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the central interface * 34ac2 Fix bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions * 98ca9 initial commit of my project Ветка в Git — это простой файл, содержащий 40 символов контрольной суммы SHA-1 коммита, на который она указывает; поэтому операции с ветками являются дешёвыми с точки зрения потребления ресурсов или времени. Создание новой ветки в Git происходит так же быстро и просто как запись 41 байта в файл (40 знаков и перевод строки). Это принципиально отличает процесс ветвления в Git от более старых систем контроля версий, где все файлы проекта копируются в другой подкаталог. В зависимости от размера проекта, операции ветвления в таких системах могут занимать секунды или даже минуты, когда в Git эти операции мгновенны. Поскольку при коммите мы сохраняем указатель на родительский коммит, то поиск подходящей базы для слияния веток делается автоматически и, в большинстве случаев, очень прост. Эти возможности побуждают разработчиков чаще создавать и использовать ветки. Давайте посмотрим, почему и вам имеет смысл делать так же. Примечание Одновременное создание новой ветки и переключение на неё Как правило, при создании новой ветки вы хотите сразу на неё переключиться — это можно сделать используя команду git checkout -b <newbranchname> . Примечание Начиная с Git версии 2.23, вы можете использовать git switch вместо git checkout , чтобы: Переключиться на существующую ветку: git switch testing-branch . Создать новую ветку и переключиться на неё: git switch -c new-branch . Флаг -c означает создание, но также можно использовать полный формат:` --create`. Вернуться к предыдущей извлечённой ветке: git switch - . prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=de_CH | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/ru/v2/%d0%92%d0%b2%d0%b5%d0%b4%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b5-%d0%9a%d0%b0%d0%ba-%d0%bf%d0%be%d0%bb%d1%83%d1%87%d0%b8%d1%82%d1%8c-%d0%bf%d0%be%d0%bc%d0%be%d1%89%d1%8c%3F | Git - Как получить помощь? About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Введение 1.1 О системе контроля версий 1.2 Краткая история Git 1.3 Что такое Git? 1.4 Командная строка 1.5 Установка Git 1.6 Первоначальная настройка Git 1.7 Как получить помощь? 1.8 Заключение 2. Основы Git 2.1 Создание Git-репозитория 2.2 Запись изменений в репозиторий 2.3 Просмотр истории коммитов 2.4 Операции отмены 2.5 Работа с удалёнными репозиториями 2.6 Работа с тегами 2.7 Псевдонимы в Git 2.8 Заключение 3. Ветвление в Git 3.1 О ветвлении в двух словах 3.2 Основы ветвления и слияния 3.3 Управление ветками 3.4 Работа с ветками 3.5 Удалённые ветки 3.6 Перебазирование 3.7 Заключение 4. Git на сервере 4.1 Протоколы 4.2 Установка Git на сервер 4.3 Генерация открытого SSH ключа 4.4 Настраиваем сервер 4.5 Git-демон 4.6 Умный HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git-хостинг 4.10 Заключение 5. Распределённый Git 5.1 Распределённый рабочий процесс 5.2 Участие в проекте 5.3 Сопровождение проекта 5.4 Заключение 6. GitHub 6.1 Настройка и конфигурация учётной записи 6.2 Внесение собственного вклада в проекты 6.3 Сопровождение проекта 6.4 Управление организацией 6.5 Создание сценариев GitHub 6.6 Заключение 7. Инструменты Git 7.1 Выбор ревизии 7.2 Интерактивное индексирование 7.3 Припрятывание и очистка 7.4 Подпись 7.5 Поиск 7.6 Перезапись истории 7.7 Раскрытие тайн reset 7.8 Продвинутое слияние 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Обнаружение ошибок с помощью Git 7.11 Подмодули 7.12 Создание пакетов 7.13 Замена 7.14 Хранилище учётных данных 7.15 Заключение 8. Настройка Git 8.1 Конфигурация Git 8.2 Атрибуты Git 8.3 Хуки в Git 8.4 Пример принудительной политики Git 8.5 Заключение 9. Git и другие системы контроля версий 9.1 Git как клиент 9.2 Переход на Git 9.3 Заключение 10. Git изнутри 10.1 Сантехника и Фарфор 10.2 Объекты Git 10.3 Ссылки в Git 10.4 Pack-файлы 10.5 Спецификации ссылок 10.6 Протоколы передачи данных 10.7 Обслуживание репозитория и восстановление данных 10.8 Переменные окружения 10.9 Заключение A1. Приложение A: Git в других окружениях A1.1 Графические интерфейсы A1.2 Git в Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git в Eclipse A1.5 Git в IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.6 Git в Sublime Text A1.7 Git в Bash A1.8 Git в Zsh A1.9 Git в PowerShell A1.10 Заключение A2. Приложение B: Встраивание Git в ваши приложения A2.1 Git из командной строки A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Приложение C: Команды Git A3.1 Настройка и конфигурация A3.2 Клонирование и создание репозиториев A3.3 Основные команды A3.4 Ветвление и слияния A3.5 Совместная работа и обновление проектов A3.6 Осмотр и сравнение A3.7 Отладка A3.8 Внесение исправлений A3.9 Работа с помощью электронной почты A3.10 Внешние системы A3.11 Администрирование A3.12 Низкоуровневые команды 2nd Edition 1.7 Введение - Как получить помощь? Как получить помощь? Если вам нужна помощь при использовании Git, есть три способа открыть страницу руководства по любой команде Git: $ git help <команда> $ git <команда> --help $ man git-<команда> Например, так можно открыть руководство по команде git config $ git help config Эти команды хороши тем, что ими можно пользоваться всегда, даже без подключения к сети. Если руководства и этой книги недостаточно и вам нужна персональная помощь, вы можете попытаться поискать её на каналах #git и #github IRC сервера Libera Chat, который доступен по адресу https://libera.chat/ . Обычно там сотни людей, отлично знающих Git, которые могут помочь. Так же, если вам нужно посмотреть только список опций и вы не хотите читать полную документацию по команде, вы можете использовать опцию -h для вывода краткой инструкции по использованию: $ git add -h usage: git add [<options>] [--] <pathspec>... -n, --dry-run dry run -v, --verbose be verbose -i, --interactive interactive picking -p, --patch select hunks interactively -e, --edit edit current diff and apply -f, --force allow adding otherwise ignored files -u, --update update tracked files --renormalize renormalize EOL of tracked files (implies -u) -N, --intent-to-add record only the fact that the path will be added later -A, --all add changes from all tracked and untracked files --ignore-removal ignore paths removed in the working tree (same as --no-all) --refresh don't add, only refresh the index --ignore-errors just skip files which cannot be added because of errors --ignore-missing check if - even missing - files are ignored in dry run --chmod (+|-)x override the executable bit of the listed files prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/gr/v2/%ce%a4%ce%bf-Git-%cf%83%cf%84%ce%bf%ce%bd-%ce%b4%ce%b9%ce%b1%ce%ba%ce%bf%ce%bc%ce%b9%cf%83%cf%84%ce%ae-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Ξεκινώντας με το Git 1.1 Σχετικά με τον έλεγχο εκδόσεων 1.2 Σύντομο ιστορικό του Git 1.3 Τι είναι το Git; 1.4 Η γραμμή εντολών 1.5 Εγκατάσταση του Git 1.6 Ρύθμιση του Git για πρώτη φορά 1.7 Χρησιμοποιώντας τη βοήθεια 1.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 2. Τα θεμελιώδη στοιχεία του Git 2.1 Απόκτηση αποθετηρίου Git 2.2 Καταγραφή αλλαγών στο αποθετήριο 2.3 Χρησιμοποιώντας το ιστορικό υποβολών 2.4 Αναιρέσεις (undoing) 2.5 Δουλεύοντας με απομακρυσμένα αποθετήρια 2.6 Ετικέτες 2.7 Συντομεύεσεις στο Git 2.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση 3. Διακλαδώσεις στο Git 3.1 Οι κλάδοι με λίγα λόγια 3.2 Βασικές έννοιες διακλαδώσεων και συγχωνεύσεων 3.3 Διαχείριση κλάδων 3.4 Ροές εργασίας με διακλαδώσεις 3.5 Απομακρυσμένοι κλάδοι 3.6 Αλλαγή βάσης (rebasing) 3.7 Ανακεφαλαίωση 4. Το Git στον διακομιστή 4.1 Τα πρωτόκολλα 4.2 Εγκατάσταση του Git σε διακομιστή 4.3 Δημιουργία δημόσιου κλειδιού SSH 4.4 Στήσιμο του διακομιστή 4.5 Δαίμονες του Git 4.6 Έξυπνο HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Επιλογές φιλοξενίας από τρίτους 4.10 Ανακεφαλαίωση 5. Κατανεμημένο Git 5.1 Κατανεμημένες ροές εργασίας 5.2 Συνεισφέροντας σε ένα έργο 5.