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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/dynamic.html#adder-cgi | 4.4. CGI - Dynamic Web Pages — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 4. Dynamic Web Pages » 4.4. CGI - Dynamic Web Pages ¶ CGI stands for Common Gateway Interface . This interface is used by web servers to process information requests supplied by a browser. Python has modules to allow programs to do this work. The convention used by many servers is to have the server programs that satisfy this interface end in ‘.cgi’. That is the convention used below. All files below ending in ‘.cgi’ are CGI programs on a web server, and in this chapter, they will all be Python programs (though there are many other languages in use for this purpose). These programs are often called scripts, so we will be dealing with Python CGI scripts . You cannot run a .cgi file from inside Idle. 4.4.1. An Example in Operation ¶ The web examples folder provides a simple web server, built into Python, that you can run on your own computer. (It is also possible to set your computer up with the right software to be a server for the Internet - that is totally unnecessary for this class.) Windows In an operating system file window, go to the folder with the www examples. Depending on the setup of your operating system, there are several ways to start the local server that might work. Double click on startServer.cmd , which I have placed in the example www folder. If this does not work, try: Right click on localCGIServer.py in the File Explorer window, and select Open With -> Python Launcher If neither work, check if you need to modify your Python installation, covered in Some Special Windows Instructions , and then try the startServer.cmd approach again. Mac This is more involved the first time. See Some Special Mac Instructions . You should see a console window pop up, saying “Localhost CGI server started”. This approach starts the localCGIServer.py server without monopolizing Idle. Once the server is started, leave the server console window there as long as you want the local server running for that folder . Warning Do not start the local server running from inside Idle. It will monopolize Idle. Note If the server aborts and gives an error message about spaces in the path , look at the path through the parent directories over this www directory. If any of the directory names have spaces in them, the local file server will not work. In case of this error, either go up the directory chain and alter the directory names to eliminate spaces or move the examples directory to a directory that does not have this issue. For a very simple but complete example: Make sure you have the local server going. Open the web link http://localhost:8080/adder.html (preferably in a new window, separate from this tutorial). You see a web form . Follow the instructions, enter integers, and click on the Find Sum button. You get back a web page that obviously used your data. Look at the local server console window. You should see a log of the activity with the server. We will end up completely explaining the web pages and .cgi file needed to accomplish this, allowing you to generalize the idea, but for now just see how it works. First consider the rather involved basic execution steps behind the scene: The data you type is handled directly by the browser. It recognizes forms. An action instruction is stored in the form saying what to do when you press a button indicating you are ready to process the data (the Find Sum button in this case). In the cases we consider in this tutorial, the action is given as a web resource, giving the location of a CGI script on some server (in our cases, the same directory on the server as the current web page). It is a resource handled by the local server, when the URL starts with “ http://localhost:8080/ ” followed by the name of the starting web file. All the URL’s you use for this section and its exercises should start that way . When you press the button, the browser sends the data that you entered to that web location (in this case adder.cgi , in the same folder as the original web page). The server recognizes the web resource as an executable script, sees that it is a Python program, and executes it with the Python interpreter, using the data sent along from the browser form as input. The script runs, manipulates its input data into some results, and puts those results into the text of a web page that is the output of the program via print statements. The server captures this output from the program and sends it back to your browser as a new page to display. You see the results in your browser. Close the server window. Test what happens if you try to reload the web link http://localhost:8080/adder.html . You should get an error, since you refer to localhost, but you just stopped the local server . For the rest of this chapter, we will be wanting to use the local server, so restart it in the example www folder, in a manner appropriate for your operating system: Windows: whatever worked when you started it the first time. Mac: Start the local server whatever way worked last time, either double clicking on cgiServerScript that you should have created, or right/control click on localCGIServer.py in the Finder window, and select Open With -> Python Launcher Now you can keep the local server going as long as you want to run CGI scripts from the same folder. If you ever want be have cgi scripts and supporting files in a different folder, stop the server for any other folder first, and start it up in the folder where you have your materials. 4.4.2. A Simple Buildup ¶ Before we get too complicated, consider the source code of a couple of even simpler examples. hellotxt.cgi The simplest case is a CGI script with no input that just generates plain text, rather than HTML. Assuming you have your local server going , you can go to the link http://localhost:8080/hellotxt.cgi . The code is in the www example directory, hellotxt.cgi , and below for you to read : #!/usr/bin/env python3 # Required header that tells the browser how to render the text. print ( "Content-Type: text/plain \n\n " ) # here text -- not html # Print a simple message to the display window. print ( "Hello, World! \n " ) The top line is what tells the operating system that this is a Python 3 program. It says where to find the right Python interpreter to process the rest of the script. This exact location is significant on a Unix derived server (like any Mac with OS X). In Windows the only thing important in the line is the distinction between Python 2 and 3. If you leave the line there as a part of your standard text, you have one less thing to think about when uploading to a Unix server or running on a Mac. The first print function is telling the server receiving this output that the format of the rest of the output will be plain text. This information gets passed back to the browser later. This line should be included exactly as stated IF you only want the output to be plain text (the simplest case, but not our usual case). The rest of the output (in this case just from one print function) becomes the body of the plain text document you see on your browser screen, verbatim since it is plain text. The server captures this output and redirects it to your browser. hellohtml.cgi We can make some variation and display an already determined html page rather than plain text. Try the link http://localhost:8080/hellohtml.cgi . The code is in the www example directory, hellohtml.cgi , and below for you to read : #!/usr/bin/env python3 print ( "Content-Type: text/html \n\n " ) # html markup follows print ( """ <html> <Title>Hello in HTML</Title> <body> <p>Hello There!</p> <p><b>Hi There!</b></p> </body> </html> """ ) There are two noteworthy changes. The first print function call now declares the rest of the output will be html . This is a standard boilerplate line you will be using for your CGI programs. The remaining print function call has the markup for an html page. Note that the enclosing triple quotes work for a multi line string. Other than as a simple illustration, this CGI script has no utility: Just putting the contents of the last print function in a file for a static web page hello.html would be much simpler. now.cgi One more simple step: we can have a CGI script that generates dynamic output by reading the clock from inside of Python: Try the link http://localhost:8080/now.cgi . Then click the refresh button and look again. This cannot come from a static page. The code is in the www example directory, now.cgi , and below for you to read : #!/usr/bin/env python3 import time print ( "Content-Type: text/html \n\n " ) # html markup follows timeStr = time . strftime ( "%c" ) # obtains current time htmlFormat = """ <html> <Title>The Time Now</Title> <body> <p>The current Central date and time is: {timeStr}</p> </body> </html> """ print ( htmlFormat . format ( ** locals ())) # see {timeStr} embedded above This illustrates a couple more ideas: First a library module, time , is imported and used to generate the string for the current date and time. The web page is generated like in helloWeb2.py , embedding the dynamic data (in this case the time) into a literal web page format string. (Note the embedded {timeStr} .) Unlike helloWeb2.py , this is a CGI script so the web page contents are delivered to the server just with a print function. adder.cgi It is a small further step to get to processing dynamic input. Try filling out and submitting the adder form one more time, http://localhost:8080/adder.html . This time notice the URL at the top of the browser page when the result is displayed . You should see something like the following (only the numbers should be the ones you entered): http://localhost:8080/adder.cgi?x=24&y=56 This shows one mechanism to deliver data from a web form to the CGI script that processes it. The names x and y are used in the form (as we will see later) and the data you entered is associated with those names. In fact a form is not needed at all to create such an association: If you directly go to the URLs http://localhost:8080/adder.cgi?x=24&y=56 or http://localhost:8080/adder.cgi?x=-12345678924&y=33333333333 you get arithmetic displayed without the form. This is just a new input mechanism into the CGI script. You have already seen a program to produce this adder page from inside a regular Python program taking input from the keyboard. The new CGI version, adder.cgi, only needs to make a few modifications to accept input this way from the browser. New features are commented in the source and discussed below. The new parts are the import statement through the main function, and the code after the end of the fileToStr function. Read at least these new parts in the source code shown below: #!/usr/bin/env python3 import cgi # NEW def main (): # NEW except for the call to processInput form = cgi . FieldStorage () # standard cgi script lines to here! # use format of next two lines with YOUR names and default data numStr1 = form . getfirst ( "x" , "0" ) # get the form value associated with form # name 'x'. Use default "0" if there is none. numStr2 = form . getfirst ( "y" , "0" ) # similarly for name 'y' contents = processInput ( numStr1 , numStr2 ) # process input into a page print ( contents ) def processInput ( numStr1 , numStr2 ): '''Process input parameters and return the final page as a string.''' num1 = int ( numStr1 ) # transform input to output data num2 = int ( numStr2 ) total = num1 + num2 return fileToStr ( 'additionTemplate.html' ) . format ( ** locals ()) # standard code for future cgi scripts from here on def fileToStr ( fileName ): """Return a string containing the contents of the named file.""" fin = open ( fileName ); contents = fin . read (); fin . close () return contents try : # NEW print ( "Content-type: text/html \n\n " ) # say generating html main () except : cgi . print_exception () # catch and print errors First the overall structure of the code: To handle the CGI input we import the cgi module. The main body of the code is in a main method, following good programming practice. After the definition of main come supporting functions, each one copied from the earlier local web page version, additionWeb.py. At the end is the new, boilerplate cgi wrapper code for main() . This is code that you can always just copy. I chose to put the initial print function here, that tells the server html is being produced. That mean the main method only needs to construct and print the actual html code. Also keep the final try - except block that catches any execution errors in the program and generates possibly helpful trace information that you can see from your browser. (How to write such error catching code in general is not covered in this introductory tutorial, but you can copy it in this situation!) The main function has three sections, as in the local web page version: read input (this time from the form, not the keyboard), process it, and generate the html output. Reading input: The first line of main is a standard one (for you to copy) that sets up an object called form that holds the CGI form data accompanying the web request sent by the browser. You access the form data with statements like the next two that have the pattern: variable = form.getfirst( nameAttrib , default ) If there is a form input field with name nameAttrib , its value from the browser data is assigned to variable . If no value is given in the browser’s data for nameAttrib , variable is set equal to default instead. In this way data associated with names given by the browser can be transferred to your Python CGI program, and if there is no such name in a form feeding this cgi program, the program does not immediately bomb out. In this program the values associated with the browser-supplied names, ‘x’ and ‘y’, are extracted. I use slightly verbose Python variable names that remind you that all values from the browser forms are strings. The processInput function that is passed the input parameters from whatever source, is exactly the same as in additionWeb.py , so we already know it works! Output the page. In a CGI script, this is easier than with the local web pages: just print it - no need to save and separately display a file! The server captures the “printed” output. This program can now serve as a template for your own CGI scripts: The only things you need to change are The lines in main() that get the input from a web form, using the names from the input tags in the form, and assigning the string values to Python varibles. In main call processInput(...) with all the data from the form that you need to pass as parameters to processInput . The heading of the definition of processInput need to fit with the actual parameters passed by the call in main(). Furthermore the processInput part can be written and tested earlier with a Python program in the format of the ...Web.py programs that we have discussed. While this is the only Python code, you still need to create an output web page template, and refer to it as the parameter of fileToStr . Again, if you tested your logic using an earlier ...Web.py program, just use the same output web template! A stripped down skeleton, to start a cgi program from, with comments about needed changes is in skeletonFor.cgi . If you do not want to start your code by modifying an existing example cgi program, then you might start by copying skeletonFor.cgi . Idle and .cgi Files You can always start Idle a way that you have before, like on an existing .py file. Then deal with editing .cgi files from inside Idle. For a Mac, See the Chapter 4 part of Some Special Mac Instructions for a way to start Idle on a .cgi file easily, after some initial work the first time. On Windows, the easiest thing may be to use IdleOnWindows.cmd. You will want to open and save .cgi files in Idle. Then dialog windows in both Windows and on a Mac have the same ideas, but different labels. There is a file type filter field for both. It is labeled “Format” on a Mac. On Windows, for saving, it is labeled “Save as Type”, and for opening a file, there is a field it at the lower right, unlabeled. If you want a file ending in .cgi, change the filter field to All files (*). For saving, be sure to enter the full file name you want, with the extension, .cgi. If you forget and do not change the file filter when saving, a ”.py” will be added to your file name. Then you can rename it in an operating system file folder. In the following diagram, now we have discussed both the top regular Python sequence using the top, the bottom cgi specific sequence, and the common part in the middle, as shown. In both cases input data gets processed into the content of a web page that goes to a browser. For any major application the main work is in the processing in the middle. Since that part is shared in both approaches, it can be tested with a simple Python program, before the starting and ending steps of the input and output flow are changed for the cgi client/server model. The only part that still needs details explained is for web forms. Before going on to that, it is time to talk about handling errors in the CGI scripts we have been discussing. The programs discussed here follow the simple pattern: get all input data; process input data; output results all together. This pattern can be used both in a testing ...Web.py version and in a dynamic cgi version, using a processInput function common to both. Clearly more complicated patterns are often needed when input, processing, and output are mixed in a different way, but for these examples and for the chapter exercises, this is all we need. 4.4.3. Errors in CGI Scripts ¶ Before you start running your own CGI scripts on the local server, it is important to understand how the different kinds of errors that you might make will be handled. If you write a regular Python program, even one that produces a web page, you can write the code and run it in Idle, and Idle will display all the kinds of errors . With a CGI script, you can still use Idle to write your code, but you cannot run the cgi code in Idle , and errors show up in three different places, depending on their type: Syntax errors You are encouraged to check for syntax errors inside Idle, by using the menu sequence Run -> Check Module . If you fail to do this and try running a script with a syntax error, the error trace appears in the console window that appears when you start the local server – better to have it fixed before then, while you are still editing. If you want an illustration, you might try changing adder.cgi, making an error like impor cgi , and try using adder.html with the flawed script. (Then fix it and try again.) If you find it in Idle, you can jump to the line where the error was detected. Execution Errors The error trace for execution errors is displayed in your web browser , thanks to the final boilerplate code with the try - catch block at the end of the CGI script. If you omit that final boilerplate code, you completely lose descriptive feedback: Be sure to include that boilerplate code! You can also see an illustration now. Get an error by introducing the statement: bad = 'a' . append ( 'b' ) in the main function and run it. (Then take it out.) Server Errors Your work can cause an issue inside the local server, not directly in the Python execution. Some errors are communicated to the browser, but not necessarily all. Other errors appear in the log generated in the local server’s window. You could have a file named wrong, for instance, in any operating system. Also, on a Mac or in Linux , where the CGI script needs to be set as executable , an error with a non-executable CGI script only shows up in this log in the local server window. You should be able to fix this error by running the CGIfix.py program, in the same folder . Logical Errors Since your output appears in the web browser, when you produced something legal but other than what you intended, you see it in the browser. If it is a formatting error, fix your output page template. If you get wrong answers, check your processInput function. Here is an outline for client/server program testing, emphasizing errors to be conscious of and avoid. If you have problems, please actively check out this whole list: You are encouraged to add your files into the examples www folder. If you really want to work in a different folder, you will want to copy a number of support files into that folder: CGIfix.py and localCGIServer,py, plus dumpcgi.cgi if you want to test web forms separately. For Windows: startServer.cmd. On a Mac be sure to run CGIfix.py, to generate the folder-specific version of cgiServerScript. If you want an easy environment to test a fancy processInput function, embed it in a regular Python program, as we have discussed for ...Web.py programs. Then you can test it normally in Idle. This will also allow you to make sure the web template, that you refer to in your processInput function, is in a legitimate form, with substitutions only for local variables. You can code a CGI script in idle, but not run it. Be sure to save it with the suffix .cgi , not .py . Do not run it it Idle. The only testing you can do in Idle is for syntax, using the menu sequence Run -> Check Module or its keyboard shortcut. Do run that test. At the end of your CGI script, make sure you include the boilerplate code that catches execution errors. Remember to run CGIfix.py in the same folder as a precaution to clean things up, particularly with a new file on a Mac. Make sure your local server is going, and that all the files you reference are in the same folder as the local server. Make sure you test your page by starting it in your web browser with a URL starting http://localhost:8080/ . If you load a web page directly from your file system by mistake, it will not cause an obvious error - the dynamic actions will just not take place. If you are not paying attention, this can happen and be very confusing! If things do not work, remember the three places to check for errors. After initially checking for syntax errors in Idle, the remaining errors might be displayed on the output page in the browser (if you confirmed that you have the try-catch boilerplate code at the end). If that does not totally explain things, remember to check the server console window, too. We have not covered web forms yet, but rather than bite off too much at once, this is a good time to write your own first CGI script in the following exercise. 4.4.3.1. Quotient.cgi Exercise ¶ * Modify Quotient Web Exercise and save it as a CGI script quotient.cgi in the same directory where you have localCGIServer.py and your output html page template from quotientWeb.py . Make quotient.cgi take its input from a browser, rather than the keyboard. This means merging all the standard CGI code from adder.cgi with the processInput function code from your quotientWeb.py . Please keep the same web form data names, ‘x’ and ‘y’, as in adder.cgi, so the main method should not need changes from adder.cgi. Remember to test for syntax errors inside Idle, and to have the local web server running when you run the CGI script in your browser. Since we have not yet covered web forms, test your CGI script by entering test data into the URL in the browser. In particular use links http://localhost:8080/quotient.cgi?x=24&y=56 and http://localhost:8080/quotient.cgi?x=36&y=15 . These URLs depend on you keeping the same data names, x and y, in the form. After trying these links, you can edit the numbers in the URL in the browser to see different results. 4.4.4. Editing HTML Forms ¶ This section is a continuation of Introduction to Static Pages in Kompozer , intended for users running Kompozer. A parallel development, without Kompozer, that may be simpler is in HTML Source Markup . This section is about HTML editing using Kompozer – not about Python. HTML forms will allow user-friendly data entry for Python CGI scripts. This is the last elaboration to allow basic web interaction: Enter data in a form, submit it, and get a processed result back from the server. The initial example, adder.html, had a form with only text input fields and a submit button inside. You will not need anything with further kinds of markup for the exercises. Now open adder.html in Kompozer. Switch to the Source view. This is a short enough page that you should not get lost in the source code. The raw text illustrates another feature of html: attributes. The tag to start the form contains not only the tag code form , but also several expressions that look like Python assignment statements with string values. The names on the left-hand side of the equal signs identify a type of attribute , and the string value after the equal sign gives the corresponding string value for the attribute. The tag for many kinds of input fields is input . Notice that each field includes name and value attributes. (So there is some confusion possible here from the fact the value is the name of a particular attribute, and all attributes have string as their value. I will try to use the phrase “string value” consistently for the second usage.) See that the ‘x’ and ‘y’ that are passed in the URL by the browser come from the name attribute given in the HTML code for the corresponding fields! Kompozer and other web editors translate your menu selections into the raw html code with proper attribute types. This high level editor behavior is convenient to avoid having to learn and debug the exact right html syntax! On the other hand, using pop-up field editing windows has the disadvantage that you can only see the attributes of one field at a time, and likely need mutiple mouse clicks, plus typing. Particularly if you want to modify a number of name or value attributes, it is annoying that you need a number of mouse clicks to go from one field to the next. If you only want to modify the string values assigned to existing attributes like name and value , it may be easier to do in the source window, where you can see everything at once. (Or use a separate html source editor, as described in HTML Source Markup .) Making syntax errors in the html source in not very likely if the only changes that you makle to tags are data inside quoted value strings. The action URL is a property of the entire form. To edit it in Kompozer via the GUI, right click inside the form, but not on any field element, and select the bottom pop-up choice, Form Properties. Then you see a window listing the Action URL and you can change the value to the name of the CGI script that you want to receive the form data. When you create your own web form, I suggest you make the initial action URL be dumpcgi.cgi. This will allow you to debug your form separate from your CGI script. When you have tested that your web form has all the right names and initial values, you can change the action URL to your CGI script name (like quotient.cgi), and go on to test the combination of the form and the CGI script! If you are modifying a previous working form, it is likely easier to use the source view, and just replace the value of the form’s action attribute to the new .cgi file name. Optionally, you can test various input methods by opening and playing with http://localhost:8080/commonFormFields.html . (Make sure your local server is still running!) To allow easy concentration on the data sent by the browser, this form connects to a simple CGI script dumpcgi.cgi , that just dumps and labels all the form data to a web page. Press the submit button in the form, and see the result. Back up from the output to the previous page, the form, and change some of the data in all kinds of fields. Submit again and see the results. Play with this until you get the idea clearly that the form is passing on your data. If you want to create a form and input fields using the Kompozer GUI , open this same file, the www example commonFormFields.html , in Kompozer . The static text in this page is set up as a tutorial on forms in Kompozer. Read the content of the page describing how to edit at least forms with text input fields and submit buttons. The other fancier fields are optional – not needed for the chapter exercises. Read the static text about how to edit individual fields, and change some field parameters, save the file and reload it in your browser, and submit again. If you change the name or value attributes, they are immediately indicated in the dumped output. If you change things like the text field size, it makes a change in the way the form looks and behaves. You can return to the original version: An extra copy is saved in commonFormFieldsOrig.html . Now we have discussed the last piece, web forms, in the diagram for the comparison of generating web pages dynamically by a regular Python program or a server CGI script: Note the last three Python videos do not directly corresponding to a single place in the Tutorial text. Instead they go through the entire process for web based programs from the beginning. Video 4.4.4b creates a birthday.html web form looking forward to birthday.cgi of video 4.4.4d. In the middle video 4.4.4c creates birthdayWeb.py , testing the process function and output template to be used in birthday.cgi . 4.4.4.1. QuotientWeb Form Exercise ¶ * Complete the web presentation for quotient.cgi of Quotient.cgi Exercise by creating a web form quotient.html that is intelligible to a user and which supplies the necessary data to quotient.cgi . Be sure to test the new form on your local server, using the URL http://localhost:8080/quotient.html . Remember that you must have the local server running first. You must have all the associated files in the same directory as the server program you are running, and you cannot just click on quotient.html in a file browser. You must start it from the the URL http://localhost:8080/quotient.html , that specifically refers to the server localhost. 4.4.4.2. Dynamic Web Programming Exercise ¶ * Make a simple complete dynamic web presentation with a CGI script that uses at least three user inputs from a form. The simplest would be to just add three numbers instead of two. Call your form dynamic.html . Call your CGI script dynamic.cgi . Call an output template dynamicTemplate.html . Remember the details listed in the previous exercise to make the results work on localhost. After the server is started and you have all the files, go to http://localhost:8080/dynamic.html to test it a few times. Summary starts with the overall process for creating dynamic web pages. 4.4.5. More Advanced Examples ¶ This is an optional section. One of the advantages of having a program running on a public server is that data may be stored centrally and augmented and shared by all. In high performance sites data is typically stored in a sophisticated database, beyond the scope of this tutorial. For a less robust but simpler way to store data persistently, we can use simple text files on the server. The www example page namelist.html uses namelist.cgi to maintain a file namelist.txt of data submitted by users of the page. You can test the program with your local Python server. It is less impressive when you are the only one who can make changes! The source code is documented for those who would like to have a look. You also may want to look at the source code of the utility script you have been using, dumpcgi.cgi . It uses a method of getting values from the CGI data that has not been discussed: val = form . getlist ( name ) This method returns a list of values associated with a name from the web form. The list many have, 0, 1, or many elements. It is needed if you have a number of check boxes with the same name. (Maybe you want a list of all the toppings someone selects for a pizza.) Both dumpcgi.cgi and namelist.html add an extra layer of robustness in reflecting back arbitrary text from a user. The user’s text may include symbols used specially in html like ‘<’. The function safePlainText replaces reserved symbols with appropriate alternatives. The examples in earlier sections were designed to illustrate the flow of data from input form to output page, but neither the html or the data transformations have been very complicated. A more elaborate situation is ordering pizza online, and recording the orders for the restaurant owner. You can try http://localhost:8080/pizza1.cgi several times and look at the supporting example www files pizza1.cgi , pizzaOrderTemplate1.html , and the simple pizzaReportTemplate.html . To see the report, the owner needs to know the special name owner777 . After ordering several pizzas, enter that name and press the Submit button again. This CGI script gets used in two ways by a regular user: initially, when there is no order, and later to confirm an order that has been submitted. The two situations use different logic, and the script must distinguish what is the current use. A hidden variable is used to distinguish the two cases: when pizza1.cgi is called directly (not from a form), there is no pastState field. On the other hand the pizzaOrderTemplate1.html includes a hidden field named pastState , which is set to the value 'order' . (You can confirm this by examining the end of the page in Kompozer’s source mode.) The CGI script checks the value of the field pastState , and varies its behavior based on whether the value is 'order' or not. The form in pizzaOrderTemplate1.html has radio buttons and check boxes hard coded into it for the options, and copies of the data are in pizza1.cgi. Keeping multiple active copies of data is not a good idea: They can get out of sync. If you look at the source code for pizzaOrderTemplate1.html, you see that all the entries for the radio button and check box lines are in a similar form. In the better version with altered files pizza.cgi and pizzaOrderTemplate.html (that appears the same to the user), the basic data for the pizza options is only in one place in pizza.cgi , and the proper number of lines of radio buttons and check boxes with the right data are generated dynamically . To do the dynamic generation, templates for an individual html line with a size radio button is in the source code, and it is used repeatedly to generate multiple lines, each with a different size and price embedded into the format string from the program data. These lines are joined together and placed as one entity into the html form template. A similar procedure is done with the toppings and check-boxes. The logic of using the hidden input field is futher outlined in HTML Source Markup . A further possible elaboration would be to also allow the restaurant manager to edit the size, cost and available topping data online, and store the data in a file rather than having the data hard coded in pizza.cgi, so if the manager runs out of a topping, she can remove it from the order form. This change would be a fairly elaborate project compared to the earlier exercises! Table Of Contents 4.4. CGI - Dynamic Web Pages 4.4.1. An Example in Operation 4.4.2. A Simple Buildup 4.4.3. Errors in CGI Scripts 4.4.3.1. Quotient.cgi Exercise 4.4.4. Editing HTML Forms 4.4.4.1. QuotientWeb Form Exercise 4.4.4.2. Dynamic Web Programming Exercise 4.4.5. More Advanced Examples Previous topic 4.3. Composing Web Pages in Python Next topic 4.5. Summary This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 4. Dynamic Web Pages » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. 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https://www.php.net/manual/en/migration74.php | PHP: Migrating from PHP 7.3.x to PHP 7.4.x - Manual update page now Downloads Documentation Get Involved Help Search docs Getting Started Introduction A simple tutorial Language Reference Basic syntax Types Variables Constants Expressions Operators Control Structures Functions Classes and Objects Namespaces Enumerations Errors Exceptions Fibers Generators Attributes References Explained Predefined Variables Predefined Exceptions Predefined Interfaces and Classes Predefined Attributes Context options and parameters Supported Protocols and Wrappers Security Introduction General considerations Installed as CGI binary Installed as an Apache module Session Security Filesystem Security Database Security Error Reporting User Submitted Data Hiding PHP Keeping Current Features HTTP authentication with PHP Cookies Sessions Handling file uploads Using remote files Connection handling Persistent Database Connections Command line usage Garbage Collection DTrace Dynamic Tracing Function Reference Affecting PHP's Behaviour Audio Formats Manipulation Authentication Services Command Line Specific Extensions Compression and Archive Extensions Cryptography Extensions Database Extensions Date and Time Related Extensions File System Related Extensions Human Language and Character Encoding Support Image Processing and Generation Mail Related Extensions Mathematical Extensions Non-Text MIME Output Process Control Extensions Other Basic Extensions Other Services Search Engine Extensions Server Specific Extensions Session Extensions Text Processing Variable and Type Related Extensions Web Services Windows Only Extensions XML Manipulation GUI Extensions Keyboard Shortcuts ? This help j Next menu item k Previous menu item g p Previous man page g n Next man page G Scroll to bottom g g Scroll to top g h Goto homepage g s Goto search (current page) / Focus search box New Features » « Other Changes PHP Manual Appendices Change language: English German Spanish French Italian Japanese Brazilian Portuguese Russian Turkish Ukrainian Chinese (Simplified) Other Migrating from PHP 7.3.x to PHP 7.4.x Table of Contents New Features New Classes and Interfaces New Functions New Global Constants Backward Incompatible Changes Deprecated Features Removed Extensions Other Changes Windows Support This new minor version brings with it a number of new features and a few incompatibilities that should be tested for before switching PHP versions in production environments. See also the migration guides for PHP versions 7.0.x , 7.1.x , 7.2.x and 7.3.x . Found A Problem? Learn How To Improve This Page • Submit a Pull Request • Report a Bug ＋ add a note User Contributed Notes There are no user contributed notes for this page. Appendices History of PHP and Related Projects About manual examples Migrating from PHP 8.4.x to PHP 8.5.x Migrating from PHP 8.3.x to PHP 8.4.x Migrating from PHP 8.2.x to PHP 8.3.x Migrating from PHP 8.1.x to PHP 8.2.x Migrating from PHP 8.0.x to PHP 8.1.x Migrating from PHP 7.4.x to PHP 8.0.x Migrating from PHP 7.3.x to PHP 7.4.x Migrating from PHP 7.2.x to PHP 7.3.x Migrating from PHP 7.1.x to PHP 7.2.x Migrating from PHP 7.0.x to PHP 7.1.x Migrating from PHP 5.6.x to PHP 7.0.x Migrating from PHP 5.5.x to PHP 5.6.x Debugging in PHP Configure options php.ini directives Extension List/Categorization List of Function Aliases List of Reserved Words List of Resource Types List of Available Filters List of Supported Socket Transports PHP type comparison tables List of Parser Tokens Userland Naming Guide About the manual Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Index listing Changelog Copyright © 2001-2026 The PHP Documentation Group My PHP.net Contact Other PHP.net sites Privacy policy ↑ and ↓ to navigate • Enter to select • Esc to close • / to open Press Enter without selection to search using Google | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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https://www.php.net/manual/en/migration74.new-features.php | PHP: New Features - Manual update page now Downloads Documentation Get Involved Help Search docs Getting Started Introduction A simple tutorial Language Reference Basic syntax Types Variables Constants Expressions Operators Control Structures Functions Classes and Objects Namespaces Enumerations Errors Exceptions Fibers Generators Attributes References Explained Predefined Variables Predefined Exceptions Predefined Interfaces and Classes Predefined Attributes Context options and parameters Supported Protocols and Wrappers Security Introduction General considerations Installed as CGI binary Installed as an Apache module Session Security Filesystem Security Database Security Error Reporting User Submitted Data Hiding PHP Keeping Current Features HTTP authentication with PHP Cookies Sessions Handling file uploads Using remote files Connection handling Persistent Database Connections Command line usage Garbage Collection DTrace Dynamic Tracing Function Reference Affecting PHP's Behaviour Audio Formats Manipulation Authentication Services Command Line Specific Extensions Compression and Archive Extensions Cryptography Extensions Database Extensions Date and Time Related Extensions File System Related Extensions Human Language and Character Encoding Support Image Processing and Generation Mail Related Extensions Mathematical Extensions Non-Text MIME Output Process Control Extensions Other Basic Extensions Other Services Search Engine Extensions Server Specific Extensions Session Extensions Text Processing Variable and Type Related Extensions Web Services Windows Only Extensions XML Manipulation GUI Extensions Keyboard Shortcuts ? This help j Next menu item k Previous menu item g p Previous man page g n Next man page G Scroll to bottom g g Scroll to top g h Goto homepage g s Goto search (current page) / Focus search box New Classes and Interfaces » « Migrating from PHP 7.3.x to PHP 7.4.x PHP Manual Appendices Migrating from PHP 7.3.x to PHP 7.4.x Change language: English German Spanish French Italian Japanese Brazilian Portuguese Russian Turkish Ukrainian Chinese (Simplified) Other New Features PHP Core Typed properties Class properties now support type declarations. <?php class User { public int $id ; public string $name ; } ?> The above example will enforce that $user->id can only be assigned int values and $user->name can only be assigned string values. Arrow functions Arrow functions provide a shorthand syntax for defining functions with implicit by-value scope binding. <?php $factor = 10 ; $nums = array_map (fn( $n ) => $n * $factor , [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]); // $nums = array(10, 20, 30, 40); ?> Limited return type covariance and argument type contravariance The following code will now work: <?php class A {} class B extends A {} class Producer { public function method (): A {} } class ChildProducer extends Producer { public function method (): B {} } ?> Full variance support is only available if autoloading is used. Inside a single file only non-cyclic type references are possible, because all classes need to be available before they are referenced. <?php /** * These classes satisfy the LSP requirements, because C is a subtype of A. * However, at the time class B is declared, class C is not yet available */ class A { public function method (): A {} } class B extends A { // Fatal error: Could not check compatibility between B::method():C and // A::method(): A, because class С is not available public function method (): С {} } class C extends B {} ?> Null coalescing assignment operator <?php $array [ 'key' ] ??= computeDefault (); // is roughly equivalent to if (!isset( $array [ 'key' ])) { $array [ 'key' ] = computeDefault (); } ?> Unpacking inside arrays <?php $parts = [ 'apple' , 'pear' ]; $fruits = [ 'banana' , 'orange' , ... $parts , 'watermelon' ]; // ['banana', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'watermelon']; ?> Numeric literal separator Numeric literals can contain underscores between digits. <?php 6.674_083e-11 ; // float 299_792_458 ; // decimal 0xCAFE_F00D ; // hexadecimal 0b0101_1111 ; // binary ?> Weak references Weak references allow the programmer to retain a reference to an object that does not prevent the object from being destroyed. Allow exceptions from __toString() Throwing exceptions from __toString() is now permitted. Previously this resulted in a fatal error. Existing recoverable fatal errors in string conversions have been converted to Error exceptions. CURL CURLFile now supports stream wrappers in addition to plain file names, if the extension has been built against libcurl >= 7.56.0. Filter The FILTER_VALIDATE_FLOAT filter now supports the min_range and max_range options, with the same semantics as FILTER_VALIDATE_INT . FFI FFI is a new extension, which provides a simple way to call native functions, access native variables, and create/access data structures defined in C libraries. GD Added the IMG_FILTER_SCATTER image filter to apply a scatter filter to images. Hash Added crc32c hash using Castagnoli's polynomial. This CRC32 variant is used by storage systems, such as iSCSI, SCTP, Btrfs and ext4. Multibyte String Added the mb_str_split() function, which provides the same functionality as str_split() , but operating on code points rather than bytes. OPcache Support for preloading code has been added. Regular Expressions (Perl-Compatible) The preg_replace_callback() and preg_replace_callback_array() functions now accept an additional flags argument, with support for the PREG_OFFSET_CAPTURE and PREG_UNMATCHED_AS_NULL flags. This influences the format of the matches array passed to the callback function. PDO The username and password can now be specified as part of the PDO DSN for the mysql, mssql, sybase, dblib, firebird and oci drivers. Previously this was only supported by the pgsql driver. If a username/password is specified both in the constructor and the DSN, the constructor takes precedence. It is now possible to escape question marks in SQL queries to avoid them being interpreted as parameter placeholders. Writing ?? allows sending a single question mark to the database and e.g. use the PostgreSQL JSON key exists ( ? ) operator. PDO_OCI PDOStatement::getColumnMeta() is now available. PDO_SQLite PDOStatement::getAttribute(PDO::SQLITE_ATTR_READONLY_STATEMENT) allows checking whether the statement is read-only, i.e. if it doesn't modify the database. PDO::setAttribute(PDO::SQLITE_ATTR_EXTENDED_RESULT_CODES, true) enables the use of SQLite3 extended result codes in PDO::errorInfo() and PDOStatement::errorInfo() . SQLite3 Added SQLite3::lastExtendedErrorCode() to fetch the last extended result code. Added SQLite3::enableExtendedResultCodes($enable = true) , which will make SQLite3::lastErrorCode() return extended result codes. Standard strip_tags() with array of tag names strip_tags() now also accepts an array of allowed tags: instead of strip_tags($str, '<a><p>') you can now write strip_tags($str, ['a', 'p']) . Custom object serialization A new mechanism for custom object serialization has been added, which uses two new magic methods: __serialize and __unserialize . <?php // Returns array containing all the necessary state of the object. public function __serialize (): array { } // Restores the object state from the given data array. public function __unserialize (array $data ): void { } ?