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 5.4 Ανακεφαλαίωση 6. GitHub 6.1 Δημιουργία λογαριασμού και ρύθμισή του 6.2 Συνεισφορά σε έργο 6.3 Συντήρηση ενός έργου 6.4 Διαχείριση οργανισμώνν 6.5 Συγγραφή script στο GitHub 6.6 Ανακεφαλαίωση 7. Εργαλεία του Git 7.1 Επιλογή αναθεώρησης 7.2 Διαδραστική εργασία με το στάδιο καταχώρισης 7.3 Αποθέματα και Καθαρισμός 7.4 Υπογραφή της δουλειάς μας 7.5 Αναζήτηση 7.6 Η ιστορία ξαναγράφεται 7.7 Απομυθοποίηση της reset 7.8 Προχωρημένη Συγχώνευση 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Αποσφαλμάτωση με το Git 7.11 Υπομονάδες 7.12 Δεμάτιασμα δεδομένων 7.13 Replace 7.14 Αποθήκευση διαπιστευτηρίων 7.15 Ανακεφαλαίωση 8. Εξατομίκευση του Git 8.1 Διαμόρφωση Git 8.2 Γνωρίσματα του Git 8.3 Τα άγκιστρα του Git 8.4 Ένα παράδειγμα επιβολής πολιτικής από το Git 8.5 Ανακεφαλαίωση 9. Το Git και άλλα συστήματα 9.1 Το Git ως πελάτης 9.2 Μετανάστευση στο Git 9.3 Ανακεφαλαίωση 10. Εσωτερική λειτουργία του Git 10.1 Διοχετεύσεις και πορσελάνες 10.2 Αντικείμενα του Git 10.3 Αναφορές του Git 10.4 Πακετάρισμα αρχείων 10.5 Τα refspec 10.6 Πρωτόκολλα μεταφοράς 10.7 Διατήρηση και ανάκτηση δεδομένων 10.8 Μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος 10.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A1. Appendix A: Το Git σε άλλα περιβάλλοντα A1.1 Γραφικές διεπαφές A1.2 Το Git στο Visual Studio A1.3 Git στο Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git στο IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git στο Sublime Text A1.6 Το Git στο Bash A1.7 Το Git στο Zsh A1.8 Το Git στο Powershell A1.9 Ανακεφαλαίωση A2. Appendix B: Ενσωμάτωση του Git στις εφαρμογές μας A2.1 Γραμμή εντολών Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Appendix C: Εντολές Git A3.1 Ρύθμιση και διαμόρφωση A3.2 Λήψη και δημιουργία έργων A3.3 Βασική λήψη στιγμιοτύπων A3.4 Διακλάδωση και συγχώνευση A3.5 Κοινή χρήση και ενημέρωση έργων A3.6 Επιθεώρηση και σύγκριση A3.7 Αποσφαλμάτωση A3.8 Επιθέματα A3.9 Ηλεκτρονικό ταχυδρομείο A3.10 Εξωτερικά Συστήματα A3.11 Διοίκηση A3.12 Εντολές διοχέτευσης 2nd Edition 4.8 Το Git στον διακομιστή - GitLab GitLab Το GitWeb είναι αρκετά απλοϊκό. Αν ψάχνουμε για έναν πιο σύγχρονο διακομιστή Git με πολλές λειτουργικότητες, υπάρχουν μερικές λύσεις ανοιχτού κώδικα που μπορούμε να εγκαταστήσουμε αντ' αυτού. Καθώς το GitLab είναι μία από τις πιο δημοφιλείς, θα δούμε την εγκατάσταση και χρήση του ως παράδειγμα. Η εγκατάσταση του GitLab είναι λίγο πιο περίπλοκη από αυτή του GitWeb και πιθανότα απαιτεί περισσότερη συντήρηση, αλλά είναι μια επιλογή με πολύ περισσότερα χαρακτηριστικά. Εγκατάσταση Το GitLab είναι μια διαδικτυακή εφαρμογή που βασίζεται σε βάση δεδομένων, συνεπώς η εγκατάστασή του είναι πιο απαιτητική από ότι άλλων διακομιστών Git. Ευτυχώς, αυτή η διαδικασία έχει πολύ καλή τεκμηρίωση και υποστήριξη. Το GitLab συνιστά ιδιαιτέρως την εγκατάσταση του GitLab στον διακομιστή μας μέσω του επίσημου πακέτου Omnibus GitLab. Οι άλλες επιλογές εγκατάστασης είναι: Χάρτης GitLab Helm, για χρήση με το Kubernetes. Docker-οποιημένα πακέτα GitLab για χρήση με το Docker. Από πηγαίο κώδικα. Προμηθευτές cloud όπως οι AWS, Google Cloud Platform, Azure, OpenShift και Digital Ocean. Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες βλ. το GitLab Community Edition (CE) readme . Διαχείριση Η διεπαφή διαχείρισης του GitLab είναι προσπελάσιμη μέσα από το web. Απλά οδηγούμε το πρόγραμμα περιήγησής μας στο hostname ή τη διεύθυνση IP στην οποία είναι εγκατεστημένο το GitLab και συνδεόμαστε ως χρήστης root . Ο κωδικός βασίζεται στον τύπο εγκατάστασης αλλά από προεπιλογή, ο Omnibus GitLab αυτόαματα δημιουργεί κωδικό και τον αποθηκεύει στο /etc/gitlab/initial_root_password για τουλάχιστον 24 ώρες. Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες ακουλουθούμε το εγχειρίδιο. Μόλις συνδεθούμε, κάνουμε κλικ στο εικονίδιο “Admin area” στο επάνω δεξιά μενού. Figure 50. Το εικονίδιο “Admin area” στο μενού του GitLab Χρήστες Όλοι όσοι χρησιμοποιούν τον διακομιστή GitLab πρέπει να έχουν λογαριασμό χρήστη. Οι λογαριασμοί χρηστών είναι πολύ απλοί· βασικά είναι μια συλλογή προσωπικών πληροφοριών προσαρτημένα σε δεδομένα σύνδεσης. Κάθε λογαριασμός χρήστη συνοδεύεται από έναν ονοματοχώρο (namespace), το οποίο είναι μια λογική ομαδοποίηση έργων που ανήκουν σε αυτόν τον χρήστη. Εάν ο χρήστης jane είχε ένα έργο με όνομα project, η διεύθυνση URL του έργου θα ήταν http://server/jane/project . Figure 51. Η οθόνη διαχείρισης χρηστών του GitLab Μπορούμε να καταργήσουμε ένα χρήστη με δύο τρόπους: Αν “μπλοκάρουμε” ενα χρήστη τον εμποδίζουμε να συνδεθεί στο στιγμιότυπο (instance) του GitLab, αλλά όλα τα δεδομένα κάτω από τον ονοματοχώρο του χρήστη θα διατηρηθούν και οι υποβολές που έχει υπογράψει με τη διεύθυνση e-mail του χρήστη θα εξακολουθούν να είναι συνδεδεμένες στο προφίλ του. Αν “καταστρέψουμε” ένα χρήστη, τον αφαιρούμε εντελώς από τη βάση δεδομένων και το σύστημα αρχείων. Όλα τα έργα και τα δεδομένα στον ονοματοχώρο του θα διαγραφούν και οι ομάδες που ενδεχομένως του ανήκουν θα διαγραφούν επίσης. Αυτή είναι προφανώς μια πολύ πιο μόνιμη και καταστροφική ενέργεια και σπάνια θα τη χρειαστούμε. Ομάδες Μια ομάδα (group) στο GitLab είναι μια συλλογή έργων μαζί με δεδομένα σχετικά με τον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι χρήστες έχουν πρόσβαση σε αυτά τα έργα. Κάθε ομάδα έχει ένα ονοματοχώρο έργου (ακριβώς όπως και οι χρήστες), οπότε αν η ομάδα training έχει ένα έργο materials, η διεύθυνση URL του θα είναι http://server/training/materials . Figure 52. Οθόνη διαχείρισης ομάδων του GitLab Κάθε ομάδα συσχετίζεται με έναν αριθμό χρηστών, καθένας από τους οποίους έχει το δικό του επίπεδο δικαιωμάτων για τα έργα της ομάδας και την ίδια την ομάδα. Αυτά ποικίλλουν από “Guest” (επισκέπτης) (έχουν πρόσβαση μόνον σε θέματα και chat) μέχρι “Owner” (κάτοχος) (έχει πλήρης έλεγχο της ομάδας, των μελών και των έργων της). Οι τύποι δικαιωμάτων είναι πάρα πολλοί για να τους αναφέρουμε εδώ, αλλά το GitLab έχει έναν σχετικό χρήσιμο σύνδεσμο στην οθόνη διαχείρισης. Έργα Ένα έργο του GitLab αντιστοιχίζεται πάνω-κάτω σε ένα αποθετήριο Git. Κάθε έργο ανήκει σε ένα μοναδικό ονοματοχώρο· είτε σε έναν χρήστη είτε σε μια ομάδα. Αν το έργο ανήκει σε χρήστη, ο ιδιοκτήτης του έργου έχει άμεσο έλεγχο για το ποιος έχει πρόσβαση στο έργο· αν το έργο ανήκει σε μια ομάδα, θα ισχύουν τα δικαιώματα χρήστη της ομάδας. Κάθε έργο έχει επίσης ένα επίπεδο ορατότητας, το οποίο ελέγχει ποιος έχει πρόσβαση στη σελίδα και το αποθετήριο αυτού του έργου. Εάν ένα έργο είναι Private (ιδιωτικό), ο κάτοχος του έργου πρέπει να παρέχει ρητά πρόσβαση σε συγκεκριμένους χρήστες. Ένα Internal (εσωτερικό) έργο είναι ορατό σε οποιονδήποτε συνδεδεμένο χρήστη και ένα Public (δημόσιο) έργο είναι ορατό σε οποιονδήποτε. Σημειώνουμε ότι το επίπεδο ορατότητας του έργου ελέγχει τόσο την πρόσβαση git fetch , όσο και την πρόσβαση στη διαδικτυακή διεπαφή χρήστη (web UI) για αυτό το έργο. Άγκιστρα Το GitLab περιλαμβάνει υποστήριξη για άγκιστρα (hooks), τόσο σε επίπεδο έργου όσο και σε επίπεδο συστήματος. Και για τα δύο και κάθε φορά που προκύπτουν σχετικά γεγονότα, ο διακομιστής GitLab θα εκτελέσει ένα HTTP POST με κάποια περιγραφικά JSON. Αυτός είναι ένας πολύ καλός τρόπος σύνδεσης των αποθετηρίων μας Git και του στιγμιότυπου GitLab με τον υπόλοιπο αυτοματισμό της ανάπτυξης του έργου, όπως οι διακομιστές CI, οι χώροι συνομιλίας (chat rooms) και τα εργαλεία ανάπτυξης. Βασική χρήση Το πρώτο πράγμα που θα θελήσουμε να κάνουμε με το GitLab είναι να δημιουργήσουμε ένα νέο έργο. Αυτό επιτυγχάνεται με κλικ στο εικονίδιο “+” στη γραμμή εργαλείων. Θα μας ζητηθεί το όνομα του έργου, ο ονοματοχώρος στον οποίο θέλουμε να ανήκει και το επίπεδο ορατότητάς του. Τα περισσότερα στοιχεία από αυτά δεν είναι μόνιμα και μπορούν να επαναρυθμιστούν αργότερα στις ρυθμίσεις. Κάνουμε κλικ στο κουμπί “Create Project” και τελειώσαμε. Από τη στιγμή που το έργο αρχίζει να υπάρχει, το πιθανότερο είναι να θελήσουμε να το συνδέσουμε με ένα τοπικό αποθετήριο Git. Κάθε έργο είναι προσβάσιμο μέσω HTTPS ή SSH, καθένα από τα οποία μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να οριστούν οι ρυθμίσεις κατά τη διαμόρφωση ενός απομακρυσμένου Git. Οι διευθύνσεις URL είναι ορατές στο επάνω μέρος της αρχικής σελίδας του έργου. Αν έχουμε ένα τοπικό αποθετήριο, με την παρακάτω εντολή θα δημιουργήσουμε ένα απομακρυσμένο αποθετήριο με όνομα gitlab στη φιλοξενούμενη τοποθεσία: $ git remote add gitlab https://server/namespace/project.git Εάν δεν έχουμε τοπικό αντίγραφο του αποθετηρίου, μπορούμε απλά να τρέξουμε το εξής: $ git clone https://server/namespace/project.git Η διεπαφή χρήστη web παρέχει πρόσβαση σε πολλές χρήσιμες προβολές του ίδιου του αποθετηρίου. Η αρχική σελίδα του κάθε έργου παρουσιάζει την πρόσφατη δραστηριότητα και οι συνδέσεις στην κορυφή θα μας οδηγήσουν σε προβολές των αρχείων του έργου και του αρχείου καταγραφής