> The new serialization mechanism supersedes the Serializable interface, which will be deprecated in the future. Array merge functions without arguments array_merge() and array_merge_recursive() may now be called without any arguments, in which case they will return an empty array. This is useful in conjunction with the spread operator, e.g. array_merge(...$arrays) . proc_open() function proc_open() now accepts an array instead of a string for the command. In this case the process will be opened directly (without going through a shell) and PHP will take care of any necessary argument escaping. <?php proc_open ([ 'php' , '-r' , 'echo "Hello World\n";' ], $descriptors , $pipes ); ?> proc_open() now supports redirect and null descriptors. <?php // Like 2>&1 on the shell proc_open ( $cmd , [ 1 => [ 'pipe' , 'w' ], 2 => [ 'redirect' , 1 ]], $pipes ); // Like 2>/dev/null or 2>nul on the shell proc_open ( $cmd , [ 1 => [ 'pipe' , 'w' ], 2 => [ 'null' ]], $pipes ); ?> argon2i(d) without libargon password_hash() now has the argon2i and argon2id implementations from the sodium extension when PHP is built without libargon. Found A Problem? Learn How To Improve This Page • Submit a Pull Request • Report a Bug ＋ add a note User Contributed Notes 2 notes up down 102 Rain ¶ 5 years ago It should be noted that typed properties internally are never initialized to a default null. Unless of course you initialize them to null yourself. That's why you will always going to encounter this error if you try to access them before initialization. **Typed property foo::$bar must not be accessed before initialization** <?php class User { public $id ; public string $name ; // Typed property (Uninitialized) public ? string $age = null ; // Typed property (Initialized) } $user = new User ; var_dump ( is_null ( $user -> id )); // bool(true) var_dump ( is_null ( $user -> name )); // PHP Fatal error: Typed property User::$name must not be accessed before initialization var_dump ( is_null ( $user -> age )); // bool(true) ?> Another thing worth noting is that it's not possible to initialize a property of type object to anything other than null. Since the evaluation of properties happens at compile-time and object instantiation happens at runtime. One last thing, callable type is not supported due to its context-dependent behavior. up down 5 wow-apps.pro ¶ 5 years ago <?php // How to get property type? For example for testing: class Foo { private int $num ; private bool $isPositive ; private $notes ; } $reflection = new \ReflectionClass ( Foo ::class); $classProperties = $reflection -> getProperties ( \ReflectionProperty :: IS_PRIVATE ); foreach ( $classProperties as $classProperty ) { var_dump ((string) $classProperty -> getType ()); } /** * Result: * "int" * "bool" * "" */ ＋ add a note Migrating from PHP 7.3.x to PHP 7.4.x New Features New Classes and Interfaces New Functions New Global Constants Backward Incompatible Changes Deprecated Features Removed Extensions Other Changes Windows Support Copyright © 2001-2026 The PHP Documentation Group My PHP.net Contact Other PHP.net sites Privacy policy ↑ and ↓ to navigate • Enter to select • Esc to close • / to open Press Enter without selection to search using Google | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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http://naderman.de | naderman.de naderman — nils adermann projects Composer Manage PHP project dependencies with Composer and Packagist.org . Private Packagist A private Composer repository that simplifies working with PHP dependencies. The PHP Foundation The PHP Foundation is a collective of people and organizations relying on the PHP language. Its mission is to ensure the long-term prosperity of the PHP language. Would you like to say thank you? I appreciate gifts from my Amazon wishlist a lot! talks Package Manager Security in 2025: What's next? SymfonyCon Amsterdam 2025 November 28, 2025 in Amsterdam, Netherlands pdf Composer Best Practices 2025 API Platform Conference 2025 September 09, 2025 in Lille, France pdf Composer Guide to Supply Chain Security International PHP Conference 2025 June 06, 2025 in Berlin, Germany pdf Composer Guide to Supply Chain Security SymfonyLive Berlin 2025 April 04, 2025 in Berlin, Germany pdf composer.lock demystified SymfonyLive Berlin 2025 April 03, 2025 in Berlin, Germany pdf Composer Behind The Scenes Symfony Usergroup Berlin February 28, 2025 in Berlin, Germany pdf Composer Guide to Supply Chain Security PHPUK 2025 February 19, 2025 in London, UK pdf Internals of Composer Laracon EU 2025 February 3, 2025 in Amsterdam, Netherlands pdf Composer Behind the Scenes SymfonyCon Vienna 2024 December 18, 2024 in Vienna, Austria pdf Composer Best Practices and Supply Chain Security DrupalCamp Berlin 2024 November 8, 2024 in Berlin, Germany pdf Supply Chain Security in Drupal and Composer DrupalCon Barcelona 2024 November 8, 2024 in Barcelona, Spain pdf Composer Guide To Supply Chain Security PHP[TEK] 2024 April 23, 2024 in Chicago, USA pdf Get a Grip on Your Project's Supply Chain SymfonyCon Brussels 2023 December 07, 2023 in Brussels, Belgium pdf Composer Behind the Scenes DrupalCon Lille 2023 October 19, 2023 in Lille, France pdf Bekomm die Supply Chain deiner Projekte in den Griff SymfonyLive Berlin 2023 October 06, 2023 in Berlin, Germany pdf Composer 2 SymfonyWorld Online 2020 December 04, 2020 Online pdf Composer 2.0 Symfony User Group Osnabrück July 09, 2020 Online pdf Composer Best Practices 2018 phpDay June 01, 2018 in Verona, Italy pdf Developing and Deploying Magento with Composer: Best Practices Magento Imagine April 24, 2018 in Las Vegas, USA pdf composer.lock demystified PHPBenelux January 26, 2018 in Antwerp, Belgium pdf Dependency Management is more than "composer update" Laracon July 25, 2017 in New York City, USA pdf Gain control over your dependencies with Private Packagist Typo3 Developer Days July 14, 2017 in Malmö, Sweden pdf Dependency Management is more than "composer update" Dutch PHP Conference June 30, 2017 in Amsterdam, Netherlands pdf See more uni Grounded Spatial Symbols for Task Planning Based on Experience K. Welke, P. Kaiser, A. Kozlov, N. Adermann, T. Asfour, M. Lewis and M. Steedman IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids), pp. 484 - 491, 2013 pdf Connecting knowledge-level planning and task execution on a humanoid robot using OACs Ron Petrick, Nils Adermann, Tamim Asfour, Mark Steedman, Rüdiger Dillmann Poster for CogSys 2010 pdf Seminar Sprachen für Parallelprogrammierung: Erlang Handout, August 2010 pdf Connecting Symbolic Task Planning with Motion Control on ARMAR-III Using Object-Action Complexes Student Research Thesis of Nils Adermann August 2010 pdf school German Only Facharbeit im Mathe LK der Stufe 12: Definition des Algorithmusbegriffs pdf Facharbeit Exilliteratur im Deutsch GK der Stufe 11: Odysseeisch von Georg Kaiser pdf twitter --> phpbb blog These are articles I wrote for the official phpBB blog. They are published on blog.phpbb.com --> elsewhere Links to my profiles on various social networks. twitter mastodon bluesky linkedin github blog Posts on my blog 2024-12-12 PHP Property Hooks: A Cost of Change Insurance 2019-11-14 Restarting Supervisord Processes in Parallel 2014-02-17 Composer: Replace, Conflict & Forks Explained 2014-02-04 Composer: Skipping a Dependency twitter --> contact email webmaster@naderman.de address Nils Adermann Mühlenstr. 60 13187 Berlin Germany pyTemple A Python Template Engine, License: LGPL, Documentation tar.bz2 tar.gz zip --> | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
https://dev.to/synthaicode_commander/how-i-can-still-consult-ai-about-decisions-made-two-months-ago-5d5j | How I Can Still Consult AI About Decisions Made Two Months Ago - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse synthaicode Posted on Jan 5 How I Can Still Consult AI About Decisions Made Two Months Ago # ai # programming # productivity # documentation Context as Infrastructure (5 Part Series) 1 Why I Don’t Keep Session Logs for AI Collaboration 2 How I Can Still Consult AI About Decisions Made Two Months Ago 3 How to Make AI Reconstruct Context Without Memory 4 The Smallest Setup That Makes Long-Term AI Collaboration Work 5 The Rules That Make History Trustworthy A few months into using AI for real development work, I noticed something unusual. I could still ask the AI about decisions we made two months ago — and get meaningful, grounded answers. Not guesses. Not vague summaries. Actual reasoning based on what we decided back then. This article explains why that is possible , and why it has nothing to do with AI memory. What Usually Breaks After a Few Weeks If you’ve used AI in a real project for more than a few weeks, you’ve probably seen this: The AI forgets earlier decisions Old ideas resurface unexpectedly Rollbacks break context You no longer remember why something was done This is often blamed on: context window limits lack of persistent memory model limitations But that diagnosis is wrong. This is not a memory problem. It’s a context problem . I Don’t Ask AI to “Remember” I don’t ask AI to remember past conversations. I ask something much simpler: “Please look at past decision logs and advise on XXX.” If I remember roughly when the decision was made, I might add that as a hint. If not, I don’t. That’s it. No strict prompt. No precise file references. No manual context reconstruction. And yet, it works. Why There Is No Strict Instruction for AI You might notice something missing in this setup. There is no long system prompt. No strict agent rules. No detailed instruction on how the AI should behave. This is intentional. I don’t control the AI by telling it how to think . I control it by deciding what is allowed to become history . The AI is free to explore, speculate, and make mistakes. But only decisions that pass through the repository structure are allowed to survive across time. That structure — not the prompt — is the control mechanism. Why This Works: Decisions Are the Only History The reason this works is simple and strict: Only decisions become history. I do not preserve: session logs daily notes conversational transcripts unfinished thoughts Instead, I keep a single source of truth: decision diffs . Each entry records: what was decided why it was decided what changed what remained unresolved If something did not result in a decision, it does not enter history. Where “In-Progress” Thinking Goes This does not mean exploration is forbidden. Exploration is encouraged — just not preserved as fact. All in-progress work goes elsewhere: experiments probes partial designs failed attempts Nothing there is canonical. When something becomes real, it is promoted to the decision history. This separation removes pressure to “clean up” thinking and prevents drafts from quietly becoming truth. Why AI Writes the History Another important detail: The decision history is generated by AI, not written by humans. This is intentional. Humans tend to: rewrite history smooth out uncertainty remove unresolved points AI tends to: capture decisions as they happened preserve uncertainty explicitly list open questions The human role is simple: verify factual accuracy correct mistakes We do not polish the narrative. These records are snapshots, not stories. Consulting the Past Is Reconstruction, Not Memory When I ask AI about something from two months ago, neither of us is relying on memory. We are reconstructing context. That reconstruction consists of: decision history that still exists the code that followed the contracts that were shaped Everything else has already been filtered out. I’m not remembering the past. I’m reloading it. Git Is the Context Authority In this setup, Git does more than version code. It versions: decisions reasoning collaboration rules A rollback is not just a code reset. It is a context reset . The AI can only reason about what Git contains. Anything outside Git does not exist. This Is Not a Trick — It’s Infrastructure This is not: a logging technique a prompt engineering trick an AI memory feature It is infrastructure. Long-term AI collaboration requires infrastructure, not memory. And that infrastructure lives in the repository. Why I’m Writing This I couldn’t find articles describing this layer. Most discussions about AI-assisted development focus on: prompts agents tools models Very few talk about what must exist for long-term reasoning to work at all . This problem only becomes visible after weeks or months of real use. That’s why I’m writing this now. Closing If you can still consult AI about decisions made months ago, it’s not because the AI remembered. It’s because you gave it a past worth consulting. This article is part of the **Context as Infrastructure * series — exploring how long-term AI collaboration depends on structure, not memory.* Context as Infrastructure (5 Part Series) 1 Why I Don’t Keep Session Logs for AI Collaboration 2 How I Can Still Consult AI About Decisions Made Two Months Ago 3 How to Make AI Reconstruct Context Without Memory 4 The Smallest Setup That Makes Long-Term AI Collaboration Work 5 The Rules That Make History Trustworthy Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse synthaicode Follow Software architect exploring how humans and AI can collaborate responsibly. I write about system design, decision boundaries, and responsibility structures in AI-assisted development. Joined Dec 20, 2025 More from synthaicode AI Does Tasks. Humans Do Deals. # ai # career # softwareengineering # management When AI Gets Stuck, Don’t Fix It — Restart It # ai # produ # prog # promptengineering The Rules That Make History Trustworthy # documm # produ # ai 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. 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Σχετικά θέματα Προστασία, ασφάλεια και προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Επισκόπηση Επισκόπηση προστασίας, ασφάλειας και προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την ασφάλεια των Windows Παραμείνετε προστατευμένοι με την ασφάλεια των Windows Πριν από την ανακύκλωση, την πώληση ή τη δωρεά του υπολογιστή Xbox ή Windows σας Κατάργηση λογισμικού κακόβουλης λειτουργίας από τον προσωπικό υπολογιστή Windows σας Ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας με την ασφάλεια των Windows Προβολή και διαγραφή ιστορικού περιήγησης στο Microsoft Edge Διαγραφή και διαχείριση cookies Ασφαλής κατάργηση του πολύτιμου περιεχομένου σας κατά την επανεγκατάσταση των Windows Εύρεση και κλείδωμα χαμένης συσκευής Windows Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές Προβολή των δεδομένων σας στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Λήψη βοήθειας για την ασφάλεια των Windows Ισχύει για Windows 11 Windows 10 Ανακαλύψτε τις κορυφαίες στρατηγικές για να προστατεύσετε τον εαυτό σας και τους αγαπημένους σας από τους κινδύνους στο Διαδίκτυο με τον ολοκληρωμένο οδηγό μας. 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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#simple-conditions | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. 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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#if-else-statements | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise 3.1.8. More String Methods 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise Previous topic 3. More On Flow of Control Next topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. Created using Sphinx 1.3.1+. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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https://www.php.net/manual/zh/function.spl-autoload-extensions.php | PHP: spl_autoload_extensions - Manual update page now Downloads Documentation Get Involved Help Search docs Getting Started Introduction A simple tutorial Language Reference Basic syntax Types Variables Constants Expressions Operators Control Structures Functions Classes and Objects Namespaces Enumerations Errors Exceptions Fibers Generators Attributes References Explained Predefined Variables Predefined Exceptions Predefined Interfaces and Classes Predefined Attributes Context options and parameters Supported Protocols and Wrappers Security Introduction General considerations Installed as CGI binary Installed as an Apache module Session Security Filesystem Security Database Security Error Reporting User Submitted Data Hiding PHP Keeping Current Features HTTP authentication with PHP Cookies Sessions Handling file uploads Using remote files Connection handling Persistent Database Connections Command line usage Garbage Collection DTrace Dynamic Tracing Function Reference Affecting PHP's Behaviour Audio Formats Manipulation Authentication Services Command Line Specific Extensions Compression and Archive Extensions Cryptography Extensions Database Extensions Date and Time Related Extensions File System Related Extensions Human Language and Character Encoding Support Image Processing and Generation Mail Related Extensions Mathematical Extensions Non-Text MIME Output Process Control Extensions Other Basic Extensions Other Services Search Engine Extensions Server Specific Extensions Session Extensions Text Processing Variable and Type Related Extensions Web Services Windows Only Extensions XML Manipulation GUI Extensions Keyboard Shortcuts ? This help j Next menu item k Previous menu item g p Previous man page g n Next man page G Scroll to bottom g g Scroll to top g h Goto homepage g s Goto search (current page) / Focus search box spl_autoload_functions » « spl_autoload_call PHP 手册 函数参考 其它基本扩展 SPL SPL 函数 切换语言: English German Spanish French Italian Japanese Brazilian Portuguese Russian Turkish Ukrainian Chinese (Simplified) Other spl_autoload_extensions (PHP 5 >= 5.1.0, PHP 7, PHP 8) spl_autoload_extensions — 注册并返回 spl_autoload 的默认文件扩展名 说明 spl_autoload_extensions ( ? string $file_extensions = null ): string 本函数可以修改和检查 __autoload() 后备函数 spl_autoload() 将使用的扩展名。 注意 : 在定义的文件扩展名之间不应该有空格。 参数 file_extensions 如果为 null ，只返回当前扩展名列表，每个扩展名用逗号分隔。要修改文件扩展名列表，只需在单个字符串中，用逗号分割的新文件扩展名列表调用此函数即可。 返回值 逗号分隔的 spl_autoload() 的默认文件扩展名。 更新日志 版本 说明 8.0.0 file_extensions 现在可以为 null。 示例 示例 #1 spl_autoload_extensions() 示例 <?php spl_autoload_extensions ( ".php,.inc" ); ?> 发现了问题？ 了解如何改进此页面 • 提交拉取请求 • 报告一个错误 ＋ 添加备注 用户贡献的备注 2 notes up down 6 dantedantas at gmail dot com ¶ 8 years ago The order of the extensions influence the velocity of the reply. For example: spl_autoload_extensions(".php, .inc"); is more fast than: spl_autoload_extensions(".inc, .php"); Check out this example: Some class files: ClassA.php <?php class ClassA { var $val = 'Hello from class "ClassA"' ; } ?> ClassB.php <?php class ClassB { var $val = 'Hello from class "ClassB"' ; } ?> ClassC.php <?php class ClassC { var $val = 'Hello from class "ClassC"' ; } ?> ClassD.php <?php class ClassD { var $val = 'Hello from class "ClassD"' ; } ?> ClassE.php <?php class ClassE { var $val = 'Hello from class "ClassE"' ; } ?> 1. Simple: <?php // default priority: .inc .php for( $n = 65 ; $n < 70 ; $n ++) { $className = 'Class' . chr ( $n ); spl_autoload ( $className ); $ins = new $className ; echo $ins -> val . '<br>' ; } // 4.2 miliseconds ?> 2. Change priority: <?php spl_autoload_extensions ( '.php,.inc' ); // new priority: .php .inc for( $n = 65 ; $n < 70 ; $n ++) { $className = 'Class' . chr ( $n ); spl_autoload ( $className ); $ins = new $className ; echo $ins -> val . '<br>' ; } // 1.4 miliseconds ?> up down 3 pim dot stoit at gmail dot com ¶ 9 years ago Extensions doesn't have to start with a dot, spl_autload() will simply append whatever you supply to the basename. The following example will try to load "test.php" first, and "test/index.php" as well: spl_autoload_register('.php,/index.php'); spl_autoload('Test'); ＋ 添加备注 SPL 函数 class_​implements class_​parents class_​uses iterator_​apply iterator_​count iterator_​to_​array spl_​autoload spl_​autoload_​call spl_​autoload_​extensions spl_​autoload_​functions spl_​autoload_​register spl_​autoload_​unregister spl_​classes spl_​object_​hash spl_​object_​id Copyright © 2001-2026 The PHP Documentation Group My PHP.net Contact Other PHP.net sites Privacy policy ↑ and ↓ to navigate • Enter to select • Esc to close • / to open Press Enter without selection to search using Google | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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https://www.php.net/manual/zh/ref.spl.php | PHP: SPL 函数 - Manual update page now Downloads Documentation Get Involved Help Search docs Getting Started Introduction A simple tutorial Language Reference Basic syntax Types Variables Constants Expressions Operators Control Structures Functions Classes and Objects Namespaces Enumerations Errors Exceptions Fibers Generators Attributes References Explained Predefined Variables Predefined Exceptions Predefined Interfaces and Classes Predefined Attributes Context options and parameters Supported Protocols and Wrappers Security Introduction General considerations Installed as CGI binary Installed as an Apache module Session Security Filesystem Security Database Security Error Reporting User Submitted Data Hiding PHP Keeping Current Features HTTP authentication with PHP Cookies Sessions Handling file uploads Using remote files Connection handling Persistent Database Connections Command line usage Garbage Collection DTrace Dynamic Tracing Function Reference Affecting PHP's Behaviour Audio Formats Manipulation Authentication Services Command Line Specific Extensions Compression and Archive Extensions Cryptography Extensions Database Extensions Date and Time Related Extensions File System Related Extensions Human Language and Character Encoding Support Image Processing and Generation Mail Related Extensions Mathematical Extensions Non-Text MIME Output Process Control Extensions Other Basic Extensions Other Services Search Engine Extensions Server Specific Extensions Session Extensions Text Processing Variable and Type Related Extensions Web Services Windows Only Extensions XML Manipulation GUI Extensions Keyboard Shortcuts ? This help j Next menu item k Previous menu item g p Previous man page g n Next man page G Scroll to bottom g g Scroll to top g h Goto homepage g s Goto search (current page) / Focus search box class_implements » « SplTempFileObject::__construct PHP 手册 函数参考 其它基本扩展 SPL 切换语言: English German Spanish French Italian Japanese Brazilian Portuguese Russian Turkish Ukrainian Chinese (Simplified) Other SPL 函数 目录 class_implements — 返回指定的类或接口实现的所有接口 class_parents — 返回指定类的父类 class_uses — Return the traits used by the given class iterator_apply — 为迭代器中每个元素调用函数 iterator_count — 计算迭代器中元素的个数 iterator_to_array — 复制迭代器中的元素到数组 spl_autoload — __autoload() 函数的默认实现 spl_autoload_call — 尝试所有已注册的 __autoload() 函数来装载请求类 spl_autoload_extensions — 注册并返回 spl_autoload 的默认文件扩展名 spl_autoload_functions — 返回所有已注册的 __autoload() 函数 spl_autoload_register — 注册指定的函数作为 __autoload 的实现 spl_autoload_unregister — 注销已实现的 __autoload() 函数 spl_classes — 返回所有可用的SPL类 spl_object_hash — 返回指定对象的 hash id spl_object_id — Return the integer object handle for given object 发现了问题？ 了解如何改进此页面 • 提交拉取请求 • 报告一个错误 ＋ 添加备注 用户贡献的备注 8 notes up down 8 ville</.>witt</a>gmail</.>com ¶ 20 years ago These to funtions has excatly the same output, the only diff. is in which directory iterator they use. I hope someone out there can use it: <?php function listfilesin1 ( $dir = "." , $depth = 0 ) { echo "Dir: " . $dir . "<br/>" ; foreach(new DirectoryIterator ( $dir ) as $file ) { if (! $file -> isDot ()) { if ( $file -> isDir ()) { $newdir = $file -> getPathname (); listfilesin1 ( $newdir , $depth + 1 ); } else { echo "( $depth )" . $file -> getPathname () . "<br/>" ; } } } } function listfilesin2 ( $dir = "." , $depth = 0 ) { echo "Dir: " . $dir . "<br/>" ; foreach(new RecursiveDirectoryIterator ( $dir ) as $file ) { if ( $file -> hasChildren ( false )) { $newdir = $file -> key (); listfilesin2 ( $newdir , $depth + 1 ); } else { echo "( $depth )" . $file -> key () . "<br/>" ; } } } listfilesin (); ?> up down 5 loaded67 at hotmail dot com ¶ 17 years ago For some application I needed to reverse some standard iterators. So I mocked up this flexible function. Enjoy <?php function reverse_iterator ( Iterator $iterator ){ $type = get_class ( $iterator ); $array = array_reverse ( iterator_to_array ( $iterator ), true ); return new $type ( $array ); } ?> up down 3 semperluc (at) yahoo._forgot_the_rest ¶ 18 years ago <?php /* How to store SPL Iterator results (rather than just echo-and-forget): The library of Iterators are object based, so you need to trick the little rascals into an array. Here's how (two ways) ... 1. Explicit typecasts: $a[] = (array)$Obj->objMethod(); 2. Array definition: $a[] = array( key => $Obj->objMethod() ); Examples: DirectoryIterator() */ // 1. explicity typecast object as array foreach ( new DirectoryIterator ( './' ) as $Item ) { $fname = (array) $Item -> getFilename (); $dir_listing [] = $fname [ 0 ]; } // echo "<pre>" ; print_r ( $dir_listing ); unset( $dir_listing ); echo "</pre><hr />" ; // // or // 2. define array as key => object->method foreach ( new DirectoryIterator ( './' ) as $Item ) { $dir_listing [] = array ( "fname" => $Item -> getFilename (), "path" => $Item -> getPathname (), "size" => $Item -> getSize (), "mtime" => $Item -> getMTime () ); } // echo "<pre>" ; print_r ( $dir_listing ); unset( $dir_listing ); echo "</pre>" ; // ?> up down 2 benny at whitewashing dot de ¶ 17 years ago I have to correct my implementation from before. The example before only supported correct read-access but failed on setting new values after creation of the ArrayMultiObject. Also i had to correct a bug that occured from my CopyPasteChange into the comment textarea. This snippet now hopefully implements a fully functional multidimensional array, represented by an ArrayObject: <?php class ArrayMultiObject extends ArrayObject { function __construct ( $array , $flags = 0 , $iterator_class = "ArrayIterator" ) { $objects = array(); foreach( $array AS $key => $value ) { if( is_array ( $value )) { $objects [ $key ] = new ArrayMultiObject ( $value , $flags , $iterator_class ); } else { $objects [ $key ] = $value ; } } parent :: __construct ( $objects , $flags , $iterator_class ); } public function offsetSet ( $name , $value ) { if( is_array ( $value )) { $value = new ArrayMultiObject ( $value ); } return parent :: offsetSet ( $name , $value ); } } ?> up down 2 helly at php dot net ¶ 20 years ago There is a RecursiveFilterIterator that makes the above code much easier. And then ther is ParentIterator thta is already a filtering recursive iterator that only accepts elements that have children, with a RecursiveDirectoryIterator as inner iterator you would obviously get only the directories. Further more it ensures that it creates the correct children. All in all you simply need to do this: $it = new RecursiveDirectoryIterator($path); $it = new ParentIterator($it); $it = new RecursiveIteratorIteator($it); foreach($it as $dir => $o) { ... } up down 2 phil &ampersat; flatnet.net ¶ 21 years ago Here's a sample implementation of the RecursiveDirectoryIterator class. It prints a simple treeview of a given directory: <?php function recurse ( $it ) { echo '<ul>' ; for( ; $it -> valid (); $it -> next ()) { if( $it -> isDir () && ! $it -> isDot ()) { printf ( '<li class="dir">%s</li>' , $it -> current ()); if( $it -> hasChildren ()) { $bleh = $it -> getChildren (); echo '<ul>' . recurse ( $bleh ) . '</ul>' ; } } elseif( $it -> isFile ()) { echo '<li class="file">' . $it -> current () . ' (' . $it -> getSize (). ' Bytes)</li>' ; } } echo '</ul>' ; } recurse (new RecursiveDirectoryIterator ( 'D:/' )); ?> up down 2 adove at booyahnetworks dot com ¶ 20 years ago Something to note that, at least to me, seems pretty important and is not entirely clear in the documentation is the fact that the ArrayObject class supports get/set on uni-dimensional keys and get ONLY on *passed* multi-dimensional keys/paths (see source below). If you, like me, need to support array accesss overloading for multi-dimensional data, you will need to derive from ArrayObject and overide the ArrayAccess interface methods to "walk" passed data and convert embedded arrays to objects of some kind... Reference Bug 34816 @ http://bugs.php.net/bug.php?id=34816. Illustration of the issue: $a = array( "test" => array( "one" => "dunno", "two" => array( "peekabo" => "do you see me?", "anyone" => array("there") ) ) ); $oArray = new ArrayObject($a); var_dump($oArray); $oArray["three"] = "No problems here."; echo "\n\\test\\one == " . $oArray["test"]["one"] . "\n\n"; // NEITHER of the two below will work! $oArray["test"]["one"] = "Yes I do!"; $oArray["test"]["yes"] = array( "hello" => "Goodbye!" ); var_dump($oArray); --- Note from the extension author: Actually there is RecursiveArrayObject and RecursiveArrayIterator to deal with recursive structures. However this does not always solve all multidimensional issues as expected. up down 1 prometheus - csaba dot dobai at php-sparcle dot hu ¶ 18 years ago This code is an example. By using classes like this, you gives a chance to create classes which extends another class but have most of the ability what a class extends ArrayObject (like multiple inheritance): <?php class foo { public $foo = 'foo' ; } // class class foobar extends foo implements ArrayAccess , IteratorAggregate , Countable { public function offsetExists ( $offset ) { $array = array( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ); return array_key_exists ( $offset , $array ); } public function offsetGet ( $offset ) { $array = array( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ); return $array [ $offset ]; } public function offsetSet ( $offset , $value ) { // Makes "array" to readonly } public function offsetUnset ( $offset ) { // Makes "array" to readonly } function count () { $array = array( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ); return count ( $array ); } // function function getArray () { return array( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ); } // function function getIterator () { return new ArrayIterator (array( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )); } // function function __toString () { return 'String test' ; } // function } // class $foobar = new foobar (); print $foobar [ 0 ]. '<br/>' ; print $foobar -> foo . '<br/>' ; print count ( $foobar ). '<br/>' ; foreach ( $foobar as $k => $v ) { print $k . '=>' . $v . '<br/>' ; } // foreach var_dump ( $foobar -> getArray ()); print $foobar ; /* Generated output: 1 foo 4 0=>1 1=>2 2=>3 3=>4 array 0 => int 1 1 => int 2 2 => int 3 3 => int 4 String test */ ?> For proper use you must be define all these methods except getArray() Browse SPL's sources to be a very helpful think. ps.: sry for my english ＋ 添加备注 SPL Interfaces Datastructures Exceptions Iterators File Handling SPL 函数 Copyright © 2001-2026 The PHP Documentation Group My PHP.net Contact Other PHP.net sites Privacy policy ↑ and ↓ to navigate • Enter to select • Esc to close • / to open Press Enter without selection to search using Google | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#short-string-exercise | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise 3.1.8. More String Methods 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise Previous topic 3. More On Flow of Control Next topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. Created using Sphinx 1.3.1+. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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https://docs.aws.amazon.com/es_es/vpc/latest/userguide/RouteTables.html | Conceptos de las tablas de enrutamiento - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Conceptos de las tablas de enrutamiento - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Documentación Amazon VPC Guía del usuario VPC de ejemplo con tablas de enrutamiento Conceptos de las tablas de enrutamiento A continuación se enumeran los conceptos clave de las tablas de enrutamiento: Tabla de enrutamiento principal : la tabla de enrutamiento que viene de forma automática con la VPC. Controla el direccionamiento de todas las subredes que no están explícitamente asociadas a ninguna otra tabla de enrutamiento. Tabla de enrutamiento personalizada : una tabla de enrutamiento que se crea para la VPC. Destino : el intervalo de direcciones IP a las que desea que vaya el tráfico (CIDR de destino). Por ejemplo, una red corporativa externa con un CIDR 172.16.0.0/12 . Destino : la puerta de enlace, interfaz de red o conexión a través de la cual enviar el tráfico de destino, por ejemplo, una puerta de enlace de Internet. Ruta local : una ruta predeterminada para la comunicación dentro de la VPC. Si la VPC tiene direcciones IPv4 e IPv6, hay una ruta local para IPv4 y una ruta local para IPv6. Asociación de tabla de enrutamiento : la asociación entre una tabla de enrutamiento y una subred, puerta de enlace de Internet o puerta de enlace privada virtual. Tabla de enrutamiento de subred : una tabla de enrutamiento asociada con una subred. Propagación : si ha asociado una puerta de enlace privada virtual a la VPC y ha habilitado la propagación de rutas, agregamos automáticamente rutas para la conexión de su VPN a las tablas de enrutamiento de la subred. Esto significa que no es necesario agregar o eliminar rutas de VPN manualmente. Para obtener más información, consulte Opciones de enrutamiento de Site-to-Site VPN en la Guía del usuario de Site-to-Site VPN . Tabla de enrutamiento de puerta de enlace : una tabla de enrutamiento asociada con una puerta de enlace de Internet o puerta de enlace privada virtual. Asociación de borde : una tabla de enrutamiento que se utiliza para enrutar el tráfico de VPC entrante a un dispositivo. Asocie una tabla de enrutamiento a la puerta de enlace de Internet o a la puerta de enlace privada virtual y especifique la interfaz de red del dispositivo como objetivo para el tráfico de la VPC. Tabla de enrutamiento de la transit puerta de enlace : una tabla de enrutamiento asociada con una transit puerta de enlace. Para obtener más información, consulte Tablas de enrutamiento de Transit Gateway en Transit Gateways de Amazon VPC . Tabla de enrutamiento de puerta de enlace local : una tabla de enrutamiento asociada con una puerta de enlace local de Outposts. Para obtener más información, consulte Gateways locales en la Guía del usuario de AWS Outposts . VPC de ejemplo con tablas de enrutamiento En el siguiente diagrama se muestra una VPC con cinco subredes, una tabla de enrutamiento principal y tres tablas de enrutamiento personalizadas. Las cuatro tablas de enrutamiento tienen rutas locales. La tabla de enrutamiento personalizada 1 tiene un enrutamiento a una puerta de enlace de Internet y está asociada a la subred pública de la zona de disponibilidad A. La tabla de enrutamiento personalizada 2 tiene un enrutamiento a una VPC interconectada y está asociada a la subred privada de la zona de disponibilidad B. La tabla de enrutamiento personalizada 3 tiene un enrutamiento a una puerta de enlace privada virtual y está asociada a las subredes exclusivas de VPN en ambas zonas de disponibilidad. JavaScript está desactivado o no está disponible en su navegador. Para utilizar la documentación de AWS, debe estar habilitado JavaScript. Para obtener más información, consulte las páginas de ayuda de su navegador. Convenciones del documento Tablas de enrutamiento Tablas de enrutamiento de subred ¿Le ha servido de ayuda esta página? - Sí Gracias por hacernos saber que estamos haciendo un buen trabajo. Si tiene un momento, díganos qué es lo que le ha gustado para que podamos seguir trabajando en esa línea. ¿Le ha servido de ayuda esta página? - No Gracias por informarnos de que debemos trabajar en esta página. Lamentamos haberle defraudado. Si tiene un momento, díganos cómo podemos mejorar la documentación. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
https://docs.aws.amazon.com/id_id/vpc/latest/userguide/route-tables-priority.html | Bagaimana prioritas rute bekerja - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Bagaimana prioritas rute bekerja - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Dokumentasi Amazon VPC Panduan Pengguna Pertandingan awalan terpanjang Prioritas rute untuk rute statis dan dinamis yang disebarkan Prioritas rute untuk daftar prefiks Terjemahan disediakan oleh mesin penerjemah. Jika konten terjemahan yang diberikan bertentangan dengan versi bahasa Inggris aslinya, utamakan versi bahasa Inggris. Bagaimana prioritas rute bekerja Secara umum, kami mengarahkan lalu lintas menggunakan rute paling spesifik yang cocok dengan lalu lintas. Ini dikenal sebagai kecocokan awalan terpanjang. Jika tabel rute Anda memiliki rute yang tumpang tindih atau cocok, aturan tambahan berlaku. Daftar berikut menunjukkan ringkasan prioritas rute dengan tautan ke bagian di bawah ini dengan informasi dan contoh yang lebih rinci: Awalan terpanjang (misalnya, 10.10.2.15/32 memiliki prioritas di atas 10.10.2.0/24) Rute statis (seperti pengintip VPC dan koneksi gateway internet) Rute daftar awalan Rute yang diperbanyak Rute Direct Connect BGP (rute dinamis) Rute statis VPN Rute VPN BGP (rute dinamis) (seperti gateway pribadi virtual) Pertandingan awalan terpanjang Rute ke IPv4 dan IPv6 alamat atau blok CIDR tidak tergantung satu sama lain. Kami menggunakan rute paling spesifik yang cocok dengan IPv4 lalu lintas atau lalu IPv6 lintas untuk menentukan cara merutekan lalu lintas. Contoh tabel rute subnet berikut memiliki rute untuk lalu lintas IPv4 internet ( 0.0.0.0/0 ) yang menunjuk ke gateway internet, dan rute untuk 172.31.0.0/16 IPv4 lalu lintas yang menunjuk ke koneksi peering () pcx-11223344556677889 . Setiap lalu lintas dari subnet yang ditujukan untuk kisaran alamat IP 172.31.0.0/16 menggunakan koneksi peering, karena rute ini lebih spesifik daripada rute untuk gateway internet. Setiap lalu lintas yang ditujukan untuk target di dalam VPC ( 10.0.0.0/16 ) tercakup oleh rute local , dan oleh karenanya lalu lintas diarahkan di dalam VPC. Semua lalu lintas lainnya dari subnet menggunakan gateway internet. Tujuan Target 10.0.0.0/16 lokal 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 0.0.0.0/0 igw-12345678901234567 Prioritas rute untuk rute statis dan dinamis yang disebarkan Jika Anda telah melampirkan gateway pribadi virtual ke VPC Anda dan mengaktifkan propagasi rute pada tabel rute subnet Anda, rute yang mewakili koneksi Site-to-Site VPN Anda secara otomatis muncul sebagai rute yang disebarkan di tabel rute Anda. Jika tujuan rute yang disebarkan identik dengan tujuan rute statis, rute statis akan diprioritaskan. Sumber daya berikut menggunakan rute statis: gateway internet Gateway NAT Antarmuka jaringan ID Instans VPC endpoint Gateway Transit Gateway Koneksi peering VPC Titik akhir Penyeimbang Beban Gateway Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Prioritas tabel rute dan rute VPN di AWS Site-to-Site VPN Panduan Pengguna . Contoh tabel rute berikut memiliki rute statis ke gateway internet dan rute disebarkan ke gateway pribadi virtual. Kedua rute memiliki tujuan 172.31.0.0/24 . Karena rute statis ke gateway internet diprioritaskan, semua lalu lintas yang 172.31.0.0/24 ditujukan untuk diarahkan ke gateway internet. Tujuan Target Diperbanyak 10.0.0.0/16 lokal Tidak 172.31.0.0/24 vgw-11223344556677889 Ya 172.31.0.0/24 igw-12345678901234567 Tidak Prioritas rute untuk daftar prefiks Jika tabel rute Anda mereferensikan daftar prefiks, aturan berikut berlaku: Jika tabel rute Anda berisi rute propagasi yang cocok dengan rute yang mereferensikan daftar awalan, rute yang mereferensikan daftar awalan akan diprioritaskan. Harap dicatat bahwa untuk rute yang tumpang tindih, rute yang lebih spesifik selalu diprioritaskan terlepas dari apakah rute tersebut adalah rute yang disebarkan, rute statis, atau rute yang mereferensikan daftar awalan. Jika tabel rute Anda mereferensikan beberapa daftar prefiks yang memiliki blok-blok CIDR yang tumpang tindih ke target-target yang berbeda, kami secara acak memilih rute mana yang menjadi prioritas. Setelah itu, rute yang sama selalu menjadi prioritas. Javascript dinonaktifkan atau tidak tersedia di browser Anda. Untuk menggunakan Dokumentasi AWS, Javascript harus diaktifkan. Lihat halaman Bantuan browser Anda untuk petunjuk. Konvensi Dokumen Tabel rute gateway Opsi perutean contoh Apakah halaman ini membantu Anda? - Ya Terima kasih telah memberitahukan bahwa hasil pekerjaan kami sudah baik. Jika Anda memiliki waktu luang, beri tahu kami aspek apa saja yang sudah bagus, agar kami dapat menerapkannya secara lebih luas. Apakah halaman ini membantu Anda? - Tidak Terima kasih telah memberi tahu kami bahwa halaman ini perlu ditingkatkan. Maaf karena telah mengecewakan Anda. Jika Anda memiliki waktu luang, beri tahu kami bagaimana dokumentasi ini dapat ditingkatkan. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
https://docs.aws.amazon.com/id_id/vpc/latest/userguide/route-table-options.html | Opsi perutean contoh - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Opsi perutean contoh - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Dokumentasi Amazon VPC Panduan Pengguna Perutean ke gateway internet Perutean ke perangkat NAT Perutean ke virtual private gateway Routing ke gateway AWS Outposts lokal Perutean ke koneksi peering VPC Perutean ke VPC endpoint gateway Perutean ke gateway internet egress-only Perutean untuk Transit Gateway Perutean untuk perangkat middlebox Perutean menggunakan daftar prefiks Perutean ke titik akhir Penyeimbang Beban Gateway Terjemahan disediakan oleh mesin penerjemah. Jika konten terjemahan yang diberikan bertentangan dengan versi bahasa Inggris aslinya, utamakan versi bahasa Inggris. Opsi perutean contoh Topik berikut menjelaskan perutean untuk gateway atau koneksi tertentu di VPC Anda. Daftar Isi Perutean ke gateway internet Perutean ke perangkat NAT Perutean ke virtual private gateway Routing ke gateway AWS Outposts lokal Perutean ke koneksi peering VPC Perutean ke VPC endpoint gateway Perutean ke gateway internet egress-only Perutean untuk Transit Gateway Perutean untuk perangkat middlebox Perutean menggunakan daftar prefiks Perutean ke titik akhir Penyeimbang Beban Gateway Perutean ke gateway internet Anda dapat membuat sebuah subnet menjadi subnet publik dengan menambahkan sebuah rute di tabel rute subnet Anda ke gateway internet. Untuk melakukan ini, buat dan lampirkan gateway internet ke VPC Anda, lalu tambahkan rute dengan tujuan 0.0.0.0/0 untuk IPv4 lalu lintas atau ::/0 IPv6 lalu lintas, dan target ID gateway internet () igw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx . Tujuan Target 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id ::/0 igw-id Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Aktifkan akses internet untuk VPC menggunakan gateway internet . Perutean ke perangkat NAT Untuk mengaktifkan instans di subnet pribadi agar terhubung ke internet, Anda dapat membuat gateway NAT atau meluncurkan instans NAT di subnet publik. Kemudian tambahkan rute untuk tabel rute subnet pribadi yang merutekan lalu lintas IPv4 internet ( 0.0.0.0/0 ) ke perangkat NAT. Tujuan Target 0.0.0.0/0 nat-gateway-id Anda juga dapat membuat rute yang lebih spesifik ke target lain untuk menghindari biaya pemrosesan data yang tidak perlu untuk menggunakan gateway NAT, atau untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas tertentu secara pribadi. Dalam contoh berikut, lalu lintas Amazon S3 (pl-xxxxxxxx, daftar awalan yang berisi rentang alamat IP untuk Amazon S3 di Wilayah tertentu) dirutekan ke titik akhir VPC gateway, dan lalu lintas 10.25.0.0/16 dirutekan ke koneksi peering VPC. Rentang alamat IP ini lebih spesifik dari 0.0.0.0/0. Ketika instans-instans mengirimkan lalu lintas ke Amazon S3 atau ke VPC rekan, lalu lintas dikirim ke VPC endpoint gateway atau koneksi peering VPC. Semua lalu lintas lainnya dikirim ke gateway NAT. Tujuan Target 0.0.0.0/0 nat-gateway-id pl- xxxxxxxx vpce-id 10.25.0.0/16 pcx-id Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Perangkat NAT . Perutean ke virtual private gateway Anda dapat menggunakan AWS Site-to-Site VPN koneksi untuk mengaktifkan instance di VPC Anda untuk berkomunikasi dengan jaringan Anda sendiri. Untuk melakukannya, buat dan lampirkan virtual private gateway ke VPC Anda. Kemudian tambahkan rute di tabel rute subnet Anda dengan tujuan jaringan Anda dan target virtual private gateway ( vgw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Tujuan Target 10.0.0.0/16 vgw-id Anda kemudian dapat membuat dan mengkonfigurasi koneksi Site-to-Site VPN Anda. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Apa itu AWS Site-to-Site VPN? dan Tabel rute dan prioritas rute VPN di Panduan Pengguna AWS Site-to-Site VPN . Koneksi Site-to-Site VPN pada gateway pribadi virtual tidak mendukung IPv6 lalu lintas. Namun, kami mendukung IPv6 lalu lintas yang diarahkan melalui gateway pribadi virtual ke Direct Connect koneksi. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, silakan lihat Panduan Pengguna Direct Connect . Routing ke gateway AWS Outposts lokal Bagian ini menjelaskan konfigurasi tabel routing untuk routing ke gateway lokal. AWS Outposts Daftar Isi Aktifkan lalu lintas antara subnet Outpost dan jaringan lokal Anda Aktifkan lalu lintas antar subnet di VPC yang sama di Outposts Aktifkan lalu lintas antara subnet Outpost dan jaringan lokal Anda Subnet yang VPCs terkait dengan AWS Outposts dapat memiliki jenis target tambahan dari gateway lokal. Pertimbangkan kasus di mana Anda ingin memiliki lalu lintas rute gateway lokal dengan alamat tujuan 192.168.10.0/24 ke jaringan pelanggan. Untuk melakukannya, tambahkan rute berikut dengan jaringan tujuan dan target gateway lokal ( lgw-xxxx ). Tujuan Target 192.168.10.0/24 lgw-id Aktifkan lalu lintas antar subnet di VPC yang sama di Outposts Anda dapat menjalin komunikasi antara subnet yang berada di VPC yang sama di berbagai Outpost menggunakan gateway lokal Outpost dan jaringan di lokasi Anda. Anda dapat menggunakan fitur ini untuk membangun arsitektur yang mirip dengan arsitektur Multi-availability Zone (AZ) untuk aplikasi on-premise Anda yang berjalan di rak Outposts dengan membangun konektivitas antara rak Outposts yang ditambatkan ke yang berbeda. AZs Untuk mengaktifkan fitur ini, tambahkan rute ke tabel rute subnet rak Outpost Anda yang lebih spesifik daripada rute lokal di tabel rute tersebut dan memiliki tipe target gateway lokal. Tujuan rute harus sesuai dengan seluruh IPv4 blok subnet di VPC Anda yang ada di Outpost lain. Ulangi konfigurasi ini untuk semua subnet Outpost yang perlu berkomunikasi. penting Untuk menggunakan fitur ini, Anda harus menggunakan routing VPC langsung . Anda tidak dapat menggunakan alamat IP milik pelanggan Anda sendiri. Jaringan on-premise Anda yang terhubung dengan gateway lokal Outposts harus memiliki routing yang diperlukan sehingga subnet dapat mengakses satu sama lain. Jika Anda ingin menggunakan grup keamanan untuk sumber daya di subnet, Anda harus menggunakan aturan yang menyertakan rentang alamat IP sebagai sumber atau tujuan dalam subnet Outpost. Anda tidak dapat menggunakan grup keamanan IDs. Rak Outposts yang ada mungkin memerlukan pembaruan untuk mengaktifkan dukungan komunikasi intra-VPC di beberapa Outposts. Jika fitur ini tidak berfungsi untuk Anda, hubungi AWS Support . contoh Contoh Untuk VPC dengan CIDR 10.0.0.0/16, subnet Outpost 1 dengan CIDR 10.0.1.0/24, dan subnet Outpost 2 dengan CIDR 10.0.2.0/24, entri untuk tabel rute subnet Outpost 1 adalah sebagai berikut: Tujuan Target 10.0.0.0/16 Lokal 10.0.2.0/24 lgw-1-id Entri untuk tabel rute subnet Outpost 2 adalah sebagai berikut: Tujuan Target 10.0.0.0/16 Lokal 10.0.1.0/24 lgw-2-id Perutean ke koneksi peering VPC Koneksi peering VPC adalah koneksi jaringan antara dua VPCs yang memungkinkan Anda untuk merutekan lalu lintas di antara mereka menggunakan alamat pribadi. IPv4 Instans-instans di VPC yang manapun dapat berkomunikasi satu sama lain seolah-olah mereka berada di jaringan yang sama. Untuk mengaktifkan perutean lalu lintas antara VPCs koneksi peering VPC, Anda harus menambahkan rute ke satu atau lebih tabel rute subnet Anda yang menunjuk ke koneksi peering VPC. Ini memungkinkan Anda mengakses semua atau sebagian blok CIDR dari VPC yang lain dalam koneksi peering. Demikian pula, pemilik VPC yang lain harus menambahkan rute ke tabel rute subnet mereka untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas kembali ke VPC Anda. Misalnya, Anda memiliki koneksi peering VPC ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) antara dua VPCs, dengan informasi berikut: VPC A: Blok CIDR adalah 10.0.0.0/16 VPC B: Blok CIDR adalah 172.31.0.0/16 Untuk mengaktifkan lalu lintas antara VPCs dan mengizinkan akses ke seluruh blok IPv4 CIDR dari salah satu VPC, tabel rute VPC A dikonfigurasi sebagai berikut. Tujuan Target 10.0.0.0/16 Lokal 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 Tabel rute VPC B dikonfigurasi sebagai berikut. Tujuan Target 172.31.0.0/16 Lokal 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 Koneksi peering VPC Anda juga dapat mendukung IPv6 komunikasi antar instans di VPCs, jika instans VPCs dan instans diaktifkan untuk komunikasi. IPv6 Untuk mengaktifkan perutean IPv6 lalu lintas antara VPCs, Anda harus menambahkan rute ke tabel rute Anda yang menunjuk ke koneksi peering VPC untuk mengakses semua atau sebagian blok CIDR dari IPv6 VPC rekan. Misalnya, menggunakan koneksi peering VPC yang sama ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) di atas, asumsikan VPCs memiliki informasi berikut: VPC A: Blok IPv6 CIDR adalah 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 VPC B: Blok IPv6 CIDR adalah 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 Untuk mengaktifkan IPv6 komunikasi melalui koneksi peering VPC, tambahkan rute berikut ke tabel rute subnet untuk VPC A. Tujuan Target 10.0.0.0/16 Lokal 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Tambahkan rute berikut ke tabel rute untuk VPC B. Tujuan Target 172.31.0.0/16 Lokal 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Untuk informasi selengkapnya tentang koneksi peering VPC, lihat Panduan Peering Amazon VPC . Perutean ke VPC endpoint gateway Titik akhir VPC gateway memungkinkan Anda membuat koneksi pribadi antara VPC Anda dan layanan lain. AWS Ketika Anda membuat titik akhir gateway, Anda menentukan tabel rute subnet di VPC Anda yang digunakan oleh titik akhir gateway. Sebuah rute secara otomatis ditambahkan ke masing-masing tabel rute dengan tujuan yang menentukan ID layanan daftar prefiks ( pl- xxxxxxxx ), dan target dengan ID titik akhir ( vpce- xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Anda tidak dapat secara eksplisit menghapus atau memodifikasi rute titik akhir, tetapi Anda dapat mengubah tabel rute yang digunakan oleh titik akhir. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang perutean untuk titik akhir, dan implikasi untuk rute ke layanan AWS , lihat Perutean untuk titik akhir gateway . Perutean ke gateway internet egress-only Anda dapat membuat gateway internet egress-only untuk VPC Anda untuk mengaktifkan instans di subnet pribadi untuk mulai berkomunikasi outbound ke internet, tetapi mencegah internet untuk terhubung dengan instans. Sebuah gateway internet egress-only digunakan untuk IPv6 lalu lintas saja. Untuk mengonfigurasi perutean untuk gateway internet khusus egress, tambahkan rute di tabel rute subnet pribadi yang merutekan lalu lintas IPv6 internet ( ::/0 ) ke gateway internet khusus egres. Tujuan Target ::/0 eigw-id Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Aktifkan IPv6 lalu lintas keluar menggunakan gateway internet khusus egres . Perutean untuk Transit Gateway Ketika Anda melampirkan sebuah VPC ke Transit Gateway, Anda perlu menambahkan rute ke tabel rute subnet Anda agar lalu lintas dapat terarahkan melalui Transit Gateway. Pertimbangkan skenario berikut di mana Anda memiliki tiga VPCs yang melekat pada gateway transit. Dalam skenario ini, semua lampiran dikaitkan dengan tabel rute transit gateway dan mempropagasi tabel rute transit gateway. Oleh karena itu, semua lampiran dapat mengarahkan paket satu sama lain, dengan Transit Gateway yang berfungsi sebagai pusat IP 3 lapis sederhana. Misalnya, Anda memiliki dua VPCs, dengan informasi berikut: VPC A: 10.1.0.0/16, ID lampiran tgw-attach-11111111111111111 VPC B: 10.2.0.0/16, ID lampiran tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Untuk mengaktifkan lalu lintas antara VPCs dan mengizinkan akses ke gateway transit, tabel rute VPC A dikonfigurasi sebagai berikut. Tujuan Target 10.1.0.0/16 Lokal 10.0.0.0/8 tgw-id Berikut ini adalah contoh entri tabel rute Transit Gateway untuk pelampiran VPC. Tujuan Target 10.1.0.0/16 tgw-attach-11111111111111111 10.2.0.0/16 tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Untuk informasi selengkapnya tabel rute Transit Gateway, lihat Perutean di Transit Gateway Amazon VPC . Perutean untuk perangkat middlebox Anda dapat menambahkan peralatan middlebox ke jalur perutean untuk VPC Anda. Berikut ini adalah kemungkinan kasus penggunaan: Mencegat lalu lintas yang memasuki VPC Anda melalui gateway internet atau gateway pribadi virtual dengan mengarahkannya ke alat middlebox di VPC Anda. Anda dapat menggunakan wizard perutean middlebox untuk AWS secara otomatis mengonfigurasi tabel rute yang sesuai untuk gateway, middlebox, dan subnet tujuan Anda. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Wisaya perutean Middlebox . Lalu lintas langsung antara dua subnet ke alat middlebox. Anda dapat melakukannya dengan membuat rute untuk satu tabel rute subnet yang cocok dengan subnet CIDR dari subnet lainnya dan menentukan titik akhir Gateway Load Balancer, gateway NAT, titik akhir Network Firewall, atau antarmuka jaringan untuk alat sebagai target. Atau, untuk mengarahkan semua lalu lintas dari subnet ke subnet lainnya, ganti target rute lokal dengan titik akhir Gateway Load Balancer, gateway NAT, atau antarmuka jaringan. Anda dapat mengonfigurasi perangkat menyesuaikan kebutuhan Anda. Misalnya, Anda dapat mengonfigurasi perangkat keamanan yang menyaring semua lalu lintas, atau perangkat akselerasi WAN. Alat ini digunakan sebagai EC2 instans Amazon di subnet di VPC Anda, dan diwakili oleh elastic network interface (network interface) di subnet Anda. Jika Anda mengaktifkan propagasi rute untuk tabel rute subnet tujuan, perhatikan prioritas rute. Kami memprioritaskan rute yang paling spesifik, dan jika rute cocok, kami memprioritaskan rute statis atas rute yang disebarkan. Tinjau rute Anda untuk memastikan bahwa lalu lintas dirutekan dengan benar dan tidak ada konsekuensi yang tidak diinginkan jika Anda mengaktifkan atau menonaktifkan propagasi rute (misalnya, propagasi rute diperlukan untuk Direct Connect koneksi yang mendukung bingkai jumbo). Untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas VPC inbound ke sebuah perangkat, Anda kaitkan sebuah tabel rute dengan gateway internet atau virtual private gateway, dan tentukan antarmuka jaringan dari perangkat Anda sebagai target untuk lalu lintas VPC. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Tabel rute gateway . Anda juga dapat mengarahkan lalu lintas outbound dari subnet Anda ke sebuah perangkat middlebox di subnet lain. Untuk contoh perutean middlebox, lihat. Skenario Middlebox Daftar Isi Pertimbangan perangkat Merutekan lalu lintas antara gateway dan alat Merutekan lalu lintas antar-subnet ke alat Pertimbangan perangkat Anda dapat memilih perangkat pihak ketiga dari AWS Marketplace , atau Anda dapat mengonfigurasi perangkat Anda sendiri. Saat Anda membuat atau mengonfigurasi sebuah perangkat, perhatikan hal berikut: Perangkat harus dikonfigurasi di subnet terpisah ke lalu lintas sumber atau tujuan. Anda harus menonaktifkan source/destination pemeriksaan pada alat. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Mengubah Pemeriksaan Sumber atau Tujuan di Panduan EC2 Pengguna Amazon . Anda tidak dapat mengarahkan lalu lintas antar host di subnet yang sama melalui sebuah perangkat. Alat tidak harus melakukan penerjemahan alamat jaringan (NAT). Anda dapat menambahkan rute ke tabel rute Anda yang lebih spesifik daripada rute lokal. Anda dapat menggunakan rute yang lebih spesifik untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas antar subnet dalam VPC (lalu lintas Timur-Barat) ke alat middlebox. Tujuan rute harus cocok dengan seluruh IPv4 atau IPv6 CIDR blok subnet di VPC Anda. Untuk mencegat IPv6 lalu lintas, pastikan VPC, subnet, dan alat Anda mendukung. IPv6 Merutekan lalu lintas antara gateway dan alat Untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas VPC inbound ke sebuah perangkat, Anda kaitkan sebuah tabel rute dengan gateway internet atau virtual private gateway, dan tentukan antarmuka jaringan dari perangkat Anda sebagai target untuk lalu lintas VPC. Dalam contoh berikut, VPC memiliki gateway internet, alat, dan subnet dengan instance. Lalu lintas dari internet dialihkan melalui alat. Kaitkan tabel rute ini dengan gateway internet atau virtual private gateway Anda. Entri pertama adalah rute lokal. Entri kedua mengirimkan IPv4 lalu lintas yang ditujukan untuk subnet ke antarmuka jaringan untuk alat. Rute ini lebih spesifik daripada rute lokal. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Lokal: Subnet CIDR Appliance network interface ID Atau, Anda dapat mengganti target untuk rute lokal dengan antarmuka jaringan alat. Anda dapat melakukan ini untuk memastikan bahwa semua lalu lintas secara otomatis diarahkan ke alat, termasuk lalu lintas yang ditujukan untuk subnet yang Anda tambahkan ke VPC di masa mendatang. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Appliance network interface ID Untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas dari subnet Anda ke perangkat di subnet lain, tambahkan rute ke tabel rute subnet Anda yang mengarahkan lalu lintas ke antarmuka jaringan perangkat. Tujuan seharusnya tidak lebih spesifik dibandingkan tujuan untuk rute lokal. Misalnya, untuk lalu lintas yang ditujukan untuk internet, tentukan 0.0.0.0/0 (semua IPv4 alamat) untuk tujuan. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Lokal: 0.0.0.0/0 Appliance network interface ID Kemudian, dalam tabel rute yang terkait dengan subnet alat, tambahkan rute yang mengirim lalu lintas kembali ke gateway internet atau gateway pribadi virtual. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Lokal: 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id Merutekan lalu lintas antar-subnet ke alat Anda dapat merutekan lalu lintas yang ditujukan untuk subnet tertentu ke antarmuka jaringan alat. Dalam contoh berikut, VPC berisi dua subnet dan alat. Lalu lintas antar subnet dialihkan melalui alat. Grup keamanan Saat Anda merutekan lalu lintas antar instance di subnet yang berbeda melalui perangkat middlebox, grup keamanan untuk kedua instance harus mengizinkan lalu lintas mengalir di antara instance. Grup keamanan untuk setiap instans harus mereferensikan alamat IP privat instans lain, atau rentang CIDR dari subnet yang berisi instans yang lain, sebagai sumbernya. Jika Anda mereferensikan grup keamanan instans lain sebagai sumbernya, hal ini tidak akan mengizinkan lalu lintas mengalir di antara instans. Perutean Berikut ini adalah contoh tabel rute untuk subnet A. Entri pertama memungkinkan instance di VPC untuk berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Entri kedua merutekan semua lalu lintas dari subnet A ke subnet B ke antarmuka jaringan alat. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Lokal: Subnet B CIDR Appliance network interface ID Berikut ini adalah contoh tabel rute untuk subnet B. Entri pertama memungkinkan instance di VPC untuk berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Entri kedua merutekan semua lalu lintas dari subnet B ke subnet A ke antarmuka jaringan alat. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Lokal: Subnet A CIDR Appliance network interface ID Atau, Anda dapat mengganti target untuk rute lokal dengan antarmuka jaringan alat. Anda dapat melakukan ini untuk memastikan bahwa semua lalu lintas secara otomatis diarahkan ke alat, termasuk lalu lintas yang ditujukan untuk subnet yang Anda tambahkan ke VPC di masa mendatang. Tujuan Target VPC CIDR Appliance network interface ID Perutean menggunakan daftar prefiks Jika Anda sering mereferensikan kumpulan blok CIDR yang sama di seluruh AWS sumber daya Anda, Anda dapat membuat daftar awalan yang dikelola pelanggan untuk mengelompokkannya bersama-sama. Anda kemudian dapat menentukan daftar prefiks sebagai tujuan dalam entri tabel rute Anda. Anda kemudian dapat menambah atau menghapus entri di daftar prefiks tanpa perlu memperbarui tabel rute Anda. Misalnya, Anda memiliki Transit Gateway dengan beberapa lampiran VPC. VPCsHarus dapat berkomunikasi dengan dua lampiran VPC tertentu yang memiliki blok CIDR berikut: 10.0.0.0/16 10.2.0.0/16 Anda buat daftar prefiks dengan kedua entri. Dalam tabel rute subnet Anda, Anda membuat rute dan menentukan daftar prefiks sebagai tujuan, dan Transit Gateway sebagai target. Tujuan Target 172.31.0.0/16 Lokal pl-123abc123abc123ab tgw-id Jumlah entri maksimal untuk daftar prefiks sama dengan jumlah entri dalam tabel rute. Perutean ke titik akhir Penyeimbang Beban Gateway Sebuah Penyeimbang Beban Gateway memungkinkan Anda untuk mendistribusikan lalu lintas ke sebuah armada perangkat virtual, seperti firewall. Anda dapat membuat Load Balancer Gateway, mengonfigurasi layanan titik akhir Load Balancer Gateway, dan kemudian membuat titik akhir Load Balancer Gateway di VPC Anda untuk menghubungkannya ke layanan. Untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas Anda ke Penyeimbang Beban Gateway (misalnya, untuk pemeriksaan keamanan), tentukan titik akhir Penyeimbang Beban Gateway sebagai target di tabel rute Anda. Untuk contoh peralatan keamanan di belakang Load Balancer Gateway, lihat. Konfigurasikan perutean dan inspeksi lalu lintas middlebox di VPC Untuk menentukan titik akhir Penyeimbang Beban Gateway dalam tabel rute, gunakan ID pada VPC endpoint. Misalnya untuk merutekan lalu lintas untuk 10.0.1.0/24 ke titik akhir Load Balancer Gateway, tambahkan rute berikut. Tujuan Target 10.0.1.0/24 vpc-endpoint-id Saat menggunakan titik akhir Load Balancer Gateway sebagai target, Anda tidak dapat menentukan daftar awalan sebagai tujuan. Jika Anda mencoba membuat atau mengganti rute daftar awalan yang menargetkan Titik Akhir VPC, Anda akan menerima kesalahan: “Tidak dapat membuat atau mengganti rute daftar awalan yang menargetkan Titik Akhir VPC.” Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Gateway Load Balancers . Javascript dinonaktifkan atau tidak tersedia di browser Anda. Untuk menggunakan Dokumentasi AWS, Javascript harus diaktifkan. Lihat halaman Bantuan browser Anda untuk petunjuk. Konvensi Dokumen Prioritas rute Buat tabel rute dan rute Apakah halaman ini membantu Anda? - Ya Terima kasih telah memberitahukan bahwa hasil pekerjaan kami sudah baik. Jika Anda memiliki waktu luang, beri tahu kami aspek apa saja yang sudah bagus, agar kami dapat menerapkannya secara lebih luas. Apakah halaman ini membantu Anda? - Tidak Terima kasih telah memberi tahu kami bahwa halaman ini perlu ditingkatkan. Maaf karena telah mengecewakan Anda. Jika Anda memiliki waktu luang, beri tahu kami bagaimana dokumentasi ini dapat ditingkatkan. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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https://www.iso.org/es/contents/data/sdg/SDG08.html | ISO - Decent Work and Economic Growth Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito ODS 8 Decent Work and Economic Growth Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible ODS 01 - No Poverty ODS 02 - Zero Hunger ODS 03 - Good Health and Well-being ODS 04 - Quality Education ODS 05 - Gender Equality ODS 06 - Clean Water and Sanitation ODS 07 - Affordable and Clean Energy ODS 08 - Decent Work and Economic Growth ODS 09 - Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ODS 10 - Reduced Inequalities ODS 11 - Sustainable Cities and Communities ODS 12 - Responsible Consumption and Production ODS 13 - Climate Action ODS 14 - Life Below Water ODS 15 - Life on Land ODS 16 - Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions ODS 17 - Partnerships for the Goals Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all Sustainable Development Goal 8 (SDG 8) aims to promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. This goal is essential for creating prosperous societies, reducing poverty, and fostering innovation. At ISO, we are committed to supporting SDG 8 through our standards, which provide frameworks and solutions that enhance organizational efficiency, improve working conditions, and promote sustainable economic practices. How ISO Standards Support SDG 8 ISO standards play a vital role in supporting SDG 8 by addressing key aspects of economic growth and decent work. Our standards help organizations improve their operations, ensure worker safety, and implement sustainable business practices. Here are some of the relevant standards: ISO 45001: Occupational health and safety management systems — Requirements with guidance for use Provides a framework for managing occupational health and safety risks, helping organizations create safer and healthier workplaces. Supports the prevention of work-related injuries and ill health, contributing to improved worker well-being and productivity. ISO 9001: Quality management systems — Requirements Establishes criteria for a quality management system, helping organizations improve their overall performance and provide a solid foundation for sustainable development initiatives. Enhances customer satisfaction and operational efficiency, contributing to sustainable economic growth and competitiveness. Take Action: Implement ISO Standards to Support SDG 8 Interested in learning how your organization can contribute to promoting decent work and economic growth through the implementation of ISO standards? Download our comprehensive guide to understand the role of ISO standards in achieving SDG 8 and other global goals. Together, we can work towards a world with sustainable economic growth and decent work for all. ISO 45001 - Occupational health and safety In this free brochure, learn more about ISO’s international standard for occupational health and safety and what it can do for your organization. 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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#graduateex | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise 3.1.8. More String Methods 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise Previous topic 3. More On Flow of Control Next topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. Created using Sphinx 1.3.1+. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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This help j Next menu item k Previous menu item g p Previous man page g n Next man page G Scroll to bottom g g Scroll to top g h Goto homepage g s Goto search (current page) / Focus search box A popular general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited to web development. Fast, flexible and pragmatic, PHP powers everything from your blog to the most popular websites in the world. What's new in 8.5 Download 8.5.1 · Changelog · Upgrading 8.4.16 · Changelog · Upgrading 8.3.29 · Changelog · Upgrading 8.2.30 · Changelog · Upgrading 18 Dec 2025 PHP 8.1.34 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.1.34. This is a security release. All PHP 8.1 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.1.34 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can also be found there . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 18 Dec 2025 PHP 8.4.16 Released! 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For source downloads of PHP 8.3.29 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can also be found there . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 18 Dec 2025 PHP 8.5.1 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.5.1. This is a security release. All PHP 8.5 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.5.1 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can also be found there . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 20 Nov 2025 PHP 8.5.0 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.5.0. This release marks the latest minor release of the PHP language. PHP 8.5 comes with numerous improvements and new features such as: New "URI" extension New pipe operator (|>) Clone With New #[\NoDiscard] attribute Support for closures, casts, and first class callables in constant expressions And much much more... For source downloads of PHP 8.5.0 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can also be found there . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . The migration guide is available in the PHP Manual. Please consult it for the detailed list of new features and backward incompatible changes. Kudos to all the contributors and supporters! 20 Nov 2025 PHP 8.4.15 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.4.15. This is a bug fix release. All PHP 8.4 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.4.15 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can also be found there . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 20 Nov 2025 PHP 8.3.28 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.3.28. This is a bug fix release. All PHP 8.3 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.3.28 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can also be found there . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 13 Nov 2025 PHP 8.5.0 RC 5 available for testing The PHP team is pleased to announce the fifth release candidate of PHP 8.5.0, RC 5. This continues the PHP 8.5 release cycle, the rough outline of which is specified in the PHP Wiki . For source downloads of PHP 8.5.0 RC5, please visit the download page . Please carefully test this version and report any issues found on GitHub . Please DO NOT use this version in production, it is a test version. For more information on the new features and other changes, you can read the NEWS file, or the UPGRADING file for a complete list of upgrading notes. These files can also be found in the release archive. The next release will be the GA release of PHP 8.5.0, planned for 20 Nov 2025. The signatures for the release can be found in the manifest or on the Release Candidates page . Thank you for helping us make PHP better. 06 Nov 2025 PHP 8.5.0 RC4 available for testing The PHP team is pleased to announce the final planned release candidate of PHP 8.5.0, RC 4. This continues the PHP 8.5 release cycle, the rough outline of which is specified in the PHP Wiki . For source downloads of PHP 8.5.0 RC4, please visit the download page . Please carefully test this version and report any issues found on GitHub . Please DO NOT use this version in production, it is a test version. For more information on the new features and other changes, you can read the NEWS file, or the UPGRADING file for a complete list of upgrading notes. These files can also be found in the release archive. The next release will be the GA release of PHP 8.5.0, planned for 20 Nov 2025. The signatures for the release can be found in the manifest or on the Release Candidates page . Thank you for helping us make PHP better. 23 Oct 2025 PHP 8.3.27 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.3.27. This is a bug fix release. All PHP 8.3 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.3.27 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can be found on windows.php.net/download/ . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 23 Oct 2025 PHP 8.4.14 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.4.14. This is a bug fix release. All PHP 8.4 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.4.14 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can be found on windows.php.net/download/ . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 23 Oct 2025 PHP 8.5.0 RC 3 available for testing The PHP team is pleased to announce the third release candidate of PHP 8.5.0, RC 3. 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The signatures for the release can be found in the manifest or on the Release Candidates page . Thank you for helping us make PHP better. 28 Aug 2025 PHP 8.5.0 Beta 2 available for testing The PHP team is pleased to announce the second beta release of PHP 8.5.0, Beta 2. This continues the PHP 8.5 release cycle, the rough outline of which is specified in the PHP Wiki . For source downloads of PHP 8.5.0 Beta 2 please visit the download page . Please carefully test this version and report any issues found on GitHub . Please DO NOT use this version in production, it is an early test version. For more information on the new features and other changes, you can read the NEWS file, or the UPGRADING file for a complete list of upgrading notes. These files can also be found in the release archive. The next release will be Beta 3, planned for 11 Sep 2025. The signatures for the release can be found in the manifest or on the Release Candidates page . Thank you for helping us make PHP better. 28 Aug 2025 PHP 8.3.25 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.3.25. This is a bug fix release. All PHP 8.3 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.3.25 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can be found on windows.php.net/download/ . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 28 Aug 2025 PHP 8.4.12 Released! The PHP development team announces the immediate availability of PHP 8.4.12. This is a bug fix release. All PHP 8.4 users are encouraged to upgrade to this version. For source downloads of PHP 8.4.12 please visit our downloads page , Windows source and binaries can be found on windows.php.net/download/ . The list of changes is recorded in the ChangeLog . 14 Aug 2025 PHP 8.5.0 Beta 1 available for testing The PHP team is pleased to announce the first beta release of PHP 8.5.0, Beta 1. 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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#more-conditional-expressions | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise 3.1.8. More String Methods 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise Previous topic 3. More On Flow of Control Next topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. Created using Sphinx 1.3.1+. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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177,186 [ Details ] filter 176,266 [ Details ] memprof 176,151 [ Details ] lua 170,979 [ Details ] PDO_SQLITE 170,960 [ Details ] Bitset 163,587 [ Details ] taint 160,623 [ Details ] simdjson 159,938 [ Details ] xmldiff 151,982 [ Details ] sync 151,892 [ Details ] scoutapm 147,639 [ Details ] ssdeep 144,653 [ Details ] bz2 142,055 [ Details ] jsonc 138,669 [ Details ] crypto 133,251 [ Details ] cairo 129,639 [ Details ] WinCache 128,607 [ Details ] uri_template 127,478 [ Details ] mysqlnd_ms 127,327 [ Details ] CSV 125,138 [ Details ] mysqlnd_azure 122,881 [ Details ] json_post 122,696 [ Details ] yac 121,402 [ Details ] zephir_parser 120,579 [ Details ] bbcode 120,117 [ Details ] proctitle 119,830 [ Details ] Weakref 118,707 [ Details ] SPL_Types 118,490 [ Details ] mustache 115,647 [ Details ] svm 114,679 [ Details ] sqlite3 113,521 [ Details ] expect 108,473 [ Details ] xattr 107,232 [ Details ] PDO_IDS 106,401 [ Details ] geospatial 105,606 [ Details ] pq 105,436 [ Details ] parle 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XMLRPCi 34,904 [ Details ] huffman 34,844 [ Details ] componere 34,404 [ Details ] php_trie 34,094 [ Details ] ffi 33,310 [ Details ] protocolbuffers 32,899 [ Details ] GDChart 32,788 [ Details ] hidef 32,589 [ Details ] mnogosearch 32,400 [ Details ] ingres 32,251 [ Details ] BLENC 32,104 [ Details ] PECL_Gen 31,553 [ Details ] ip2location 30,996 [ Details ] dazuko 30,765 [ Details ] zlib_filter 30,504 [ Details ] amfext 30,487 [ Details ] spidermonkey 30,093 [ Details ] python 30,077 [ Details ] simple_kafka_client 29,649 [ Details ] jsond 29,473 [ Details ] classkit 27,755 [ Details ] phpy 27,408 [ Details ] chdb 27,366 [ Details ] statgrab 27,065 [ Details ] inclued 27,020 [ Details ] swish 26,737 [ Details ] env 26,317 [ Details ] leveldb 26,139 [ Details ] sam 26,087 [ Details ] Druid 25,894 [ Details ] bz2_filter 25,162 [ Details ] xpass 25,098 [ Details ] win32service 24,722 [ Details ] Net_Gopher 24,627 [ Details ] DBus 24,514 [ Details ] xslcache 24,261 [ Details ] ecasound 23,449 [ Details ] mcrypt_filter 23,304 [ Details ] PDO_FIREBIRD 23,299 [ Details ] win32std 23,241 [ Details ] mysqlnd_qc 23,037 [ Details ] sdl 22,951 [ Details ] spread 22,202 [ Details ] crack_dll 21,047 [ Details ] zeroconf 20,919 [ Details ] pcsc 20,902 [ Details ] rpminfo 20,645 [ Details ] graphdat 20,589 [ Details ] md4c 20,425 [ Details ] colorer 20,338 [ Details ] perforce 20,277 [ Details ] skywalking_agent 19,956 [ Details ] shape 19,860 [ Details ] date_time 19,710 [ Details ] skywalking 19,654 [ Details ] PHK 19,288 [ Details ] mysqlnd_memcache 19,286 [ Details ] dom_varimport 19,194 [ Details ] var_representation 18,973 [ Details ] lchash 18,907 [ Details ] win32ps 18,515 [ Details ] FreeImage 18,483 [ Details ] augeas 18,385 [ Details ] txforward 18,283 [ Details ] termbox 18,229 [ Details ] qqwry 18,212 [ Details ] selinux 18,121 [ Details ] v8 18,043 [ Details ] xrange 18,002 [ Details ] hdr_histogram 17,977 [ Details ] cybercash 17,701 [ Details ] Valkyrie 17,479 [ Details ] gupnp 17,472 [ Details ] funcall 17,470 [ Details ] docblock 17,431 [ Details ] win32ps_dll 17,206 [ Details ] KTaglib 16,995 [ Details ] trace 16,839 [ Details ] Parse_Tree 16,716 [ Details ] cld 16,681 [ Details ] Molten 16,588 [ Details ] params 16,470 [ Details ] apn 16,329 [ Details ] markdown 16,168 [ Details ] cvsclient 16,136 [ Details ] clips 16,085 [ Details ] wxwidgets 16,063 [ Details ] clucene 15,951 [ Details ] ares 15,897 [ Details ] tk 15,836 [ Details ] scream 15,806 [ Details ] panda 15,788 [ Details ] xcommerce 15,511 [ Details ] drizzle 15,363 [ Details ] netools 15,356 [ Details ] ApacheAccessor 15,349 [ Details ] coin_acceptor 15,330 [ Details ] courierauth 15,202 [ Details ] quickhash 15,030 [ Details ] qb 14,982 [ Details ] fuse 14,925 [ Details ] rsvg 14,816 [ Details ] rsync 14,791 [ Details ] esmtp 14,727 [ Details ] cairo_wrapper 14,516 [ Details ] intercept 14,354 [ Details ] archive 14,110 [ Details ] bloomy 13,917 [ Details ] pdo_user 13,878 [ 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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#id14 | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise 3.1.8. More String Methods 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise Previous topic 3. More On Flow of Control Next topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. Created using Sphinx 1.3.1+. | 2026-01-13T09:30:31 |
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https://www.iso.org/es/normas/beneficios | ISO - Benefits of standards Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Normas Benefits of standards SMEs Consumers ISO and policy makers Standards in action ISO was founded with the idea of answering a fundamental question: “what's the best way of doing this?” It started with the obvious things like weights and measures, and over the last 50 years has developed into a family of standards that cover everything from the shoes we stand in, to the Wi-Fi networks that connect us invisibly to each other. Addressing all these and more, International Standards mean that consumers can have confidence that their products are safe, reliable and of good quality. ISO's standards on road safety, toy safety and secure medical packaging are just a few of those that help make the world a safer place. Regulators and governments count on ISO standards to help develop better regulation, knowing they have a sound basis thanks to the involvement of globally-established experts. To find out more about how ISO's 26119 standards touch almost all aspects of daily life, and work for businesses large and small, you can see standards in action . With International Standards on air, water and soil quality, on emissions of gases and radiation, and environmental aspects of products, they protect the health of the planet and people, beyond bringing economic benefits. The ISO materials Hear from businesses and browse ISO case studies that clearly show the benefits that standards can bring International Standards & trade agreements Download this concise booklet explaining how standards developed by IEC, ISO and ITU are a useful tool in meeting obligations to remove technical barriers to trade. Better business, better regulation, better products and services How standards help small- and medium-sized businesses ISO Standards help businesses of any size and sector reduce costs, increase productivity and access new markets. Standards as a road-map to better regulation Consistent, transparent and targeted, ISO standards provide a strong basis for the development of national and international regulation, helping to save time and reduce barriers to international trade. Safety, quality and value for money for consumers Find out how we spread the benefits of ISO Standards as broadly as possible, by involving consumers in standards development work through our committee on consumer policy. Publications Economic benefits of standards Volume 1 This ground-breaking book presents "The ISO Methodology to assess the economic benefits of standards" in action. Publications Economic benefits of standards Volume 2 This ground-breaking book presents "The ISO Methodology to assess the economic benefits of standards" in action. It provides case studies from a variety of organizations of different sizes and from different sectors from the following countries: Cameroon, China, Egypt, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritius, … Publications Economic benefits of Standards - ISO Methodology 2.0 This book explains how to use the ISO Methodology - a step-by-step way to quantitatively measure the economic benefits of standards. The ISO Methodology is applied at the company level. 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https://docs.aws.amazon.com/de_de/vpc/latest/userguide/RouteTables.html | Routing-Tabellen-Konzepte - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Routing-Tabellen-Konzepte - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Dokumentation Amazon VPC Benutzer-Leitfaden Beispiel-VPC mit Routing-Tabellen Die vorliegende Übersetzung wurde maschinell erstellt. Im Falle eines Konflikts oder eines Widerspruchs zwischen dieser übersetzten Fassung und der englischen Fassung (einschließlich infolge von Verzögerungen bei der Übersetzung) ist die englische Fassung maßgeblich. Routing-Tabellen-Konzepte Im Folgenden sind die wichtigsten Konzepte für Routing-Tabellen aufgeführt: Haupt-Routing-Tabelle – Die Routing-Tabelle, die automatisch mit Ihrer VPC geliefert wird. Diese steuert das Routing für alle Subnetze, denen nicht ausdrücklich eine andere Routing-Tabelle zugeordnet ist. Benutzerdefinierte Routing-Tabelle – Eine Routing-Tabelle, die Sie für Ihre VPC erstellen. Ziel – Der Bereich von IP-Adressen, zu dem der Datenverkehr gelangen soll (Ziel-CIDR). Zum Beispiel ein externes Unternehmensnetzwerk mit einem -CIDR 172.16.0.0/12 . Ziel – Das Gateway, die Netzwerkschnittstelle oder die Verbindung, über die der Zieldatenverkehr gesendet werden soll, z. B. ein Internet-Gateway. Lokale Route – Eine Standardroute für die Kommunikation innerhalb der VPC. Wenn die VPC IPv4- und IPv6-Adressen hat, gibt es eine lokale Route für IPv4 und eine lokale Route für IPv6. Routing-Tabellenzuordnung – Die Zuordnung zwischen einer Routing-Tabelle und einem Subnetz, einem Internet-Gateway oder einem Virtual Private Gateway. Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle – Eine Routing-Tabelle, die einem Subnetz zugeordnet ist. Verteilung – Wenn Sie ein Virtual Private Gateway an Ihre VPC angefügt und die Routing-Verteilung aktiviert haben, fügen wir Ihren Subnetz-Routing-Tabellen automatisch Routen für Ihre VPN-Verbindung hinzu. Das bedeutet, dass Sie VPN-Routen nicht manuell hinzufügen oder entfernen müssen. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Site-to-Site-VPN-Routing-Optionen im Site-to-Site-VPN-Benutzerhandbuch . Gateway-Routing-Tabelle – Eine Routing-Tabelle, die einem Internet-Gateway oder einem Virtual Private Gateway zugeordnet ist. Edge-Zuordnung – Eine Routing-Tabelle, mit der Sie eingehenden VPC-Datenverkehr an eine Appliance weiterleiten. Sie ordnen eine Routing-Tabelle dem Internet-Gateway oder dem Virtual Private Gateway zu und geben die Netzwerkschnittstelle Ihrer Appliance als Ziel für den VPC-Datenverkehr an. Transit Gateway-Routing-Tabelle – Eine Routing-Tabelle, die einem Transit Gateway zugeordnet ist. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Transit-Gateway-Routing-Tabellen in Amazon-VPC-Transit-Gateways . Lokale Gateway-Routing-Tabelle – Eine Routing-Tabelle, die einem lokalen Gateway von Outposts zugeordnet ist. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Lokale Gateways im AWS Outposts-Benutzerhandbuch . Beispiel-VPC mit Routing-Tabellen Das folgende Diagramm zeigt eine VPC mit fünf Subnetzen, einer Haupt-Routing-Tabelle und drei benutzerdefinierten Routing-Tabellen. Alle vier Routing-Tabellen haben lokale Routen. Die benutzerdefinierte Routing-Tabelle 1 hat eine Route zu einem Internet-Gateway und ist dem öffentlichen Subnetz in Availability Zone A zugeordnet. Die benutzerdefinierte Routing-Tabelle 2 hat eine Route zu einer per Peering verbundenen VPC und ist dem privaten Subnetz in Availability Zone B zugeordnet. Die benutzerdefinierte Routing-Tabelle 3 hat eine Route zu einem virtuellen privaten Gateway und ist den reinen VPN-Subnetzen in beiden Availability Zones zugeordnet. JavaScript ist in Ihrem Browser nicht verfügbar oder deaktiviert. Zur Nutzung der AWS-Dokumentation muss JavaScript aktiviert sein. Weitere Informationen finden auf den Hilfe-Seiten Ihres Browsers. Dokumentkonventionen Routing-Tabellen Subnetz-Routingtabellen Hat Ihnen diese Seite geholfen? – Ja Vielen Dank, dass Sie uns mitgeteilt haben, dass wir gute Arbeit geleistet haben! Würden Sie sich einen Moment Zeit nehmen, um uns mitzuteilen, was wir richtig gemacht haben, damit wir noch besser werden? Hat Ihnen diese Seite geholfen? – Nein Vielen Dank, dass Sie uns mitgeteilt haben, dass diese Seite überarbeitet werden muss. Es tut uns Leid, dass wir Ihnen nicht weiterhelfen konnten. Würden Sie sich einen Moment Zeit nehmen, um uns mitzuteilen, wie wir die Dokumentation verbessern können? | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://cheatsheetseries.owasp.org/cheatsheets/Session_Management_Cheat_Sheet.html | Session Management - OWASP Cheat Sheet Series Skip to content OWASP Cheat Sheet Series Session Management Initializing search OWASP/CheatSheetSeries OWASP Cheat Sheet Series OWASP/CheatSheetSeries Introduction Index Alphabetical Index ASVS Index MASVS Index Proactive Controls Index Top 10 Cheatsheets Cheatsheets AI Agent Security AJAX Security Abuse Case Access Control Attack Surface Analysis Authentication Authorization Authorization Testing Automation Automotive Security.md Bean Validation Browser Extension Vulnerabilities C-Based Toolchain Hardening CI CD Security Choosing and Using Security Questions Clickjacking Defense Content Security Policy Cookie Theft Mitigation Credential Stuffing Prevention Cross-Site Request Forgery Prevention Cross Site Scripting Prevention Cryptographic Storage DOM Clobbering Prevention DOM based XSS Prevention Database Security Denial of Service Dependency Graph SBOM 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Prevention Secrets Management Secure AI Model Ops Secure Cloud Architecture Secure Code Review Secure Product Design Securing Cascading Style Sheets Server Side Request Forgery Prevention Serverless FaaS Security Session Management Session Management Table of contents Introduction Session ID Properties Session ID Name Fingerprinting Session ID Entropy Session ID Length Session ID Content (or Value) Session Management Implementation Built-in Session Management Implementations Used vs. Accepted Session ID Exchange Mechanisms Transport Layer Security Cookies Secure Attribute HttpOnly Attribute SameSite Attribute Domain and Path Attributes Expire and Max-Age Attributes HTML5 Web Storage API The localStorage API Scope Duration Offline Access Use Case The sessionStorage API Scope Duration Offline Access Use Case References Web Workers Use Case Session ID Life Cycle Session ID Generation and Verification: Permissive and Strict Session Management Manage Session ID as Any Other User Input Renew the Session ID After Any Privilege Level Change Reauthentication After Risk Events Additional Resources Considerations When Using Multiple Cookies Session Expiration Automatic Session Expiration Idle Timeout Absolute Timeout Renewal Timeout Manual Session Expiration Logout Button Web Content Caching Reauthentication After Risk Events Additional Client-Side Defenses for Session Management Initial Login Timeout Force Session Logout On Web Browser Window Close Events Disable Web Browser Cross-Tab Sessions Automatic Client Logout Session Attacks Detection Session ID Guessing and Brute Force Detection Detecting Session ID Anomalies Binding the Session ID to Other User Properties Logging Sessions Life Cycle: Monitoring Creation, Usage, and Destruction of Session IDs Simultaneous Session Logons Session Management WAF Protections Software Supply Chain Security Symfony TLS Cipher String Third Party Javascript Management Third Party Payment Gateway Integration.md Threat Modeling Transaction Authorization Transport Layer Protection Transport Layer Security Unvalidated Redirects and Forwards User Privacy Protection Virtual Patching Vulnerability Disclosure Vulnerable Dependency Management WebSocket Security Web Service Security XML External Entity Prevention XML Security XSS Filter Evasion XS Leaks Zero Trust Architecture gRPC Security Table of contents Introduction Session ID Properties Session ID Name Fingerprinting Session ID Entropy Session ID Length Session ID Content (or Value) Session Management Implementation Built-in Session Management Implementations Used vs. Accepted Session ID Exchange Mechanisms Transport Layer Security Cookies Secure Attribute HttpOnly Attribute SameSite Attribute Domain and Path Attributes Expire and Max-Age Attributes HTML5 Web Storage API The localStorage API Scope Duration Offline Access Use Case The sessionStorage API Scope Duration Offline Access Use Case References Web Workers Use Case Session ID Life Cycle Session ID Generation and Verification: Permissive and Strict Session Management Manage Session ID as Any Other User Input Renew the Session ID After Any Privilege Level Change Reauthentication After Risk Events Additional Resources Considerations When Using Multiple Cookies Session Expiration Automatic Session Expiration Idle Timeout Absolute Timeout Renewal Timeout Manual Session Expiration Logout Button Web Content Caching Reauthentication After Risk Events Additional Client-Side Defenses for Session Management Initial Login Timeout Force Session Logout On Web Browser Window Close Events Disable Web Browser Cross-Tab Sessions Automatic Client Logout Session Attacks Detection Session ID Guessing and Brute Force Detection Detecting Session ID Anomalies Binding the Session ID to Other User Properties Logging Sessions Life Cycle: Monitoring Creation, Usage, and Destruction of Session IDs Simultaneous Session Logons Session Management WAF Protections Session Management Cheat Sheet ¶ Introduction ¶ Web Authentication, Session Management, and Access Control : A web session is a sequence of network HTTP request and response transactions associated with the same user. Modern and complex web applications require the retaining of information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests. Therefore, sessions provide the ability to establish variables – such as access rights and localization settings – which will apply to each and every interaction a user has with the web application for the duration of the session. Web applications can create sessions to keep track of anonymous users after the very first user request. An example would be maintaining the user language preference. Additionally, web applications will make use of sessions once the user has authenticated. This ensures the ability to identify the user on any subsequent requests as well as being able to apply security access controls, authorized access to the user private data, and to increase the usability of the application. Therefore, current web applications can provide session capabilities both pre and post authentication. Once an authenticated session has been established, the session ID (or token) is temporarily equivalent to the strongest authentication method used by the application, such as username and password, passphrases, one-time passwords (OTP), client-based digital certificates, smartcards, or biometrics (such as fingerprint or eye retina). See the OWASP Authentication Cheat Sheet . HTTP is a stateless protocol ( RFC2616 section 5), where each request and response pair is independent of other web interactions. Therefore, in order to introduce the concept of a session, it is required to implement session management capabilities that link both the authentication and access control (or authorization) modules commonly available in web applications: The session ID or token binds the user authentication credentials (in the form of a user session) to the user HTTP traffic and the appropriate access controls enforced by the web application. The complexity of these three components (authentication, session management, and access control) in modern web applications, plus the fact that its implementation and binding resides on the web developer's hands (as web development frameworks do not provide strict relationships between these modules), makes the implementation of a secure session management module very challenging. The disclosure, capture, prediction, brute force, or fixation of the session ID will lead to session hijacking (or sidejacking) attacks, where an attacker is able to fully impersonate a victim user in the web application. Attackers can perform two types of session hijacking attacks, targeted or generic. In a targeted attack, the attacker's goal is to impersonate a specific (or privileged) web application victim user. For generic attacks, the attacker's goal is to impersonate (or get access as) any valid or legitimate user in the web application. Session ID Properties ¶ In order to keep the authenticated state and track the users progress within the web application, applications provide users with a session identifier (session ID or token) that is assigned at session creation time, and is shared and exchanged by the user and the web application for the duration of the session (it is sent on every HTTP request). The session ID is a name=value pair. With the goal of implementing secure session IDs, the generation of identifiers (IDs or tokens) must meet the following properties. Session ID Name Fingerprinting ¶ The name used by the session ID should not be extremely descriptive nor offer unnecessary details about the purpose and meaning of the ID. The session ID names used by the most common web application development frameworks can be easily fingerprinted , such as PHPSESSID (PHP), JSESSIONID (J2EE), CFID & CFTOKEN (ColdFusion), ASP.NET_SessionId (ASP .NET), etc. Therefore, the session ID name can disclose the technologies and programming languages used by the web application. It is recommended to change the default session ID name of the web development framework to a generic name, such as id . Session ID Entropy ¶ Session identifiers must have at least 64 bits of entropy to prevent brute-force session guessing attacks. Entropy refers to the amount of randomness or unpredictability in a value. Each “bit” of entropy doubles the number of possible outcomes, meaning a session ID with 64 bits of entropy can have 2^64 possible values. A strong CSPRNG (Cryptographically Secure Pseudorandom Number Generator) must be used to generate session IDs. This ensures the generated values are evenly distributed among all possible values. Otherwise, attackers may be able to use statistical analysis techniques to identify patterns in how the session IDs are created, effectively reducing the entropy and allowing the attacker to guess or predict valid session IDs more easily. NOTE : The expected time for an attacker to brute-force a valid session ID depends on factors such as the number of bits of entropy, the number of active sessions, session expiration times, and the attacker's guessing rate. If a web application generates session IDs with 64 bits of entropy, an attacker can expect to spend approximately 585 years to successfully guess a valid session ID, assuming the attacker can try 10,000 guesses per second with 100,000 valid simultaneous sessions available in the application. Further analysis of the expected time for an attacker to brute-force session identifiers is available here . Session ID Length ¶ As mentioned in the previous Session ID Entropy section, a primary security requirement for session IDs is that they contain at least 64 bits of entropy to prevent brute-force guessing attacks. Although session ID length matters, it's the entropy that ensures security. The session ID must be long enough to encode sufficient entropy, preventing brute force attacks where an attacker guesses valid session IDs. Different encoding methods can result in different lengths for the same amount of entropy. Session IDs are often represented using hexadecimal encoding. When using hexadecimal encoding, a session ID must be at least 16 hexadecimal characters long to achieve the required 64 bits of entropy. When using different encodings (e.g. Base64 or Microsoft's encoding for ASP.NET session IDs ) a different number of characters may be required to represent the minimum 64 bits of entropy. It’s important to note that if any part of the session ID is fixed or predictable, the effective entropy is reduced, and the length may need to be increased to compensate. For example, if half of a 16-character hexadecimal session ID is fixed, only the remaining 8 characters are random, providing just 32 bits of entropy — which is insufficient for strong security. To maintain security, ensure that the entire session ID is randomly generated and unpredictable, or increase the overall length if parts of the ID are not random. NOTE : More information about the relationship between Session ID Length and Session ID Entropy is available here . Session ID Content (or Value) ¶ The session ID content (or value) must be meaningless to prevent information disclosure attacks, where an attacker is able to decode the contents of the ID and extract details of the user, the session, or the inner workings of the web application. The session ID must simply be an identifier on the client side, and its value must never include sensitive information or Personally Identifiable Information (PII). To read more about PII, refer to Wikipedia or this post . The meaning and business or application logic associated with the session ID must be stored on the server side, and specifically, in session objects or in a session management database or repository. The stored information can include the client IP address, User-Agent, email, username, user ID, role, privilege level, access rights, language preferences, account ID, current state, last login, session timeouts, and other internal session details. If the session objects and properties contain sensitive information, such as credit card numbers, it is required to duly encrypt and protect the session management repository. It is recommended to use the session ID created by your language or framework. If you need to create your own sessionID, use a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) with a size of at least 128 bits and ensure that each sessionID is unique. Session Management Implementation ¶ The session management implementation defines the exchange mechanism that will be used between the user and the web application to share and continuously exchange the session ID. There are multiple mechanisms available in HTTP to maintain session state within web applications, such as cookies (standard HTTP header), URL parameters (URL rewriting – RFC2396 ), URL arguments on GET requests, body arguments on POST requests, such as hidden form fields (HTML forms), or proprietary HTTP headers. The preferred session ID exchange mechanism should allow defining advanced token properties, such as the token expiration date and time, or granular usage constraints. This is one of the reasons why cookies (RFCs 2109 & 2965 & 6265 ) are one of the most extensively used session ID exchange mechanisms, offering advanced capabilities not available in other methods. The usage of specific session ID exchange mechanisms, such as those where the ID is included in the URL, might disclose the session ID (in web links and logs, web browser history and bookmarks, the Referer header or search engines), as well as facilitate other attacks, such as the manipulation of the ID or session fixation attacks . Built-in Session Management Implementations ¶ Web development frameworks, such as J2EE, ASP .NET, PHP, and others, provide their own session management features and associated implementation. It is recommended to use these built-in frameworks versus building a home made one from scratch, as they are used worldwide on multiple web environments and have been tested by the web application security and development communities over time. However, be advised that these frameworks have also presented vulnerabilities and weaknesses in the past, so it is always recommended to use the latest version available, that potentially fixes all the well-known vulnerabilities, as well as review and change the default configuration to enhance its security by following the recommendations described along this document. The storage capabilities or repository used by the session management mechanism to temporarily save the session IDs must be secure, protecting the session IDs against local or remote accidental disclosure or unauthorized access. Used vs. Accepted Session ID Exchange Mechanisms ¶ A web application should make use of cookies for session ID exchange management. If a user submits a session ID through a different exchange mechanism, such as a URL parameter, the web application should avoid accepting it as part of a defensive strategy to stop session fixation. NOTE : Even if a web application makes use of cookies as its default session ID exchange mechanism, it might accept other exchange mechanisms too. It is therefore required to confirm via thorough testing all the different mechanisms currently accepted by the web application when processing and managing session IDs, and limit the accepted session ID tracking mechanisms to just cookies. In the past, some web applications used URL parameters, or even switched from cookies to URL parameters (via automatic URL rewriting), if certain conditions are met (for example, the identification of web clients without support for cookies or not accepting cookies due to user privacy concerns). Transport Layer Security ¶ In order to protect the session ID exchange from active eavesdropping and passive disclosure in the network traffic, it is essential to use an encrypted HTTPS (TLS) connection for the entire web session, not only for the authentication process where the user credentials are exchanged. This may be mitigated by HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) for a client that supports it. Additionally, the Secure cookie attribute must be used to ensure the session ID is only exchanged through an encrypted channel. The usage of an encrypted communication channel also protects the session against some session fixation attacks where the attacker is able to intercept and manipulate the web traffic to inject (or fix) the session ID on the victim's web browser. The following set of best practices are focused on protecting the session ID (specifically when cookies are used) and helping with the integration of HTTPS within the web application: Do not switch a given session from HTTP to HTTPS, or vice-versa, as this will disclose the session ID in the clear through the network. When redirecting to HTTPS, ensure that the cookie is set or regenerated after the redirect has occurred. Do not mix encrypted and unencrypted contents (HTML pages, images, CSS, JavaScript files, etc) in the same page, or from the same domain. Where possible, avoid offering public unencrypted contents and private encrypted contents from the same host. Where insecure content is required, consider hosting this on a separate insecure domain. Implement HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) to enforce HTTPS connections. See the OWASP Transport Layer Security Cheat Sheet for more general guidance on implementing TLS securely. It is important to emphasize that TLS does not protect against session ID prediction, brute force, client-side tampering or fixation; however, it does provide effective protection against an attacker intercepting or stealing session IDs through a man in the middle attack. Cookies ¶ The session ID exchange mechanism based on cookies provides multiple security features in the form of cookie attributes that can be used to protect the exchange of the session ID: Secure Attribute ¶ The Secure cookie attribute instructs web browsers to only send the cookie through an encrypted HTTPS (SSL/TLS) connection. This session protection mechanism is mandatory to prevent the disclosure of the session ID through MitM (Man-in-the-Middle) attacks. It ensures that an attacker cannot simply capture the session ID from web browser traffic. Forcing the web application to only use HTTPS for its communication (even when port TCP/80, HTTP, is closed in the web application host) does not protect against session ID disclosure if the Secure cookie has not been set - the web browser can be deceived to disclose the session ID over an unencrypted HTTP connection. The attacker can intercept and manipulate the victim user traffic and inject an HTTP unencrypted reference to the web application that will force the web browser to submit the session ID in the clear. See also: SecureFlag HttpOnly Attribute ¶ The HttpOnly cookie attribute instructs web browsers not to allow scripts (e.g. JavaScript or VBscript) an ability to access the cookies via the DOM document.cookie object. This session ID protection is mandatory to prevent session ID stealing through XSS attacks. However, if an XSS attack is combined with a CSRF attack, the requests sent to the web application will include the session cookie, as the browser always includes the cookies when sending requests. The HttpOnly cookie only protects the confidentiality of the cookie; the attacker cannot use it offline, outside of the context of an XSS attack. See the OWASP XSS (Cross Site Scripting) Prevention Cheat Sheet . See also: HttpOnly SameSite Attribute ¶ SameSite defines a cookie attribute preventing browsers from sending a SameSite flagged cookie with cross-site requests. The main goal is to mitigate the risk of cross-origin information leakage, and provides some protection against cross-site request forgery attacks. See also: SameSite Domain and Path Attributes ¶ The Domain cookie attribute instructs web browsers to only send the cookie to the specified domain and all subdomains. If the attribute is not set, by default the cookie will only be sent to the origin server. The Path cookie attribute instructs web browsers to only send the cookie to the specified directory or subdirectories (or paths or resources) within the web application. If the attribute is not set, by default the cookie will only be sent for the directory (or path) of the resource requested and setting the cookie. It is recommended to use a narrow or restricted scope for these two attributes. In this way, the Domain attribute should not be set (restricting the cookie just to the origin server) and the Path attribute should be set as restrictive as possible to the web application path that makes use of the session ID. Setting the Domain attribute to a too permissive value, such as example.com allows an attacker to launch attacks on the session IDs between different hosts and web applications belonging to the same domain, known as cross-subdomain cookies. For example, vulnerabilities in www.example.com might allow an attacker to get access to the session IDs from secure.example.com . Additionally, it is recommended not to mix web applications of different security levels on the same domain. Vulnerabilities in one of the web applications would allow an attacker to set the session ID for a different web application on the same domain by using a permissive Domain attribute (such as example.com ) which is a technique that can be used in session fixation attacks . Although the Path attribute allows the isolation of session IDs between different web applications using different paths on the same host, it is highly recommended not to run different web applications (especially from different security levels or scopes) on the same host. Other methods can be used by these applications to access the session IDs, such as the document.cookie object. Also, any web application can set cookies for any path on that host. Cookies are vulnerable to DNS spoofing/hijacking/poisoning attacks, where an attacker can manipulate the DNS resolution to force the web browser to disclose the session ID for a given host or domain. Expire and Max-Age Attributes ¶ Session management mechanisms based on cookies can make use of two types of cookies, non-persistent (or session) cookies, and persistent cookies. If a cookie presents the Max-Age (that has preference over Expires ) or Expires attributes, it will be considered a persistent cookie and will be stored on disk by the web browser based until the expiration time. Typically, session management capabilities to track users after authentication make use of non-persistent cookies. This forces the session to disappear from the client if the current web browser instance is closed. Therefore, it is highly recommended to use non-persistent cookies for session management purposes, so that the session ID does not remain on the web client cache for long periods of time, from where an attacker can obtain it. Ensure that sensitive information is not compromised by ensuring that it is not persistent, encrypting it, and storing it only for the duration of the need Ensure that unauthorized activities cannot take place via cookie manipulation Ensure secure flag is set to prevent accidental transmission over the wire in a non-secure manner Determine if all state transitions in the application code properly check for the cookies and enforce their use Ensure entire cookie should be encrypted if sensitive data is persisted in the cookie Define all cookies being used by the application, their name and why they are needed HTML5 Web Storage API ¶ The Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG) describes the HTML5 Web Storage APIs, localStorage and sessionStorage , as mechanisms for storing name-value pairs client-side. Unlike HTTP cookies, the contents of localStorage and sessionStorage are not automatically shared within requests or responses by the browser and are used for storing data client-side. The localStorage API ¶ Scope ¶ Data stored using the localStorage API is accessible by pages which are loaded from the same origin, which is defined as the scheme ( https:// ), host ( example.com ), port ( 443 ) and domain/realm ( example.com ). This provides similar access to this data as would be achieved by using the secure flag on a cookie, meaning that data stored from https could not be retrieved via http . Due to potential concurrent access from separate windows/threads, data stored using localStorage may be susceptible to shared access issues (such as race-conditions) and should be considered non-locking ( Web Storage API Spec ). Duration ¶ Data stored using the localStorage API is persisted across browsing sessions, extending the timeframe in which it may be accessible to other system users. Offline Access ¶ The standards do not require localStorage data to be encrypted-at-rest, meaning it may be possible to directly access this data from disk. Use Case ¶ WHATWG suggests the use of localStorage for data that needs to be accessed across windows or tabs, across multiple sessions, and where large (multi-megabyte) volumes of data may need to be stored for performance reasons. The sessionStorage API ¶ Scope ¶ The sessionStorage API stores data within the window context from which it was called, meaning that Tab 1 cannot access data which was stored from Tab 2. Also, like the localStorage API, data stored using the sessionStorage API is accessible by pages which are loaded from the same origin, which is defined as the scheme ( https:// ), host ( example.com ), port ( 443 ) and domain/realm ( example.com ). This provides similar access to this data as would be achieved by using the secure flag on a cookie, meaning that data stored from https could not be retrieved via http . Duration ¶ The sessionStorage API only stores data for the duration of the current browsing session. Once the tab is closed, that data is no longer retrievable. This does not necessarily prevent access, should a browser tab be reused or left open. Data may also persist in memory until a garbage collection event. Offline Access ¶ The standards do not require sessionStorage data to be encrypted-at-rest, meaning it may be possible to directly access this data from disk. Use Case ¶ WHATWG suggests the use of sessionStorage for data that is relevant for one-instance of a workflow, such as details for a ticket booking, but where multiple workflows could be performed in other tabs concurrently. The window/tab bound nature will keep the data from leaking between workflows in separate tabs. References ¶ Web Storage APIs LocalStorage API SessionStorage API WHATWG Web Storage Spec Web Workers ¶ Web Workers run JavaScript code in a global context separate from the one of the current window. A communication channel with the main execution window exists, which is called MessageChannel . Use Case ¶ Web Workers are an alternative for browser storage of (session) secrets when storage persistence across page refresh is not a requirement. For Web Workers to provide secure browser storage, any code that requires the secret should exist within the Web Worker and the secret should never be transmitted to the main window context. Storing secrets within the memory of a Web Worker offers the same security guarantees as an HttpOnly cookie: the confidentiality of the secret is protected. Still, an XSS attack can be used to send messages to the Web Worker to perform an operation that requires the secret. The Web Worker will return the result of the operation to the main execution thread. The advantage of a Web Worker implementation compared to an HttpOnly cookie is that a Web Worker allows for some isolated JavaScript code to access the secret; an HttpOnly cookie is not accessible to any JavaScript. If the frontend JavaScript code requires access to the secret, the Web Worker implementation is the only browser storage option that preserves the secret confidentiality. Session ID Life Cycle ¶ Session ID Generation and Verification: Permissive and Strict Session Management ¶ There are two types of session management mechanisms for web applications, permissive and strict, related to session fixation vulnerabilities. The permissive mechanism allows the web application to initially accept any session ID value set by the user as valid, creating a new session for it, while the strict mechanism enforces that the web application will only accept session ID values that have been previously generated by the web application. The session tokens should be handled by the web server if possible or generated via a cryptographically secure random number generator. Although the most common mechanism in use today is the strict one (more secure), PHP defaults to permissive . Developers must ensure that the web application does not use a permissive mechanism under certain circumstances. Web applications should never accept a session ID they have never generated, and in case of receiving one, they should generate and offer the user a new valid session ID. Additionally, this scenario should be detected as a suspicious activity and an alert should be generated. Manage Session ID as Any Other User Input ¶ Session IDs must be considered untrusted, as any other user input processed by the web application, and they must be thoroughly validated and verified. Depending on the session management mechanism used, the session ID will be received in a GET or POST parameter, in the URL or in an HTTP header (e.g. cookies). If web applications do not validate and filter out invalid session ID values before processing them, they can potentially be used to exploit other web vulnerabilities, such as SQL injection if the session IDs are stored on a relational database, or persistent XSS if the session IDs are stored and reflected back afterwards by the web application. Renew the Session ID After Any Privilege Level Change ¶ The session ID must be renewed or regenerated by the web application after any privilege level change within the associated user session. The most common scenario where the session ID regeneration is mandatory is during the authentication process, as the privilege level of the user changes from the unauthenticated (or anonymous) state to the authenticated state though in some cases still not yet the authorized state. Common scenarios to consider include; password changes, permission changes, or switching from a regular user role to an administrator role within the web application. For all sensitive pages of the web application, any previous session IDs must be ignored, only the current session ID must be assigned to every new request received for the protected resource, and the old or previous session ID must be destroyed. The most common web development frameworks provide session functions and methods to renew the session ID, such as request.getSession(true) & HttpSession.invalidate() (J2EE), Session.Abandon() & Response.Cookies.Add(new...) (ASP .NET), or session_start() & session_regenerate_id(true) (PHP). The session ID regeneration is mandatory to prevent session fixation attacks , where an attacker sets the session ID on the victim user's web browser instead of gathering the victim's session ID, as in most of the other session-based attacks, and independently of using HTTP or HTTPS. This protection mitigates the impact of other web-based vulnerabilities that can also be used to launch session fixation attacks, such as HTTP response splitting or XSS (see here and here ). A complementary recommendation is to use a different session ID or token name (or set of session IDs) pre and post authentication, so that the web application can keep track of anonymous users and authenticated users without the risk of exposing or binding the user session between both states. Reauthentication After Risk Events ¶ Web applications should require reauthentication after high-risk events such as: Changes to critical user information (e.g., password, email address) Login attempts from new or suspicious IP addresses or devices Account recovery flows (e.g., password reset or compromised-account detection) For best practices on implementing reauthentication after these events, see the Reauthentication After Risk Events section in the Authentication Cheat Sheet Additional Resources ¶ Why Frequent Reauthentication Can Be a UX Pitfall by Tailscale Considerations When Using Multiple Cookies ¶ If the web application uses cookies as the session ID exchange mechanism, and multiple cookies are set for a given session, the web application must verify all cookies (and enforce relationships between them) before allowing access to the user session. It is very common for web applications to set a user cookie pre-authentication over HTTP to keep track of unauthenticated (or anonymous) users. Once the user authenticates in the web application, a new post-authentication secure cookie is set over HTTPS, and a binding between both cookies and the user session is established. If the web application does not verify both cookies for authenticated sessions, an attacker can make use of the pre-authentication unprotected cookie to get access to the authenticated user session (see here and here ). Web applications should try to avoid the same cookie name for different paths or domain scopes within the same web application, as this increases the complexity of the solution and potentially introduces scoping issues. Session Expiration ¶ In order to minimize the time period an attacker can launch attacks over active sessions and hijack them, it is mandatory to set expiration timeouts for every session, establishing the amount of time a session will remain active. Insufficient session expiration by the web application increases the exposure of other session-based attacks, as for the attacker to be able to reuse a valid session ID and hijack the associated session, it must still be active. The shorter the session interval is, the lesser the time an attacker has to use the valid session ID. The session expiration timeout values must be set accordingly with the purpose and nature of the web application, and balance security and usability, so that the user can comfortably complete the operations within the web application without the session frequently expiring. Both the idle and absolute timeout values are highly dependent on how critical the web application and its data are. Common idle timeouts ranges are 2-5 minutes for high-value applications and 15-30 minutes for low risk applications. Absolute timeouts depend on how long a user usually uses the application. If the application is intended to be used by an office worker for a full day, an appropriate absolute timeout range could be between 4 and 8 hours. When a session expires, the web application must take active actions to invalidate the session on both sides, client and server. The latter is the most relevant and mandatory from a security perspective. For most session exchange mechanisms, client side actions to invalidate the session ID are based on clearing out the token value. For example, to invalidate a cookie it is recommended to provide an empty (or invalid) value for the session ID, and set the Expires (or Max-Age ) attribute to a date from the past (in case a persistent cookie is being used): Set-Cookie: id=; Expires=Friday, 17-May-03 18:45:00 GMT In order to close and invalidate the session on the server side, it is mandatory for the web application to take active actions when the session expires, or the user actively logs out, by using the functions and methods offered by the session management mechanisms, such as HttpSession.invalidate() (J2EE), Session.Abandon() (ASP .NET) or session_destroy()/unset() (PHP). Automatic Session Expiration ¶ Idle Timeout ¶ All sessions should implement an idle or inactivity timeout. This timeout defines the amount of time a session will remain active in case there is no activity in the session, closing and invalidating the session upon the defined idle period since the last HTTP request received by the web application for a given session ID. The idle timeout limits the chances an attacker has to guess and use a valid session ID from another user. However, if the attacker is able to hijack a given session, the idle timeout does not limit the attacker's actions, as they can generate activity on the session periodically to keep the session active for longer periods of time. Session timeout management and expiration must be enforced server-side. If the client is used to enforce the session timeout, for example using the session token or other client parameters to track time references (e.g. number of minutes since login time), an attacker could manipulate these to extend the session duration. Absolute Timeout ¶ All sessions should implement an absolute timeout, regardless of session activity. This timeout defines the maximum amount of time a session can be active, closing and invalidating the session upon the defined absolute period since the given session was initially created by the web application. After invalidating the session, the user is forced to (re)authenticate again in the web application and establish a new session. The absolute session limits the amount of time an attacker can use a hijacked session and impersonate the victim user. Renewal Timeout ¶ Alternatively, the web application can implement an additional renewal timeout after which the session ID is automatically renewed, in the middle of the user session, and independently of the session activity and, therefore, of the idle timeout. After a specific amount of time since the session was initially created, the web application can regenerate a new ID for the user session and try to set it, or renew it, on the client. The previous session ID value would still be valid for some time, accommodating a safety interval, before the client is aware of the new ID and starts using it. At that time, when the client switches to the new ID inside the current session, the application invalidates the previous ID. This scenario minimizes the amount of time a given session ID value, potentially obtained by an attacker, can be reused to hijack the user session, even when the victim user session is still active. The user session remains alive and open on the legitimate client, although its associated session ID value is transparently renewed periodically during the session duration, every time the renewal timeout expires. Therefore, the renewal timeout complements the idle and absolute timeouts, specially when the absolute timeout value extends significantly over time (e.g. it is an application requirement to keep the user sessions open for long periods of time). Depending on the implementation, potentially there could be a race condition where the attacker with a still valid previous session ID sends a request before the victim user, right after the renewal timeout has just expired, and obtains first the value for the renewed session ID. At least in this scenario, the victim user might be aware of the attack as the session will be suddenly terminated because the associated session ID is not valid anymore. Manual Session Expiration ¶ Web applications should provide mechanisms that allow security aware users to actively close their session once they have finished using the web application. Logout Button ¶ Web applications must provide a visible and easily accessible logout (logoff, exit, or close session) button that is available on the web application header or menu and reachable from every web application resource and page, so that the user can manually close the session at any time. As described in Session_Expiration section, the web application must invalidate the session at least on server side. NOTE : Unfortunately, not all web applications facilitate users to close their current session. Thus, client-side enhancements allow conscientious users to protect their sessions by helping to close them diligently. Web Content Caching ¶ Even after the session has ended, private or sensitive data exchanged during the session may still be accessible through the web browser's cache. To mitigate this, web applications must use restrictive cache directives for all HTTP and HTTPS traffic. This includes the use of HTTP headers such as Cache-Control and Pragma , or equivalent <meta> tags on all pages—especially those displaying sensitive content. Session identifiers must never be cached. To prevent this, it is highly recommended to include the Cache-Control: no-store directive in responses containing session IDs. Unlike no-cache , which allows caching but requires revalidation, no-store ensures that the response (including headers like Set-Cookie ) is never stored in any cache. Note: The directive Cache-Control: no-cache="Set-Cookie, Set-Cookie2" is sometimes suggested to prevent session ID caching. However, this syntax is not widely supported and may lead to unintended behavior. Instead, use Cache-Control: no-store for stronger protection. Reference: MDN - Cache-Control Reauthentication After Risk Events ¶ To ensure session integrity and account protection, applications should require reauthentication when specific high-risk events are detected. These may include: Attempted or completed password changes Login from a new or suspicious IP address or device Completion of account recovery or challenge flows (e.g., hacked-lock scenarios) Requiring reauthentication helps mitigate session hijacking and unauthorized access—especially when long-lived sessions or external identity providers are in use. Recommended Practices: Prompt users for primary credentials (e.g., password) or enforce MFA Provide clear messaging explaining the need to reauthenticate Additional Client-Side Defenses for Session Management ¶ Web applications can complement the previously described session management defenses with additional countermeasures on the client side. Client-side protections, typically in the form of JavaScript checks and verifications, are not bullet proof and can easily be defeated by a skilled attacker, but can introduce another layer of defense that has to be bypassed by intruders. Initial Login Timeout ¶ Web applications can use JavaScript code in the login page to evaluate and measure the amount of time since the page was loaded and a session ID was granted. If a login attempt is tried after a specific amount of time, the client code can notify the user that the maximum amount of time to log in has passed and reload the login page, hence retrieving a new session ID. This extra protection mechanism tries to force the renewal of the session ID pre-authentication, avoiding scenarios where a previously used (or manually set) session ID is reused by the next victim using the same computer, for example, in session fixation attacks. Force Session Logout On Web Browser Window Close Events ¶ Web applications can use JavaScript code to capture all the web browser tab or window close (or even back) events and take the appropriate actions to close the current session before closing the web browser, emulating that the user has manually closed the session via the logout button. Disable Web Browser Cross-Tab Sessions ¶ Web applications can use JavaScript code once the user has logged in and a session has been established to force the user to re-authenticate if a new web browser tab or window is opened against the same web application. The web application does not want to allow multiple web browser tabs or windows to share the same session. Therefore, the application tries to force the web browser to not share the same session ID simultaneously between them. NOTE : This mechanism cannot be implemented if the session ID is exchanged through cookies, as cookies are shared by all web browser tabs/windows. Automatic Client Logout ¶ JavaScript code can be used by the web application in all (or critical) pages to automatically logout client sessions after the idle timeout expires, for example, by redirecting the user to the logout page (the same resource used by the logout button mentioned previously). The benefit of enhancing the server-side idle timeout functionality with client-side code is that the user can see that the session has finished due to inactivity, or even can be notified in advance that the session is about to expire through a count down timer and warning messages. This user-friendly approach helps to avoid loss of work in web pages that require extensive input data due to server-side silently expired sessions. Session Attacks Detection ¶ Session ID Guessing and Brute Force Detection ¶ If an attacker tries to guess or brute force a valid session ID, they need to launch multiple sequential requests against the target web application using different session IDs from a single (or set of) IP address(es). Additionally, if an attacker tries to analyze the predictability of the session ID (e.g. using statistical analysis), they need to launch multiple sequential requests from a single (or set of) IP address(es) against the target web application to gather new valid session IDs. Web applications must be able to detect both scenarios based on the number of attempts to gather (or use) different session IDs and alert and/or block the offending IP address(es). Detecting Session ID Anomalies ¶ Web applications should focus on detecting anomalies associated to the session ID, such as its manipulation. The OWASP AppSensor Project provides a framework and methodology to implement built-in intrusion detection capabilities within web applications focused on the detection of anomalies and unexpected behaviors, in the form of detection points and response actions. Instead of using external protection layers, sometimes the business logic details and advanced intelligence are only available from inside the web application, where it is possible to establish multiple session related detection points, such as when an existing cookie is modified or deleted, a new cookie is added, the session ID from another user is reused, or when the user location or User-Agent changes in the middle of a session. Binding the Session ID to Other User Properties ¶ With the goal of detecting (and, in some scenarios, protecting against) user misbehaviors and session hijacking, it is highly recommended to bind the session ID to other user or client properties, such as the client IP address, User-Agent, or client-based digital certificate. If the web application detects any change or anomaly between these different properties in the middle of an established session, this is a very good indicator of session manipulation and hijacking attempts, and this simple fact can be used to alert and/or terminate the suspicious session. Although these properties cannot be used by web applications to trustingly defend against session attacks, they significantly increase the web application detection (and protection) capabilities. However, a skilled attacker can bypass these controls by reusing the same IP address assigned to the victim user by sharing the same network (very common in NAT environments, like Wi-Fi hotspots) or by using the same outbound web proxy (very common in corporate environments), or by manually modifying the User-Agent to look exactly like the victim user's. Logging Sessions Life Cycle: Monitoring Creation, Usage, and Destruction of Session IDs ¶ Web applications should increase their logging capabilities by including information regarding the full life cycle of sessions. In particular, it is recommended to record session related events, such as the creation, renewal, and destruction of session IDs, as well as details | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://www.iso.org/es/sobre | ISO - Sobre nosotros Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Comunicados Estrategia Soluciones prácticas para problemas del mundo real ISO, la Organización Internacional de Normalización, reúne a expertos mundiales para que se pongan de acuerdo sobre la mejor manera de hacer las cosas, para todo, desde fabricar productos hasta gestionar procesos. Como una de las organizaciones internacionales no gubernamentales más antiguas, ISO ha hecho posible el comercio y la cooperación entre personas y empresas de todo el mundo desde 1946. Las Normas Internacionales publicadas por ISO sirven para hacer que la vida sea mejor, más fácil y más segura. 