υποβολών. Συνεργασίες Ο απλούστερος τρόπος συνεργασίας σε ένα έργο GitLab είναι να δώσουμε στον άλλο χρήστη δικαίωμα άμεσης ώθησης στο αποθετήριο Git. Μπορούμε να προσθέσουμε έναν χρήστη σε ένα έργο πηγαίνοντας στην ενότητα “Members” (Μέλη) των ρυθμίσεων του συγκεκριμένου έργου και δίνοντας στον νέο χρήστη ένα επίπεδο πρόσβασης (τα διάφορα επίπεδα πρόσβασης αναλύονται λίγο στην ενότητα Ομάδες ). Παρέχοντας στον χρήστη επίπεδο πρόσβασης “Developer” (προγραμματιστή) ή ανώτερο, ο χρήστης μπορεί να ωθήσει υποβολές και κλάδους απευθείας στο αποθετήριο. Ένας άλλος, πιο ελεγχόμενος τρόπος συνεργασίας είναι με τη χρήση αιτήσεων συγχώνευσης (merge requests). Αυτή η δυνατότητα επιτρέπει σε κάθε χρήστη που μπορεί να δει ένα έργο να συνεισφέρει σε αυτό με ελεγχόμενο τρόπο. Οι χρήστες με άμεση πρόσβαση μπορούν απλά να δημιουργήσουν έναν κλάδο, να ωθήσουν υποβολές σε αυτόν και να θέσουν ένα αίτημα συγχώνευσης από τον κλάδο τους στον κλάδο master ή σε οποιονδήποτε άλλο κλάδο. Οι χρήστες που δεν έχουν δικαίωμα ώθησης σε ένα αποθετήριο μπορούν να το αποσχίσουν (fork) (δηλ. να δημιουργήσουν το δικό τους αντίγραφο), να ωθούν υποβολές σε αυτό το αντίγραφο και να κάνουν αίτημα συγχώνευσης από το αντίγραφό τους στο κύριο έργο. Αυτό το μοντέλο επιτρέπει στον κάτοχο να έχει τον πλήρη έλεγχο του τι πηγαίνει στο αποθετήριο και πότε, καθώς επιτρέπει συνεισφορές και από μη αξιόπιστους χρήστες. Τα αιτήματα συγχώνευσης και τα ζητήματα που προκύπτουν είναι τα κύρια θέματα μακροχρόνιων συζητήσεων στο GitLab. Κάθε αίτηση συγχώνευσης επιτρέπει μια γραμμή-προς-γραμμή συζήτηση για την προτεινόμενη αλλαγή (η οποία υποστηρίζει ένα ελαφρύ είδος αναθεώρησης κώδικα) καθώς και ένα νήμα γενικής συζήτησης. Και οι δύο μπορούν να ανατεθούν σε χρήστες ή να οργανωθούν σε ορόσημα (milestones). Αυτή η ενότητα επικεντρώθηκε κυρίως στις λειτουργίες του GitLab που σχετίζονται με το Git, αλλά ως ώριμο έργο, παρέχει κι άλλες πολλές λειτουργικότητες που βοηθούν την ομάδα μας να συνεργάζεται, όπως τα εργαλεία wiki και τα εργαλεία συντήρησης του συστήματος. Ένα πλεονέκτημα για το GitLab είναι από τη στιγμή που θα εγκαταστήσουμε και ξεκινήσουμε τον διακομιστή, σπάνια θα χρειαστεί να τροποποιήσουμε κάποιο αρχείο παραμετροποίησης ή πρόσβασης στον διακομιστή μέσω SSH· σχεδόν όλη η διαχείριση και γενική χρήση μπορούν να γίνουν μέσω της διεπαφής στο πρόγραμμα περιήγησης. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
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https://git-scm.com/book/sl/v2/Git-na-stre%c5%beniku-GitLab | Git - GitLab About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Začetek 1.1 O nadzoru različic 1.2 Kratka zgodovina Gita 1.3 Kaj je Git? 1.4 Ukazna vrstica 1.5 Namestitev Gita 1.6 Prva nastavitev Gita 1.7 Pridobivanje pomoči 1.8 Povzetek 2. Osnove Git 2.1 Pridobivanje repozitorija Git 2.2 Snemanje sprememb v repozitorij 2.3 Pregled zgodovine potrditev 2.4 Razveljavljanje stvari 2.5 Delo z daljavami 2.6 Označevanje 2.7 Aliasi Git 2.8 Povzetek 3. Veje Git 3.1 Veje na kratko 3.2 Osnove vej in združevanja 3.3 Upravljanje vej 3.4 Poteki dela z vejami 3.5 Oddaljene veje 3.6 Ponovno baziranje 3.7 Povzetek 4. Git na strežniku 4.1 Protokoli 4.2 Pridobitev Gita na strežniku 4.3 Generiranje vaših javnih ključev SSH 4.4 Nastavitev strežnika 4.5 Prikriti proces Git 4.6 Pametni HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Možnosti gostovanja pri tretjih ponudnikih 4.10 Povzetek 5. Porazdeljeni Git 5.1 Porazdeljeni poteki dela 5.2 Prispevek k projektu 5.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 5.4 Povzetek 6. GitHub 6.1 Namestitev in konfiguracija računa 6.2 Prispevek k projektu 6.3 Vzdrževanje projekta 6.4 Upravljanje organizacije 6.5 Skriptni GitHub 6.6 Povzetek 7. Orodja Git 7.1 Izbira revizije 7.2 Interaktivno pripravljanje 7.3 Shranjevanje na varno (angl. stashing) in čiščenje 7.4 Podpisovanje vašega dela 7.5 Iskanje 7.6 Prepisovanje zgodovine 7.7 Demistifikacija ponastavitve 7.8 Napredno združevanje 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Razhroščevanje z Gitom 7.11 Podmoduli 7.12 Povezovanje v pakete 7.13 Zamenjava 7.14 Shramba poverilnic 7.15 Povzetek 8. Prilagoditev Gita 8.1 Konfiguracija Git 8.2 Atributi Git 8.3 Kljuke Git 8.4 Primer pravilnika, ki ga uveljavlja Git 8.5 Povzetek 9. Git in ostali sistemi 9.1 Git kot odjemalec 9.2 Migracija na Git 9.3 Povzetek 10. Notranjost Gita 10.1 Napeljava in keramika 10.2 Objekti Git 10.3 Reference Git 10.4 Packfiles (datoteke zmanjšanih podatkov) 10.5 Refspec 10.6 Protokoli prenosa 10.7 Vzdrževanje in obnovitev podatkov 10.8 Spremenljivke okolja 10.9 Povzetek A1. Dodatek A: Git v drugih okoljih A1.1 Grafični vmesniki A1.2 Git v Visual Studio A1.3 Git v Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git v IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.5 Git v Sublime Text A1.6 Git v Bashu A1.7 Git v Zsh A1.8 Git v Powershellu A1.9 Povzetek A2. Dodatek B: Vdelava Gita v vašo aplikacijo A2.1 Git v ukazni vrstici A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Dodatek C: Ukazi Git A3.1 Nastavitev in konfiguracija A3.2 Pridobivanje in ustvarjanje projektov A3.3 Osnove posnetkov A3.4 Veje in združevanje A3.5 Deljenje in posodabljanje projektov A3.6 Pregled in primerjava A3.7 Razhroščevanje A3.8 Popravljanje A3.9 E-pošta A3.10 Zunanji sistemi A3.11 Administracija A3.12 Orodja za sisteme napeljave 2nd Edition 4.8 Git na strežniku - GitLab GitLab GitWeb je konec koncev precej enostaven. Če iščete moderen strežnik Git s polno lastnostmi, je na voljo nekaj odprtokodnih rešitev, ki jih lahko namestite namesto tega. Ker je GitLab eden izmed popularnejših, bomo kot primer šli skozi namestitev in uporabo. To je nekoliko bolj kompleksno kot opcija GitWeb in bo zahtevalo več vzdrževanja, je pa polno opremljena možnost. Namestitev GitLab je spletna aplikacija podprta s podatkovno bazo, torej njegova namestitev vključuje nekoliko več vključevanja kot ostali strežniki Git. Na srečo je ta proces zelo dobro dokumentiran in podprt. GitLab močno priporoča namestitev GitLaba na vaš strežnik prek uradnega paketa Omnibus GitLab. Druge možnosti namestitve so: GitLab Helm chart za uporabo s Kubernetes. Dockerizirani paketi GitLab za uporabo z Dockerjem. Iz izvornih datotek. Ponudniki oblakov, kot so AWS, Google Cloud Platform, Azure, OpenShift in Digital Ocean. Za več informacij preberite GitLab Community Edition (CE) readme . Administracija GitLabov administracijski vmesnik je dostopen preko spleta. Enostavno pokažite svoj brskalnik na ime gostitelja ali naslov IP, kjer je GitLab nameščen, in se prijavite kot uporabnik admin. Privzeto uporabniško ime je admin@local.host in privzeto geslo je 5iveL!fe (ki ga morate takoj spremeniti). Ko se enkrat prijavite, kliknite na ikono »Admin area« v meniju desno zgoraj. Slika 50. Element »Admin area« v meniju GitLab Uporabniki Vsakdo, ki uporablja strežnik GitLab, mora imeti uporabniški račun. Uporabniški računi so precej preprosti, večinoma vsebujejo osebne informacije, ki so pripete k prijavnim podatkom. Vsak uporabniški račun prihaja z imenskim prostorom , kar je logično grupiranje projektov, ki pripadajo temu uporabniku. Če ima uporabnik jane projekt imenovan project, je URL projekta http://server/jane/project . Slika 51. Zaslon administracije uporabnika GitLab Uporabnika se lahko odstrani na dva načina: »Blokiranje« uporabnika prepreči prijavo v instanco GitLab, vendar bodo vsi podatki pod uporabniškim imenskim prostorom ohranjeni in potrditve, poslane s tem uporabniškim e-naslovom, bodo še vedno povezovale njegov profil. »Uničenje« uporabnika po drugi strani v celoti odstrani uporabnika iz podatkovne baze in datotečnega sistema. Vsi projekti in podatki v imenskem prostoru uporabnika in katerekoli skupine, ki jih imajo v lasti, bodo tudi odstranjeni. To je očitno veliko bolj dokončna in destruktivna akcija ter njene uporabe so redke. Skupine Skupina GitLab je zbirka projektov skupaj s podatki o tem, kako lahko uporabniki dostopajo do teh projektov. Vsaka skupina ima imenski prostor projekta (enako, kakor imajo to uporabniki), torej če ima skupina training projekt materials, bi bil njen URL http://server/training/materials . Slika 52. Administracijski zaslon skupin GitLab Vsaka skupina je povezana s številom uporabnikov, vsak od njih ima nivo pravic za skupinske projekte in samo skupino. To obsega vse od »Guest« (samo težave in pogovor) do »Owner« (poln nadzor nad skupino, njenimi člani in njenimi projekti). Tipi pravic so tukaj preveč številni za izpis, vendar GitLab ima na administracijskem zaslonu koristno povezavo. Projekti Projekt GitLab približno ustreza enemu repozitoriju Git. Vsak projekt pripada enemu imenskemu prostoru uporabnika ali skupine. Če projekt pripada uporabniku, ima lastnik projekta neposreden nadzor nad tem, kdo ima dostop do projekta; če projekt pripada skupini, potem bodo imele učinek tudi pravice skupinskega nivoja uporabnika. Vsak projekt ima tudi nivo vidnosti, kar nadzira, kdo ima dostop za branje do strani in repozitorijev tega projekta. Če je projekt zaseben , mora lastnik projekta eksplicitno odobriti dostop določenim uporabnikom. Interni projekt je viden kateremukoli prijavljenemu uporabniku in javni projekt je viden komurkoli. Bodite pozorni, saj to nadzira tako dostop git fetch kot tudi dostop do spletnega uporabniškega vmesnika za ta projekt. Kljuke GitLab vključuje podporo za kljuke tako na projektnem kot na sistemskem nivoju. Za katerokoli od teh bo strežnik GitLab izvedel HTTP POST z nekim opisnim JSON, kadarkoli se zgodi relevanten dogodek. To je odličen način za povezavo vaših repozitorijev Git in instanco GitLab z vašo preostalo avtomatizacijo, kot je strežnik CI, pogovorne sobe ali nalagalna orodja. Osnovna uporaba Prva stvar, ki jo boste z GitLabom želeli narediti, je ustvariti nov projekt. To se doseže s klikom na ikono »+« na orodni vrstici. Vprašani boste za ime projekta, kateremu imenskemu prostoru naj bi pripadal in kakšen nivo vidnosti bi moral imeti. Večino, česar določite tu, ni dokončno in se lahko ponovno prilagodi kasneje skozi vmesnik nastavitev. Kliknite na »Create Project« in ste opravili. Enkrat, ko projekt obstaja, ga boste verjetno želeli povezati z lokalnim repozitorijem Git. Vsak projekt je dostopen preko HTTPS ali SSH, katerikoli od teh se lahko uporabi za nastavitev daljave Git. URL-ji so vidni na vrhu domače strani projekta. Za obstoječe lokalne repozitorije ta ukaz ustvari daljavo imenovano gitlab h gostujoči lokaciji: $ git remote add gitlab https://server/namespace/project.git Če nimate lokalne kopije repozitorija, jo lahko enostavno naredite na naslednji način: $ git clone https://server/namespace/project.git Spletni UI ponuja dostop do mnogih uporabnih pogledov samega repozitorija. Vsaka domača stran projekta prikazuje zadnjo dejavnost in povezave na vrhu vas bodo peljale do pogledov projektnih datotek in dnevnika potrjevanja. Skupno delo Najenostavnejši način skupnega dela na projektu GitLab je dati drugemu uporabniku neposredne pravice potiskanja v repozitorij Git. Projektu lahko dodate uporabnika tako, da greste na razdelek »Members« v nastavitvah tega projekta in povežete novega uporabnika z nivojem dostopa (različni nivoji dostopa so predebatirani nekoliko v odseku Skupine ). Z dajanjem uporabniku nivo dostopa »Developer« ali več, lahko ta uporabnik potiska potrditve in veje neposredno v repozitorij. Drug bolj razvezan način sodelovanja je z uporabo zahtevkov združevanja. Ta lastnost omogoča na nadziran način, da katerikoli uporabnik vidi projekt za sodelovanje. Uporabniki z neposrednim dostopom lahko enostavno ustvarijo vejo, vanjo potisnejo potrditve in odprejo zahtevek združevanja iz njihove veje nazaj v master ali katerokoli drugo vejo. Uporabniki, ki nimajo pravic potiskanja za repozitorij, lahko naredijo t. i. »vejitev« (angl. fork ) in ustvarijo njihovo lastno kopijo, pošljejo potrditve v njihovo kopijo in odprejo zahtevek združevanja iz njihove vejitve nazaj v glavni projekt. Ta model omogoča lastniku, da ima polno kontrolo nad tem, kaj gre v repozitorij in kdaj, medtem ko omogoča sodelovanje z nezaupljivimi uporabniki. Zahtevki združevanja in težave so glavne enote dolgo živečih diskusij v GitLabu. Vsak zahtevek združevanja omogoča debato po vrsticah predlagane spremembe (kar podpira enostaven način pregleda kode), kot tudi splošno skupno nit diskusije. Oboje se lahko določi uporabniku ali organizira v mejnike. Ta razdelek je osredotočen v glavnem na lastnosti GitLaba povezane z Gitom, vendar kot zrel projekt ponuja mnoge ostale lastnosti, ki pomagajo vaši ekipi, da dela skupaj, kot so projektni wikiji in orodja vzdrževanja sistema. Ena izmed koristi GitLaba je ta, da ko je enkrat strežnik nastavljen in v pogonu, boste redko morali prilagoditi nastavitveno datoteko ali dostop do strežnika preko SSH; večino administracije in splošne uporabe se lahko doseže preko vmesnika znotraj brskalnika. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://www.linkedin.com/products/aha-labs-inc--aha-academy/?trk=products_seo_search | Aha! Academy | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Aha! in Asan Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Join now Sign in Aha! Academy Product Management Software by Aha! See who's skilled in this Add as skill Learn more Report this product About Aha! Academy is the best way to learn about product management and Aha! software. Get certified and be recognized as an expert. Media Products media viewer No more previous content Aha! Academy - Learn and grow with Aha! Our team of product experts is here to teach you how to build lovable products and companies. Through Aha! Academy, we offer a variety of no-cost and fee-based learning paths to increase your product development knowledge and grow your skill set. Aha! Academy - Aha! Roadmaps certification Power up your career when you achieve Aha! Roadmaps certification. Thousands of professionals have attended our classes. You will benefit from immersive training led by skilled instructors. Be recognized as an expert — both in Aha! software and product management. No more next content Featured customers of Aha! Academy Surescripts IT Services and IT Consulting 20,221 followers MedStudy Education 1,384 followers Intuit Software Development 955,928 followers Similar products Productboard Productboard Product Management Software Product Portfolio Management Product Portfolio Management Product Management Software Producer Producer Product Management Software Dovetail Dovetail Product Management Software Interim Product Managers Interim Product Managers Product Management Software Aha! Discovery Aha! Discovery Product Management Software Sign in to see more Show more Show less Aha! products Aha! Develop Aha! Develop DevOps Software Aha! Discovery Aha! Discovery Product Management Software Aha! Ideas Aha! Ideas Idea Management Software Aha! Knowledge Aha! Knowledge Knowledge Management Software Aha! Roadmaps Aha! Roadmaps Strategic Planning Software Aha! Teamwork Aha! Teamwork Project Management Software Aha! Whiteboards Aha! Whiteboards Whiteboard Software Show more Show less LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines English (English) Language | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=es | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 �� | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=mn | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.bitazza.freedom.wallet&hl=hr | Freedom World - Apps on Google Play Games Apps Books Kids google_logo Play Games Apps Books Kids none search help_outline Sign in with Google play_apps Library & devices payment Payments & subscriptions reviews My Play activity redeem Offers Play Pass Personalization in Play settings Settings Privacy Policy • Terms of Service Games Apps Books Kids Freedom World Bitazza Company Limited 100K+ Downloads Rated for 3+ info Install Share Add to wishlist About this app arrow_forward Freedom World – Chat, Make Friends, Earn Points, and Redeem Real Rewards! Freedom World is an all-in-one community platform that lets you chat, connect, and make new friends easily through a user-friendly chat app. Enjoy a variety of fun missions to collect “Freedom Shards” and redeem them for real rewards – no extra cost. The more you engage, the more you get! One app, endless fun – community, games, and rewards in one place! Whether you're looking to chat, find friends with similar interests, or enjoy rewarding activities, Freedom World is the app for you! Join interest-based communities – finance, gaming, lifestyle, restaurants, top shops, and more – and easily connect and chat with new people through our smooth chat and social feed features. Plus, enjoy live streaming to keep up with real-time content and entertainment. Complete fun missions to collect Freedom Shards and exchange them for exclusive prizes – from in-app rewards to gift cards and real products. Every shard you earn has real value! 