26119 Normas Internacionales y otros documentos que abarcan prácticamente todos los aspectos de la tecnología, la gestión y la producción. 175 Miembros que representan a ISO en su país. Solamente hay un miembro por país. 829 Comités técnicos y subcomités encargados de la elaboración de normas. El método ISO Inclusivo El proceso de elaboración de normas ISO basado en el consenso garantiza que se tengan en cuenta los comentarios de todas las partes interesadas. Orientado al valor Las normas ISO cumplen un propósito: seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor, más fácil y más segura. Conozca nuestra visión. Independiente La venta de nuestras normas nos permite financiar su desarrollo y mantenimiento en un entorno neutral. Resolutivo Las normas ISO tratan de identificar las mejores soluciones a los desafíos globales. Global Los miembros de ISO de todas las regiones del mundo designan a los expertos y votan los borradores de norma. La Secretaría Central coordina y facilita la amplia participación. ¿Qué significa ISO? ISO es la abreviatura de International Organization for Standardization. No son unas siglas, sino un nombre inspirado en la palabra griega isos , que significa «igual», y que refleja nuestra misión de crear normas que garanticen la uniformidad y la igualdad en todo el mundo. Dado que el nombre completo de la organización, así como sus siglas, variarían según el idioma (por ejemplo, en español es Organización Internacional de Normalización), nuestros fundadores eligieron «ISO» como forma abreviada universal que pudiera reconocerse en todo el mundo, independientemente del idioma. Sea cual sea el país o el idioma, siempre somos ISO. Soluciones para sus desafíos Descubra qué normas ha desarrollado la comunidad ISO para responder a las necesidades de su sector. ¿Qué es una norma? Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y riesgo Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Participar ISO colabora con otras organizaciones para sacar el máximo potencial a las normas para el desarrollo sostenible Explorar colaboraciones Las normas ISO las crean las personas que las necesitan. Descubra por qué y cómo participar en el desarrollo de normas Únase a un comité Contacto Secretaría Central de ISO Organización Internacional de Normalización Chemin de Blandonnet 8 CP 401 1214 Vernier, Ginebra Suiza Correo electrónico: central@iso.org Tel.: +41 22 749 01 11 Fax: +41 22 733 34 30 Información para visitantes [PDF, 1.66 MB] Sobre nosotros Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . Inscríbase para recibir actualizaciones por correo electrónico © Reservados todos los derechos Todos los materiales y publicaciones de ISO están protegidos por derechos de autor y sujetos a la aceptación por parte del usuario de las condiciones de derechos de autor de ISO. Cualquier uso, incluida la reproducción, requiere nuestra autorización por escrito. Dirija todas las solicitudes relacionadas con los derechos de autor a copyright@iso.org . Nos comprometemos a garantizar que nuestro sitio web sea accesible para todo el mundo. Si tiene alguna pregunta o sugerencia relacionada con la accesibilidad de este sitio web, póngase en contacto con nosotros. Añadir al carrito | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://docs.aws.amazon.com/fr_fr/vpc/latest/userguide/RouteTables.html | Concepts liés aux tables de routage - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Concepts liés aux tables de routage - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Documentation Amazon VPC Guide de l’utilisateur Exemple de VPC avec des tables de routage Les traductions sont fournies par des outils de traduction automatique. En cas de conflit entre le contenu d'une traduction et celui de la version originale en anglais, la version anglaise prévaudra. Concepts liés aux tables de routage Les concepts clés relatifs aux tables de routage sont les suivants : Table de routage principale : il s'agit de la table de routage qui est associée automatiquement à votre VPC. Location : choisissez l'option de location pour ce VPC. Table de routage personnalisée : il s'agit de la table de routage que vous créez pour votre VPC. Destination : il s'agit de la plage d'adresses IP vers laquelle vous souhaitez acheminer le trafic (CIDR de destination). Par exemple, un réseau d'entreprise externe avec le CIDR 172.16.0.0/12 . Cible : il s'agit de la passerelle, de l'interface réseau ou de la connexion permettant d'envoyer le trafic de destination ; par exemple, une passerelle Internet. Route locale : Il s'agit de la route de communication par défaut au sein du VPC. Si le VPC dispose d’adresses IPv4 et IPV6, il existe une route locale distincte pour chaque type d’adresse. Association de table de routage : il s'agit de l'association entre une table de routage et un sous-réseau, une passerelle Internet ou une passerelle réseau privé virtuel. Table de routage de sous-réseau : il s'agit d'une table de routage associée à un sous-réseau. Propagation : si vous avez attaché une passerelle privée virtuelle à votre VPC et activé la propagation du routage, nous ajoutons automatiquement des routes pour votre connexion VPN à vos tables de routage de sous-réseau. Ainsi, vous n'avez pas besoin d'ajouter ou supprimer manuellement des routes VPN. Pour plus d'informations, veuillez consulter la section Options de routage Site-to-Site VPN du Guide de l'utilisateur Site-to-Site VPN . Table de routage de passerelle : il s'agit d'une table de routage associée à une passerelle Internet ou à une passerelle réseau privé virtuel. Association périphérique : il s'agit de la table de routage que vous utilisez pour acheminer le trafic VPC entrant vers une appliance. Vous associez une table de routage à la passerelle Internet ou à la passerelle réseau privé virtuel, et vous spécifiez l'interface réseau de votre appliance comme cible pour le trafic VPC. Table de routage de passerelle de transit : il s'agit d'une table de routage associée à une passerelle de transit. Pour plus d'informations, consultez Tables de routage de passerelle de transit dans Passerelle de transit Amazon VPC . Table de routage de passerelle locale : il s'agit d'une table de routage associée à une passerelle locale Outposts. Pour plus d'informations, veuillez consulter la rubrique Passerelles locales dans le Guide de l'utilisateur AWS Outposts . Exemple de VPC avec des tables de routage Le schéma suivant présente un VPC avec cinq sous-réseaux, une table de routage principale et trois tables de routage personnalisées. Les quatre tables de routage disposent de routes locales. La table de routage personnalisée 1, qui est associée au sous-réseau public de la zone de disponibilité A, dispose d’une route vers une passerelle Internet. La table de routage personnalisée 2, qui est associée au sous-réseau privé de la zone de disponibilité B, dispose d’une route vers un VPC appairé. La table de routage personnalisée 3, qui est associée aux sous-réseaux VPN uniquement des deux zones de disponibilité, dispose d’une route vers une passerelle privée virtuelle. JavaScript est désactivé ou n'est pas disponible dans votre navigateur. Pour que vous puissiez utiliser la documentation AWS, Javascript doit être activé. Vous trouverez des instructions sur les pages d'aide de votre navigateur. Conventions de rédaction Tables de routage Tables de routage des sous-réseaux Cette page vous a-t-elle été utile ? - Oui Merci de nous avoir fait part de votre satisfaction. Si vous avez quelques minutes à nous consacrer, merci de nous indiquer ce qui vous a plu afin que nous puissions nous améliorer davantage. Cette page vous a-t-elle été utile ? - Non Merci de nous avoir avertis que cette page avait besoin d'être retravaillée. Nous sommes désolés de ne pas avoir répondu à vos attentes. Si vous avez quelques minutes à nous consacrer, merci de nous indiquer comment nous pourrions améliorer cette documentation. | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://www.iso.org/es/home/insights-news/news/standards-world.html | ISO - El mundo de las normas Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Actualidad del mundo de la normalización 23 noviembre 2025 ISO at COP30 - Key outcomes and highlights At COP30 in Belém – in the heart of the Amazon – ISO and its partners showcased the power of International Standards to turn climate ambition into measurable action. Across two weeks of high-level discussions and interactive sessions, the Standards Pavilion became the hub for collaboration, knowledge … Actualidad institucional See all --> 12 diciembre 2025 Diez premios Emmy y sumando: nueva distinción para el SC 29 por dar forma al futuro de las normas multimedia 11 diciembre 2025 International Standards at the heart of development: ISO joins the World Bank in launching the World Development Report 2025 8 diciembre 2025 Good data, better decisions: ISO showcases new environmental standards dashboard at UNEA-7 Cargar más Actualidad de nuestra comunidad 12 agosto 2025 Cómo ISO está dando forma a las ciudades sostenibles 17 junio 2025 Singapur, un modelo a seguir con ferias carbono neutras 28 enero 2025 UNI honoured for excellence in sustainability communication Cargar más Últimas publicaciones The critical role of consumer voices in shaping standards for emerging technologies – Guide for NSBs This guide supports National Standards Bodies (NSBs) in shaping Critical Emerging Technology (CET) standards that serve society effectively, with a focus on involving consumer stakeholders in areas like AI. While primarily aimed at leaders and engagement officers in developing countries, it is relevant … Building better standards through effective consumer stakeholder engagement – Guide for NSBs This guide is intended for National Standards Bodies (NSBs), especially leaders and stakeholder-engagement officers in developing countries, but it is useful for any NSB aiming to strengthen the consumer voice in standards. Recognizing that NSBs vary in size, resources, and priorities, the recommendations … ISO policy brief: The role of the ISO system in supporting countries to implement their Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) This document is designed to help ISO members engage effectively with policymakers on climate action. It shows how International Standards can support countries in meeting their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs), and how quality infrastructure underpins credible, … ISO policy brief: Harnessing international standards for responsible AI development and governance This policy brief explains how consensus-based international standards transform high-level AI principles into practical requirements for the development of safe, transparent, trustworthy and responsible AI systems. Mapping the global policy landscape, it demonstrates how international standards support … Novedades y normas más conocidas International Standard ISO 17298:2025 Biodiversity — Considering biodiversity in the strategy and operations of organizations — Requirements and guidelines Reference number ISO 17298:2025 Edition 1 2025-10 © ISO 2026 ISO 17298:2025 Biodiversity — Considering biodiversity in the strategy and operations of organizations — Requirements and guidelines International Workshop Agreement IWA 49:2025 Child-friendly multidisciplinary and interagency response services for children who are victims of violence — Requirements and recommendations International Standard ISO/IEC 27701:2025 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Privacy information management systems — Requirements and guidance Reference number ISO/IEC 27701:2025 Edition 2 2025-10 © ISO 2026 ISO/IEC 27701:2025 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Privacy information management systems — Requirements and guidance Draft International Standard ISO/UNDP DIS 53002 Management systems for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals SDGs — Implementation guidance Reference number ISO/UNDP DIS 53002 Edition 1 © ISO 2026 Proyecto Norma internacional ISO/UNDP DIS 53002 Management systems for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals SDGs — Implementation guidance Perspectivas y actualidad Actualidad El mundo de las normas Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . Inscríbase para recibir actualizaciones por correo electrónico © Reservados todos los derechos Todos los materiales y publicaciones de ISO están protegidos por derechos de autor y sujetos a la aceptación por parte del usuario de las condiciones de derechos de autor de ISO. Cualquier uso, incluida la reproducción, requiere nuestra autorización por escrito. Dirija todas las solicitudes relacionadas con los derechos de autor a copyright@iso.org . Nos comprometemos a garantizar que nuestro sitio web sea accesible para todo el mundo. Si tiene alguna pregunta o sugerencia relacionada con la accesibilidad de este sitio web, póngase en contacto con nosotros. Añadir al carrito | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
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https://www.iso.org/es/sectores/salud | ISO - Salud Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Salud Equipos Servicios de atención sanitaria Biotecnología TI en sanidad Envejecimiento de las sociedades Otros Las normas ISO sobre sanidad mejoran la seguridad de los pacientes, ayudan a agilizar las cadenas de suministro y fomentan la innovación en las soluciones de sanidad digital y sanidad sostenible. Normas esenciales ISO 10993-1 Biological evaluation of medical devices Part 1: Requirements and general principles for the evaluation of biological safety within a risk management process Publicado en 2025 CHF 196 ISO/IEC 29138-1 Information technology — User interface accessibility Part 1: User accessibility needs Revisado en 2024 CHF 0 ISO/IEC TR 29138-2 Information technology — Accessibility considerations for people with disabilities Part 2: Standards inventory Publicado en 2009 CHF 0 ISO 15223-1 Medical devices — Symbols to be used with information to be supplied by the manufacturer Part 1: General requirements Publicado en 2021 CHF 196 ISO 13485 Medical devices — Quality management systems — Requirements for regulatory purposes Revisado en 2025 CHF 196 ISO 10993-12 Biological evaluation of medical devices Part 12: Sample preparation and reference materials Publicado en 2021 CHF 155 ISO 14971 Medical devices — Application of risk management to medical devices Revisado en 2025 CHF 196 Cargar más Perspectivas Ciberseguridad en la asistencia sanitaria: diagnosticar riesgos, recetar soluciones Los ciberataques pueden afectar gravemente la vida de una persona y poner en riesgo a los pacientes. Por esta razón, la ciberseguridad es fundamental para que las organizaciones sanitarias puedan proteger en todo momento el bienestar y la privacidad de sus pacientes. Transformación digital de la asistencia sanitaria: telemedicina, protección de datos y ciberseguridad Todos tenemos en común la salud. Protegida, la salud empodera a las personas para prosperar; descuidada, puede tener consecuencias devastadoras, no solo para los individuos y sus familias, sino para comunidades enteras. Gestión sanitaria: Aportar calidad al sector sanitario ISO 7101, la primera norma mundial sobre la gestión de la calidad en las organizaciones sanitarias, proporciona una orientación muy necesaria para un sector en rápida evolución. Sectores Salud Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . Inscríbase para recibir actualizaciones por correo electrónico © Reservados todos los derechos Todos los materiales y publicaciones de ISO están protegidos por derechos de autor y sujetos a la aceptación por parte del usuario de las condiciones de derechos de autor de ISO. Cualquier uso, incluida la reproducción, requiere nuestra autorización por escrito. Dirija todas las solicitudes relacionadas con los derechos de autor a copyright@iso.org . Nos comprometemos a garantizar que nuestro sitio web sea accesible para todo el mundo. Si tiene alguna pregunta o sugerencia relacionada con la accesibilidad de este sitio web, póngase en contacto con nosotros. Añadir al carrito | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://docs.aws.amazon.com/de_de/vpc/latest/userguide/route-table-options.html | Beispiele für Routing-Optionen - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Beispiele für Routing-Optionen - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Dokumentation Amazon VPC Benutzer-Leitfaden Routing zu einem Internet-Gateway Routing zu einem NAT-Gerät Routing zu einem Virtual Private Gateway Routing an ein lokales AWS Outposts-Gateway Routing an eine VPC-Peering-Verbindung Routing zu einem Gateway-VPC-Endpunkt Routing zu einem Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway Routing für ein Transit-Gateway Routing für eine Middlebox-Appliance Routing unter Verwendung einer Präfixliste Routing zu einem Gateway Load Balancer-Endpunkt Die vorliegende Übersetzung wurde maschinell erstellt. Im Falle eines Konflikts oder eines Widerspruchs zwischen dieser übersetzten Fassung und der englischen Fassung (einschließlich infolge von Verzögerungen bei der Übersetzung) ist die englische Fassung maßgeblich. Beispiele für Routing-Optionen In den folgenden Themen wird das Routing für bestimmte Gateways oder Verbindungen in Ihrer VPC erläutert. Inhalt Routing zu einem Internet-Gateway Routing zu einem NAT-Gerät Routing zu einem Virtual Private Gateway Routing an ein lokales AWS Outposts-Gateway Routing an eine VPC-Peering-Verbindung Routing zu einem Gateway-VPC-Endpunkt Routing zu einem Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway Routing für ein Transit-Gateway Routing für eine Middlebox-Appliance Routing unter Verwendung einer Präfixliste Routing zu einem Gateway Load Balancer-Endpunkt Routing zu einem Internet-Gateway Sie können ein Subnetz zu einem öffentlichen Subnetz machen, indem Sie eine Route in der Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle zu einem Internet-Gateway hinzufügen. Erstellen Sie dazu ein Internet-Gateway und fügen Sie es an Ihre VPC an. Fügen Sie dann eine Route mit dem Zielbereich 0.0.0.0/0 für IPv4-Datenverkehr oder ::/0 für IPv6-Datenverkehr und der Internet-Gateway-ID ( igw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ) als Ziel hinzu. Ziel Ziel 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id ::/0 igw-id Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Aktivieren des Internetzugangs für eine VPC mithilfe eines Internet-Gateways . Routing zu einem NAT-Gerät Damit Instances in einem privaten Subnetz eine Verbindung zum Internet herstellen können, können Sie ein NAT-Gateway erstellen oder eine NAT-Instance in einem öffentlichen Subnetz starten. Fügen Sie dann eine Route für die Routing-Tabelle des privaten Subnetzes hinzu, die IPv4-Internetverkehr ( 0.0.0.0/0 ) an das NAT-Gerät weiterleitet. Ziel Ziel 0.0.0.0/0 nat-gateway-id Sie können auch spezifischere Routen zu anderen Zielen erstellen, um unnötige Datenverarbeitungsgebühren für die Verwendung eines NAT-Gateways zu vermeiden oder bestimmte Datenverkehrsdaten privat zu leiten. Im folgenden Beispiel wird der Amazon-S3-Datenverkehr (pl-xxxxxxxx, eine Präfixliste, die die IP-Adressbereiche für Amazon S3 in einer bestimmten Region enthält) an einen Gateway-VPC-Endpunkt und der 10.25.0.0/16-Datenverkehr an eine VPC-Peering-Verbindung weitergeleitet. Diese IP-Adressbereiche sind spezifischer als 0.0.0.0/0. Wenn Instances Datenverkehr an Amazon S3 oder an die Peer-VPC senden, wird der Datenverkehr an den Gateway-VPC-Endpunkt oder die VPC-Peering-Verbindung gesendet. Der gesamte andere Datenverkehr wird an das NAT-Gateway gesendet. Ziel Ziel 0.0.0.0/0 nat-gateway-id pl- xxxxxxxx vpce-id 10.25.0.0/16 pcx-id Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter NAT-Geräte . Routing zu einem Virtual Private Gateway Sie können eine AWS Site-to-Site VPN-Verbindung verwenden, um Instances in Ihrer VPC die Kommunikation mit Ihrem Netzwerk zu ermöglichen. Erstellen Sie dazu ein Virtual Private Gateway und fügen Sie es an Ihre VPC an. Fügen Sie dann eine Route in der Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle mit dem Zielbereich Ihres Netzwerks und einem Ziel des Virtual Private Gateways () hi ( vgw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Ziel Ziel 10.0.0.0/16 vgw-id Sie können dann Ihre Site-to-Site VPN-Verbindung erstellen und konfigurieren. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Was ist AWS Site-to-Site VPN? und Routing-Tabellen und VPN-Routenpriorität im AWS Site-to-Site VPN-Benutzerhandbuch . Eine Site-to-Site VPN-Verbindung auf einem Virtual Private Gateway unterstützt keinen IPv6-Datenverkehr. Wir unterstützen jedoch IPv6-Datenverkehr zu einer Direct Connect-Verbindung über ein Virtual Private Gateway. Weitere Informationen finden Sie im Direct Connect-Benutzerhandbuch . Routing an ein lokales AWS Outposts-Gateway In diesem Abschnitt werden Routing-Tabellenkonfigurationen für das Routing zu einem lokalen AWS Outposts-Gateway beschrieben. Inhalt Datenverkehr zwischen Outpost-Subnetzen und Ihrem On-Premises-Netzwerk ermöglichen Datenverkehr zwischen Subnetzen in derselben VPC über Outposts hinweg ermöglichen Datenverkehr zwischen Outpost-Subnetzen und Ihrem On-Premises-Netzwerk ermöglichen Subnetze, die sich in VPCs befinden, die mit AWS Outposts verknüpft sind, können einen zusätzlichen Zieltyp eines lokalen Gateways haben. Betrachten Sie den Fall, in dem der lokale Gateway-Routenverkehr mit der Zieladresse 192.168.10.0/24 an das Kundennetzwerk gesendet werden soll. Fügen Sie dazu die folgende Route mit dem Zielnetzwerk und einem Ziel des lokalen Gateways () hi ( lgw-xxxx ). Ziel Ziel 192.168.10.0/24 lgw-id Datenverkehr zwischen Subnetzen in derselben VPC über Outposts hinweg ermöglichen Sie können die Kommunikation zwischen Subnetzen, die sich in derselben VPC befinden, über verschiedene Outposts hinweg mithilfe von lokalen Outpost-Gateways und Ihrem On-Premises-Netzwerk herstellen. Mit diesem Feature können Sie für Ihre On-Premise-Anwendungen, die in Outposts-Racks ausgeführt werden, ähnliche Architekturen wie Multi-Availability Zone (AZ)-Architekturen erstellen. Stellen Sie dazu Verbindungen zwischen Outposts-Racks her, die sich in verschiedenen AZs befinden. Um dieses Feature zu aktivieren, fügen Sie Ihrer Routing-Tabelle des Outpost-Rack-Subnetzes eine Route hinzu, die spezifischer ist als die lokale Route in dieser Routing-Tabelle und den Zieltyp eines lokalen Gateways aufweist. Das Ziel der Route muss mit dem gesamten IPv4-Block des Subnetzes in Ihrer VPC übereinstimmen, das sich in einem anderen Outpost befindet. Wiederholen Sie diese Konfiguration für alle Outpost-Subnetze, die kommunizieren müssen. Wichtig Zur Nutzung dieses Features müssen Sie das direkte VPC-Routing verwenden. Sie können Ihre eigenen kundeneigenen IP-Adressen nicht verwenden. Ihr On-Premises-Netzwerk, an das die lokalen Gateways der Outposts angeschlossen sind, muss über das erforderliche Routing verfügen, damit die Subnetze aufeinander zugreifen können. Wenn Sie Sicherheitsgruppen für Ressourcen in den Subnetzen verwenden möchten, müssen Sie Regeln verwenden, die IP-Adressbereiche als Quelle oder Ziel in den Outpost-Subnetzen enthalten. Sie können keine Sicherheitsgruppen-IDs verwenden. Bestehende Outposts-Racks erfordern möglicherweise ein Update, um die Unterstützung der Intra-VPC-Kommunikation über mehrere Outposts hinweg zu ermöglichen. Wenn dieses Feature bei Ihnen nicht funktioniert, wenden Sie sich an den AWS-Support . Beispiel Für eine VPC mit einem CIDR von 10.0.0.0/16, einem Subnetz Outpost 1 mit einem CIDR von 10.0.1.0/24 und einem Subnetz Outpost 2 mit einem CIDR von 10.0.2.0/24 würde der Eintrag für die Routing-Tabelle des Subnetzes Outpost 1 wie folgt lauten: Bestimmungsort Ziel 10.0.0.0/16 Local 10.0.2.0/24 lgw-1-id Der Eintrag für die Routing-Tabelle des Subnetzes Outpost 2 würde wie folgt lauten: Bestimmungsort Ziel 10.0.0.0/16 Local 10.0.1.0/24 lgw-2-id Routing an eine VPC-Peering-Verbindung Eine VPC-Peering-Verbindung ist eine Netzwerkverbindung zwischen zwei VPCs. Diese ermöglicht die Weiterleitung des Datenverkehrs zwischen den VPCs mithilfe von privaten IPv4-Adressen. Instances in jeder der VPCs können so miteinander kommunizieren, als befänden sie sich im selben Netzwerk. Um das Routing von Datenverkehr zwischen VPCs in einer VPC-Peering-Verbindung zu aktivieren, müssen Sie eine Route zu einer oder mehreren Ihrer Subnetz-Routing-Tabellen hinzufügen, die auf die VPC-Peering-Verbindung verweist. Auf diese Weise können Sie auf den CIDR-Block der anderen VPC in der Peering-Verbindung ganz oder teilweise zugreifen. Ebenso muss der Eigentümer der anderen VPC seiner Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle eine Route hinzufügen, damit der Datenverkehr zu Ihrer VPC zurückgeleitet wird. Angenommen Sie haben eine VPC-Peering-Verbindung ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) zwischen zwei VPCs mit den folgenden Informationen: VPC A: CIDR-Block ist 10.0.0.0/16 VPC B: CIDR-Block ist 172.31.0.0/16 Damit Datenverkehr zwischen den VPCs sowie Zugriff auf den gesamten IPv4-CIDR-Block beider VPCs möglich ist, wird die Routing-Tabelle von VPC A wie folgt konfiguriert. Ziel Ziel 10.0.0.0/16 Local 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 Die Routing-Tabelle von VPC B wird folgendermaßen konfiguriert. Ziel Ziel 172.31.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 Ihre VPC-Peering-Verbindung kann auch IPv6-Kommunikation zwischen Instances innerhalb der VPCs unterstützen, sofern IPv6-Kommunikation für die VPCs und Instances aktiviert ist. Damit IPv6-Datenverkehr zwischen VPCs geleitet werden kann, müssen Sie der Routing-Tabelle eine Route hinzufügen, die auf die VPC-Peering-Verbindung verweist, um ganz oder teilweise auf den IPv6-CIDR-Block der Peer-VPC zuzugreifen. Ausgehend von derselben, oben genannten VPC-Peering-Verbindung ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) nehmen wir an, dass die VPCs folgende Informationen haben: VPC A: IPv6-CIDR-Block ist 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 VPC B: IPv6-CIDR-Block ist 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 Um IPv6-Kommunikation über die VPC-Peering-Verbindung zu ermöglichen, fügen Sie der Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle für VPC A folgende Route hinzu: Ziel Ziel 10.0.0.0/16 Local 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Fügen Sie der Routing-Tabelle für VPC B die folgende Route hinzu: Ziel Ziel 172.31.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Weitere Informationen zu VPC-Peering-Verbindungen erhalten Sie im Amazon VPC Peering-Handbuch. Routing zu einem Gateway-VPC-Endpunkt Mithilfe eines Gateway-VPC-Endpunkts können Sie eine private Verbindung zwischen Ihrer VPC und einem anderen AWS-Service erstellen. Wenn Sie einen Gateway-Endpunkt erstellen, geben Sie die Subnetz-Routing-Tabellen in Ihrer VPC an, die vom Gateway-Endpunkt verwendet werden. Den Routing-Tabellen wird automatisch eine Route mit der Präfixlisten-ID des Services ( pl- xxxxxxxx ) als Zielbereich und der Endpunkt-ID ( vpce- xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ) als Ziel hinzugefügt. Sie können die Endpunktroute nicht explizit löschen oder ändern. Es ist jedoch möglich, die von dem Endpunkt verwendeten Routing-Tabellen zu ändern. Weitere Informationen zur Weiterleitung für Endpunkte sowie zu den Auswirkungen auf Routen zu AWS-Services finden Sie unter Routing für Gateway-Endpunkte . Routing zu einem Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway Sie können ein Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway für Ihre VPC erstellen, um es Instances in einem privaten Subnetz zu ermöglichen, ausgehenden Datenverkehr an das Internet zu senden, ohne dass vom Internet aus eine Verbindung zu den Instances möglich ist. Ein Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway steht nur für den IPv6-Datenverkehr zur Verfügung. Um Routing für ein Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway zu konfigurieren, müssen Sie eine Route in der Routing-Tabelle des privaten Subnetzes hinzufügen, das IPv6-Internetdatenverkehr ( ::/0 ) an das Egress-Only-Internet-Gateway leitet. Ziel Ziel ::/0 eigw-id Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Aktivieren von ausgehendem IPv6-Datenverkehr mit einem Internet-Gateway, das nur ausgehenden Verkehr zulässt . Routing für ein Transit-Gateway Wenn Sie einem Transit-Gateway eine VPC anfügen, müssen Sie der Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle eine Route hinzufügen, damit der Datenverkehr über das Transit-Gateway weitergeleitet wird. Betrachten Sie das folgende Szenario, in dem drei VPCs einem Transit-Gateway angefügt sind. In diesem Szenario sind alle Anfügungen der standardmäßigen Transit Gateway-Routing-Tabelle zugeordnet und werden auf die standardmäßige Transit Gateway-Routing-Tabelle übertragen. Daher können alle Anfügungen Pakete untereinander weiterleiten und das Transit-Gateway dient als einfacher Layer 3-IP-Hub. Angenommen Sie haben 2 VPCs mit den folgenden Informationen: VPC A: 10.1.0.0/16, Anfügungs-ID tgw-attach-11111111111111111 VPC B: 10.2.0.0/16, Anfügungs-ID tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Damit Datenverkehr zwischen den VPCs sowie der Zugriff auf das Transit-Gateway möglich ist, wird die Routing-Tabelle von VPC A wie folgt konfiguriert. Ziel Ziel 10.1.0.0/16 Lokal 10.0.0.0/8 tgw-id Folgendes ist ein Beispiel für die Transit-Gateway-Routing-Tabellen-Einträge für die VPC-Anfügungen. Ziel Ziel 10.1.0.0/16 tgw-attach-11111111111111111 10.2.0.0/16 tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Weitere Informationen zu Transit-Gateway-Routing-Tabellen finden Sie unter Weiterleitung in Amazon VPC Transit Gateways . Routing für eine Middlebox-Appliance Sie können Middlebox-Appliances zu den Routing-Pfaden für Ihre VPC hinzufügen. Folgende Anwendungsfälle sind möglich: Fangen Sie Datenverkehr ab, der über ein Internet-Gateway oder ein Virtual Private Gateway in Ihre VPC gelangt, indem Sie ihn an eine Middlebox-Appliance in Ihrer VPC leiten. Sie können den Middlebox-Routing-Assistenten verwenden, damit AWS automatisch die entsprechenden Routing-Tabellen für Ihr Gateway, Ihre Middlebox und Ihr Ziel-Subnetz konfiguriert. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Middlebox-Routing-Assistent . Direkte Datenverkehr zwischen zwei Subnetzen zu einer Middlebox-Appliance. Sie können dies tun, indem Sie eine Route für eine Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle erstellen, die mit dem Subnetz-CIDR des anderen Subnetzes übereinstimmt und einen Gateway-Load-Balancer-Endpunkt, NAT-Gateway, Network-Firewall-Endpunkt oder die Netzwerkschnittstelle einer Appliance als Ziel angibt. Um den gesamten Datenverkehr vom Subnetz zu einem anderen Subnetz umzuleiten, ersetzen Sie alternativ das Ziel der lokalen Route durch einen Gateway-Load-Balancer-Endpunkt, ein NAT-Gateway oder eine Netzwerkschnittstelle. Sie können die Appliance entsprechend Ihren Anforderungen konfigurieren. Sie können beispielsweise eine Sicherheits-Appliance konfigurieren, die den gesamten Datenverkehr untersucht, oder eine WAN-Beschleunigungs-Appliance. Die Appliance wird als Amazon EC2-Instance in einem Subnetz in Ihrer VPC bereitgestellt und durch eine Elastic Network-Schnittstelle (Netzwerkschnittstelle) in Ihrem Subnetz dargestellt. Wenn Sie die Routing-Weitergabe für die Routing-Tabelle des Ziel-Subnetzes aktivieren, beachten Sie die Routing-Priorität. Wir priorisieren die spezifischste Route. Wenn die Routen übereinstimmen, geben wir statischen Routen den Vorrang vor verbreiteten Routen. Überprüfen Sie Ihre Routen, um sicherzustellen, dass der Datenverkehr korrekt weitergeleitet wird und dass es keine unbeabsichtigten Folgen gibt, wenn Sie die Routing-Verbreitung aktivieren oder deaktivieren (z. B. ist die Routing-Verbreitung für eine Direct Connect-Verbindung erforderlich, die Jumbo-Frames unterstützt). Um eingehenden VPC-Datenverkehr an eine Appliance weiterzuleiten, ordnen Sie eine Routing-Tabelle dem Internet-Gateway oder dem Virtual Private Gateway zu und geben die Netzwerkschnittstelle Ihrer Appliance als Ziel für den VPC-Datenverkehr an. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Gateway-Routing-Tabellen . Sie können auch ausgehenden Datenverkehr aus dem Subnetz an eine Middlebox-Appliance in einem anderen Subnetz weiterleiten. Beispiele für Middlebox-Routing finden Sie unter Middlebox-Szenarien . Inhalt Überlegungen zu Appliances Routing des Datenverkehrs zwischen einem Gateway und einer Appliance Routing-Intersubnetzdatenverkehr an eine Appliance Überlegungen zu Appliances Sie können eine Drittanbieter-Appliance aus AWS Marketplace auswählen oder eine eigene Appliance konfigurieren. Beachten Sie beim Erstellen oder Konfigurieren einer Appliance Folgendes: Die Appliance muss in einem separaten Subnetz für den Quell- oder Zielbereichsdatenverkehr konfiguriert sein. Sie müssen die Quell-/Zielprüfung in der Appliance deaktivieren. Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Ändern der Quell- oder Zielüberprüfung im Amazon EC2-Benutzerhandbuch . Sie können keinen Datenverkehr zwischen Hosts im selben Subnetz über eine Appliance weiterleiten. Die Appliance muss keine Netzwerkadressübersetzung (Network Address Translation, NAT) durchführen. Sie können Ihren Routing-Tabellen eine Route hinzufügen, die spezifischer als die lokale Route ist. Sie können spezifischere Routen verwenden, um Datenverkehr zwischen Subnetzen innerhalb einer VPC (Ost-West-Verkehr) zu einer Middlebox-Appliance umzuleiten. Das Ziel der Route muss mit dem gesamten IPv4- oder IPv6-CIDR-Block eines Subnetzes in Ihrer VPC übereinstimmen. Um IPv6-Datenverkehr abzufangen, müssen Sie sicherstellen, dass VPC, Subnetz und Appliance IPv6 unterstützen. Routing des Datenverkehrs zwischen einem Gateway und einer Appliance Um eingehenden VPC-Datenverkehr an eine Appliance weiterzuleiten, ordnen Sie eine Routing-Tabelle dem Internet-Gateway oder dem Virtual Private Gateway zu und geben die Netzwerkschnittstelle Ihrer Appliance als Ziel für den VPC-Datenverkehr an. Im folgenden Beispiel verfügt die VPC über ein Internet-Gateway, eine Appliance und ein Subnetz mit Instances. Der Datenverkehr aus dem Internet wird über eine Appliance geleitet. Ordnen Sie diese Routing-Tabelle Ihrem Internet-Gateway oder Ihrem Virtual Private Gateway zu. Der erste Eintrag ist die lokale Route. Der zweite Eintrag sendet IPv4-Datenverkehr, der für das Subnetz bestimmt ist, an die Netzwerkschnittstelle der Appliance. Diese Route ist spezifischer als die lokale Route. Bestimmungsort Ziel VPC-CIDR Local Subnetz-CIDR Appliance-Netzwerkschnittstellen-ID Alternativ können Sie das Ziel für die lokale Route durch die Netzwerkschnittstelle der Appliance ersetzen. Sie können dies tun, um sicherzustellen, dass der gesamte Datenverkehr automatisch an die Appliance geleitet wird, einschließlich des Datenverkehrs, der für Subnetze bestimmt ist, die Sie der VPC in Zukunft hinzufügen. Bestimmungsort Ziel VPC-CIDR Appliance-Netzwerkschnittstellen-ID Um Datenverkehr von Ihrem Subnetz an eine Appliance in einem anderen Subnetz weiterzuleiten, fügen Sie der Subnetz-Routing-Tabelle eine Route hinzu, die Datenverkehr an die Netzwerkschnittstelle der Appliance weiterleitet. Der Zielbereich muss weniger spezifisch sein als der Zielbereich für die lokale Route. Geben Sie beispielsweise für den für das Internet bestimmten Datenverkehr 0.0.0.0/0 (alle IPv4-Adressen) als Zielbereich an. Ziel Ziel VPC-CIDR Local 0.0.0.0/0 Appliance-Netzwerkschnittstellen-ID Fügen Sie dann in der Routing-Tabelle, die dem Subnetz der Appliance zugeordnet ist, eine Route hinzu, die den Datenverkehr zurück an das Internet-Gateway oder Virtual Private Gateway sendet. Bestimmungsort Ziel VPC-CIDR Local 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id Routing-Intersubnetzdatenverkehr an eine Appliance Sie können Datenverkehr, der für ein bestimmtes Subnetz bestimmt ist, an die Netzwerkschnittstelle einer Appliance weiterleiten. Im folgenden Beispiel enthält die VPC zwei Subnetze und eine Appliance. Der Verkehr zwischen den Subnetzen wird über eine Appliance geleitet. Sicherheitsgruppen Wenn Sie Datenverkehr zwischen Instances in verschiedenen Subnetzen über eine Middlebox-Appliance leiten, müssen die Sicherheitsgruppen für beide Instances den Datenverkehr zwischen den Instances zulassen. Die Sicherheitsgruppe für jede Instance muss die private IP-Adresse der anderen Instance oder den CIDR-Bereich des Subnetzes, das die andere Instance enthält, als Quelle referenzieren. Wenn Sie die Sicherheitsgruppe der anderen Instance als Quelle referenzieren, wird dadurch kein Datenverkehr zwischen den Instances möglich. Routing Im Folgenden finden Sie eine Routing-Tabelle für Subnetz A. Dieser erste Eintrag befähigt Instances in dieser VPC, miteinander zu kommunizieren. Der zweite Eintrag leitet den gesamten Datenverkehr vom Subnetz A zum Subnetz B an die Netzwerkschnittstelle der Appliance weiter. Bestimmungsort Ziel VPC-CIDR Local Subnetz-B-CIDR Appliance-Netzwerkschnittstellen-ID Im Folgenden finden Sie eine Routing-Tabelle für Subnetz B. Dieser erste Eintrag befähigt Instances in dieser VPC, miteinander zu kommunizieren. Der zweite Eintrag leitet den gesamten Datenverkehr vom Subnetz B zum Subnetz A an die Netzwerkschnittstelle der Appliance weiter. Bestimmungsort Ziel VPC-CIDR Local Subnetz-A-CIDR Appliance-Netzwerkschnittstellen-ID Alternativ können Sie das Ziel für die lokale Route durch die Netzwerkschnittstelle der Appliance ersetzen. Sie können dies tun, um sicherzustellen, dass der gesamte Datenverkehr automatisch an die Appliance geleitet wird, einschließlich des Datenverkehrs, der für Subnetze bestimmt ist, die Sie der VPC in Zukunft hinzufügen. Bestimmungsort Ziel VPC-CIDR Appliance-Netzwerkschnittstellen-ID Routing unter Verwendung einer Präfixliste Wenn Sie in Ihren AWS-Ressourcen häufig auf denselben Satz von CIDR-Blöcken verweisen, können Sie eine vom Kunden verwaltete Präfixliste erstellen, um sie zu gruppieren. Anschließend können Sie die Präfixliste als Ziel in Ihrem Routing-Tabelleneintrag angeben. Sie können später Einträge für die Präfixliste hinzufügen oder entfernen, ohne die Routing-Tabellen aktualisieren zu müssen. Beispielsweise verfügen Sie über ein Transit-Gateway mit mehreren VPC-Anhängen. Die VPCs müssen in der Lage sein, mit zwei bestimmten VPC-Anhängen zu kommunizieren, die die folgenden CIDR-Blöcke haben: 10.0.0.0/16 10.2.0.0/16 Sie erstellen eine Präfixliste mit beiden Einträgen. In den Subnetz-Routing-Tabellen erstellen Sie eine Route und geben die Präfixliste als Destination und das Transit-Gateway als Ziel an. Ziel Ziel 172.31.0.0/16 Local pl-123abc123abc123ab tgw-id Die maximale Anzahl von Einträgen für die Präfixlisten entspricht der Anzahl von Einträgen in der Routing-Tabelle. Routing zu einem Gateway Load Balancer-Endpunkt Ein Gateway Load Balancer ermöglicht es Ihnen, den Datenverkehr an eine Flotte virtueller Appliances wie Firewalls zu verteilen. Sie können einen Gateway Load Balancer erstellen, einen Endpunktservice für einen Gateway Load Balancer konfigurieren und dann einen Gateway-Load-Balancer-Endpunkt in Ihrer VPC erstellen, um ihn mit dem Service zu verbinden. Um Ihren Datenverkehr an den Gateway Load Balancer weiterzuleiten (z. B. zur Sicherheitsinspektion), geben Sie den Gateway Load Balancer-Endpunkt als Ziel in Ihren Routingtabellen an. Ein Beispiel für Sicherheitsgeräte hinter einem Gateway Load Balancer finden Sie unter Konfigurieren des Routings und der Inspektion des Middlebox-Datenverkehrs in einer VPC . Um den Gateway Load Balancer-Endpunkt in der Routingtabelle anzugeben, verwenden Sie die ID des VPC-Endpunkts. Um beispielsweise Datenverkehr für 10.0.1.0/24 an einen Gateway-Load-Balancer-Endpunkt weiterzuleiten, fügen Sie die folgende Route hinzu. Bestimmungsort Ziel 10.0.1.0/24 vpc-endpoint-id Wenn Sie einen Gateway-Load-Balancer-Endpunkt als Ziel verwenden, können Sie keine Präfixliste als Zieladresse angeben. Wenn Sie versuchen, eine Route mit einer Präfixliste, die einen VPC-Endpunkt als Ziel hat, zu erstellen oder zu ersetzen, erhalten Sie diese Fehlermeldung: „Eine Route mit einer Präfixliste, die einen VPC-Endpunkt als Ziel hat, kann nicht erstellt oder ersetzt werden.“ Weitere Informationen finden Sie unter Gateway Load Balancer . JavaScript ist in Ihrem Browser nicht verfügbar oder deaktiviert. Zur Nutzung der AWS-Dokumentation muss JavaScript aktiviert sein. Weitere Informationen finden auf den Hilfe-Seiten Ihres Browsers. Dokumentkonventionen Routenpriorität Erstellen einer Routing-Tabelle mit Routen Hat Ihnen diese Seite geholfen? – Ja Vielen Dank, dass Sie uns mitgeteilt haben, dass wir gute Arbeit geleistet haben! Würden Sie sich einen Moment Zeit nehmen, um uns mitzuteilen, was wir richtig gemacht haben, damit wir noch besser werden? Hat Ihnen diese Seite geholfen? – Nein Vielen Dank, dass Sie uns mitgeteilt haben, dass diese Seite überarbeitet werden muss. 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https://docs.aws.amazon.com/id_id/vpc/latest/userguide/RouteTables.html | Konsep tabel rute - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Konsep tabel rute - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Dokumentasi Amazon VPC Panduan Pengguna Contoh VPC dengan tabel rute Terjemahan disediakan oleh mesin penerjemah. Jika konten terjemahan yang diberikan bertentangan dengan versi bahasa Inggris aslinya, utamakan versi bahasa Inggris. Konsep tabel rute Berikut ini adalah konsep kunci untuk tabel rute: Tabel rute utama —Tabel rute yang secara otomatis bawaan di VPC Anda. Tabel rute utama mengendalikan perutean untuk semua subnet yang tidak secara eksplisit dikaitkan dengan tabel rute lainnya. Tabel rute kustom —Tabel rute yang Anda buat untuk VPC Anda. Tujuan —Kisaran alamat IP di mana Anda menginginkan adanya lalu lintas untuk pergi (CIDR tujuan). Misalnya, jaringan perusahaan eksternal dengan CIDR. 172.16.0.0/12 Target —Gateway, antarmuka jaringan, atau koneksi yang menjadi tempat untuk mengirim lalu lintas tujuan; misalnya, gateway internet. Rute lokal —Rute default untuk komunikasi dalam VPC. Jika VPC memiliki keduanya IPv4 dan IPV6 alamat, ada rute lokal untuk IPv4 dan rute lokal untuk. IPv6 Pengaitan tabel rute —Pengaitan antara tabel rute dan subnet, gateway internet, atau virtual private gateway. Tabel rute subnet —Sebuah tabel rute yang dikaitkan dengan sebuah subnet. Propagasi —Jika Anda telah melampirkan gateway pribadi virtual ke VPC Anda dan mengaktifkan propagasi rute, kami secara otomatis menambahkan rute untuk koneksi VPN Anda ke tabel rute subnet Anda. Ini berarti Anda tidak perlu menambahkan atau menghapus rute VPN secara manual. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat opsi perutean Site-to-Site VPN di Panduan Pengguna Site-to-Site VPN . Tabel rute gateway —Tabel rute yang dikaitkan dengan sebuah gateway internet atau virtual private gateway. Pengaitan Edge —Sebuah tabel rute yang Anda gunakan untuk mengarahkan lalu lintas VPC inbound menuju ke perangkat. Anda kaitkan tabel rute dengan gateway internet atau virtual private gateway, dan tentukan antarmuka jaringan pada perangkat Anda sebagai target untuk lalu lintas VPC. Tabel rute gerbang transit —Tabel rute yang terkait dengan gateway transit. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Tabel rute gateway transit di Amazon VPC Transit Gateways. Tabel rute gateway lokal —Tabel rute yang dikaitkan dengan gateway lokal Outposts. Untuk informasi selengkapnya, lihat Gateway lokal di AWS Outposts Panduan Pengguna . Contoh VPC dengan tabel rute Diagram berikut menunjukkan VPC dengan lima subnet, tabel rute utama, dan tiga tabel rute khusus. Keempat tabel rute memiliki rute lokal. Tabel rute kustom 1 memiliki rute ke gateway internet, dan dikaitkan dengan subnet publik di Availability Zone A. Tabel rute kustom 2 memiliki rute ke VPC peered, dan dikaitkan dengan subnet pribadi di Availability Zone B. Tabel rute kustom 3 memiliki rute ke gateway pribadi virtual, dan dikaitkan dengan subnet khusus VPN di kedua Availability Zones. Javascript dinonaktifkan atau tidak tersedia di browser Anda. Untuk menggunakan Dokumentasi AWS, Javascript harus diaktifkan. Lihat halaman Bantuan browser Anda untuk petunjuk. Konvensi Dokumen Tabel rute Tabel rute subnet Apakah halaman ini membantu Anda? - Ya Terima kasih telah memberitahukan bahwa hasil pekerjaan kami sudah baik. Jika Anda memiliki waktu luang, beri tahu kami aspek apa saja yang sudah bagus, agar kami dapat menerapkannya secara lebih luas. Apakah halaman ini membantu Anda? - Tidak Terima kasih telah memberi tahu kami bahwa halaman ini perlu ditingkatkan. Maaf karena telah mengecewakan Anda. Jika Anda memiliki waktu luang, beri tahu kami bagaimana dokumentasi ini dapat ditingkatkan. | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://support.microsoft.com/sr-latn-rs/windows/upravljanje-kola%C4%8Di%C4%87ima-u-pregleda%C4%8Du-microsoft-edge-prikaz-dozvoljavanje-blokiranje-brisanje-i-kori%C5%A1%C4%87enje-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Upravljanje kolačićima u pregledaču Microsoft Edge: prikaz, dozvoljavanje, blokiranje, brisanje i korišćenje - Microsoft podrška Srodne teme × Windows bezbednost, sigurnost i privatnost Pregled Pregled bezbednosti, sigurnosti i privatnosti Windows bezbednost Pronalaženje pomoći uz Windows bezbednost Ostanite zaštićeni uz Windows bezbednost Pre nego što reciklirate, prodate ili poklonite svoj Xbox ili Windows PC Uklonite malver sa Windows PC Windows sigurnost Pronalaženje pomoći uz Windows sigurnost Prikaz i brisanje istorije u pregledaču Microsoft Edge Izbrišite kolačiće i upravljajte njima Bezbedno uklonite dragocen sadržaj prilikom ponovne instalacije operativnog sistema Windows Pronalaženje i zaključavanje izgubljenog Windows uređaja Windows privatnost Pronalaženje pomoći uz Windows privatnost​ Windows 10 postavke privatnosti koje koriste aplikacije Prikaz podataka na kontrolnoj tabli za privatnost Pređi na glavni sadržaj Microsoft Podrška Podrška Podrška Početak Microsoft 365 Office Proizvodi Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows još... Uređaji Surface Računarski pribor Xbox Igranje igara na ličnom računaru HoloLens Surface Hub Garancije na hardver Nalog i naplata Nalog Prodavnica Microsoft Store i naplata Resursi Šta je novo Forumi zajednice Microsoft 365 administratori Portal za mala preduzeća Programer Obrazovanje Prijavite lažnu podršku Bezbednost proizvoda Još Kupite Microsoft 365 Svi Microsoft proizvodi Global Microsoft 365 Teams Copilot Windows Podrška Software Software Windows aplikacije AI Outlook Microsoft Teams PCs & Devices PCs & Devices Kupite Xbox Business Business Microsoft Security Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 for business Microsoft industrijska rešenja Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 Developer & IT Developer & IT Microsoft projektant Dokumentacija Microsoft Learn Microsoft Tech zajednica Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards Druge Druge Besplatna preuzimanja i bezbednost Obrazovanje Prikaži mapu lokacije Pretraga Potražite pomoć Nema rezultata Otkaži Prijavljivanje Prijavite se pomoću Microsoft naloga Prijavite se ili kreirajte nalog. Zdravo, Izaberite drugi nalog. Imate više naloga Odaberite nalog pomoću kojeg želite da se prijavite. Srodne teme Windows bezbednost, sigurnost i privatnost Pregled Pregled bezbednosti, sigurnosti i privatnosti Windows bezbednost Pronalaženje pomoći uz Windows bezbednost Ostanite zaštićeni uz Windows bezbednost Pre nego što reciklirate, prodate ili poklonite svoj Xbox ili Windows PC Uklonite malver sa Windows PC Windows sigurnost Pronalaženje pomoći uz Windows sigurnost Prikaz i brisanje istorije u pregledaču Microsoft Edge Izbrišite kolačiće i upravljajte njima Bezbedno uklonite dragocen sadržaj prilikom ponovne instalacije operativnog sistema Windows Pronalaženje i zaključavanje izgubljenog Windows uređaja Windows privatnost Pronalaženje pomoći uz Windows privatnost​ Windows 10 postavke privatnosti koje koriste aplikacije Prikaz podataka na kontrolnoj tabli za privatnost Upravljanje kolačićima u pregledaču Microsoft Edge: prikaz, dozvoljavanje, blokiranje, brisanje i korišćenje Primenjuje se na Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Kolačići su mali delovi podataka koje veb lokacije koje posećujete na uređaju skladište na uređaju. One služe različitim svrhama, kao što su pamćenje akreditiva za prijavljivanje, željene postavke lokacije i praćenje ponašanja korisnika. Međutim, možda ćete želeti da izbrišete kolačiće iz razloga privatnosti ili da rešite probleme sa pregledanjem. Ovaj članak pruža uputstva o tome kako da: Prikaži sve kolačiće Dozvoli sve kolačiće Dozvoli kolačiće sa određene veb lokacije Blokiranje kolačića nezavisnih proizvođača Blokiraj sve kolačiće Blokiranje kolačića sa određenog sajta Izbriši sve kolačiće Brisanje kolačića sa određene lokacije Brisanje kolačića svaki put kada zatvorite pregledač Koristite kolačiće da biste unapred učitali stranicu za brže pregledanje Prikaži sve kolačiće Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite stavku Kolačići , a zatim izaberite stavku Prikaži sve kolačiće i podatke o lokaciji da biste prikazali sve uskladištene kolačiće i srodne informacije o lokaciji. Dozvoli sve kolačiće Dozvoljavanjem kolačića, veb lokacije će moći da sačuvaju i preuzmu podatke u pregledaču, što može da poboljša vaše iskustvo pregledanja pamćenjem željenih opcija i informacija o prijavljivanju. Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite kolačiće i omogućite preklopnik Dozvoli lokacijama da čuvaju i čitaju podatke kolačića (preporučuje se ) da biste dozvolili sve kolačiće. Dozvoli kolačiće sa određene lokacije Dozvoljavanjem kolačića, veb lokacije će moći da sačuvaju i preuzmu podatke u pregledaču, što može da poboljša vaše iskustvo pregledanja pamćenjem željenih opcija i informacija o prijavljivanju. Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite stavku Kolačići i idite na stavku Dozvoljeno za čuvanje kolačića. Izaberite stavku Dodaj sajt da biste dozvolili kolačiće po lokaciji tako što ćete uneti URL adresu sajta. Blokiranje kolačića nezavisnih proizvođača Ako ne želite da lokacije nezavisnih proizvođača skladište kolačiće na računaru, možete da blokirate kolačiće. Međutim, ako to uradite, neke stranice će se možda sprečiti da se ispravno prikažu ili ćete možda dobiti poruku sa lokacije koja vas obaveštava da je potrebno da dozvolite kolačićima da prikažu tu lokaciju. Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite stavku Kolačići i omogućite preklopnik Blokiraj kolačiće nezavisnih proizvođača. Blokiraj sve kolačiće Ako ne želite da lokacije nezavisnih proizvođača skladište kolačiće na računaru, možete da blokirate kolačiće. Međutim, ako to uradite, neke stranice će se možda sprečiti da se ispravno prikažu ili ćete možda dobiti poruku sa lokacije koja vas obaveštava da je potrebno da dozvolite kolačićima da prikažu tu lokaciju. Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite Kolačići i onemogućite opciju Dozvoli lokacijama da čuvaju i čitaju podatke kolačića (preporučuje se) da biste blokirali sve kolačiće. Blokiranje kolačića sa određenog sajta Microsoft Edge vam omogućava da blokirate kolačiće sa određene lokacije, ali to može sprečiti ispravno prikazivanje nekih stranica ili ćete dobiti poruku sa sajta koja vas obaveštava da morate da dozvolite kolačićima da prikažu tu lokaciju. Da biste blokirali kolačiće sa određene lokacije: Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite stavku Kolačići i idite na Nije dozvoljeno čuvanje i čitanje kolačića . Izaberite stavku Dodaj sajt da biste blokirali kolačiće po lokaciji tako što ćete uneti URL adresu sajta. Izbriši sve kolačiće Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite stavku Obriši podatke o pregledanju , a zatim izaberite stavku Odaberite šta želite da obrišete pored stavke Obriši podatke o pregledanju odmah . U okviru Opseg vremena odaberite vremenski opseg sa liste. Izaberite stavku Kolačići i drugi podaci sajta , a zatim izaberite stavku Obriši odmah . Napomena: Druga mogućnost je da izbrišete kolačiće tako što ćete pritisnuti kombinaciju tastera CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE , a zatim nastaviti sa koracima 4 i 5. Svi kolačići i drugi podaci sajta sada će biti izbrisani za izabrani vremenski opseg. Ovo vas odjavljuje sa većine sajtova. Brisanje kolačića sa određene lokacije Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite Postavke i dodatne opcije > Postavke > Privatnost, pretraga i usluge . Izaberite stavku Kolačići , a zatim izaberite stavku Prikaži sve kolačiće i podatke o lokaciji i potražite lokaciju čije kolačiće želite da izbrišete. Kliknite na strelicu nadole sa desne strane sajta čiji kolačići želite da izbrišete i izaberite stavku Izbriši . Kolačići za lokaciju koju ste izabrali sada se brišu. Ponovite ovaj korak za bilo koju lokaciju čije kolačiće želite da izbrišete. Brisanje kolačića svaki put kada zatvorite pregledač Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite Postavke i dodatne opcije > Postavke > Privatnost, pretraga i usluge . Izaberite stavku Obriši podatke o pregledanju, a zatim izaberite stavku Odaberite šta želite da obrišete svaki put kada zatvorite pregledač . Uključite preklopnik Kolačići i drugi podaci sajta. Kada uključite ovu funkciju, svaki put kada zatvorite Pregledač Edge, brišu se svi kolačići i drugi podaci sajta. Ovo vas odjavljuje sa većine sajtova. Koristite kolačiće da biste unapred učitali stranicu za brže pregledanje Otvorite pregledač Edge, izaberite stavku Postavke i još mnogo toga u gornjem desnom uglu prozora pregledača. Izaberite postavke > privatnost, pretragu i usluge . Izaberite stavku Kolačići i omogućite preklopnik Unapred učitaj stranice za brže pregledanje i pretragu. PRETPLATITE SE NA RSS FEEDOVE Da li vam je potrebna dodatna pomoć? Želite još opcija? Otkrivanje Zajednica Obratite nam se Istražite pogodnosti pretplate, pregledajte kurseve za obuku, saznajte kako da obezbedite uređaj i još mnogo toga. 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Related topics Windows 安全性、安全和隱私權 概觀 安全性、安全和隱私權概觀 Windows 安全性 取得 Windows 安全性說明 使用 Windows 安全性維持受保護狀態 在您回收、銷售或贈送您的 Xbox 或 Windows 電腦裝置之前 從 Windows 電腦移除惡意程式碼 Windows 安全 取得 Windows 安全的說明 檢視及刪除 Microsoft Edge 中的瀏覽器歷程記錄 刪除與管理 Cookie 重新安裝 Windows 時，安全地移除您的寶貴內容 尋找並鎖定遺失的 Windows 裝置 Windows 隱私權 取得 Windows 隱私權的說明 應用程式使用的 Windows 隱私權設定 在隱私權儀表板上檢視您的資料 在 Microsoft Edge 中管理 Cookie: 檢視、允許、封鎖、刪除和使用 Applies To Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Cookie 是您造訪的網站儲存在您的裝置上的一小段資料。 它們有多種用途，例如記住登入憑證、網站首選項和追蹤使用者行為。 但是，出於隱私原因或解決瀏覽問題，您可能想要刪除 cookie。 本文提供如何執行下列動作的指示： 查看所有 cookie 允許所有 cookie 允許來自特定網站的 cookie 封鎖第三方 Cookie [封鎖所有 Cookie] 封鎖來自特定網站的 Cookie 刪除所有 Cookie 刪除來自特定網站的 Cookie 每次關閉瀏覽器時都要刪除 Cookie 使用 cookie 預先載入頁面以加快瀏覽速度 查看所有 cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie， 然後按一下 查看所有 Cookie 和網站資料， 以檢視所有儲存的 Cookie 和相關網站資訊。 允許所有 cookie 透過允許 cookie，網站將能夠在您的瀏覽器上保存和檢索數據，這可以透過記住您的偏好和登入資訊來增強您的瀏覽體驗。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並 啟用 允許網站儲存和讀取 Cookie 資料 切換 (建議) 允許所有 Cookie。 允許來自特定網站的 Cookie 透過允許 cookie，網站將能夠在您的瀏覽器上保存和檢索數據，這可以透過記住您的偏好和登入資訊來增強您的瀏覽體驗。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並移至 允許 以儲存 Cookie。 選取 [ 新增網站 ] ，輸入網站的 URL 以允許每個網站的 Cookie。 封鎖第三方 Cookie 如果您不希望第三方網站在您的 PC 上存儲 cookie，您可以阻止 cookie。 但是這樣做可能會使某些網頁無法正確顯示，您也可能會收到來自網站的訊息，告知您必須允許 Cookie 才能檢視該網站。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並 啟用 封鎖 第三方 Cookie 切換。 [封鎖所有 Cookie] 如果您不希望第三方網站在您的 PC 上存儲 cookie，您可以阻止 cookie。 但是這樣做可能會使某些網頁無法正確顯示，您也可能會收到來自網站的訊息，告知您必須允許 Cookie 才能檢視該網站。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並停用 允許網站儲存和讀取 Cookie 資料， (建議) 封鎖所有 Cookie。 封鎖來自特定網站的 Cookie Microsoft Edge 允許您阻止來自特定網站的 Cookie，但這樣做可能會阻止某些頁面正確顯示，或者您可能會從網站收到一條消息，讓您知道您需要允許 Cookie 查看該網站。 若要封鎖來自特定網站的 Cookie： 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並移至 不允許儲存 和讀取 Cookie 。 選取 [ 新增 網站 ] ，輸入網站的 URL 來封鎖每個網站的 Cookie。 刪除所有 Cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 [設定] > [隱私權、搜尋與服務] 。 選取 [清除瀏覽資料] ，然後選取 [ 立即清除瀏覽資料] 旁邊的 [ 選擇要清除的內容 ]。 在 [時間範圍] 底下，從清單中選擇時間範圍。 選取 [Cookie 與其他網站資料]，然後選取 [立即清除]。 附註: 或者，您可以同時按 CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE ，然後繼續執行步驟 4 和 5，以刪除 cookie。 將立即刪除您所選取時間範圍的所有 Cookie 和其他網站資料。 這會將您從大部分的網站中登出。 刪除來自特定網站的 Cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇 「設定」>「設定 」> 「 隱私權、搜尋和服務 」圖示 。 選取 Cookie， 然後按一下 查看所有 Cookie 和網站資料， 然後搜尋您要刪除其 Cookie 的網站。 選取向下箭號 至右側您想要刪除 Cookie 的網站上，然後選取 [刪除] 。 您所選網站的 Cookie 現已刪除。 針對您想要刪除 Cookie 的任何網站重複此步驟。 每次關閉瀏覽器時都要刪除 Cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇 「設定」等 >「 設定 」 >「 隱私權、搜尋和服務 」。 選取 [清除瀏覽資料] ，然後選取 [ 選擇每次關閉瀏覽器時要清除的內容]。 開啟 [Cookie 與其他網站資料] 切換。 開啟此功能後，每次關閉 Edge 瀏覽器時，所有 cookie 和其他網站資料都會被刪除。 這會將您從大部分的網站中登出。 使用 cookie 預先載入頁面以加快瀏覽速度 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 [設定] > [隱私權、搜尋與服務] 。 選擇 Cookie 並啟用切換 預加載頁面 以加快瀏覽和搜索速度。 SUBSCRIBE RSS FEEDS Need more help? 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https://www.linkedin.com/jobs/visma-jobs-worldwide?f_C=121732%2C918559%2C35642366%2C135856%2C2805918%2C72472740%2C9431472%2C166815&trk=top-card_top-card-primary-button-top-card-primary-cta | 17 Visma jobs in Worldwide Skip to main content LinkedIn Visma in Worldwide Expand search This button displays the currently selected search type. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. Jobs People Learning Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Clear text Sign in Join now Company 8 Clear text Visma Latam HR (14) Visma (3) Horizon.lv LAUDUS Xubio Visma Enterprise Calipso Contagram Done Any time Any time (17) Past month (11) Past week (2) Done Job type Full-time (16) Temporary (1) Done Experience level Entry level (11) Mid-Senior level (2) Director (1) Executive (3) Done Remote Hybrid (14) Remote (3) Done Reset Get notified about new Visma jobs in Worldwide . Sign in to create job alert Visma jobs 17 Visma Jobs in Worldwide Analista de Soporte Funcional Analista de Soporte Funcional Visma Latam HR Santiago Metropolitan Region, Chile Actively Hiring 1 month ago Functional Support Analyst - Talent Functional Support Analyst - Talent Visma Latam HR Greater Buenos Aires Actively Hiring 4 days ago Asesor Comercial - ERP Asesor Comercial - ERP Visma Latam HR Santiago Metropolitan Region, Chile Actively Hiring 3 weeks ago ******** ******* ********* **. ******** ******* ********* **. ***** ***** ** ******* ****** ***** Actively Hiring 1 week ago ***** ******* ******* ***** ******* ******* ***** ***** ** ******** ************ ******, ***** Actively Hiring 1 month ago ******** ******** - **** ****** ******** ******** - **** ****** ***** ***** ** ******* ****** ***** Actively Hiring 1 week ago ******* ********** ******* ********** ***** ***** ** ******* ****** ***** Actively Hiring 3 weeks ago Sign in to view all job postings Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines العربية (Arabic) বাংলা (Bangla) Čeština (Czech) Dansk (Danish) Deutsch (German) Ελληνικά (Greek) English (English) Español (Spanish) فارسی (Persian) Suomi (Finnish) Français (French) हिंदी (Hindi) Magyar (Hungarian) Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian) Italiano (Italian) עברית (Hebrew) 日本語 (Japanese) 한국어 (Korean) मराठी (Marathi) Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) Nederlands (Dutch) Norsk (Norwegian) ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (Punjabi) Polski (Polish) Português (Portuguese) Română (Romanian) Русский (Russian) Svenska (Swedish) తెలుగు (Telugu) ภาษาไทย (Thai) Tagalog (Tagalog) Türkçe (Turkish) Українська (Ukrainian) Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese) 简体中文 (Chinese (Simplified)) 正體中文 (Chinese (Traditional)) Language Agree & Join LinkedIn By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . Sign in to view more jobs Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or New to LinkedIn? Join now By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://docs.aws.amazon.com/fr_fr/vpc/latest/userguide/route-table-options.html | Exemples d'options de routage - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Exemples d'options de routage - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Documentation Amazon VPC Guide de l’utilisateur Routage vers une passerelle Internet Routage vers un périphérique NAT Routage vers une passerelle réseau privé virtuel Routage vers une passerelle locale AWS Outposts Routage vers une connexion d'appairage de VPC Routage vers un point de terminaison d'un VPC de passerelle Routage vers une passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement Routage pour une passerelle de transit Routage pour une appliance middlebox Routage à l'aide d'une liste de préfixes Routage vers un point de terminaison d'équilibreur de charge de passerelle Les traductions sont fournies par des outils de traduction automatique. En cas de conflit entre le contenu d'une traduction et celui de la version originale en anglais, la version anglaise prévaudra. Exemples d'options de routage Les rubriques ci-après décrivent le routage pour des passerelles ou des connexions spécifiques au sein de votre VPC. Table des matières Routage vers une passerelle Internet Routage vers un périphérique NAT Routage vers une passerelle réseau privé virtuel Routage vers une passerelle locale AWS Outposts Routage vers une connexion d'appairage de VPC Routage vers un point de terminaison d'un VPC de passerelle Routage vers une passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement Routage pour une passerelle de transit Routage pour une appliance middlebox Routage à l'aide d'une liste de préfixes Routage vers un point de terminaison d'équilibreur de charge de passerelle Routage vers une passerelle Internet Vous pouvez faire d'un sous-réseau un sous-réseau public en ajoutant une route dans votre table de routage de sous-réseau vers une passerelle Internet. Pour ce faire, créez et attachez une passerelle Internet à votre VPC, puis ajoutez une route avec comme destination l'adresse 0.0.0.0/0 pour le trafic IPv4 ou l'adresse ::/0 pour le trafic IPv6, et comme cible l'ID de la passerelle Internet ( igw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Destination Cible 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id ::/0 igw-id Pour plus d'informations, consultez Activation de l’accès à Internet pour un VPC à l’aide d’une passerelle Internet . Routage vers un périphérique NAT Pour permettre aux instances d'un sous-réseau privé de se connecter à Internet, vous pouvez créer une passerelle NAT ou lancer une instance NAT dans un sous-réseau public. Ensuite, ajoutez une route pour la table de routage du sous-réseau privé afin de router le trafic Internet IPv4 ( 0.0.0.0/0 ) vers le périphérique NAT. Destination Cible 0.0.0.0/0 nat-gateway-id Vous pouvez également créer des routes plus spécifiques vers d'autres cibles pour éviter des frais inutiles de traitement de données liés à l'utilisation d'une passerelle NAT ou pour router un certain trafic de manière privée. Dans l'exemple suivant, le trafic Amazon S3 (pl-xxxxxxxx, une liste de préfixes qui contient les plages d'adresses IP pour Amazon S3 dans une région spécifique) est acheminé vers un point de terminaison d'un VPC de passerelle et le trafic 10.25.0.0/16 est acheminé vers une connexion d'appairage de VPC. Ces plages d'adresses IP sont plus spécifiques que 0.0.0.0/0. Lorsque des instances envoient du trafic vers Amazon S3 ou le VPC d'appairage, le trafic est envoyé vers le point de terminaison VPC de passerelle ou la connexion d'appairage de VPC. Tout autre trafic est envoyé à la passerelle NAT. Destination Cible 0.0.0.0/0 nat-gateway-id pl- xxxxxxxx vpce-id 10.25.0.0/16 pcx-id Pour de plus amples informations, consultez Périphériques NAT . Routage vers une passerelle réseau privé virtuel Vous pouvez utiliser une connexion AWS Site-to-Site VPN pour permettre aux instances de votre VPC de communiquer avec votre propre réseau. Pour ce faire, créez et attachez une passerelle réseau privé virtuel à votre VPC. Ensuite, ajoutez une route dans votre table de routage de sous-réseau avec la destination de votre réseau et une cible correspondant à la passerelle réseau privé virtuel ( vgw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Destination Cible 10.0.0.0/16 vgw-id Vous pouvez ensuite créer et configurer votre connexion Site-to-Site VPN. Pour plus d'informations, consultez Qu'est-ce qu'AWS Site-to-Site VPN ? et Tables de routage et priorité de route VPN dans le Guide de l'utilisateur AWS Site-to-Site VPN . Une connexion Site-to-Site VPN sur une passerelle réseau privé virtuel n'est pas compatible avec le trafic IPv6. Toutefois, nous prenons en charge le trafic IPv6 acheminé via une passerelle réseau privé virtuel vers une connexion Direct Connect. Pour de plus amples informations, veuillez consulter le Guide de l'utilisateur Direct Connect . Routage vers une passerelle locale AWS Outposts Cette section décrit les configurations de table de routage pour le routage vers une passerelle locale AWS Outposts. Table des matières Activer le trafic entre les sous-réseaux de l'Outpost et votre réseau sur site Permettre le trafic entre les sous-réseaux du même VPC à travers les Outposts Activer le trafic entre les sous-réseaux de l'Outpost et votre réseau sur site Les sous-réseaux qui se trouvent dans des VPC associés à AWS Outposts peuvent avoir un type de cible supplémentaire d'une passerelle locale. Considérez le cas où vous souhaitez que la passerelle locale route le trafic avec une adresse de destination 192.168.10.0/24 vers le réseau client. Pour ce faire, ajoutez la route suivante avec le réseau de destination et une cible de la passerelle locale ( lgw-xxxx ). Destination Cible 192.168.10.0/24 lgw-id Permettre le trafic entre les sous-réseaux du même VPC à travers les Outposts Vous pouvez établir une communication entre des sous-réseaux qui sont dans le même VPC à travers différents Outposts en utilisant les passerelles locales Outpost et votre réseau sur site. Vous pouvez utiliser cette fonctionnalité pour créer des architectures similaires aux architectures de zones de disponibilité (AZ) multiples pour vos applications sur site exécutées sur des racks d'Outposts en établissant une connectivité entre les racks d'Outposts qui sont ancrés à différentes AZ. Pour activer cette fonctionnalité, ajoutez un routage à la table de routage du sous-réseau de votre rack Outpost qui soit plus spécifique que le routage local dans cette table de routage et qui ait un type de cible de passerelle locale. La destination du routage doit correspondre à l'intégralité du bloc IPv4 du sous-réseau de votre VPC qui se trouve dans un autre Outpost. Répétez cette configuration pour tous les sous-réseaux de l'Outpost qui doivent communiquer. Important Pour utiliser cette fonctionnalité, vous devez utiliser le routage direct VPC . Vous ne pouvez pas utiliser vos propres adresses IP appartenant au client . Votre réseau sur site auquel les passerelles locales des Outposts sont connectées doit disposer du routage nécessaire pour que les sous-réseaux puissent accéder l'un à l'autre. Si vous voulez utiliser des groupes de sécurité pour les ressources des sous-réseaux, vous devez utiliser des règles qui incluent des plages d'adresses IP comme source ou destination dans les sous-réseaux des Outposts. Vous ne pouvez pas utiliser d'ID de groupe de sécurité. Les racks Outposts existants peuvent nécessiter une mise à jour pour permettre la prise en charge de la communication intra-VPC entre plusieurs Outposts. Si cette fonctionnalité ne vous convient pas, contactez AWS Support . Exemple Pour un VPC avec un CIDR de 10.0.0.0/16, un sous-réseau Outpost 1 avec un CIDR de 10.0.1.0/24, et un sous-réseau Outpost 2 avec un CIDR de 10.0.2.0/24, l'entrée de la table de routage du sous-réseau Outpost 1 serait la suivante : Destination Cible 10.0.0.0/16 Locale 10.0.2.0/24 lgw-1-id L'entrée de la table de routage du sous-réseau Outpost 2 serait la suivante : Destination Cible 10.0.0.0/16 Locale 10.0.1.0/24 lgw-2-id Routage vers une connexion d'appairage de VPC Une connexion d'appairage de VPC est une connexion de mise en réseau entre deux VPC qui permet d'acheminer le trafic entre ces derniers à l'aide d'adresses IPv4 privées. Les instances des deux VPC peuvent communiquer entre elles comme si elles faisaient partie du même réseau. Pour activer le routage du trafic entre des VPC dans une connexion d'appairage de VPC, vous devez ajouter une route dans une ou plusieurs tables de routage de sous-réseau qui pointe vers la connexion d'appairage de VPC. Cela vous permet d'accéder à tout ou partie du bloc d'adresse CIDR de l'autre VPC dans la connexion d'appairage. De même, le propriétaire de l'autre VPC doit ajouter une route dans sa table de routage de sous-réseau afin de router le trafic en retour vers votre VPC. Par exemple, vous disposez d'une connexion d'appairage VPC ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) entre deux VPC, avec les informations suivantes : VPC A : le bloc d'adresse CIDR est 10.0.0.0/16 VPC B : le bloc d'adresse CIDR est 172.31.0.0/16 Pour permettre le trafic entre les VPC et autoriser l'accès à l'intégralité du bloc d'adresse CIDR IPv4 de chaque VPC, la table de routage VPC A est configurée comme suit. Destination Cible 10.0.0.0/16 Local 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 La table de routage VPC B est configurée comme suit. Destination Cible 172.31.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 Votre connexion d'appairage de VPC peut également prendre en charge la communication IPv6 entre les instances dans les VPC, si les VPC et les instances sont activés pour la communication IPv6. Pour activer le routage du trafic IPv6 entre les VPC, vous devez ajouter une route vers votre table de routage qui pointe vers la connexion d'appairage de VPC pour accéder à tout ou partie du bloc d'adresse CIDR IPv6 du VPC pair. Par exemple, à l'aide de la même connexion d'appairage de VPC ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) ci-dessus, supposez que les VPC disposent des informations suivantes : VPC A : le bloc d'adresse CIDR IPv6 est 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 VPC B : le bloc d'adresse CIDR IPv6 est 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 Pour activer la communication IPv6 via la connexion d'appairage de VPC, ajoutez la route suivante dans la table de routage de sous-réseau pour VPC A. Destination Cible 10.0.0.0/16 Local 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Ajoutez la route suivante dans la table de routage pour VPC B. Destination Cible 172.31.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Pour de plus amples informations sur les connexions d'appairage de VPC, veuillez consulter le Guide de l'appairage Amazon VPC . Routage vers un point de terminaison d'un VPC de passerelle Un point de terminaison de VPC de passerelle vous permet de créer une connexion privée entre votre VPC et un autre service AWS. Lorsque vous créez un point de terminaison de passerelle, vous spécifiez les tables de routage de sous-réseau dans votre VPC qui sont utilisées par le point de terminaison de passerelle. Une route est automatiquement ajoutée pour chacune des tables de routage avec une destination qui spécifie l'ID de liste des préfixes du service ( pl- xxxxxxxx ) et une cible avec l'ID point de terminaison ( vpce- xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Vous ne pouvez pas supprimer ou modifier explicitement la route du point de terminaison, mais vous pouvez modifier les tables de routage qui sont utilisées par le point de terminaison. Pour plus d'informations sur le routage pour les points de terminaison et les implications pour les routes vers les services AWS, veuillez consulter Routage des points de terminaison de passerelle . Routage vers une passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement Vous pouvez créer une passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement pour votre VPC afin de permettre aux instances figurant dans un sous-réseau privé d'initier une communication sortante vers Internet, mais d'empêcher Internet d'établir des connexions avec les instances. Une passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement est utilisée pour le trafic IPv6 uniquement. Pour configurer le routage pour une passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement, ajoutez une route dans la table de routage du sous-réseau privé afin de router le trafic Internet IPv6 ( ::/0 ) vers la passerelle Internet de sortie uniquement. Destination Target ::/0 eigw-id Pour plus d'informations, consultez Activer le trafic sortant IPv6 à l'aide de passerelles Internet de sortie uniquement . Routage pour une passerelle de transit Lorsque vous associez un VPC à une passerelle de transit, vous devez ajouter une route à votre table de routage de sous-réseau pour que le trafic passe par la passerelle de transit. Examinez le scénario suivant où nous disposons de trois VPC associés à une passerelle de transit. Dans ce scénario, tous les attachements sont associés à la table de routage de la passerelle de transit et propage vers elle. Par conséquent, tous les attachements peuvent s'acheminer des paquets respectivement, la passerelle de transit servant de simple hub d'IP de couche 3. Par exemple, vous disposez de deux VPC avec les informations suivantes : VPC A : 10.1.0.0/16, ID d'attachement tgw-attach-11111111111111111 VPC B : 10.2.0.0/16, ID d'attachement tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Pour permettre le trafic entre les VPC et autoriser l'accès à la passerelle de transit, la table de routage VPC A est configurée comme suit. Destination Cible 10.1.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/8 tgw-id Voici un exemple des entrées de table de routage de la passerelle de transit pour les attachements de VPC. Destination Cible 10.1.0.0/16 tgw-attach-11111111111111111 10.2.0.0/16 tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Pour de plus amples informations sur les tables de routage de passerelle de transit, veuillez consulter Routage dans Passerelle de transit Amazon VPC Routage pour une appliance middlebox Vous pouvez ajouter des appliances middlebox dans les chemins de routage de votre VPC. Voici des cas d'utilisation possibles : Interception du trafic qui entre dans votre VPC via une passerelle Internet ou une passerelle réseau privé virtuel en le dirigeant vers une appliance middlebox dans votre VPC. Vous pouvez utiliser l'assistant de routage middlebox pour faire en sorte qu'AWS configure automatiquement les tables de routage appropriées pour votre passerelle, votre middlebox et votre sous-réseau de destination. Pour de plus amples informations, veuillez consulter Assistant de routage middlebox . Direction du trafic entre deux sous-réseaux vers une appliance middlebox. Pour ce faire, vous pouvez créer un acheminement pour une table de routage de sous-réseau qui correspond au CIDR de sous-réseau de l'autre sous-réseau et spécifie un point de terminaison Gateway Load Balancer, une passerelle NAT, un point de terminaison Network Firewall ou l'interface réseau d'une appliance en tant que cible. Sinon, pour rediriger l'ensemble du trafic du sous-réseau vers un autre sous-réseau, remplacez la cible de l'acheminement local par un point de terminaison Gateway Load Balancer, une passerelle NAT ou une interface réseau. Vous pouvez configurer l'appliance en fonction de vos besoins. Par exemple, vous pouvez configurer une appliance de sécurité pour filtrer tout le trafic, ou une appliance d'accélération WAN. L'appliance est déployée en tant qu'instance Amazon EC2 dans un sous-réseau de votre VPC et est représentée par une interface réseau Elastic (interface réseau) dans votre sous-réseau. Si vous activez la propagation du routage pour la table de routage du sous-réseau de destination, vous devez tenir compte de la priorité de routage. Nous donnons la priorité à l'acheminement le plus spécifique, et, en cas de correspondance des acheminements, nous donnons la priorité aux acheminements statiques plutôt qu'aux acheminements propagés. Vérifiez vos acheminements, afin de vous assurer que le trafic est correctement acheminé et qu'il n'existe pas de conséquences inattendues si vous activez ou désactivez la propagation d'acheminement (par exemple, la propagation d'acheminement est requise pour une connexion Direct Connect prenant en charge les trames jumbo). Pour acheminer le trafic VPC entrant vers une appliance, vous associez une table de routage à la passerelle Internet ou à la passerelle réseau privé virtuel, et vous spécifiez l'interface réseau de votre appliance comme cible pour le trafic VPC. Pour de plus amples informations, consultez Tables de routage de passerelle . Vous pouvez également acheminer le trafic sortant de votre sous-réseau vers une appliance middlebox figurant dans un autre sous-réseau. Pour obtenir des exemples de routage middlebox, consultez Scénarios middlebox . Table des matières Considérations relatives aux appliances Acheminement du trafic entre une passerelle et une appliance Acheminement du trafic inter-sous-réseaux vers une appliance Considérations relatives aux appliances Vous pouvez choisir une appliance tierce provenant de AWS Marketplace ou configurer votre propre appliance. Lorsque vous créez ou configurez une appliance, prenez en compte les éléments suivants : L'appliance doit être configurée dans un sous-réseau distinct du trafic source ou de destination. Vous devez désactiver la vérification origine/destination sur l'appliance. Pour plus d’informations, consultez Changement de la vérification de source ou de destination dans le Guide utilisateur Amazon EC2 . Vous ne pouvez pas acheminer le trafic entre les hôtes du même sous-réseau via une appliance. L'appliance n'est pas tenue d'effectuer la traduction d'adresses réseau (NAT). Vous pouvez ajouter à vos tables de routage un acheminement plus spécifique que l'acheminement local. Vous pouvez utiliser des acheminements plus spécifiques pour rediriger le trafic entre les sous-réseaux d'un VPC (trafic Est-Ouest) vers une appliance middlebox. La destination de l'acheminement doit correspondre au bloc d'adresse CIDR IPv4 ou IPv6 complet d'un sous-réseau de votre VPC. Pour intercepter le trafic IPv6, vérifiez que votre VPC, votre sous-réseau et l'appliance prennent en charge IPv6. Acheminement du trafic entre une passerelle et une appliance Pour acheminer le trafic VPC entrant vers une appliance, vous associez une table de routage à la passerelle Internet ou à la passerelle réseau privé virtuel, et vous spécifiez l'interface réseau de votre appliance comme cible pour le trafic VPC. Dans l'exemple suivant, le VPC dispose d'une passerelle Internet, d'une appliance et d'un sous-réseau avec des instances. Le trafic en provenance d'Internet est acheminé via une appliance. Associez cette table de routage à votre passerelle Internet ou passerelle réseau privé virtuel. La première entrée est l'acheminement local. La deuxième entrée envoie le trafic IPv4 destiné au sous-réseau vers l'interface réseau de l'appliance. Cet acheminement est plus spécifique que l'acheminement local. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse du VPC Local Bloc d'adresse CIDR du sous-réseau ID d'interface réseau de l'appliance Vous pouvez également remplacer la cible de l'acheminement local par l'interface réseau de l'appliance. Vous pouvez procéder ainsi pour faire en sorte que l'ensemble du trafic soit acheminé automatiquement vers l'appliance, y compris le trafic destiné aux sous-réseaux que vous ajouterez dans l'avenir au VPC. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse CIDR du VPC ID d'interface réseau de l'appliance Pour acheminer le trafic de votre sous-réseau vers une appliance figurant dans un autre sous-réseau, ajoutez un acheminement dans votre table de routage de sous-réseau, afin d'acheminer le trafic vers l'interface réseau de l'appliance. La destination doit être moins spécifique que la destination de la route locale. Par exemple, pour du trafic destiné à Internet, spécifiez 0.0.0.0/0 (toutes les adresses IPv4) comme destination. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse du VPC Local 0.0.0.0/0 ID d'interface réseau de l'appliance Ensuite, dans la table de routage associée au sous-réseau de l'appliance, ajoutez un acheminement qui renvoie le trafic à la passerelle Internet ou à la passerelle réseau privé virtuel. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse du VPC Local 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id Acheminement du trafic inter-sous-réseaux vers une appliance Vous pouvez acheminer le trafic destiné à un sous-réseau spécifique vers l'interface réseau d'une appliance. Dans l'exemple suivant, le VPC contient deux sous-réseaux et une appliance. Le trafic entre les sous-réseaux est acheminé via une appliance. Groupes de sécurité Lorsque vous acheminez le trafic entre les instances de différents sous-réseaux via une appliance middlebox, les groupes de sécurité des deux instances doivent autoriser le trafic à transiter entre les instances. Le groupe de sécurité de chaque instance doit référencer l'adresse IP privée de l'autre instance ou la plage d'adresses CIDR du sous-réseau qui contient l'autre instance en tant que source. Si vous référencez le groupe de sécurité de l’autre instance en tant que source, cela n’autorise pas le trafic à transiter entre les instances. Routage Voici un exemple de table de routage pour le sous-réseau A. La première entrée autorise les instances du VPC à communiquer entre elles. La deuxième entrée achemine l'ensemble du trafic du sous-réseau A au sous-réseau B vers l'interface réseau de l'appliance. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse du VPC Local CIDR du sous-réseau B ID d'interface réseau de l'appliance Voici un exemple de table de routage pour le sous-réseau B. La première entrée autorise les instances du VPC à communiquer entre elles. La deuxième entrée achemine l'ensemble du trafic du sous-réseau B au sous-réseau A vers l'interface réseau de l'appliance. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse du VPC Local CIDR du sous-réseau A ID d'interface réseau de l'appliance Vous pouvez également remplacer la cible de l'acheminement local par l'interface réseau de l'appliance. Vous pouvez procéder ainsi pour faire en sorte que l'ensemble du trafic soit acheminé automatiquement vers l'appliance, y compris le trafic destiné aux sous-réseaux que vous ajouterez dans l'avenir au VPC. Destination Cible Bloc d'adresse CIDR du VPC ID d'interface réseau de l'appliance Routage à l'aide d'une liste de préfixes Si vous référencez fréquemment le même ensemble de blocs CIDR dans vos ressources AWS, vous pouvez créer une liste de préfixes gérée par le client pour les regrouper. Vous pouvez ensuite spécifier la liste de préfixes comme destination dans votre entrée de table de routage. Vous pouvez ajouter ou supprimer ultérieurement des entrées pour la liste de préfixes sans avoir à mettre à jour vos tables de routage. Par exemple, vous disposez d'une passerelle de transit avec plusieurs pièces jointes VPC. Les VPC doivent pouvoir communiquer avec deux pièces jointes VPC spécifiques qui ont les blocs CIDR suivants : 10.0.0.0/16 10.2.0.0/16 Vous créez une liste de préfixes avec les deux entrées. Dans vos tables de routage de sous-réseau, vous créez un itinéraire et spécifiez la liste de préfixes comme destination, et la passerelle de transit comme cible. Destination Cible 172.31.0.0/16 Local pl-123abc123abc123ab tgw-id Le nombre maximal d'entrées pour les listes de préfixes est égal au même nombre d'entrées dans la table de routage. Routage vers un point de terminaison d'équilibreur de charge de passerelle Un équilibreur de charge de passerelle vous permet de distribuer le trafic vers un parc d'appliances virtuelles, tels que des pare-feu. Vous pouvez créer un équilibreur de charge Gateway Load Balancer (GWLB), configurer un service de point de terminaison GWLB , puis créer un point de terminaison GWLB dans votre VPC pour connecter celui-ci au service. Pour acheminer votre trafic vers l'équilibreur de charge de passerelle (par exemple, pour une inspection de sécurité), spécifiez le point de terminaison de l'équilibreur de charge de passerelle comme cible dans vos tables de routage. Pour obtenir un exemple d'appliances de sécurité derrière un Gateway Load Balancer, consultez Configurer le routage et l’inspection du trafic middlebox dans un VPC . Pour spécifier le point de terminaison de l'équilibreur de charge de passerelle dans la table de routage, utilisez l'ID du point de terminaison d'un VPC. Par exemple, pour acheminer le trafic destiné à 10.0.1.0/24 vers un point de terminaison Gateway Load Balancer, ajoutez l'acheminement suivant. Destination Cible 10.0.1.0/24 vpc-endpoint-id Lorsque votre cible est un point de terminaison GWLB, vous ne pouvez pas spécifier de liste de préfixes comme destination. Si vous tentez de créer ou de remplacer une route de liste de préfixes ciblant un point de terminaison de VPC, vous recevrez le message d’erreur « Cannot create or replace a prefix list route targeting a VPC Endpoint ». Pour plus d'informations, consultez Gateway Load Balancers . JavaScript est désactivé ou n'est pas disponible dans votre navigateur. Pour que vous puissiez utiliser la documentation AWS, Javascript doit être activé. Vous trouverez des instructions sur les pages d'aide de votre navigateur. Conventions de rédaction Priorité d'acheminement Création d’une table de routage et de routes Cette page vous a-t-elle été utile ? - Oui Merci de nous avoir fait part de votre satisfaction. Si vous avez quelques minutes à nous consacrer, merci de nous indiquer ce qui vous a plu afin que nous puissions nous améliorer davantage. Cette page vous a-t-elle été utile ? - Non Merci de nous avoir avertis que cette page avait besoin d'être retravaillée. Nous sommes désolés de ne pas avoir répondu à vos attentes. Si vous avez quelques minutes à nous consacrer, merci de nous indiquer comment nous pourrions améliorer cette documentation. | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://www.iso.org/es/home/insights-news/resources/iso-9001-explained.html | ISO - ISO 9001 explained Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito ISO 9001 explained Why this guide People often search for basic explanations of ISO 9001, such as: • What ISO 9001 means • Who benefits from ISO 9001 • Who needs ISO 9001 certification • Why ISO 9001 is important • What are ISO 9001 requirements • Can individuals be ISO 9001 certified • How ISO 9001 works This guide provides a clear overview of the standard and its use, including how certification works, without implying that ISO performs certification. 1. What ISO 9001 is ISO 9001:2015 is the International Standard for quality management systems . It provides a framework that helps organizations deliver consistent products and services, improve efficiency and meet customer and regulatory expectations. It is used in almost every sector worldwide, including manufacturing, services, healthcare, education, construction, technology and public administration. ISO 9001 defines the globally agreed requirements for a quality management system but does not prescribe how an organization must operate. It provides structure, clarity and a basis for continual improvement. 2. Who benefits from ISO 9001 Organizations gain value from ISO 9001 when they want to strengthen reliability and performance. This includes: • small and medium-sized enterprises seeking credibility • manufacturers needing stable processes • service organizations wanting consistent delivery • public agencies aiming for transparency and trust ISO 9001 helps organizations reduce errors, improve satisfaction, and build long-term confidence with partners and customers. 3. Who uses certification for ISO 9001 Certification for ISO 9001 is voluntary. Organizations pursue it when they need an independent confirmation that they meet the requirements of ISO 9001:2015. It is commonly requested in situations such as: • supplier approval processes • government tenders • international partnerships • quality-sensitive sectors such as aerospace, pharmaceuticals, construction and IT ISO does not certify organizations . Certification is performed by independent certification bodies, which may themselves be accredited by national accreditation bodies. Individuals are not certified to ISO 9001, although they can complete auditor training or lead auditor qualifications. 