🎮 Battle on with “The Scape” – our strategy card game Fight, train your tactics, and collect shards to redeem rewards. Complete daily missions and start earning right away! 💡 Why choose Freedom World? ■ Make new friends – chat, play, and connect based on shared interests ■ Smooth, user-friendly chat and messaging system ■ Join communities that match your interests – from gaming and finance to lifestyle ■ Enjoy live streaming – stay updated with knowledge or entertainment in real time ■ Collect Freedom Shards and redeem real rewards – no hidden costs ■ Join branded missions and campaigns – the more you join, the more you earn 🎁 What kind of rewards can you get? Use the points you collect from chatting, playing games, or engaging with communities to redeem: ■ Gift cards from leading stores ■ Limited edition items ■ Discount codes ■ Everyday essentials ■ And many more rewards, updated regularly! Whether you're here to make friends, chat, share stories, or earn and redeem points – Freedom World has everything you need to have fun every day. Download now and start your shard-earning journey today! Updated on Nov 20, 2025 Social Data safety arrow_forward Safety starts with understanding how developers collect and share your data. Data privacy and security practices may vary based on your use, region, and age. The developer provided this information and may update it over time. No data shared with third parties Learn more about how developers declare sharing This app may collect these data types Personal info, Financial info, and App info and performance Data is encrypted in transit You can request that data be deleted See details What’s new Bug fixes and Improvements flag Flag as inappropriate App support expand_more public Website email Support email support@freedom.world shield Privacy Policy About the developer BITAZZA COMPANY LIMITED hamidreza.momeni@bitazza.com 2922/280 New Phetchaburi Road 24 Floor HUAI KHWANG 10310 Thailand +49 1590 1400651 Similar apps arrow_forward TCG Card Value Scanner - Shiny Shiny Cardboard LLC Ronin Wallet Sky Mavis Pte. Ltd. 4.0 star Wombat - Powered by PlayMind PlayMind 5.0 star Ledger Wallet™ crypto app Ledger 4.7 star Tykr: Confident Investing Tykr LLC Seeking Alpha: News & Analysis SeekingAlpha 4.6 star flag Flag as inappropriate Google Play Play Pass Play Points Gift cards Redeem Refund policy Kids & family Parent Guide Family sharing Terms of Service Privacy About Google Play Developers Google Store All prices include VAT. South Korea (English) 상호명: Google LLC. | 대표자: Sundar Pichai | 주소: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA 94043, United States | 고객센터: 080-085-1500 (무료) / gpk-usersupport@google.com | 호스팅 서비스 제공: Google LLC. | 사업자정보 Google Play에 등록된 앱과 게임은 각 개발자가 제공하고 판매하는 것이며, Google LLC가 개발자로 표시된 앱과 게임 이외에 Play에 등록된 상품 � | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/ru/v2/%d0%92%d0%b5%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b5-%d0%b2-Git-%d0%9e%d1%81%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d1%8b-%d0%b2%d0%b5%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d1%8f-%d0%b8-%d1%81%d0%bb%d0%b8%d1%8f%d0%bd%d0%b8%d1%8f | Git - Основы ветвления и слияния About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Введение 1.1 О системе контроля версий 1.2 Краткая история Git 1.3 Что такое Git? 1.4 Командная строка 1.5 Установка Git 1.6 Первоначальная настройка Git 1.7 Как получить помощь? 1.8 Заключение 2. Основы Git 2.1 Создание Git-репозитория 2.2 Запись изменений в репозиторий 2.3 Просмотр истории коммитов 2.4 Операции отмены 2.5 Работа с удалёнными репозиториями 2.6 Работа с тегами 2.7 Псевдонимы в Git 2.8 Заключение 3. Ветвление в Git 3.1 О ветвлении в двух словах 3.2 Основы ветвления и слияния 3.3 Управление ветками 3.4 Работа с ветками 3.5 Удалённые ветки 3.6 Перебазирование 3.7 Заключение 4. Git на сервере 4.1 Протоколы 4.2 Установка Git на сервер 4.3 Генерация открытого SSH ключа 4.4 Настраиваем сервер 4.5 Git-демон 4.6 Умный HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Git-хостинг 4.10 Заключение 5. Распределённый Git 5.1 Распределённый рабочий процесс 5.2 Участие в проекте 5.3 Сопровождение проекта 5.4 Заключение 6. GitHub 6.1 Настройка и конфигурация учётной записи 6.2 Внесение собственного вклада в проекты 6.3 Сопровождение проекта 6.4 Управление организацией 6.5 Создание сценариев GitHub 6.6 Заключение 7. Инструменты Git 7.1 Выбор ревизии 7.2 Интерактивное индексирование 7.3 Припрятывание и очистка 7.4 Подпись 7.5 Поиск 7.6 Перезапись истории 7.7 Раскрытие тайн reset 7.8 Продвинутое слияние 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Обнаружение ошибок с помощью Git 7.11 Подмодули 7.12 Создание пакетов 7.13 Замена 7.14 Хранилище учётных данных 7.15 Заключение 8. Настройка Git 8.1 Конфигурация Git 8.2 Атрибуты Git 8.3 Хуки в Git 8.4 Пример принудительной политики Git 8.5 Заключение 9. Git и другие системы контроля версий 9.1 Git как клиент 9.2 Переход на Git 9.3 Заключение 10. Git изнутри 10.1 Сантехника и Фарфор 10.2 Объекты Git 10.3 Ссылки в Git 10.4 Pack-файлы 10.5 Спецификации ссылок 10.6 Протоколы передачи данных 10.7 Обслуживание репозитория и восстановление данных 10.8 Переменные окружения 10.9 Заключение A1. Приложение A: Git в других окружениях A1.1 Графические интерфейсы A1.2 Git в Visual Studio A1.3 Git в Visual Studio Code A1.4 Git в Eclipse A1.5 Git в IntelliJ / PyCharm / WebStorm / PhpStorm / RubyMine A1.6 Git в Sublime Text A1.7 Git в Bash A1.8 Git в Zsh A1.9 Git в PowerShell A1.10 Заключение A2. Приложение B: Встраивание Git в ваши приложения A2.1 Git из командной строки A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A2.4 go-git A2.5 Dulwich A3. Приложение C: Команды Git A3.1 Настройка и конфигурация A3.2 Клонирование и создание репозиториев A3.3 Основные команды A3.4 Ветвление и слияния A3.5 Совместная работа и обновление проектов A3.6 Осмотр и сравнение A3.7 Отладка A3.8 Внесение исправлений A3.9 Работа с помощью электронной почты A3.10 Внешние системы A3.11 Администрирование A3.12 Низкоуровневые команды 2nd Edition 3.2 Ветвление в Git - Основы ветвления и слияния Основы ветвления и слияния Давайте рассмотрим простой пример рабочего процесса, который может быть полезен в вашем проекте. Ваша работа построена так: Вы работаете над сайтом. Вы создаёте ветку для реализации новой функциональности в соответствии с пользовательской историей. Вы работаете в этой ветке. В этот момент вы получаете сообщение, что обнаружена критическая ошибка, требующая скорейшего исправления. Ваши действия: Переключиться на основную ветку. Создать ветку для добавления исправления. После тестирования слить ветку, содержащую исправление, с основной веткой. Переключиться назад в ветку для реализации пользовательской истории и продолжить работать. Основы ветвления Предположим, вы работаете над проектом и уже имеете несколько коммитов. Рисунок 18. Простая история коммитов Вы выбрали задачу #53 из какая-там-у-вас-система-отслеживания-задач. Чтобы создать ветку и сразу переключиться на неё, можно выполнить команду git checkout с параметром -b : $ git checkout -b iss53 Switched to a new branch "iss53" Это то же самое, что и: $ git branch iss53 $ git checkout iss53 Рисунок 19. Создание нового указателя ветки Вы работаете над сайтом и делаете коммиты. Это приводит к тому, что ветка iss53 движется вперёд, так как вы переключились на неё ранее ( HEAD указывает на неё). $ vim index.html $ git commit -a -m 'Create new footer [issue 53]' Рисунок 20. Ветка iss53 движется вперёд И тут вы получаете сообщение об обнаружении на сайте уязвимости, и эту уязвимость устранить нужно немедленно. Благодаря Git вам не придётся ни пытаться реализовать исправление вместе с изменениями, которые вы сделали в ходе разработки iss53 , ни прилагать усилия для отката этих изменений и возвращения к исходному состоянию перед началом разработки исправления. Всё, что вам нужно — переключиться на ветку master . Имейте в виду, что если рабочий каталог или индекс содержат незафиксированные изменения, конфликтующие с веткой, на которую вы хотите переключиться, то Git не позволит переключить ветки. Лучше всего переключаться из чистого рабочего состояния проекта: все изменённые файлы добавить в индекс и сделать коммит. Есть способы обойти это (припрятать изменения (stash) или добавить их в последний коммит (amend)), но об этом мы поговорим позже в разделе Припрятывание и очистка главы 7. Теперь предположим, что вы зафиксировали все свои изменения и можете переключиться на ветку master : $ git checkout master Switched to branch 'master' С этого момента ваш рабочий каталог имеет точно такой же вид, какой был перед началом работы над задачей #53, и вы можете сосредоточиться на работе над исправлением. Важно запомнить: когда вы переключаете ветки, Git возвращает состояние рабочего каталога к тому виду, какой он имел в момент последнего коммита в переключаемую ветку. Он добавляет, удаляет и изменяет файлы автоматически, чтобы состояние рабочего каталога соответствовало тому, когда был сделан последний коммит. Теперь вы можете перейти к написанию исправления. Давайте создадим новую ветку, в которой реализуем исправление. $ git checkout -b hotfix Switched to a new branch 'hotfix' $ vim index.html $ git commit -a -m 'Fix broken email address' [hotfix 1fb7853] Fix broken email address 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+) Рисунок 21. Ветка hotfix основана на ветке master Вы можете прогнать тесты, чтобы убедиться, что ваше уязвимость в самом деле исправлена. И если это так — выполнить слияние ветки hotfix с веткой master для включения изменений в продукт. Это делается командой git merge : $ git checkout master $ git merge hotfix Updating f42c576..3a0874c Fast-forward index.html | 2 ++ 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+) Заметили фразу «fast-forward» в этом слиянии? Git просто переместил указатель ветки вперёд, потому что коммит C4 , на который указывает слитая ветка hotfix , был прямым потомком коммита C2 , на котором вы находились до этого. Другими словами, если коммит сливается с тем, до которого можно добраться, двигаясь по истории вперёд, Git упрощает слияние, просто перенося указатель ветки вперёд, потому что в этом случае нет никаких разнонаправленных изменений, которые нужно было бы свести воедино. Это называется «fast-forward». Теперь ваши изменения включены в коммит, на который указывает ветка master , и исправление можно внедрять. Рисунок 22. master перемотан до hotfix После внедрения вашего архиважного исправления вы готовы вернуться к работе над тем, что были вынуждены отложить. Но сначала нужно удалить ветку hotfix , потому что она больше не нужна — ветка master указывает на то же самое место. Для удаления ветки выполните команду git branch с параметром -d : $ git branch -d hotfix Deleted branch hotfix (3a0874c). Теперь вы можете переключиться обратно на ветку iss53 и продолжить работу над задачей #53: $ git checkout iss53 Switched to branch "iss53" $ vim index.html $ git commit -a -m 'Finish the new footer [issue 53]' [iss53 ad82d7a] Finish the new footer [issue 53] 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) Рисунок 23. Продолжение работы над iss53 Стоит обратить внимание на то, что все изменения из ветки hotfix не включены в вашу ветку iss53 . Если их нужно включить, вы можете влить ветку master в вашу ветку iss53 командой git merge master , а можете отложить слияние этих изменений до завершения работы, и затем влить ветку iss53 в master . Основы слияния Предположим, вы решили, что работа по проблеме #53 закончена и её можно влить в ветку master . Для этого нужно выполнить слияние ветки iss53 точно так же, как вы делали это с веткой hotfix ранее. Всё, что нужно сделать — переключиться на ветку, в которую вы хотите включить изменения, и выполнить команду git merge : $ git checkout master Switched to branch 'master' $ git merge iss53 Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy. index.html | 1 + 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) Результат этой операции отличается от результата слияния ветки hotfix . В данном случае процесс разработки ответвился в более ранней точке. Так как коммит, на котором мы находимся, не является прямым родителем ветки, с которой мы выполняем слияние, Git придётся немного потрудиться. В этом случае Git выполняет простое трёхстороннее слияние, используя последние коммиты объединяемых веток и общего для них родительского коммита. Рисунок 24. Использование трёх снимков при слиянии Вместо того, чтобы просто передвинуть указатель ветки вперёд, Git создаёт новый результирующий снимок трёхстороннего слияния, а затем автоматически делает коммит. Этот особый коммит называют коммитом слияния, так как у него более одного предка. Рисунок 25. Коммит слияния Теперь, когда изменения слиты, ветка iss53 больше не нужна. Вы можете закрыть задачу в системе отслеживания ошибок и удалить ветку: $ git branch -d iss53 Основные конфликты слияния Иногда процесс не проходит гладко. Если вы изменили одну и ту же часть одного и того же файла по-разному в двух объединяемых ветках, Git не сможет их чисто объединить. Если ваше исправление ошибки #53 потребовало изменить ту же часть файла что и hotfix , вы получите примерно такое сообщение о конфликте слияния: $ git merge iss53 Auto-merging index.html CONFLICT (content): Merge conflict in index.html Automatic merge failed; fix conflicts and then commit the result. Git не создал коммит слияния автоматически. Он остановил процесс до тех пор, пока вы не разрешите конфликт. Чтобы в любой момент после появления конфликта увидеть, какие файлы не объединены, вы можете запустить git status : $ git status On branch master You have unmerged paths. (fix conflicts and run "git commit") Unmerged paths: (use "git add <file>..." to mark resolution) both modified: index.html no changes added to commit (use "git add" and/or "git commit -a") Всё, где есть неразрешённые конфликты слияния, перечисляется как неслитое. В конфликтующие файлы Git добавляет специальные маркеры конфликтов, чтобы вы могли исправить их вручную. В вашем файле появился раздел, выглядящий примерно так: <<<<<<< HEAD:index.html <div id="footer">contact : email.support@github.com</div> ======= <div id="footer"> please contact us at support@github.com </div> >>>>>>> iss53:index.html Это означает, что версия из HEAD (вашей ветки master , поскольку именно её вы извлекли перед запуском команды слияния) — это верхняя часть блока (всё, что над ======= ), а версия из вашей ветки iss53 представлена в нижней части. Чтобы разрешить конфликт, придётся выбрать один из вариантов, либо объединить содержимое по-своему. Например, вы можете разрешить конфликт, заменив весь блок следующим: <div id="footer"> please contact us at email.support@github.com </div> В этом разрешении есть немного от каждой части, а строки <<<<<<< , ======= и >>>>>>> полностью удалены. Разрешив каждый конфликт во всех файлах, запустите git add для каждого файла, чтобы отметить конфликт как решённый. Добавление файла в индекс означает для Git, что все конфликты в нём исправлены. Если вы хотите использовать графический инструмент для разрешения конфликтов, можно запустить git mergetool , который проведёт вас по всем конфликтам: $ git mergetool This message is displayed because 'merge.tool' is not configured. See 'git mergetool --tool-help' or 'git help config' for more details. 'git mergetool' will now attempt to use one of the following tools: opendiff kdiff3 tkdiff xxdiff meld tortoisemerge gvimdiff diffuse diffmerge ecmerge p4merge araxis bc3 codecompare vimdiff emerge Merging: index.html Normal merge conflict for 'index.html': {local}: modified file {remote}: modified file Hit return to start merge resolution tool (opendiff): Если вы хотите использовать инструмент слияния не по умолчанию (в данном случае Git выбрал opendiff , поскольку команда запускалась на Mac), список всех поддерживаемых инструментов представлен вверху после фразы «one of the following tools». Просто введите название инструмента, который хотите использовать. Примечание Мы рассмотрим более продвинутые инструменты для разрешения сложных конфликтов слияния в разделе Продвинутое слияние главы 7. После выхода из инструмента слияния Git спросит об успешности процесса. Если вы ответите скрипту утвердительно, то он добавит файл в индекс, чтобы отметить его как разрешённый. Теперь можно снова запустить git status , чтобы убедиться в отсутствии конфликтов: $ git status On branch master All conflicts fixed but you are still merging. (use "git commit" to conclude merge) Changes to be committed: modified: index.html Если это вас устраивает и вы убедились, что все файлы, где были конфликты, добавлены в индекс — выполните команду git commit для создания коммита слияния. Комментарий к коммиту слияния по умолчанию выглядит примерно так: Merge branch 'iss53' Conflicts: index.html # # It looks like you may be committing a merge. # If this is not correct, please remove the file # .git/MERGE_HEAD # and try again. # Please enter the commit message for your changes. Lines starting # with '#' will be ignored, and an empty message aborts the commit. # On branch master # All conflicts fixed but you are still merging. # # Changes to be committed: # modified: index.html # Если вы считаете, что коммит слияния требует дополнительных пояснений — опишите как были разрешены конфликты и почему были применены именно такие изменения, если это не очевидно. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/id/v2/Git-Branching-Branches-in-a-Nutshell | Git - Branches in a Nutshell About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. Memulai 1.1 Tentang Version Control 1.2 Sejarah Singkat Git 1.3 Dasar-dasar Git 1.4 Command Line 1.5 Memasang Git 1.6 Pengaturan Awal Git 1.7 Mendapatkan Bantuan 1.8 Kesimpulan 2. Git Basics 2.1 Mendapatkan Repository Git 2.2 Recording Changes to the Repository 2.3 Viewing the Commit History 2.4 Undoing Things 2.5 Working with Remotes 2.6 Tagging 2.7 Alias Git 2.8 Summary 3. Git Branching 3.1 Branches in a Nutshell 3.2 Basic Branching and Merging 3.3 Branch Management 3.4 Branching Workflows 3.5 Remote Branches 3.6 Rebasing 3.7 Summary 4. Git di Server 4.1 Protokol 4.2 Getting Git on a Server 4.3 Generating Your SSH Public Key 4.4 Setting Up the Server 4.5 Git Daemon 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 Third Party Hosted Options 4.10 Ringkasan 5. Distributed Git 5.1 Distributed Workflows 5.2 Contributing to a Project 5.3 Maintaining a Project 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 Pengaturan dan Konfigurasi Akun 6.2 Contributing to a Project 6.3 Maintaining a Project 6.4 Mengelola Organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 Ringkasan 7. Git Tools 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 Summary 8. Kostumisasi Git 8.1 Konfigurasi Git 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Ringkasan 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. Appendix A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Summary A2. Appendix B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. Appendix C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 3.1 Git Branching - Branches in a Nutshell Nearly every VCS has some form of branching support. Branching means you diverge from the main line of development and continue to do work without messing with that main line. In many VCS tools, this is a somewhat expensive process, often requiring you to create a new copy of your source code directory, which can take a long time for large projects. Some people refer to Git’s branching model as its “killer feature,” and it certainly sets Git apart in the VCS community. Why is it so special? The way Git branches is incredibly lightweight, making branching operations nearly instantaneous, and switching back and forth between branches generally just as fast. Unlike many other VCSs, Git encourages workflows that branch and merge often, even multiple times in a day. Understanding and mastering this feature gives you a powerful and unique tool and can entirely change the way that you develop. Branches in a Nutshell To really understand the way Git does branching, we need to take a step back and examine how Git stores its data. As you may remember from Memulai , Git doesn’t store data as a series of changesets or differences, but instead as a series of snapshots. When you make a commit, Git stores a commit object that contains a pointer to the snapshot of the content you staged. This object also contains the author’s name and email, the message that you typed, and pointers to the commit or commits that directly came before this commit (its parent or parents): zero parents for the initial commit, one parent for a normal commit, and multiple parents for a commit that results from a merge of two or more branches. To visualize this, let’s assume that you have a directory containing three files, and you stage them all and commit. Staging the files checksums each one (the SHA-1 hash we mentioned in Memulai ), stores that version of the file in the Git repository (Git refers to them as blobs), and adds that checksum to the staging area: $ git add README test.rb LICENSE $ git commit -m 'initial commit of my project' When you create the commit by running git commit , Git checksums each subdirectory (in this case, just the root project directory) and stores those tree objects in the Git repository. Git then creates a commit object that has the metadata and a pointer to the root project tree so it can re-create that snapshot when needed. Your Git repository now contains five objects: one blob for the contents of each of your three files, one tree that lists the contents of the directory and specifies which file names are stored as which blobs, and one commit with the pointer to that root tree and all the commit metadata. Figure 9. A commit and its tree If you make some changes and commit again, the next commit stores a pointer to the commit that came immediately before it. Figure 10. Commits and their parents A branch in Git is simply a lightweight movable pointer to one of these commits. The default branch name in Git is master . As you start making commits, you’re given a master branch that points to the last commit you made. Every time you commit, it moves forward automatically. Note The “master” branch in Git is not a special branch. It is exactly like any other branch. The only reason nearly every repository has one is that the git init command creates it by default and most people don’t bother to change it. Figure 11. A branch and its commit history Creating a New Branch What happens if you create a new branch? Well, doing so creates a new pointer for you to move around. Let’s say you create a new branch called testing. You do this with the git branch command: $ git branch testing This creates a new pointer at the same commit you’re currently on. Figure 12. Two branches pointing into the same series of commits How does Git know what branch you’re currently on? It keeps a special pointer called HEAD . Note that this is a lot different than the concept of HEAD in other VCSs you may be used to, such as Subversion or CVS. In Git, this is a pointer to the local branch you’re currently on. In this case, you’re still on master. The git branch command only created a new branch – it didn’t switch to that branch. Figure 13. HEAD pointing to a branch You can easily see this by running a simple git log command that shows you where the branch pointers are pointing. This option is called --decorate . $ git log --oneline --decorate f30ab (HEAD, master, testing) add feature #32 - ability to add new 34ac2 fixed bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions 98ca9 initial commit of my project You can see the “master” and “testing” branches that are right there next to the f30ab commit. Switching Branches To switch to an existing branch, you run the git checkout command. Let’s switch to the new testing branch: $ git checkout testing This moves HEAD to point to the testing branch. Figure 14. HEAD points to the current branch What is the significance of that? Well, let’s do another commit: $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made a change' Figure 15. The HEAD branch moves forward when a commit is made This is interesting, because now your testing branch has moved forward, but your master branch still points to the commit you were on when you ran git checkout to switch branches. Let’s switch back to the master branch: $ git checkout master Figure 16. HEAD moves when you checkout That command did two things. It moved the HEAD pointer back to point to the master branch, and it reverted the files in your working directory back to the snapshot that master points to. This also means the changes you make from this point forward will diverge from an older version of the project. It essentially rewinds the work you’ve done in your testing branch so you can go in a different direction. Note Switching branches changes files in your working directory It’s important to note that when you switch branches in Git, files in your working directory will change. If you switch to an older branch, your working directory will be reverted to look like it did the last time you committed on that branch. If Git cannot do it cleanly, it will not let you switch at all. Let’s make a few changes and commit again: $ vim test.rb $ git commit -a -m 'made other changes' Now your project history has diverged (see Divergent history ). You created and switched to a branch, did some work on it, and then switched back to your main branch and did other work. Both of those changes are isolated in separate branches: you can switch back and forth between the branches and merge them together when you’re ready. And you did all that with simple branch , checkout , and commit commands. Figure 17. Divergent history You can also see this easily with the git log command. If you run git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all it will print out the history of your commits, showing where your branch pointers are and how your history has diverged. $ git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all * c2b9e (HEAD, master) made other changes | * 87ab2 (testing) made a change |/ * f30ab add feature #32 - ability to add new formats to the * 34ac2 fixed bug #1328 - stack overflow under certain conditions * 98ca9 initial commit of my project Because a branch in Git is in actuality a simple file that contains the 40 character SHA-1 checksum of the commit it points to, branches are cheap to create and destroy. Creating a new branch is as quick and simple as writing 41 bytes to a file (40 characters and a newline). This is in sharp contrast to the way most older VCS tools branch, which involves copying all of the project’s files into a second directory. This can take several seconds or even minutes, depending on the size of the project, whereas in Git the process is always instantaneous. Also, because we’re recording the parents when we commit, finding a proper merge base for merging is automatically done for us and is generally very easy to do. These features help encourage developers to create and use branches often. Let’s see why you should do so. prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://git-scm.com/book/zh-tw/v2/%e9%96%8b%e5%a7%8b-%e5%91%bd%e4%bb%a4%e5%88%97 | Git - 命令列 About Trademark Learn Book Cheat Sheet Videos External Links Tools Command Line GUIs Hosting Reference Install Community This book is available in English . Full translation available in azərbaycan dili , български език , Deutsch , Español , فارسی , Français , Ελληνικά , 日本語 , 한국어 , Nederlands , Русский , Slovenščina , Tagalog , Українська , 简体中文 , Partial translations available in Čeština , Македонски , Polski , Српски , Ўзбекча , 繁體中文 , Translations started for Беларуская , Indonesian , Italiano , Bahasa Melayu , Português (Brasil) , Português (Portugal) , Svenska , Türkçe . The source of this book is hosted on GitHub. Patches, suggestions and comments are welcome. Chapters ▾ 1. 開始 1.1 關於版本控制 1.2 Git 的簡史 1.3 Git 基礎要點 1.4 命令列 1.5 Git 安裝教學 1.6 初次設定 Git 1.7 取得說明文件 1.8 摘要 2. Git 基礎 2.1 取得一個 Git 倉儲 2.2 紀錄變更到版本庫中 2.3 檢視提交的歷史記錄 2.4 復原 2.5 與遠端協同工作 2.6 標籤 2.7 Git Aliases 2.8 總結 3. 使用 Git 分支 3.1 簡述分支 3.2 分支和合併的基本用法 3.3 分支管理 3.4 分支工作流程 3.5 遠端分支 3.6 衍合 3.7 總結 4. 伺服器上的 Git 4.1 通訊協定 4.2 在伺服器上佈署 Git 4.3 產生你的 SSH 公鑰 4.4 設定伺服器 4.5 Git 常駐程式 4.6 Smart HTTP 4.7 GitWeb 4.8 GitLab 4.9 第3方 Git 託管方案 4.10 總結 5. 分散式的 Git 5.1 分散式工作流程 5.2 對專案進行貢獻 5.3 維護一個專案 5.4 Summary 6. GitHub 6.1 建立帳戶及設定 6.2 參與一個專案 6.3 維護專案 6.4 Managing an organization 6.5 Scripting GitHub 6.6 總結 7. Git 工具 7.1 Revision Selection 7.2 Interactive Staging 7.3 Stashing and Cleaning 7.4 Signing Your Work 7.5 Searching 7.6 Rewriting History 7.7 Reset Demystified 7.8 Advanced Merging 7.9 Rerere 7.10 Debugging with Git 7.11 Submodules 7.12 Bundling 7.13 Replace 7.14 Credential Storage 7.15 總結 8. Customizing Git 8.1 Git Configuration 8.2 Git Attributes 8.3 Git Hooks 8.4 An Example Git-Enforced Policy 8.5 Summary 9. Git and Other Systems 9.1 Git as a Client 9.2 Migrating to Git 9.3 Summary 10. Git Internals 10.1 Plumbing and Porcelain 10.2 Git Objects 10.3 Git References 10.4 Packfiles 10.5 The Refspec 10.6 Transfer Protocols 10.7 Maintenance and Data Recovery 10.8 Environment Variables 10.9 Summary A1. 附錄 A: Git in Other Environments A1.1 Graphical Interfaces A1.2 Git in Visual Studio A1.3 Git in Eclipse A1.4 Git in Bash A1.5 Git in Zsh A1.6 Git in Powershell A1.7 Summary A2. 附錄 B: Embedding Git in your Applications A2.1 Command-line Git A2.2 Libgit2 A2.3 JGit A3. 附錄 C: Git Commands A3.1 Setup and Config A3.2 Getting and Creating Projects A3.3 Basic Snapshotting A3.4 Branching and Merging A3.5 Sharing and Updating Projects A3.6 Inspection and Comparison A3.7 Debugging A3.8 Patching A3.9 Email A3.10 External Systems A3.11 Administration A3.12 Plumbing Commands 2nd Edition 1.4 開始 - 命令列 命令列 Git 的使用方式有很多。 有原始的命令列工具，也有許多不同功能的圖形用戶界面。 在這本書，我們將以命令列使用 Git。 原因之一是，命令列是可以使用 Git *所有*命令的唯一地方 –– 為簡單起見，大多數的圖形用戶界面只實作了 Git 的部分功能。 當你學會使用命令列版本，你也會知道如何使用 GUI 版本；反過來則不一定。 而且，選擇哪個圖形客戶端是個人喜好，但是_所有_使用者都會有安裝好的命令列工具可以使用。 因此，我們希望你知道如何在 Mac 打開終端機或在 Windows 打開命令提示字元或 PowerShell。 如果你不清楚我們在說什麼，可能需要先暫停、快速去研究一下，才能跟得上這本書的例子和說明。 prev | next About this site Patches, suggestions, and comments are welcome. Git is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy | 2026-01-13T09:29:22 |
https://www.linkedin.com/products/categories/product-management-software | Best Product Management Software | Products | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. 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From user interviews to sales calls to support tickets and beyond, transform messy customer data into insights that scale. View product Find products trusted by professionals in your network See which products are used by connections in your network and those that share similar job titles Sign in to view full insights Interim Product Managers Product Management Software by Product People Our Interim/Fractional Product Managers/Owners, Product Ops, or Product Leaders cover parental leaves, scale your Product Management team quickly, or lead key initiatives while bridging the gap until a full-time employee joins. We onboard fast, align teams and deliver outcomes. We’re not recruiters. We don’t source candidates, this would be a conflict of interest with our interim work. Our in-house Product Managers acting as Interims in your company can appraise/create a hiring process and onboard your hires once they join. We’re not a freelance marketplace. We play long-term games with long-term people. Our team is full-time on our payroll. They join us via a 7-step recruitment process. We tender to their career growth with coaching and 360 feedback every 3 months. We’re not a software development agency. We specialize in Interim Product Management (including Product Ops). If you need developers or designers, we can connect you to a few firms we’ve worked with. View product Aha! Discovery Product Management Software by Aha! Aha! Discovery is the new way to manage customer interviews — centralize meeting transcripts, uncover key product insights, and link them to your roadmap. View product SmartSuite | Product Management Solutions Product Management Software by SmartSuite SmartSuite for Product Management allows businesses to turn their product vision into reality faster by managing every development process in one place. Create a product roadmap, plan requirements, manage your sprints, assign tasks to your team and deliver high-quality products on time and under budget. Monitor everything with real-time dashboards, flexible views, and powerful reports. Get Started with a free trial - no credit card required. View product ProductPlan Product Management Software by ProductPlan ProductPlan is the easiest way to build and share beautiful product roadmaps. Get started today with a free trial and 20+ roadmap templates. View product Prodgy Product Management Software by Programmers Meet Prodgy, the AI Agents platform designed to transform the way teams run Product Ops. From Discovery to Delivery, Prodgy automates the entire process while connecting seamlessly with the tools you already use — Jira, DevOps, Slack, Teams, and more. With a unified knowledge base at its core, Prodgy empowers organizations to accelerate product development, enhance collaboration, and deliver real impact faster. 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