4. Key ISO 9001 requirements The standard covers essential components of a quality management system, including: • leadership commitment and customer focus • the process approach • risk-based thinking • documented information • monitoring, measurement and performance evaluation • continual improvement These requirements help organizations understand how their processes function and where improvements can be made . 5. How ISO 9001 works in practice ISO 9001 can be used to develop a new quality management system or to strengthen an existing one . Organizations apply the standard by: • identifying their key processes • understanding customer needs • defining clear responsibilities • controlling variations and errors • collecting and using performance data • improving systems based on evidence Certification, if chosen, involves an audit by an independent certification body that evaluates the organization’s management system against ISO 9001:2015. 6. How ISO 9001 relates to other standards ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 ISO 9001 focuses on quality management. ISO 14001 focuses on environmental management. Many organizations use both to build integrated systems. Sector applications ISO 9001 is widely adapted across sectors such as aerospace, pharmaceuticals, manufacturing, education, software development and construction. These sector uses do not change the standard itself but apply it to different operational contexts. 7. Practical first steps with ISO 9001 Organizations can strengthen their quality management immediately with simple actions: • map processes and identify bottlenecks • gather customer feedback systematically • establish clear responsibilities and training • create or update documented information • review performance regularly • identify opportunities for improvement These steps build the foundation of a quality management system, even before considering certification. Takeaway ISO 9001:2015 provides a clear, internationally recognized structure for managing quality . Organizations adopt it to strengthen consistency, build trust, and improve performance . Explore Reference number ISO 9001:2015 © ISO 2026 International Standard ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems — Requirements Edition 5 2015-09 ISO 9001:2015 Sistemas de gestión de calidad — Requisitos Reference number ISO 9000:2015 © ISO 2026 International Standard ISO 9000:2015 Quality management systems — Fundamentals and vocabulary Edition 4 2015-09 ISO 9000:2015 Quality management systems — Fundamentals and vocabulary Perspectivas y actualidad Resources ISO 9001 explained Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . 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https://www.iso.org/es/normas | ISO - Normas Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Busque en nuestro catálogo Las normas ISO son el resultado de un acuerdo internacional entre expertos Piense en ellas como unas fórmulas que describen la mejor manera de hacer algo. Puede tratarse de la fabricación de un producto, la gestión de un proceso, la prestación de un servicio o el suministro de materiales: las normas abarcan una enorme variedad de actividades. Las normas representan los conocimientos de personas expertas en su materia y que conocen las necesidades de las empresas a las que representan: fabricantes, vendedores, compradores, clientes, asociaciones comerciales, usuarios o reguladores. Por ejemplo, Normas de gestión de la calidad para propulsar un ritmo de trabajo más eficaz y reducir los errores de los productos. Normas de gestión ambiental para ayudar a reducir el impacto ambiental, disminuir los residuos y ser más sostenibles. Normas de seguridad y salud para reducir los accidentes laborales. Normas de gestión de la energía para ayudar a reducir el consumo energético. Normas de inocuidad de los alimentos para evitar la contaminación de los alimentos. Normas de seguridad de la información para mantener segura la información confidencial. Consulte algunas de las normas más conocidas y utilizadas , así como las que abordan nuevos retos que nos afectan a todos. Explore ISO Open data para consultar conjuntos de datos legibles por máquina sobre normas ISO, comités técnicos y clasificaciones en CSV, JSON y Parquet. What ISO standards do for you Cuando las cosas no funcionan como deberían, seguramente es porque faltan normas. ISO 9001:2015 Sistemas de gestión de calidad ISO 9001 es la norma de gestión de calidad más conocida en el mundo y es empleada por empresas y organizaciones de todos los tamaños. ISO/IEC 27001:2022 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection Information security management systems – Requirements ISO 14001:2015 Sistemas de gestión ambiental Reduzca su impacto ambiental con este conjunto de normas. Tienda Are you looking to buy International Standards, guidelines, collections and checklists? They're all right here, in the ISO Store. Online Browsing Platform Access the most up to date content in ISO standards, graphical symbols, codes or terms and definitions. Preview content before you buy, search within documents and easily navigate between standards. Developing standards Find out how the ISO process bring together global experts to create standards that are chosen the world over. La ISO contribuye a todos los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible Aquí puede ver todas las normas ISO aplicables a cada objetivo. 473 711 4526 839 311 985 1489 3405 16729 817 3339 4054 1842 538 1408 351 12 Normas Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . 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https://docs.aws.amazon.com/es_es/vpc/latest/userguide/route-table-options.html | Opciones de enrutamiento de ejemplo - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Opciones de enrutamiento de ejemplo - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Documentación Amazon VPC Guía del usuario Enrutar a una puerta de enlace de Internet Enrutar a un dispositivo NAT Enrutar a una puerta de enlace privada virtual Enrutamiento a una puerta de enlace local de AWS Outposts Enrutar a una interconexión de VPC Enrutar a un punto de enlace de la VPC de la puerta de enlace Enrutar a la puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida Enrutar para una transit puerta de enlace Enrutamiento para un dispositivo middlebox Enrutamiento mediante una lista de prefijos Enrutamiento a un punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace Opciones de enrutamiento de ejemplo Los temas siguientes describen el direccionamiento de puerta de enlaces o conexiones específicas de su VPC. Contenido Enrutar a una puerta de enlace de Internet Enrutar a un dispositivo NAT Enrutar a una puerta de enlace privada virtual Enrutamiento a una puerta de enlace local de AWS Outposts Enrutar a una interconexión de VPC Enrutar a un punto de enlace de la VPC de la puerta de enlace Enrutar a la puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida Enrutar para una transit puerta de enlace Enrutamiento para un dispositivo middlebox Enrutamiento mediante una lista de prefijos Enrutamiento a un punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace Enrutar a una puerta de enlace de Internet Puede convertir una subred en una subred pública añadiendo una ruta en su tabla de enrutamiento de la subred hacia una puerta de enlace de Internet. Para ello, cree y adjunte una puerta de enlace de Internet a su VPC. A continuación, añada una ruta con el destino 0.0.0.0/0 para el tráfico IPv4 o con el destino ::/0 para el tráfico IPv6, así como un objetivo para el ID de la puerta de enlace de Internet ( igw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Destino Objetivo 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id ::/0 igw-id Para obtener más información, consulte Activación del acceso a Internet de una VPC con una puerta de enlace de Internet . Enrutar a un dispositivo NAT Para habilitar instancias en una subred privada para conectarse a Internet, puede crear una puerta de enlace NAT o lanzar una instancia NAT en una subred pública. A continuación, agregue una ruta para la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred privada que dirija el tráfico de Internet de IPv4 ( 0.0.0.0/0 ) al dispositivo NAT. Destino Objetivo 0.0.0.0/0 nat-puerta de enlace-id También puede crear rutas más específicas a otros objetivos para evitar cargos innecesarios de procesamiento de datos innecesarios por utilizar la puerta de enlace NAT o para dirigir el tráfico de forma privada. En el siguiente ejemplo, el tráfico de Amazon S3 (pl-xxxxxxxx, una lista de prefijos que contiene los rangos de direcciones IP para Amazon S3 en una región específica) se enruta al punto de conexión de VPC de la puerta de enlace y el tráfico 10.25.0.0/16 se enruta a una conexión de emparejamiento de VPC. Estos rangos de direcciones IP son más específicos que 0.0.0.0/0. Cuando las instancias envían tráfico a Amazon S3 o a la VPC interconectada, el tráfico se envía al punto de enlace de la VPC de la puerta de enlace o a la interconexión de la VPC. El resto del tráfico se envía a la puerta de enlace NAT. Destino Objetivo 0.0.0.0/0 nat-puerta de enlace-id pl- xxxxxxxx vpce-id 10.25.0.0/16 pcx-id Para obtener más información, consulte Dispositivos NAT . Enrutar a una puerta de enlace privada virtual Puede utilizar una conexión de AWS Site-to-Site VPN para permitir que las instancias de su VPC se comuniquen con su propia red. Para ello, cree y adjunte una puerta de enlace privada virtual a su VPC. A continuación, agregue una ruta en la tabla de enrutamiento de subred con el destino de la red y un objetivo de la puerta de enlace privada virtual ( vgw-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ). Destino Objetivo 10.0.0.0/16 vgw-id A continuación, puede crear y configurar la conexión de Site-to-Site VPN. Para obtener más información, consulte ¿Qué es AWS Site-to-Site VPN? y Tablas de enrutamiento y prioridad de las rutas de VPN en la Guía del usuario de AWS Site-to-Site VPN . Una conexión de Site-to-Site VPN en una puerta de enlace privada virtual no admite tráfico IPv6. Sin embargo, sí que se admite el direccionamiento de tráfico IPv6 a través de puerta de enlaces privadas virtuales a conexiones de Direct Connect. Para obtener más información, consulte la Guía del usuario de Direct Connect . Enrutamiento a una puerta de enlace local de AWS Outposts En esta sección se describen las configuraciones de la tabla de enrutamiento para el direccionamiento a una puerta de enlace local de AWS Outposts. Contenido Habilite el tráfico entre las subredes de Outpost y la red en las instalaciones Habilite el tráfico entre subredes de la misma VPC en Outposts Habilite el tráfico entre las subredes de Outpost y la red en las instalaciones Las subredes que se encuentran en VPC asociadas a AWS Outposts pueden tener un tipo de objetivo adicional de una puerta de enlace local. Tenga en cuenta el caso en el que desea que la puerta de enlace local dirija el tráfico con una dirección de destino de 192.168.10.0/24 a la red del cliente. Para ello, añada la siguiente ruta con la red de destino y un objetivo de la puerta de enlace local ( lgw-xxxx ). Destino Objetivo 192.168.10.0/24 lgw-id Habilite el tráfico entre subredes de la misma VPC en Outposts Para establecer la comunicación entre las subredes que se encuentran en la misma VPC en diferentes Outposts, utilice las puertas de enlace locales de Outpost y la red en las instalaciones. Puede utilizar esta característica para crear arquitecturas similares a las arquitecturas de las zonas de disponibilidad (AZ) múltiple para las aplicaciones en las instalaciones que se ejecutan en los bastidores de Outposts mediante el establecimiento de conectividad entre bastidores de Outposts que están anclados a diferentes zonas de disponibilidad. Para habilitar esta característica, agregue una ruta a la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred del bastidor de Outpost que sea más específica que la ruta local de esa tabla de enrutamiento y que tenga un tipo de destino de puerta de enlace local. El destino de la ruta debe coincidir con el bloque completo de IPv4 de una subred de su VPC que se encuentra en otro Outpost. Repita esta configuración en todas las subredes de Outpost que necesiten comunicarse. importante Para usar esta característica, debe utilizar el enrutamiento directo de VPC . No puede usar direcciones IP propiedad de los clientes . La red en las instalaciones a la que están conectadas las puertas de enlace locales de Outposts debe tener el direccionamiento necesario para que se pueda acceder de una subred a otra. Si desea usar grupos de seguridad para los recursos de las subredes, debe utilizar reglas que incluyan rangos de direcciones IP como origen o destino en las subredes de Outpost. No puede usar los ID de los grupos de seguridad. Es posible que sea necesario actualizar los bastidores de Outposts existentes para permitir la comunicación dentro de la VPC entre varios Outposts. Si esta característica no funciona, póngase en contacto con el servicio de soporte de AWS . ejemplo Ejemplo Para una VPC con un CIDR de 10.0.0.0/16, una subred de Outpost 1 con un CIDR de 10.0.1.0/24 y una subred de Outpost 2 con un CIDR de 10.0.2.0/24, la entrada para la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred de Outpost 1 sería la siguiente: Destino Objetivo 10.0.0.0/16 Local 10.0.2.0/24 lgw-1-id La entrada para la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred de Outpost 2 sería la siguiente: Destino Objetivo 10.0.0.0/16 Local 10.0.1.0/24 lgw-2-id Enrutar a una interconexión de VPC Una interconexión de VPC es una conexión de redes entre dos VPC que permite direccionar el tráfico entre ellas mediante direcciones IPv4 privadas. Las instancias de ambas VPC se pueden comunicar entre sí si forman parte de la misma red. Para permitir el direccionamiento de tráfico entre VPC en una interconexión de VPC, debe añadir una ruta hacia una o varias tabas de ruteo de la subred que apunten a la interconexión de VPC. Esto le permite acceder a todo o a parte del bloque de CIDR de la otra VPC en la interconexión. Del mismo modo, el propietario de la otra VPC deberá añadir una ruta a sus tablas de ruteo de la subred para direccionar el tráfico de vuelta a su VPC. Supongamos que, por ejemplo, tiene una interconexión de VPC ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) entre dos VPC con la información siguiente: VPC A: bloque de CIDR 10.0.0.0/16 VPC B: bloque de CIDR 172.31.0.0/16 Para permitir el tráfico entre las VPC y facilitar el acceso a la totalidad del bloque de CIDR IPv4 de ambas VPC, la tabla de enrutamiento de la VPC A debe configurarse como se indica a continuación. Destino Objetivo 10.0.0.0/16 Local 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 La tabla de enrutamiento de la VPC B debe configurarse como se indica a continuación. Destino Objetivo 172.31.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 La interconexión de la VPC también puede admitir la comunicación IPv6 entre instancias en las VPC, si las VPC y las instancias admiten la comunicación IPv6. Para permitir el direccionamiento de tráfico IPv6 entre las VPC, debe añadir una ruta a la tabla de enrutamiento que apunte a la interconexión de la VPC para, de este modo, obtener acceso a la totalidad o a parte del bloque de CIDR IPv6 de la VPC del mismo nivel. Supongamos que, por ejemplo, con la misma interconexión de VPC ( pcx-11223344556677889 ) anterior, las VPC tienen la información siguiente: VPC A: bloque de CIDR IPv6 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 VPC B: bloque de CIDR IPv6 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 Para permitir la comunicación IPv6 a través de la interconexión de VPC, añada la ruta siguiente a la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred para la VPC A. Destino Objetivo 10.0.0.0/16 Local 172.31.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:5678:2b00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Añada la siguiente ruta a la tabla de enrutamiento de la VPC B. Destino Objetivo 172.31.0.0/16 Local 10.0.0.0/16 pcx-11223344556677889 2001:db8:1234:1a00::/56 pcx-11223344556677889 Para obtener más información acerca de las interconexiones de VPC, consulte la Guía de interconexión de Amazon VPC . Enrutar a un punto de enlace de la VPC de la puerta de enlace Un punto de enlace de la VPC de la puerta de enlace permite crear una conexión privada entre la VPC y otros servicios de AWS. Cuando crea un punto de enlace de la puerta de enlace, especifica las tablas de ruteo de la subred en su VPC que utiliza el punto de enlace de la puerta de enlace. Se añadirá automáticamente una ruta a cada una de las tablas de ruteo con el ID de la lista de prefijos del servicio ( pl- xxxxxxxx ) como destino y el ID del punto de conexión ( vpce- xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ) como objetivo. No es posible eliminar ni modificar de manera explícita la ruta del punto de conexión; sin embargo, es posible cambiar las tablas de ruteo que utiliza el punto de conexión. Para obtener más información acerca del enrutamiento para puntos de enlace y las implicaciones de las rutas a servicios de AWS, consulte Enrutamiento para puntos de enlace de puerta de enlace . Enrutar a la puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida Puede crear puerta de enlaces de Internet de solo salida para su VPC para permitir que las instancias de subredes privadas inicien comunicaciones salientes a Internet evitando que Internet inicie conexiones con dichas instancias. La puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida se utiliza únicamente para el tráfico IPv6. Para configurar el direccionamiento de la puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida, añada una ruta a la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred privada que direccione el tráfico de Internet IPv6 ( ::/0 ) a la puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida. Destino Objetivo ::/0 eigw-id Para obtener más información, consulte Habilitar el tráfico IPv6 saliente mediante una puerta de enlace de Internet de solo salida . Enrutar para una transit puerta de enlace Al asociar una VPC a una transit puerta de enlace, debe agregar una ruta a la tabla de enrutamiento de subredes para que el tráfico se enrute a través de la transit puerta de enlace. Considere el siguiente escenario, en el que tiene tres VPC asociadas a una transit puerta de enlace. En este escenario, todas las conexiones se asocian a la tabla de enrutamiento de la transit puerta de enlace y se propagan a la tabla de enrutamiento de la transit puerta de enlace. Por lo tanto, todas las conexiones pueden enrutar paquetes entre sí y la transit puerta de enlace actúa como un simple hub de IP de capa 3. Supongamos que, por ejemplo, tiene dos VPC con la información siguiente: VPC A: 10.1.0.0/16, ID de vinculación tgw-attach-11111111111111111 VPC B: 10.2.0.0/16, ID de vinculación tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Para permitir el tráfico entre las VPC y permitir el acceso a la transit puerta de enlace, la tabla de enrutamiento de la VPC A debe configurarse como se muestra a continuación. Destino Objetivo 10.1.0.0/16 local 10.0.0.0/8 tgw-id A continuación, se muestra un ejemplo de las entradas de las tablas de enrutamiento de transit puerta de enlace para las conexiones de VPC. Destino Objetivo 10.1.0.0/16 tgw-attach-11111111111111111 10.2.0.0/16 tgw-attach-22222222222222222 Para obtener más información acerca de las tablas de enrutamiento de la transit puerta de enlace, consulte Enrutamiento en Tansit puerta de enlaces de Amazon VPC . Enrutamiento para un dispositivo middlebox Puede agregar dispositivos middlebox a las vías de enrutamiento de su VPC. Estos son algunos casos de uso posibles: Intercepte el tráfico que ingresa a la VPC a través de una puerta de enlace de Internet o una puerta de enlace privada virtual, redirigiéndolo a un dispositivo middlebox en su VPC. Puede usar el asistente de enrutamiento de middlebox para que AWS configure automáticamente las tablas de enrutamiento adecuadas para la puerta de enlace, el middlebox y la subred de destino. Para obtener más información, consulte Asistente de enrutamiento de Middlebox . Dirija el tráfico entre dos subredes a un dispositivo de middlebox. Puede hacerlo creando una ruta para una tabla de enrutamientos de subred que coincida con la subred CIDR de la otra subred y especifique un punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace, una puerta de enlace NAT, un punto de enlace de Network Firewall o la interfaz de red de un dispositivo como destino. Como alternativa, para redirigir todo el tráfico de la subred a cualquier otra subred, reemplace el destino de la ruta local por un punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace, puerta de enlace NAT o interfaz de red. Puede configurar el dispositivo para que se adapte a sus necesidades. Por ejemplo, puede configurar un dispositivo de seguridad que cribase todo el tráfico o un dispositivo de aceleración WAN. El dispositivo se implementa como una instancia Amazon EC2 en una subred de la VPC y se representa mediante una interfaz de red elástica (interfaz de red) en la subred. Si habilita la propagación de enrutamientos en la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred de destino, tenga en cuenta la prioridad de las rutas. La ruta más específica es la que tiene mayor prioridad y, en caso de que coincidan, las rutas estáticas tendrán prioridad sobre las rutas propagadas. Revise las rutas para asegurarse de que el tráfico se direcciona correctamente y de que no produzcan consecuencias no deseadas si habilita o deshabilita la propagación de rutas (por ejemplo, la propagación de rutas es necesaria en una conexión Direct Connect que admita tramas jumbo). Para dirigir el tráfico de VPC entrante a un dispositivo, asocie una tabla de enrutamiento a la puerta de enlace de Internet o a la puerta de enlace privada virtual y especifique la interfaz de red del dispositivo como objetivo para el tráfico de la VPC. Para obtener más información, consulte Tablas de ruteo de puerta de enlace . También puede dirigir el tráfico saliente de la subred a un dispositivo middlebox de otra subred. Para ver ejemplos de enrutamiento de middlebox, consulte Escenarios de Middlebox . Contenido Consideraciones sobre el dispositivo Enrutamiento del tráfico entre una puerta de enlace y un dispositivo Enrutamiento del tráfico entre subredes a un dispositivo Consideraciones sobre el dispositivo Puede elegir un dispositivo de terceros de AWS Marketplace o configurar su propio dispositivo. Al crear o configurar un dispositivo, tenga en cuenta lo siguiente: El dispositivo debe configurarse en una subred independiente para el tráfico de origen o destino. Debe deshabilitar la comprobación de origen/destino en el dispositivo. Para obtener más información, consulte Cambio de la comprobación de origen o destino en la Guía del usuario de Amazon EC2 . No se puede dirigir el tráfico entre hosts de la misma subred a través de un dispositivo. El dispositivo no tiene que realizar la conversión de las direcciones de red (NAT). Puede agregar una ruta a sus tablas de enrutamiento que sea más específica que la ruta local. Puede utilizar rutas más específicas para redirigir el tráfico entre subredes dentro de una VPC (tráfico Este-Oeste) a un dispositivo de Middlebox. El destino de la ruta debe coincidir con el bloque de CIDR IPv4 o IPv6 de una subred de su VPC. Para interceptar el tráfico IPv6, asegúrese de que la VPC, la subred y el dispositivo sean compatibles con IPv6. Enrutamiento del tráfico entre una puerta de enlace y un dispositivo Para dirigir el tráfico de VPC entrante a un dispositivo, asocie una tabla de enrutamiento a la puerta de enlace de Internet o a la puerta de enlace privada virtual y especifique la interfaz de red del dispositivo como objetivo para el tráfico de la VPC. En el ejemplo siguiente, la VPC tiene una puerta de enlace de Internet, un dispositivo y una subred con instancias. El tráfico de Internet se dirige a través de un dispositivo. Asocie esta tabla de enrutamiento con su puerta de enlace de Internet o puerta de enlace privada virtual. La primera entrada es la ruta local. La segunda entrada envía el tráfico IPv4 destinado a la subred a la interfaz de red del dispositivo. Esta ruta es más específica que la ruta local. Destino Objetivo CIDR DE VPC Local CIDR de subred ID de interfaz de red del dispositivo También puede sustituir el objetivo de la ruta local por la interfaz de red del dispositivo. Puede hacerlo para asegurarse de que todo el tráfico se dirige automáticamente al dispositivo, incluido el tráfico destinado a las subredes que agregue a la VPC más adelante. Destino Objetivo CIDR de VPC ID de interfaz de red del dispositivo Para dirigir el tráfico de la subred a un dispositivo de otra subred, añada una ruta a la tabla de enrutamiento de la subred que dirige el tráfico a la interfaz de red del dispositivo. El destino debe ser menos específico que el destino de la ruta local. Por ejemplo, para el tráfico destinado a Internet, especifique 0.0.0.0/0 (todas las direcciones IPv4) para el destino. Destino Objetivo CIDR DE VPC Local 0.0.0.0/0 ID de interfaz de red del dispositivo A continuación, en la tabla de enrutamientos asociada a la subred del dispositivo, agregue una ruta que envíe el tráfico a la puerta de enlace de Internet o a la puerta de enlace privada virtual. Destino Objetivo CIDR DE VPC Local 0.0.0.0/0 igw-id Enrutamiento del tráfico entre subredes a un dispositivo Puede enrutar el tráfico destinado a una subred específica a la interfaz de red de un dispositivo. En el ejemplo siguiente, la VPC contiene dos subredes y un dispositivo. No se puede dirigir el tráfico entre subredes a través de un dispositivo. Grupos de seguridad Al enrutar el tráfico entre instancias en subredes diferentes a través de un dispositivo de middlebox, los grupos de seguridad de ambas instancias deben permitir que el tráfico fluya entre las instancias. El grupo de seguridad de cada instancia debe hacer referencia a la dirección IP privada de la otra instancia, o al rango CIDR de la subred que contiene la otra instancia, como fuente. Si hace referencia al grupo de seguridad de la otra instancia como fuente, esto no permite que el tráfico fluya entre las instancias. Enrutamiento A continuación se muestra un ejemplo de tabla de enrutamiento para la subred A. La primera entrada habilita a las instancias de la VPC para que se comuniquen entre sí. La segunda entrada dirige todo el tráfico de la subred A a la subred B a la interfaz de red del dispositivo. Destino Objetivo CIDR DE VPC Local CIDR de subred B ID de interfaz de red del dispositivo A continuación se muestra un ejemplo de tabla de rutas para la subred B. La primera entrada habilita a las instancias de la VPC a comunicarse entre sí. La segunda entrada enruta todo el tráfico de la subred B a la subred A a la interfaz de red del dispositivo. Destino Objetivo CIDR DE VPC Local CIDR de subred A ID de interfaz de red del dispositivo También puede sustituir el objetivo de la ruta local por la interfaz de red del dispositivo. Puede hacerlo para asegurarse de que todo el tráfico se dirige automáticamente al dispositivo, incluido el tráfico destinado a las subredes que agregue a la VPC más adelante. Destino Objetivo CIDR de VPC ID de interfaz de red del dispositivo Enrutamiento mediante una lista de prefijos Si hace referencia con frecuencia al mismo conjunto de bloques de CIDR en sus recursos de AWS, puede crear una lista de prefijos administrada por el cliente para agruparlos. A continuación, puede especificar la lista de prefijos como destino en la entrada de la tabla de enrutamiento. Posteriormente, puede agregar o quitar entradas para la lista de prefijos sin necesidad de actualizar las tablas de ruteo. Por ejemplo, tiene una transit puerta de enlace con varios archivos adjuntos de VPC. Las VPC deben poder comunicarse con dos adjuntos VPC específicos que tengan los siguientes bloques de CIDR: 10.0.0.0/16 10.2.0.0/16 Usted crea una lista de prefijos con ambas entradas. En las tablas de ruteo de subred, se crea una ruta y se especifica la lista de prefijos como destino y la transit puerta de enlace como destino. Destino Objetivo 172.31.0.0/16 Local pl-123abc123abc123ab tgw-id El número máximo de entradas para las listas de prefijos es igual al mismo número de entradas en la tabla de enrutamiento. Enrutamiento a un punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace Un equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace le permite distribuir tráfico a una flota de dispositivos virtuales, como firewalls. Puede crear un equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace, configurar un servicio de punto de conexión del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace , y luego crear un punto de conexión del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace en su VPC para conectarla al servicio. Para direccionar el tráfico al equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace (por ejemplo, para la inspección de seguridad), especifique el punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace como destino en las tablas de enrutamiento. Para obtener un ejemplo de dispositivos de seguridad detrás de un equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace, consulte Configuración del enrutamiento y la inspección del tráfico de middlebox en una VPC . Para especificar el punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace en la tabla de enrutamiento, utilice el ID del punto de enlace de la VPC. Por ejemplo, para dirigir el tráfico de 10.0.1.0/24 a un punto de enlace del equilibrador de carga de puerta de enlace, agregue la siguiente ruta. Destino Objetivo 10.0.1.0/24 vpc-endpoint-id Cuando se utiliza un punto de conexión del equilibrador de carga de la puerta de enlace como destino, no se puede especificar una lista de prefijos como destino. Si intenta crear o reemplazar una ruta de lista de prefijos dirigida a un punto de conexión de VPC, recibirá el error: “No se puede crear ni reemplazar una ruta de lista de prefijos dirigida a un punto de conexión de VPC”. Para obtener más información, consulte Balanceadores de carga de puerta de enlace . JavaScript está desactivado o no está disponible en su navegador. Para utilizar la documentación de AWS, debe estar habilitado JavaScript. Para obtener más información, consulte las páginas de ayuda de su navegador. Convenciones del documento Prioridad de la ruta Creación de una tabla de enrutamiento y rutas ¿Le ha servido de ayuda esta página? - Sí Gracias por hacernos saber que estamos haciendo un buen trabajo. Si tiene un momento, díganos qué es lo que le ha gustado para que podamos seguir trabajando en esa línea. ¿Le ha servido de ayuda esta página? - No Gracias por informarnos de que debemos trabajar en esta página. Lamentamos haberle defraudado. Si tiene un momento, díganos cómo podemos mejorar la documentación. | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://www.iso.org/es/sectores/ingenieria | ISO - Ingeniería Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Ingeniería Dibujos y símbolos Soldadura Automatización industrial Robótica Elementos de fijación Fabricación aditiva Nanotecnologías Otros Las normas forman la base de la precisión, la seguridad y la innovación en diversos campos tecnológicos, garantizando la coherencia y la fiabilidad en las prácticas de ingeniería a nivel mundial. Normas esenciales ISO 15223-1 Medical devices — Symbols to be used with information to be supplied by the manufacturer Part 1: General requirements Publicado en 2021 CHF 196 ISO 14644-5 Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments Part 5: Operations Publicado en 2025 CHF 155 ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products — Visual assessment of surface cleanliness Part 1: Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates after overall removal of previous coatings Publicado en 2007 CHF 452 ISO 14644-1 Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments Part 1: Classification of air cleanliness by particle concentration Revisado en 2021 CHF 196 ISO 7010 Graphical symbols — Safety colours and safety signs — Registered safety signs Publicado en 2019 CHF 227 ISO 14644-4 Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments Part 4: Design, construction and start-up Publicado en 2022 CHF 225 ISO 4407 Hydraulic fluid power — Fluid contamination — Determination of particulate contamination by the counting method using an optical microscope Publicado en 2025 CHF 135 Cargar más Perspectivas Identificar peligros de SST y gestionar riesgos Las personas son la base de cualquier empresa. Por eso, es esencial ser plenamente consciente de los peligros de SST, desarrollar estrategias para reducir los riesgos y promover una cultura que mantenga protegido a su personal. Almacenamiento de energía: el motor del futuro de la energía renovable Desde la compacta batería de iones de litio que impulsa su bicicleta eléctrica hasta las colosales soluciones a escala de red capaces de mantener en marcha barrios enteros, el almacenamiento de energía es la fórmula secreta que hace que la energía renovable sea confiable las veinticuatro horas del día. The circular economy: building trust through conformity assessment Standards and conformity assessment provide assurance on aspects of the circular economy including product lifetime and recyclability, safety and efficiency. Sectores Ingeniería Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . Inscríbase para recibir actualizaciones por correo electrónico © Reservados todos los derechos Todos los materiales y publicaciones de ISO están protegidos por derechos de autor y sujetos a la aceptación por parte del usuario de las condiciones de derechos de autor de ISO. Cualquier uso, incluida la reproducción, requiere nuestra autorización por escrito. Dirija todas las solicitudes relacionadas con los derechos de autor a copyright@iso.org . Nos comprometemos a garantizar que nuestro sitio web sea accesible para todo el mundo. Si tiene alguna pregunta o sugerencia relacionada con la accesibilidad de este sitio web, póngase en contacto con nosotros. Añadir al carrito | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://support.microsoft.com/zh-cn/windows/%E5%9C%A8-microsoft-edge-%E4%B8%AD%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86-cookie-%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B-%E5%85%81%E8%AE%B8-%E9%98%BB%E6%AD%A2-%E5%88%A0%E9%99%A4%E5%92%8C%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | 在 Microsoft Edge 中管理 Cookie：查看、允许、阻止、删除和使用 - Microsoft 支持 相关主题 × Windows 安全、安全和隐私 概述 安全性、安全和隐私概述 Windows 安全中心 获取有关 Windows 安全的帮助 通过 Windows 安全获得长久保护 在回收、销售或赠送 Xbox 或 Windows 电脑之前 从 Windows 电脑中移除恶意软件 Windows 安全 获取有关 Windows 安全的帮助 在 Microsoft Edge 中查看和删除浏览器历史记录 删除和管理 Cookie 重新安装 Windows 时安全移除有价值的内容 查找并锁定丢失的 Windows 设备 Windows 隐私 获取有关 Windows 隐私的帮助 应用使用的 Windows 隐私设置 在隐私仪表板上查看你的数据 跳转至主内容 Microsoft 支持 支持 支持 主页 Microsoft 365 Office 产品 Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows 更多信息 ... 设备 Surface 电脑配件 Xbox PC 游戏 HoloLens Surface Hub 硬件保修 帐户和计费 帐户 Microsoft Store 和计费 资源 新增功能 社区论坛 Microsoft 365 管理员 小型企业门户 开发人员 教育 上报支持欺诈 产品安全 更多 购买 Microsoft 365 所有 Microsoft Global Microsoft 365 Teams Windows Surface Xbox 折扣专区 企业购 支持 软件 软件 Windows 应用 AI OneDrive Outlook 从 Skype 转到 Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams PC 和设备 PC 和设备 购买 Xbox PC 和平板电脑 配件 娱乐 娱乐 Xbox 与游戏 PC 游戏 企业 企业 Microsoft 安全 Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 商业版 Microsoft 行业 Microsoft Power Platform 开发人员与 IT 开发人员与 IT Microsoft 开发人员 Microsoft Learn 支持 AI 商城应用 Microsoft 技术社区 Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards 其他 其他 免费下载与安全性 教育 查看站点地图 搜索 搜索帮助 无结果 取消 登录 使用 Microsoft 登录 登录或创建帐户。 你好， 使用其他帐户。 你有多个帐户 选择要登录的帐户。 相关主题 Windows 安全、安全和隐私 概述 安全性、安全和隐私概述 Windows 安全中心 获取有关 Windows 安全的帮助 通过 Windows 安全获得长久保护 在回收、销售或赠送 Xbox 或 Windows 电脑之前 从 Windows 电脑中移除恶意软件 Windows 安全 获取有关 Windows 安全的帮助 在 Microsoft Edge 中查看和删除浏览器历史记录 删除和管理 Cookie 重新安装 Windows 时安全移除有价值的内容 查找并锁定丢失的 Windows 设备 Windows 隐私 获取有关 Windows 隐私的帮助 应用使用的 Windows 隐私设置 在隐私仪表板上查看你的数据 在 Microsoft Edge 中管理 Cookie：查看、允许、阻止、删除和使用 应用对象 Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Cookie 是你访问的网站存储在设备上的小块数据。 它们有多种用途，例如记住登录凭据、站点首选项和跟踪用户行为。 但是，出于隐私原因或解决浏览问题，你可能想要删除 Cookie。 本文提供有关如何： 查看所有 Cookie 允许所有 Cookie 允许来自特定网站的 Cookie 阻止第三方 Cookie “阻止所有 Cookie” 阻止来自特定站点的 Cookie 删除所有 Cookie 删除特定网站中的 Cookie 每次关闭浏览器时都删除 Cookie 使用 Cookie 预加载页面以加快浏览速度 查看所有 Cookie 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 “设置” > “隐私”、“搜索和服务 ”。 选择 “Cookie” ，然后单击“ 查看所有 Cookie 和站点数据 ”，查看所有存储的 Cookie 和相关站点信息。 允许所有 Cookie 通过允许 Cookie，网站将能够在你的浏览器中保存和检索数据，这可以通过记住你的首选项和登录信息来增强你的浏览体验。 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 “设置” > “隐私”、“搜索和服务 ”。 选择 “Cookie” 并启用“ 允许站点保存和读取 Cookie 数据 (建议) 以允许所有 Cookie 的切换。 允许来自特定站点的 Cookie 通过允许 Cookie，网站将能够在你的浏览器中保存和检索数据，这可以通过记住你的首选项和登录信息来增强你的浏览体验。 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 “设置” > “隐私”、“搜索和服务 ”。 选择 “Cookie” 并转到 “允许”以保存 Cookie。 选择“ 添加站点 ”，通过输入站点的 URL，允许每个站点的 Cookie。 阻止第三方 Cookie 如果你不希望第三方站点在你的电脑上存储 Cookie，则可以阻止 Cookie。 但是执行此操作可能会导致某些页面无法正确显示，或者可能会从站点收到一条消息，通知你需要允许 Cookie 才能查看该站点。 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 “设置” > “隐私”、“搜索和服务 ”。 选择“ Cookie” 并启用“ 阻止第三方 Cookie”切换。 “阻止所有 Cookie” 如果你不希望第三方站点在你的电脑上存储 Cookie，则可以阻止 Cookie。 但是执行此操作可能会导致某些页面无法正确显示，或者可能会从站点收到一条消息，通知你需要允许 Cookie 才能查看该站点。 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 “设置” > “隐私”、“搜索和服务 ”。 选择 “Cookie” 并禁用 “允许站点保存和读取 cookie 数据 (建议) 阻止所有 Cookie。 阻止来自特定站点的 Cookie Microsoft Edge 允许阻止来自特定网站的 Cookie，但这样做可能会阻止某些页面正确显示，或者你可能会从网站收到一条消息，告知你需要允许 Cookie 查看该网站。 阻止来自特定站点的 Cookie： 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 “设置” > “隐私”、“搜索和服务 ”。 选择 “Cookie” 并转到 “不允许保存和读取 Cookie ”。 选择 “添加 站点 ”，通过输入站点的 URL 来阻止每个站点的 Cookie。 删除所有 Cookie 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 设置>“ > 隐私、搜索和服务 。 选择“ 清除浏览数据 ”，然后选择“ 立即清除浏览数据 ”旁边的“ 选择要清除的内容 ”。 在 时间范围 下，选择时间范围。 选择 “Cookie 和其他网站数据” ，然后选择 “立即清除” 。 注意: 或者，可以同时按 Ctrl + SHIFT + DELETE ，然后继续执行步骤 4 和 5，删除 Cookie。 现在将删除所选时间范围内的所有 Cookie 和其他站点数据。 这会使你从大多数站点退出登录。 删除特定网站中的 Cookie 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择 “设置”和“更多 > 设置 > 隐私、搜索和服务 ”。 选择 “Cookie” ，然后单击“ 查看所有 Cookie 和站点数据 ”，并搜索要删除其 Cookie 的站点。 选择要删除其 Cookie 的网站右侧的向下箭头 ，然后选择 删除 。 所选站点的 Cookie 现在已删除。 对要删除其 Cookie 的任何网站重复此步骤。 每次关闭浏览器时都删除 Cookie 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择 “设置和更多 > 设置 > 隐私、搜索和服务 ”。 选择“ 清除浏览数据 ”，然后选择“ 选择每次关闭浏览器时要清除的内容 ”。 打开 Cookie 和其他网站数据 切换开关。 启用此功能后，每次关闭 Edge 浏览器时，都会删除所有 Cookie 和其他站点数据。 这会使你从大多数站点退出登录。 使用 Cookie 预加载页面以加快浏览速度 打开 Edge 浏览器，选择浏览器窗口右上角的 “设置”等 。 选择 设置>“ > 隐私、搜索和服务 。 选择 “Cookie” 并启用切换“ 预加载页面”以加快浏览和搜索速度。 订阅 RSS 源 需要更多帮助? 需要更多选项? 发现 社区 联系我们 了解订阅权益、浏览培训课程、了解如何保护设备等。 Microsoft 365 订阅权益 Microsoft 365 培训 Microsoft 安全性 辅助功能中心 社区可帮助你提出和回答问题、提供反馈，并听取经验丰富专家的意见。 咨询 Microsoft 社区 Microsoft 技术社区 Windows 预览体验成员 Microsoft 365 预览体验 查找常见问题的解决方案或从支持代理获取帮助。 联机支持 此信息是否有帮助? 是 否 谢谢!还有关于 Microsoft 的反馈吗? 你能帮助我们改进吗? 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https://support.microsoft.com/ar-sa/account-billing/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB-%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-windows-%D9%85%D9%81%D9%82%D9%88%D8%AF-%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87-890bf25e-b8ba-d3fe-8253-e98a12f26316 | البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وتأمينه - دعم Microsoft المواضيع ذات الصلة × الأمن والأمان والخصوصية في Windows نظرة عامة نظرة عامة على الأمان والسلامة والخصوصية أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows المحافظة على الحماية باستخدام أمان Windows قبل إعادة تدوير أو بيع أو إهداء جهاز Xbox أو جهاز الكمبيوتر الشخصي الذي يعمل بنظام Windows إزالة البرامج الضارة من كمبيوتر Windows أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows عرض محفوظات المستعرض وحذفها في Microsoft Edge حذف ملفات تعريف الارتباط وإدارتها إزالة المحتوى القيم بأمان عند إعادة تثبيت Windows البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وتأمينه خصوصية Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول خصوصية Windows إعدادات الخصوصية في Windows التي تستخدمها التطبيقات عرض بياناتك على لوحة معلومات الخصوصية تخطي إلى المحتوى الرئيسي Microsoft الدعم الدعم الدعم الصفحة الرئيسية Microsoft 365 Office المنتجات Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows المزيد ... الأجهزة Surface ملحقات الكمبيوتر Xbox ألعاب الكمبيوتر HoloLens Surface Hub ضمانات الأجهزة الحساب & والفوترة حساب Microsoft Store &والفوترة الموارد أحدث الميزات منتديات المجتمعات Microsoft 365 للمسؤولين مدخل الشركات الصغيرة المطور التعليم الإبلاغ عن دعم احتيالي أمان المنتج المزيد شراء Microsoft 365 Microsoft بالكامل Global Microsoft 365 Office Copilot Windows Surface Xbox الدعم Software Software تطبيقات Windows الذكاء الاصطناعي OneDrive Outlook انتقال من Skype إلى Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams PCs & Devices PCs & Devices تسوق للحصول على Xbox Accessories Entertainment Entertainment Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox Game Pass Essential Xbox والألعاب ألعاب الكمبيوتر الشخصي اعمال اعمال الأمان من Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 for business صناعة Microsoft Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 المطور وذلك المطور وذلك مطور Microsoft Microsoft Learn دعم تطبيقات مواقع تسوق الذكاء الاصطناعي مجتمع Microsoft Tech Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards أخرى أخرى الأمان والتنزيلات المجانية التعليم بطاقات الهدايا عرض خريطة الموقع بحث بحث عن التعليمات لا نتائج إلغاء تسجيل الدخول تسجيل الدخول باستخدام حساب Microsoft تسجيل الدخول أو إنشاء حساب. مرحباً، تحديد استخدام حساب مختلف! لديك حسابات متعددة اختر الحساب الذي تريد تسجيل الدخول باستخدامه. المواضيع ذات الصلة الأمن والأمان والخصوصية في Windows نظرة عامة نظرة عامة على الأمان والسلامة والخصوصية أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows المحافظة على الحماية باستخدام أمان Windows قبل إعادة تدوير أو بيع أو إهداء جهاز Xbox أو جهاز الكمبيوتر الشخصي الذي يعمل بنظام Windows إزالة البرامج الضارة من كمبيوتر Windows أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows عرض محفوظات المستعرض وحذفها في Microsoft Edge حذف ملفات تعريف الارتباط وإدارتها إزالة المحتوى القيم بأمان عند إعادة تثبيت Windows البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وتأمينه خصوصية Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول خصوصية Windows إعدادات الخصوصية في Windows التي تستخدمها التطبيقات عرض بياناتك على لوحة معلومات الخصوصية البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وتأمينه ينطبق على Microsoft account Windows 10 Windows 11 لوحة معلومات حساب Microsoft البحث عن جهازي هي ميزة يمكن أن تساعدك على تحديد موقع Windows 10 أو جهاز Windows 11 إذا فقد أو سرق. لاستخدام هذه الميزة، سجّل الدخول إلى جهازك باستخدام حساب Microsoft وتأكد من أنك مسؤول عليه. تعمل هذه الميزة عندما يكون الموقع قيد التشغيل على جهازك، حتى لو قام المستخدمون الآخرون المسجلون على الجهاز بإيقاف تشغيل إعدادات الموقع في تطبيقاتهم. متى حاولت تحديد موقع الجهاز، سيرى مستخدمو الجهاز إعلامًا في منطقة الإعلام. يعمل هذا الإعداد لأي جهاز Windows، مثل الكمبيوتر الشخصي أو الكمبيوتر المحمول أو جهاز Surface أو قلم Surface. يجب أن تكون الميزة قيد التشغيل حتى تتمكن من استخدامها. لا يمكنك استخدامها مع حساب العمل أو المؤسسة التعليمية، ولا يعمل مع أجهزة iOS أو أجهزة Android أو وحدات تشغيل Xbox One. إليك ما يجب القيام به في حالة سرقة جهاز Xbox الخاص بك . تشغيل ميزة "العثور على جهازي" عند إعداد جهاز جديد، يمكنك تقرير ما إذا كنت تريد تشغيل إعداد "البحث عن جهازي" أم إيقاف تشغيله. إذا قمت بإيقاف تشغيله أثناء الإعداد وتريد الآن تشغيله، فتأكد من أن جهاز Windows الخاص بك متصل بالإنترنت، وأن لديه طاقة كافية حتى يتمكن من إرسال موقعه، وأنك سجّلت الدخول إلى الجهاز باستخدام حساب Microsoft. على الجهاز الذي تريد تغييره: Windows 11 : حدد بدء تشغيل إعدادات > > أمان & الخصوصية > البحث عن جهازي . Windows 10 : حدد Start > Settings > Update & Security > Find my device . فتح إعدادات البحث عن جهازي البحث عن جهاز Windows الخاص بك انتقل إلى الارتباط https://account.microsoft.com/devices وسجِّل الدخول. حدد علامة التبويب العثور على جهازي . اختر الجهاز الذي تريد البحث عنه، ثم حدد بحث لمشاهدة خريطة تعرض موقع جهازك. ملاحظة: يمكنك تحديد موقع جهاز مشترك فقط إذا كان لديك حساب مسؤول عنه. على الجهاز المشترك، حدد البدء > الإعدادات > الحساب > معلوماتك لمعرفة ما إذا كنت مسؤولًا أم لا. تأمين جهاز Windows الخاص بك عن بُعد عندما تعثر على جهازك على الخريطة، حدد قفل > التالي . عند إقفال جهازك، يمكنك إعادة تعيين كلمة المرور الخاصة بك لتحسين الأمان. للحصول على مزيد من المعلومات حول كلمات المرور، راجع مقالة تغيير كلمة مرور Windows الخاصة بك أو إعادة تعيينها . هل تحتاج إلى مزيد من المساعدة؟ الاتصال بالدعم للحصول على الدعم التقني، انتقل إلى الاتصال بدعم Microsoft وأدخل مشكلتك وحدد الحصول على المساعدة . إذا ما زلت بحاجة إلى المساعدة، فحدد الاتصال بالدعم لكي يتم توجيهك إلى خيار الدعم الأفضل. الاشتراك في موجز ويب لـ RSS هل تحتاج إلى مزيد من المساعدة؟ الخروج من الخيارات إضافية؟ اكتشاف المجتمع الاتصال بنا استكشف مزايا الاشتراك، واستعرض الدورات التدريبية، وتعرف على كيفية تأمين جهازك، والمزيد. ميزات اشتراك Microsoft 365 تدريب Microsoft 365 أمان من Microsoft مركز إمكانية وصول ذوي الاحتياجات الخاصة تساعدك المجتمعات على طرح الأسئلة والإجابة عليها، وتقديم الملاحظات، وسماعها من الخبراء ذوي الاطلاع الواسع. طرح أسئلة في Microsoft Community مجتمع Microsoft التقني مشتركو Windows Insider المشاركون في برنامج Microsoft 365 Insider ابحث عن حلول للمشاكل الشائعة أو احصل على المساعدة من وكيل دعم. الدعم عبر الإنترنت هل كانت المعلومات مفيدة؟ نعم لا شكراً لك! هل لديك أي ملاحظات إضافية لـ Microsoft? هل يمكنك مساعدتنا على التحسين؟ (أرسل ملاحظات إلى Microsoft حتى نتمكن من المساعدة.) ما مدى رضاك عن جودة اللغة؟ ما الذي أثّر في تجربتك؟ ساعد على حل مشكلتي مسح الإرشادات سهل المتابعة لا توجد لغة غير مفهومة كانت الصور مساعِدة جودة الترجمة غير متطابق مع شاشتي إرشادات غير صحيحة تقني بدرجة كبيرة معلومات غير كافية صور غير كافية جودة الترجمة هل لديك أي ملاحظات إضافية؟ (اختياري) إرسال الملاحظات بالضغط على "إرسال"، سيتم استخدام ملاحظاتك لتحسين منتجات Microsoft وخدماتها. سيتمكن مسؤول تكنولوجيا المعلومات لديك من جمع هذه البيانات. بيان الخصوصية. نشكرك على ملاحظاتك! × الجديد Surface Pro Surface Laptop Copilot للمؤسسات Copilot للاستخدام الشخصي Microsoft 365 استكشف منتجات Microsoft Microsoft Store ملف تعريف الحساب مركز التنزيل تعقب الطلب التعليم Microsoft Education أجهزة التعليم Microsoft Teams للتعليم Microsoft 365 Education Office Education تدريب المعلمين وتطويرهم عروض للطلاب وأولياء الأمور Azure للطلاب الأعمال الأمان من Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 Microsoft Advertising Microsoft 365 Copilot Microsoft Teams المطور وتكنولوجيا المعلومات مطور Microsoft Microsoft Learn دعم تطبيقات مواقع تسوق الذكاء الاصطناعي مجتمع Microsoft Tech Microsoft Marketplace Microsoft Power Platform Marketplace Rewards Visual Studio الشركة الوظائف نبذة عن Microsoft الخصوصية في Microsoft المستثمرون الاستدامة العربية (المملكة العربية السعودية) أيقونة إلغاء الاشتراك في اختيارات خصوصيتك خيارات خصوصيتك أيقونة إلغاء الاشتراك في اختيارات خصوصيتك خيارات خصوصيتك خصوصية صحة المستهلك الاتصال بشركة Microsoft الخصوصية إدارة ملفات تعريف الارتباط بنود الاستخدام العلامات التجارية حول إعلاناتنا © Microsoft 2026 | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://pecl.php.net/package/protobuf/ | PECL :: Package :: protobuf Login | Packages | Support | Bugs S earch for in the Packages This site (using Google) Developers Developer mailing list SVN commits mailing list Home News Documentation: Support Downloads: Browse Packages Search Packages Download Statistics Top Level :: Tools and Utilities :: protobuf protobuf Package Information Summary Google's language-neutral, platform-neutral, extensible mechanism for serializing structured data. Maintainers Proto Google < protobuf-packages at google dot com > (lead) [ details ] License BSD-3-Clause Description https://developers.google.com/protocol-buffers/ [ Latest Tarball ] [ Changelog ] [ View Statistics ] [ Browse Source ] [ Package Bugs ] Available Releases Version State Release Date Downloads 4.33.4 stable 2026-01-12 protobuf-4.33.4.tgz (481.3kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.33.3 stable 2026-01-09 protobuf-4.33.3.tgz (481.3kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.33.2 stable 2025-12-05 protobuf-4.33.2.tgz (481.3kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.33.1 stable 2025-11-13 protobuf-4.33.1.tgz (479.8kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.33.0 stable 2025-10-15 protobuf-4.33.0.tgz (479.8kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.33.0RC2 beta 2025-10-09 protobuf-4.33.0RC2.tgz (479.9kB) [ Changelog ] 4.33.0RC1 beta 2025-10-01 protobuf-4.33.0RC1.tgz (479.9kB) [ Changelog ] 4.32.1 stable 2025-09-11 protobuf-4.32.1.tgz (475.2kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.32.0 stable 2025-08-14 protobuf-4.32.0.tgz (475.2kB) DLL [ Changelog ] 4.32.0RC2 beta 2025-08-05 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[ Changelog ] 3.17.3 stable 2021-06-08 protobuf-3.17.3.tgz (143.7kB) [ Changelog ] 3.17.2 stable 2021-06-02 protobuf-3.17.2.tgz (143.5kB) [ Changelog ] 3.17.1 stable 2021-05-24 protobuf-3.17.1.tgz (143.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.17.0 stable 2021-05-13 protobuf-3.17.0.tgz (141.5kB) [ Changelog ] 3.17.0RC2 beta 2021-05-11 protobuf-3.17.0RC2.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.17.0RC1 beta 2021-05-07 protobuf-3.17.0RC1.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.16.0 stable 2021-05-07 protobuf-3.16.0.tgz (141.5kB) [ Changelog ] 3.16.0RC2 beta 2021-05-05 protobuf-3.16.0RC2.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.8 stable 2021-04-08 protobuf-3.15.8.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.16.0RC1 beta 2021-04-06 protobuf-3.16.0RC1.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.7 stable 2021-04-02 protobuf-3.15.7.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.6 stable 2021-03-11 protobuf-3.15.6.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.5 stable 2021-03-05 protobuf-3.15.5.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.4 stable 2021-03-03 protobuf-3.15.4.tgz (141.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.3 stable 2021-02-25 protobuf-3.15.3.tgz (141.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.2 stable 2021-02-23 protobuf-3.15.2.tgz (141.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.1 stable 2021-02-20 protobuf-3.15.1.tgz (141.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.0 stable 2021-02-18 protobuf-3.15.0.tgz (141.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.0RC2 beta 2021-02-17 protobuf-3.15.0RC2.tgz (141.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.15.0RC1 beta 2021-02-09 protobuf-3.15.0RC1.tgz (141.5kB) [ Changelog ] 3.14.0 stable 2020-11-13 protobuf-3.14.0.tgz (128.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.14.0RC3 beta 2020-11-12 protobuf-3.14.0RC3.tgz (128.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.14.0RC2 beta 2020-11-11 protobuf-3.14.0RC2.tgz (128.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.14.0RC1 beta 2020-11-06 protobuf-3.14.0RC1.tgz (118.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.13.0.1 stable 2020-10-08 protobuf-3.13.0.1.tgz (189.0kB) [ Changelog ] 3.13.0 stable 2020-08-15 protobuf-3.13.0.tgz (188.2kB) [ Changelog ] 3.13.0RC3 beta 2020-08-13 protobuf-3.13.0RC3.tgz (188.2kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.4 stable 2020-07-28 protobuf-3.12.4.tgz (215.5kB) [ Changelog ] 4.0.0RC2 beta 2020-07-21 protobuf-4.0.0RC2.tgz (187.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.3 stable 2020-07-15 protobuf-3.12.3.tgz (215.4kB) [ Changelog ] 4.0.0RC1 beta 2020-07-15 protobuf-4.0.0RC1.tgz (187.3kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.2 stable 2020-05-27 protobuf-3.12.2.tgz (215.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.1 stable 2020-05-21 protobuf-3.12.1.tgz (215.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.0 stable 2020-05-15 protobuf-3.12.0.tgz (215.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.0RC2 beta 2020-05-12 protobuf-3.12.0RC2.tgz (215.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.12.0RC1 beta 2020-05-04 protobuf-3.12.0RC1.tgz (213.3kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.4 stable 2020-02-14 protobuf-3.11.4.tgz (213.3kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.3 stable 2020-02-03 protobuf-3.11.3.tgz (213.2kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.2 stable 2019-12-14 protobuf-3.11.2.tgz (213.2kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.1 stable 2019-12-03 protobuf-3.11.1.tgz (213.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.0 stable 2019-11-26 protobuf-3.11.0.tgz (213.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.0RC2 beta 2019-11-23 protobuf-3.11.0RC2.tgz (213.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.11.0RC1 beta 2019-11-20 protobuf-3.11.0RC1.tgz (213.7kB) [ Changelog ] 3.10.0 stable 2019-10-03 protobuf-3.10.0.tgz (209.9kB) [ Changelog ] 3.9.2 stable 2019-09-23 protobuf-3.9.2.tgz (212.0kB) [ Changelog ] 3.10.0RC1 beta 2019-09-05 protobuf-3.10.0RC1.tgz (209.1kB) [ Changelog ] 3.9.1 stable 2019-08-06 protobuf-3.9.1.tgz (212.0kB) [ Changelog ] 3.9.0 stable 2019-07-12 protobuf-3.9.0.tgz (212.0kB) [ Changelog ] 3.9.0RC1 beta 2019-06-26 protobuf-3.9.0RC1.tgz (211.9kB) [ Changelog ] 3.8.0 stable 2019-05-29 protobuf-3.8.0.tgz (211.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.8.0RC1 beta 2019-05-06 protobuf-3.8.0RC1.tgz (204.5kB) [ Changelog ] 3.7.1 stable 2019-03-26 protobuf-3.7.1.tgz (258.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.7.0 stable 2019-02-28 protobuf-3.7.0.tgz (254.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.7.0RC3 beta 2019-02-25 protobuf-3.7.0RC3.tgz (254.6kB) [ Changelog ] 3.7.0RC2 stable 2019-02-01 protobuf-3.7.0RC2.tgz (254.0kB) [ Changelog ] 3.6.1 stable 2018-08-03 protobuf-3.6.1.tgz (247.9kB) [ Changelog ] 3.6.0 stable 2018-06-07 protobuf-3.6.0.tgz (247.8kB) [ Changelog ] 3.5.1.1 stable 2018-01-05 protobuf-3.5.1.1.tgz (234.1kB) [ Changelog ] 3.5.1 stable 2017-12-21 protobuf-3.5.1.tgz (233.9kB) [ Changelog ] 3.5.0.1 stable 2017-12-06 protobuf-3.5.0.1.tgz (233.3kB) [ Changelog ] 3.5.0 stable 2017-11-20 protobuf-3.5.0.tgz (233.3kB) [ Changelog ] 3.4.0 stable 2017-08-16 protobuf-3.4.0.tgz (212.0kB) [ Changelog ] 3.3.2 stable 2017-06-22 protobuf-3.3.2.tgz (208.2kB) [ Changelog ] 3.3.0 stable 2017-05-04 protobuf-3.3.0.tgz (208.5kB) [ Changelog ] 3.2.0a1 alpha 2017-01-30 protobuf-3.2.0a1.tgz (191.4kB) [ Changelog ] 3.1.0a1 alpha 2016-09-26 protobuf-3.1.0a1.tgz (189.2kB) [ Changelog ] Dependencies Release 4.33.4: PHP Version: PHP 8.1.0 or newer PEAR Package: PEAR 1.4.0 or newer Release 4.33.3: PHP Version: PHP 8.1.0 or newer PEAR Package: PEAR 1.4.0 or newer Release 4.33.2: PHP Version: PHP 8.1.0 or newer PEAR Package: PEAR 1.4.0 or newer Dependencies for older releases can be found on the release overview page. 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https://support.microsoft.com/zh-tw/windows/%E5%9C%A8-microsoft-edge-%E4%B8%AD%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86-cookie-%E6%AA%A2%E8%A6%96-%E5%85%81%E8%A8%B1-%E5%B0%81%E9%8E%96-%E5%88%AA%E9%99%A4%E5%92%8C%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | 在 Microsoft Edge 中管理 Cookie: 檢視、允許、封鎖、刪除和使用 - Microsoft 支援服務 相關主題 × Windows 安全性、安全和隱私權 概觀 安全性、安全和隱私權概觀 Windows 安全性 取得 Windows 安全性說明 使用 Windows 安全性維持受保護狀態 在您回收、銷售或贈送您的 Xbox 或 Windows 電腦裝置之前 從 Windows 電腦移除惡意程式碼 Windows 安全 取得 Windows 安全的說明 檢視及刪除 Microsoft Edge 中的瀏覽器歷程記錄 刪除與管理 Cookie 重新安裝 Windows 時，安全地移除您的寶貴內容 尋找並鎖定遺失的 Windows 裝置 Windows 隱私權 取得 Windows 隱私權的說明 應用程式使用的 Windows 隱私權設定 在隱私權儀表板上檢視您的資料 跳到主要內容 Microsoft 支持 支持 支持 首頁 Microsoft 365 Office 產品 Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows 其他... 裝置 Surface 電腦配件 Xbox 電腦遊戲 HoloLens Surface Hub 硬體保固 帳戶與帳單 帳戶 Microsoft Store 與計費 資源 新功能 社群論壇 Microsoft 365 系統管理員 小型企業入口網站 開發人員 教育 回報支援詐騙 產品安全性 更多 購買 Microsoft 365 所有 Microsoft Global Microsoft 365 Teams Windows Surface Xbox 支援 軟體 軟體 Windows 應用程式 AI OneDrive Outlook 從 Skype 移至 Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams 個人電腦和設備 個人電腦和設備 電腦配件 娛樂 娛樂 Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox Game Pass Essential Xbox 與遊戲 電腦遊戲 商務適用 商務適用 Microsoft 安全性 Azure Dynamics 365 商務用 Microsoft 365 Microsoft 產業 Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 開發人員與 IT 開發人員與 IT Microsoft 開發人員工具 Microsoft Learn 支援 AI 市場應用程式 Microsoft 技術社群 Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards 其他 其他 Microsoft Rewards 免費下載與安全性 教育 禮品卡 Licensing 檢視網站地圖 搜尋 搜尋說明 無結果 取消 登入 使用 Microsoft 登入 登入或建立帳戶。 您好: 選取其他帳戶。 您有多個帳戶 選擇您要用來登入的帳戶。 相關主題 Windows 安全性、安全和隱私權 概觀 安全性、安全和隱私權概觀 Windows 安全性 取得 Windows 安全性說明 使用 Windows 安全性維持受保護狀態 在您回收、銷售或贈送您的 Xbox 或 Windows 電腦裝置之前 從 Windows 電腦移除惡意程式碼 Windows 安全 取得 Windows 安全的說明 檢視及刪除 Microsoft Edge 中的瀏覽器歷程記錄 刪除與管理 Cookie 重新安裝 Windows 時，安全地移除您的寶貴內容 尋找並鎖定遺失的 Windows 裝置 Windows 隱私權 取得 Windows 隱私權的說明 應用程式使用的 Windows 隱私權設定 在隱私權儀表板上檢視您的資料 在 Microsoft Edge 中管理 Cookie: 檢視、允許、封鎖、刪除和使用 套用到 Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Cookie 是您造訪的網站儲存在您的裝置上的一小段資料。 它們有多種用途，例如記住登入憑證、網站首選項和追蹤使用者行為。 但是，出於隱私原因或解決瀏覽問題，您可能想要刪除 cookie。 本文提供如何執行下列動作的指示： 查看所有 cookie 允許所有 cookie 允許來自特定網站的 cookie 封鎖第三方 Cookie [封鎖所有 Cookie] 封鎖來自特定網站的 Cookie 刪除所有 Cookie 刪除來自特定網站的 Cookie 每次關閉瀏覽器時都要刪除 Cookie 使用 cookie 預先載入頁面以加快瀏覽速度 查看所有 cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie， 然後按一下 查看所有 Cookie 和網站資料， 以檢視所有儲存的 Cookie 和相關網站資訊。 允許所有 cookie 透過允許 cookie，網站將能夠在您的瀏覽器上保存和檢索數據，這可以透過記住您的偏好和登入資訊來增強您的瀏覽體驗。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並 啟用 允許網站儲存和讀取 Cookie 資料 切換 (建議) 允許所有 Cookie。 允許來自特定網站的 Cookie 透過允許 cookie，網站將能夠在您的瀏覽器上保存和檢索數據，這可以透過記住您的偏好和登入資訊來增強您的瀏覽體驗。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並移至 允許 以儲存 Cookie。 選取 [ 新增網站 ] ，輸入網站的 URL 以允許每個網站的 Cookie。 封鎖第三方 Cookie 如果您不希望第三方網站在您的 PC 上存儲 cookie，您可以阻止 cookie。 但是這樣做可能會使某些網頁無法正確顯示，您也可能會收到來自網站的訊息，告知您必須允許 Cookie 才能檢視該網站。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並 啟用 封鎖 第三方 Cookie 切換。 [封鎖所有 Cookie] 如果您不希望第三方網站在您的 PC 上存儲 cookie，您可以阻止 cookie。 但是這樣做可能會使某些網頁無法正確顯示，您也可能會收到來自網站的訊息，告知您必須允許 Cookie 才能檢視該網站。 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並停用 允許網站儲存和讀取 Cookie 資料， (建議) 封鎖所有 Cookie。 封鎖來自特定網站的 Cookie Microsoft Edge 允許您阻止來自特定網站的 Cookie，但這樣做可能會阻止某些頁面正確顯示，或者您可能會從網站收到一條消息，讓您知道您需要允許 Cookie 查看該網站。 若要封鎖來自特定網站的 Cookie： 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 設定 > 隱私權、搜尋和服務 。 選取 Cookie 並移至 不允許儲存 和讀取 Cookie 。 選取 [ 新增 網站 ] ，輸入網站的 URL 來封鎖每個網站的 Cookie。 刪除所有 Cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 [設定] > [隱私權、搜尋與服務] 。 選取 [清除瀏覽資料] ，然後選取 [ 立即清除瀏覽資料] 旁邊的 [ 選擇要清除的內容 ]。 在 [時間範圍] 底下，從清單中選擇時間範圍。 選取 [Cookie 與其他網站資料]，然後選取 [立即清除]。 附註: 或者，您可以同時按 CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE ，然後繼續執行步驟 4 和 5，以刪除 cookie。 將立即刪除您所選取時間範圍的所有 Cookie 和其他網站資料。 這會將您從大部分的網站中登出。 刪除來自特定網站的 Cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇 「設定」>「設定 」> 「 隱私權、搜尋和服務 」圖示 。 選取 Cookie， 然後按一下 查看所有 Cookie 和網站資料， 然後搜尋您要刪除其 Cookie 的網站。 選取向下箭號 至右側您想要刪除 Cookie 的網站上，然後選取 [刪除] 。 您所選網站的 Cookie 現已刪除。 針對您想要刪除 Cookie 的任何網站重複此步驟。 每次關閉瀏覽器時都要刪除 Cookie 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇 「設定」等 >「 設定 」 >「 隱私權、搜尋和服務 」。 選取 [清除瀏覽資料] ，然後選取 [ 選擇每次關閉瀏覽器時要清除的內容]。 開啟 [Cookie 與其他網站資料] 切換。 開啟此功能後，每次關閉 Edge 瀏覽器時，所有 cookie 和其他網站資料都會被刪除。 這會將您從大部分的網站中登出。 使用 cookie 預先載入頁面以加快瀏覽速度 開啟 Edge 瀏覽器，選擇瀏覽器視窗右上角的「 設定及更多內容 」。 選取 [設定] > [隱私權、搜尋與服務] 。 選擇 Cookie 並啟用切換 預加載頁面 以加快瀏覽和搜索速度。 訂閱 RSS 摘要 需要更多協助嗎? 想要其他選項嗎? 探索 社群 與我們連絡 探索訂閱權益、瀏覽訓練課程、瞭解如何保護您的裝置等等。 Microsoft 365 訂閱權益 Microsoft 365 訓練 Microsoft 安全性 協助工具中心 社群可協助您詢問並回答問題、提供意見反應，以及聆聽來自具有豐富知識的專家意見。 在 Microsoft 社群中提出問題 Microsoft 技術社群 Windows 測試人員 Microsoft 365 測試人員 尋找常見問題的解決方案，或向支援專員取得協助。 線上支援人員 這項資訊有幫助嗎? 是 否 感謝您!還有其他意見反應給 Microsoft 嗎? 您願意協助我們改進嗎? 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https://support.microsoft.com/ru-ru/windows/%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8-cookie-%D0%B2-microsoft-edge-%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80-%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%B8-%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Управление файлами cookie в Microsoft Edge: просмотр, разрешение, блокировка, удаление и использование - Служба поддержки Майкрософт Связанные темы × Безопасность, защита и конфиденциальность Windows Обзор Общие сведения о безопасности, защите и конфиденциальности Безопасность Windows Техническая поддержка по безопасности Windows Обеспечение защиты с помощью безопасности Windows Прежде чем утилизировать, продать или подарить свое устройство с Windows или Xbox Удаление вредоносных программ с компьютера с Windows Безопасность Windows Техническая поддержка по безопасности Windows Просмотр и удаление журнала браузера в Microsoft Edge Удаление файлов cookie и управление ими Безопасное удаление ценного содержимого при переустановке Windows Поиск и блокировка потерянного устройства с Windows Конфиденциальность Windows Техническая поддержка по конфиденциальности Windows Параметры конфиденциальности Windows, используемые в приложениях Просмотр данных на панели мониторинга конфиденциальности Перейти к основному контенту Microsoft Поддержка Поддержка Поддержка Главная Microsoft 365 Office Продукты Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows еще... Устройства Surface Периферийные устройства для компьютера Xbox Компьютерные игры HoloLens Surface Hub Гарантии на оборудование Учетная запись и выставление счетов Учетная запись Microsoft Store и выставление счетов Ресурсы Новые возможности Форумы сообщества Администраторы Microsoft 365 Портал для малого бизнеса Для разработчиков Образование Сообщить о мошенничестве с поддержкой Безопасность продуктов Еще Покупка Microsoft 365 Продукты Майкрософт Global Microsoft 365 Teams Windows Xbox Поддержка ПО ПО Приложения для Windows ИИ OneDrive Outlook Переход от Skype в Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams Компьютеры и устройства Компьютеры и устройства Купите Xbox Аксессуары Развлечения Развлечения Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox и игры Компьютерные игры Для бизнеса Для бизнеса Microsoft Security Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 для бизнеса Microsoft для промышленности Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 Для разработчиков и ИТ Для разработчиков и ИТ Программа Майкрософт для разработчиков Microsoft Learn Поддержка ИИ-приложений на Marketplace Сообщество Microsoft Tech Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards Другое Другое Бесплатная загрузка и средства безопасности Образование Лицензирование Посмотреть карту сайта Поиск Поиск справки Нет результатов Отмена Войти Войдите с помощью учетной записи Майкрософт Войдите или создайте учетную запись. Здравствуйте, Выберите другую учетную запись. У вас несколько учетных записей Выберите учетную запись, с помощью которой нужно войти. Связанные темы Безопасность, защита и конфиденциальность Windows Обзор Общие сведения о безопасности, защите и конфиденциальности Безопасность Windows Техническая поддержка по безопасности Windows Обеспечение защиты с помощью безопасности Windows Прежде чем утилизировать, продать или подарить свое устройство с Windows или Xbox Удаление вредоносных программ с компьютера с Windows Безопасность Windows Техническая поддержка по безопасности Windows Просмотр и удаление журнала браузера в Microsoft Edge Удаление файлов cookie и управление ими Безопасное удаление ценного содержимого при переустановке Windows Поиск и блокировка потерянного устройства с Windows Конфиденциальность Windows Техническая поддержка по конфиденциальности Windows Параметры конфиденциальности Windows, используемые в приложениях Просмотр данных на панели мониторинга конфиденциальности Управление файлами cookie в Microsoft Edge: просмотр, разрешение, блокировка, удаление и использование Применяется к Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Файлы cookie — это небольшие фрагменты данных, хранящиеся на вашем устройстве веб-сайтами, которые вы посещаете. Они служат для различных целей, таких как запоминание учетных данных для входа, настройки сайта и отслеживание поведения пользователей. Однако может потребоваться удалить файлы cookie из соображений конфиденциальности или для устранения проблем с просмотром. В этой статье содержатся инструкции по выполнению следующих инструкций: Просмотр всех файлов cookie Разрешить все файлы cookie Разрешить файлы cookie с определенного веб-сайта Блокировка сторонних файлов cookie Блокировать все cookie Блокировка файлов cookie с определенного сайта Удаление всех файлов cookie Удаление файлов cookie определенного сайта Удаление файлов cookie при каждом закрытии браузера Использование файлов cookie для предварительной загрузки страницы для ускорения просмотра Просмотр всех файлов cookie Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie , а затем щелкните Просмотреть все файлы cookie и данные сайта , чтобы просмотреть все сохраненные файлы cookie и связанные сведения о сайте. Разрешить все файлы cookie Разрешив файлы cookie, веб-сайты смогут сохранять и извлекать данные в браузере, что может улучшить работу браузера, запомня ваши предпочтения и данные для входа. Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie и включите переключатель Разрешить сайтам сохранять и считывать данные файлов cookie (рекомендуется), чтобы разрешить все файлы cookie. Разрешение файлов cookie с определенного сайта Разрешив файлы cookie, веб-сайты смогут сохранять и извлекать данные в браузере, что может улучшить работу браузера, запомня ваши предпочтения и данные для входа. Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie и перейдите в раздел Разрешено, чтобы сохранить файлы cookie. Выберите Добавить сайт , чтобы разрешить файлы cookie для каждого сайта, введя URL-адрес сайта. Блокировка сторонних файлов cookie Если вы не хотите, чтобы сторонние сайты сохраняли файлы cookie на вашем компьютере, вы можете заблокировать файлы cookie. Из-за блокировки файлов cookie некоторые страницы могут отображаться неправильно, а также может отображаться сообщение о необходимости разрешить файлы cookie для просмотра сайта. Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie и включите переключатель Блокировать сторонние файлы cookie. Блокировать все cookie Если вы не хотите, чтобы сторонние сайты сохраняли файлы cookie на вашем компьютере, вы можете заблокировать файлы cookie. Из-за блокировки файлов cookie некоторые страницы могут отображаться неправильно, а также может отображаться сообщение о необходимости разрешить файлы cookie для просмотра сайта. Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie и отключите разрешить сайтам сохранять и считывать данные файлов cookie (рекомендуется), чтобы заблокировать все файлы cookie. Блокировка файлов cookie с определенного сайта Microsoft Edge позволяет блокировать файлы cookie с определенного сайта, однако это может помешать правильному отображению некоторых страниц или вы можете получить сообщение с сайта, сообщающее, что вам нужно разрешить файлы cookie для просмотра этого сайта. Чтобы заблокировать файлы cookie с определенного сайта, выполните следующие действия: Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie и перейдите к разделу Не разрешено сохранять и считывать файлы cookie . Выберите Добавить сайт , чтобы заблокировать файлы cookie для каждого сайта, введя URL-адрес сайта. Удаление всех файлов cookie Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Очистить данные браузера , а затем выберите Выбрать, что нужно удалить рядом с пунктом Очистить данные браузера сейчас . В разделе Диапазон времени выберите временной промежуток из списка. Выберите Файлы cookie и другие данные сайтов и нажмите кнопку Удалить сейчас . Примечание: Кроме того, можно удалить файлы cookie, нажав клавиши CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE , а затем перейдя к шагам 4 и 5. Все файлы cookie и другие данные сайта теперь будут удалены за выбранный вами период времени. При этом вы выходите из большинства сайтов. Удаление файлов cookie определенного сайта Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и другие > Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie , а затем щелкните Просмотреть все файлы cookie и данные сайта и найдите сайт, файлы cookie которого требуется удалить. Нажмите стрелку вниз справа от сайта, файлы cookie которого вы хотите удалить, и выберите Удалить . Файлы cookie для выбранного сайта будут удалены. Повторите это действие для любого сайта, файлы cookie которого вы хотите удалить. Удаление файлов cookie при каждом закрытии браузера Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и другие > Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Очистить данные браузера , а затем выберите Выбрать, что следует очищать при каждом закрытии браузера . Включите переключатель Файлы cookie и другие данные сайтов . После включения этой функции при каждом закрытии браузера Edge удаляются все файлы cookie и другие данные сайта. При этом вы выходите из большинства сайтов. Использование файлов cookie для предварительной загрузки страницы для ускорения просмотра Откройте браузер Edge, выберите Параметры и многое другое в правом верхнем углу окна браузера. Выберите Параметры > Конфиденциальность, поиск и службы . Выберите Файлы cookie и включите переключение страниц предварительной загрузки для ускорения просмотра и поиска. ПОДПИСКА НА RSS-КАНАЛЫ Нужна дополнительная помощь? Нужны дополнительные параметры? Обнаружение Сообщества Свяжитесь с нами Изучите преимущества подписки, просмотрите учебные курсы, узнайте, как защитить свое устройство и т. д. Преимущества подписки на Microsoft 365 Обучение работе с Microsoft 365 Microsoft Security Центр специальных возможностей В сообществах можно задавать вопросы и отвечать на них, отправлять отзывы и консультироваться с экспертами разных профилей. 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https://support.microsoft.com/sl-si/windows/upravljanje-pi%C5%A1kotkov-v-microsoft-edge-ogled-omogo%C4%8Danje-blokiranje-brisanje-in-uporaba-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Upravljanje piškotkov v Microsoft Edge: ogled, omogočanje, blokiranje, brisanje in uporaba - Microsoftova podpora Sorodne teme × Varnost, zaščita in zasebnost sistema Windows Pregled Pregled zaščite, varnosti in zasebnosti varnost v sistemu Windows Pridobite pomoč za aplikacijo Varnost sistema Windows Ostanite zaščiteni z aplikacijo Varnost sistema Windows Preden reciklirate, prodate ali podarite konzolo Xbox ali računalnik s sistemom Windows Odstranjevanje zlonamerne programske opreme iz računalnika s sistemom Windows Zaščita sistema Windows Pridobite pomoč za zaščito sistema Windows Ogled in brisanje zgodovine brskanja v brskalniku Microsoft Edge Brisanje in upravljanje piškotkov Varno odstranite dragoceno vsebino pri ponovni namestitvi sistema Windows Iskanje in zaklepanje izgubljene naprave s sistemom Windows Zasebnost sistema Windows Pridobite pomoč za zasebnost v sistemu Windows Nastavitve zasebnosti v sistemu Windows, ki jih uporabljajo aplikacije Ogled podatkov na nadzorni plošči za zasebnost Preskoči na glavno vsebino Microsoft Podpora Podpora Podpora Domača stran Microsoft 365 Office Izdelki Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows več ... 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Pozdravljeni, Izberite drug račun. Imate več računov Izberite račun, s katerim se želite vpisati. Sorodne teme Varnost, zaščita in zasebnost sistema Windows Pregled Pregled zaščite, varnosti in zasebnosti varnost v sistemu Windows Pridobite pomoč za aplikacijo Varnost sistema Windows Ostanite zaščiteni z aplikacijo Varnost sistema Windows Preden reciklirate, prodate ali podarite konzolo Xbox ali računalnik s sistemom Windows Odstranjevanje zlonamerne programske opreme iz računalnika s sistemom Windows Zaščita sistema Windows Pridobite pomoč za zaščito sistema Windows Ogled in brisanje zgodovine brskanja v brskalniku Microsoft Edge Brisanje in upravljanje piškotkov Varno odstranite dragoceno vsebino pri ponovni namestitvi sistema Windows Iskanje in zaklepanje izgubljene naprave s sistemom Windows Zasebnost sistema Windows Pridobite pomoč za zasebnost v sistemu Windows Nastavitve zasebnosti v sistemu Windows, ki jih uporabljajo aplikacije Ogled podatkov na nadzorni plošči za zasebnost Upravljanje piškotkov v Microsoft Edge: ogled, omogočanje, blokiranje, brisanje in uporaba Velja za Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Piškotki so majhni deli podatkov, ki jih spletna mesta, ki jih obiščete, shranijo v vašo napravo. Služijo različnim namenom, kot so zapomniti si poverilnice za prijavo, nastavitve mesta in sledenje uporabniškega vedenja. Vendar pa boste morda želeli izbrisati piškotke zaradi zasebnosti ali odpraviti težave z brskanjem. V tem članku so navodila, kako: Prikaži vse piškotke Dovoli vse piškotke Dovoli piškotke z določenega spletnega mesta Blokiranje piškotkov tretjih oseb Blokiraj vse piškotke Blokiranje piškotkov z določenega spletnega mesta Brisanje vseh piškotkov Brisanje piškotkov z določenega spletnega mesta Brisanje piškotkov ob zapiranju brskalnika Uporaba piškotkov za vnaprejšnje nalaganje strani za hitrejše brskanje Prikaži vse piškotke Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki , nato pa kliknite Ogled vseh piškotkov in podatkov o spletnem mestu, da si ogledate vse shranjene piškotke in povezane informacije o spletnem mestu. Dovoli vse piškotke Če dovolite piškotke, lahko spletna mesta shranjujejo in pridobivajo podatke v brskalniku, kar lahko izboljša vašo izkušnjo brskanja tako, da si zapomni nastavitve in podatke za prijavo. Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki in omogočite preklopni gumb Dovoli spletnim mestom shranjevanje in branje podatkov o piškotkih (priporočeno), da dovolijo vse piškotke. Dovoli piškotke z določenega spletnega mesta Če dovolite piškotke, lahko spletna mesta shranjujejo in pridobivajo podatke v brskalniku, kar lahko izboljša vašo izkušnjo brskanja tako, da si zapomni nastavitve in podatke za prijavo. Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki in pojdite na Dovoljeno shranjevanje piškotkov. Izberite Dodaj spletno mesto, če želite dovoliti piškotke na osnovi izdelka, tako da vnesete URL spletnega mesta. Blokiranje piškotkov tretjih oseb Če ne želite, da spletna mesta drugih ponudnikov shranjujejo piškotke v vaš računalnik, lahko piškotke blokirate. S tem nekatere strani morda ne bodo pravilno prikazane ali pa boste od spletnega mesta prejeli sporočilo, da morate dovoliti piškotke, če si ga želite ogledati. Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki in omogočite preklopni gumb Blokiraj piškotke od drugod. Blokiraj vse piškotke Če ne želite, da spletna mesta drugih ponudnikov shranjujejo piškotke v vaš računalnik, lahko piškotke blokirate. S tem nekatere strani morda ne bodo pravilno prikazane ali pa boste od spletnega mesta prejeli sporočilo, da morate dovoliti piškotke, če si ga želite ogledati. Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki in onemogočite možnost Dovoli spletnim mestom shranjevanje in branje podatkov o piškotkih (priporočeno), da blokirajo vse piškotke. Blokiranje piškotkov z določenega spletnega mesta Microsoft Edge vam omogoča blokiranje piškotkov z določenega spletnega mesta, vendar lahko s tem nekaterim stranem preprečite pravilno prikazovanje ali pa se na spletnem mestu prikaže sporočilo, da morate dovoliti piškotke za ogled tega spletnega mesta. Blokiranje piškotkov z določenega spletnega mesta: Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki in pojdite na Ni dovoljeno shranjevanje in branje piškotkov . Izberite Dodaj spletno mesto , če želite blokirati piškotke na osnovi izdelka, tako da vnesete URL spletnega mesta. Brisanje vseh piškotkov Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Počisti podatke o brskanju in nato izberite Izberite, kaj želite počistiti zraven možnosti Počisti podatke o brskanju zdaj . V razdelku Časovni obseg na seznamu izberite časovni obseg. Izberite Piškotki in drugi podatki spletnega mesta in nato Počisti zdaj . Opomba: Piškotke lahko izbrišete tudi tako, da skupaj pritisnete CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE in nato nadaljujete s 4. in 5. korakom. Vsi vaši piškotki in drugi podatki o spletnem mestu bodo zdaj izbrisani za časovni obseg, ki ste ga izbrali. S tem se izpišete iz večine spletnih mest. Brisanje piškotkov z določenega spletnega mesta Odprite brskalnik Edge, izberite Nastavitve in drugo > nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki , kliknite Ogled vseh piškotkov in podatkov o spletnem mestu ter poiščite spletno mesto, katerega piškotke želite izbrisati. Izberite puščico dol na desni strani spletnega mesta, za katerega želite izbrisati piškotke, in izberite Izbriši . Piškotki za izbrano spletno mesto so zdaj izbrisani. Ta korak ponovite za vsa mesta, katerih piškotke želite izbrisati. Brisanje piškotkov ob zapiranju brskalnika Odprite brskalnik Edge, izberite Nastavitve in drugo > nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Počisti podatke o brskanju , nato pa izberite Izberite, kaj želite počistiti vsakič, ko zaprete brskalnik . Vklopite preklopni gumb Piškotki in drugi podatki o spletnem mestu. Ko je ta funkcija vklopljena, se vsakič, ko zaprete brskalnik Edge, izbrišejo vsi piškotki in drugi podatki o spletnem mestu. S tem se izpišete iz večine spletnih mest. Uporaba piškotkov za vnaprejšnje nalaganje strani za hitrejše brskanje Odprite brskalnik Edge, v zgornjem desnem kotu okna brskalnika izberite Nastavitve in drugo. Izberite Nastavitve > zasebnost, iskanje in storitve . Izberite Piškotki in omogočite preklopni gumb Preload strani za hitrejše brskanje in iskanje. NAROČITE SE NA VIRE RSS Ali potrebujete dodatno pomoč? Ali želite več možnosti? Odkrijte Skupnost Stik z nami Raziščite ugodnosti naročnine, prebrskajte izobraževalne tečaje, preberite, kako zaščitite svojo napravo in še več. Ugodnosti naročnine na Microsoft 365 Izobraževanje za Microsoft 365 Microsoftova varnost Središče za dostopnost Skupnosti vam pomagajo postaviti vprašanja in odgovoriti nanje, posredovati povratne informacije in prisluhniti strokovnjakom z bogatim znanjem. Vprašajte Microsoftovo skupnost Microsoftova tehnična skupnost Preskuševalci sistema Windows Preskuševalci storitve Microsoft 365 Poiščite rešitve za pogoste težave ali poiščite pomoč pri posredniku za podporo. Spletna podpora Vam je bila informacija v pomoč? Da Ne Hvala! Imate še kakšne povratne informacije za Microsoft? Ali nam lahko pomagate izboljšati uporabnost? (Pošljite povratne informacije Microsoftu, da vam bomo lahko pomagali.) Kako ste zadovoljni s kakovostjo jezika? Kaj je vplivalo na vašo izkušnjo? Težava je bila odpravljena Počisti navodila Razumljivo Brez nejasnih izrazov Slike so bile v pomoč Kakovost prevoda Se ne ujema z mojim zaslonom Napačna navodila Preveč tehnično Ni dovolj informacij Ni dovolj slik Kakovost prevoda Ali imate še kakšne povratne informacije? (Izbirno) Pošlji povratne informacije Če pritisnete »Pošlji«, bomo vaše povratne informacije uporabili za izboljšanje Microsoftovih izdelkov in storitev. Vaš skrbnik za IT bo lahko zbiral te podatke. Izjavi o zasebnosti. Zahvaljujemo se vam za povratne informacije. × Kaj je novega? 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https://support.microsoft.com/nl-nl/windows/cookies-beheren-in-microsoft-edge-weergeven-toestaan-blokkeren-verwijderen-en-gebruiken-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Cookies beheren in Microsoft Edge: weergeven, toestaan, blokkeren, verwijderen en gebruiken - Microsoft Ondersteuning Verwante onderwerpen × Windows-beveiliging, -veiligheid en -privacy Overzicht Overzicht van beveiliging, veiligheid en privacy Windows-beveiliging Hulp krijgen met Windows-beveiliging Blijf beveiligd met Windows-beveiliging Voordat je je Xbox- of Windows-pc recyclet, verkoopt of cadeau doet Malware verwijderen van je Windows-pc Windows veiligheid Hulp vragen met Windows Safety Browsergeschiedenis bekijken en verwijderen in Microsoft Edge Cookies verwijderen en beheren Je waardevolle inhoud veilig verwijderen wanneer je Windows opnieuw installeert Een verloren Windows-apparaat zoeken en vergrendelen Windows-privacy Hulp vragen bij Windows-privacy Privacyinstellingen in Windows die door apps worden gebruikt Bekijk je gegevens op het privacydashboard Overslaan naar hoofdinhoud Microsoft Ondersteuning Ondersteuning Ondersteuning Startpagina Microsoft 365 Office Producten Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows meer... Apparaten Surface Pc-accessoires Xbox Pc-gaming HoloLens Surface Hub Hardwaregarantie Account & facturering Account Microsoft Store en facturering Bronnen Wat is er nieuw Communityfora Microsoft 365-beheerders Portal voor kleine bedrijven Ontwikkelaar Onderwijs Oplichtingspraktijk met ondersteuning rapporteren Productveiligheid Meer Microsoft 365 kopen Alles van Microsoft Global Microsoft 365 Teams Copilot Windows Surface Xbox speciale aanbiedingen Midden- en kleinbedrijf Ondersteuning Software Software Windows-apps AI OneDrive Outlook Overstappen van Skype naar Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams PCs & Apparaten PCs & Apparaten Naar Xbox store Accessoires Entertainment Entertainment Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox & games Pc-games Zakelijk Zakelijk Microsoft Beveiliging Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 voor bedrijven Microsoft Industry Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 Ontwikkelaar & IT Ontwikkelaar & IT Microsoft-ontwikkelaar Microsoft Learn Ondersteuning voor AI-marketplace-apps Microsoft Tech Community Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards Overig Overig Microsoft Rewards Gratis downloads & beveiliging Onderwijs Cadeaubonnen Licentieverlening Bekijk het siteoverzicht Zoeken Zoeken naar hulp Geen resultaten Annuleren Aanmelden Aanmelden met Microsoft Meld u aan of maak een account. Hallo, Selecteer een ander account. U hebt meerdere accounts Kies het account waarmee u zich wilt aanmelden. Verwante onderwerpen Windows-beveiliging, -veiligheid en -privacy Overzicht Overzicht van beveiliging, veiligheid en privacy Windows-beveiliging Hulp krijgen met Windows-beveiliging Blijf beveiligd met Windows-beveiliging Voordat je je Xbox- of Windows-pc recyclet, verkoopt of cadeau doet Malware verwijderen van je Windows-pc Windows veiligheid Hulp vragen met Windows Safety Browsergeschiedenis bekijken en verwijderen in Microsoft Edge Cookies verwijderen en beheren Je waardevolle inhoud veilig verwijderen wanneer je Windows opnieuw installeert Een verloren Windows-apparaat zoeken en vergrendelen Windows-privacy Hulp vragen bij Windows-privacy Privacyinstellingen in Windows die door apps worden gebruikt Bekijk je gegevens op het privacydashboard Cookies beheren in Microsoft Edge: weergeven, toestaan, blokkeren, verwijderen en gebruiken Van toepassing op Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Cookies zijn kleine stukjes gegevens die op uw apparaat worden opgeslagen door websites die u bezoekt. Ze dienen verschillende doeleinden, zoals het onthouden van aanmeldingsreferenties, sitevoorkeuren en het bijhouden van gebruikersgedrag. U kunt echter cookies verwijderen om privacyredenen of om browseproblemen op te lossen. In dit artikel vindt u instructies voor het volgende: Alle cookies weergeven Alle cookies toestaan Cookies van een specifieke website toestaan Cookies van derden blokkeren Met de optie Alle cookies blokkeren Cookies van een specifieke site blokkeren Alle cookies verwijderen Cookies van een specifieke site verwijderen Cookies verwijderen telkens wanneer u de browser sluit Cookies gebruiken om de pagina vooraf te laden voor sneller browsen Alle cookies weergeven Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en klik vervolgens op Alle cookies en sitegegevens weergeven om alle opgeslagen cookies en gerelateerde site-informatie weer te geven. Alle cookies toestaan Door cookies toe te staan, kunnen websites gegevens in uw browser opslaan en ophalen, waardoor uw browse-ervaring kan worden verbeterd door uw voorkeuren en aanmeldingsgegevens te onthouden. Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en schakel de wisselknop Sites toestaan om cookiegegevens op te slaan en te lezen (aanbevolen) in om alle cookies toe te staan. Cookies van een specifieke site toestaan Door cookies toe te staan, kunnen websites gegevens in uw browser opslaan en ophalen, waardoor uw browse-ervaring kan worden verbeterd door uw voorkeuren en aanmeldingsgegevens te onthouden. Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en ga naar Toegestaan om cookies op te slaan. Selecteer Site toevoegen om cookies per site toe te staan door de URL van de site in te voeren. Cookies van derden blokkeren Als u niet wilt dat sites van derden cookies opslaan op uw pc, kunt u cookies blokkeren. Door dit te doen, worden sommige pagina's mogelijk niet goed weergegeven of wordt er door de website een bericht weergegeven dat u cookies moet toestaan om die website te bekijken. Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en schakel de wisselknop Cookies van derden blokkeren in. Met de optie Alle cookies blokkeren Als u niet wilt dat sites van derden cookies opslaan op uw pc, kunt u cookies blokkeren. Door dit te doen, worden sommige pagina's mogelijk niet goed weergegeven of wordt er door de website een bericht weergegeven dat u cookies moet toestaan om die website te bekijken. Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en schakel Sites toestaan om cookiegegevens op te slaan en te lezen (aanbevolen) uit om alle cookies te blokkeren. Cookies van een specifieke site blokkeren Met Microsoft Edge kunt u cookies van een specifieke site blokkeren, maar dit kan voorkomen dat bepaalde pagina's correct worden weergegeven of u krijgt een bericht van een site waarin u wordt aangegeven dat u cookies moet toestaan om die site te bekijken. Cookies van een specifieke site blokkeren: Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en ga naar Niet toegestaan om cookies op te slaan en te lezen . Selecteer Site toevoegen om cookies per site te blokkeren door de URL van de site in te voeren. Alle cookies verwijderen Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Browsegegevens wissen en selecteer vervolgens Kiezen wat u wilt wissen naast Browsegegevens nu wissen . Kies onder Tijdsbereik een tijdsbereik in de lijst. Selecteer Cookies en andere sitegegevens en selecteer vervolgens Nu wissen . Opmerking: U kunt de cookies ook verwijderen door op Ctrl + Shift + Delete te drukken en vervolgens verder te gaan met de stappen 4 en 5. Al uw cookies en andere sitegegevens worden nu verwijderd voor het geselecteerde tijdsbereik. Hiermee wordt u afgemeld bij de meeste sites. Cookies van een specifieke site verwijderen Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer > Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies , klik vervolgens op Alle cookies en sitegegevens weergeven en zoek naar de site waarvan u de cookies wilt verwijderen. Selecteer de pijl-omlaag rechts op de site waarvan u de cookies wilt verwijderen en vervolgens Verwijderen . Cookies voor de site die u hebt geselecteerd, worden nu verwijderd. Herhaal deze stap voor elke site waarvan u de cookies wilt verwijderen. Cookies verwijderen telkens wanneer u de browser sluit Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer > Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Browsegegevens wissen en selecteer vervolgens Kiezen wat u wilt wissen telkens wanneer u de browser sluit . Schakel de optie Cookies en andere sitegegevens in. Zodra deze functie is ingeschakeld, worden alle cookies en andere sitegegevens verwijderd wanneer u uw Edge-browser sluit. Hiermee wordt u afgemeld bij de meeste sites. Cookies gebruiken om de pagina vooraf te laden voor sneller browsen Open de Edge-browser, selecteer Instellingen en meer in de rechterbovenhoek van het browservenster. Selecteer Instellingen > Privacy, zoeken en services . Selecteer Cookies en schakel de wisselknop Pagina's vooraf laden in voor sneller browsen en zoeken. RSS-FEEDS ABONNEREN Meer hulp nodig? Meer opties? Ontdekken Community Neem contact met ons op Verken abonnementsvoordelen, blader door trainingscursussen, leer hoe u uw apparaat kunt beveiligen en meer. Voordelen van Microsoft 365-abonnementen Microsoft 365-training Microsoft-beveiliging Toegankelijkheidscentrum Community's helpen u vragen te stellen en te beantwoorden, feedback te geven en te leren van experts met uitgebreide kennis. Stel een vraag aan de Microsoft-Community Microsoft Tech Community Windows Insiders Microsoft 365 Insiders Zoek oplossingen voor veelvoorkomende problemen of krijg hulp van een ondersteuningsagent. Online-ondersteuning Was deze informatie nuttig? Ja Nee Hartelijk dank. Hebt u verder nog feedback voor Microsoft? Kunt u ons helpen verbeteren? (Stuur feedback naar Microsoft zodat we u kunnen helpen.) Hoe tevreden bent u met de taalkwaliteit? Wat heeft uw ervaring beïnvloed? Mijn probleem is opgelost Duidelijke instructies Gemakkelijk te volgen Geen jargon Afbeeldingen hebben geholpen Vertaalkwaliteit Komt niet overeen met mijn scherm Onjuiste instructies Te technisch Onvoldoende informatie Onvoldoende afbeeldingen Vertaalkwaliteit Hebt u aanvullende feedback? (Optioneel) Feedback verzenden Als u op Verzenden klikt, wordt uw feedback gebruikt om producten en services van Microsoft te verbeteren. Uw IT-beheerder kan deze gegevens verzamelen. Privacyverklaring. Hartelijk dank voor uw feedback. × Nieuw Surface Pro Surface Laptop Surface Laptop Studio 2 Copilot voor organisaties Copilot voor persoonlijk gebruik Microsoft 365 Bekijk Microsoft-producten Windows 11-apps Microsoft Store Accountprofiel Downloadcentrum Ondersteuning Microsoft Store Terugzendingen Bestelling traceren Recyclage Commerciële garanties Onderwijs Microsoft Education Apparaten voor het onderwijs Microsoft Teams for Education Microsoft 365 Education Office Education Educator-training en -ontwikkeling Aanbiedingen voor studenten en ouders Azure voor studenten Zakelijk Microsoft Beveiliging Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 Microsoft 365 Copilot Microsoft Teams Midden- en kleinbedrijf Ontwikkelaar en IT Microsoft-ontwikkelaar Microsoft Learn Ondersteuning voor AI-marketplace-apps Microsoft Tech Community Microsoft Marketplace Microsoft Power Platform Marketplace Rewards Visual Studio Bedrijf Vacatures Privacy bij Microsoft Investeerders Duurzaamheid Nederlands (Nederland) Pictogram Uw privacykeuzes afmelden Uw privacykeuzes Pictogram Uw privacykeuzes afmelden Uw privacykeuzes Privacy van consumentenstatus Contact opnemen met Microsoft Privacy Cookies beheren Gebruiksvoorwaarden Handelsmerken Over onze advertenties EU Compliance DoCs © Microsoft 2026 | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://www.iso.org/es/sectores/tecnologias-ti | ISO - Tecnologías de la información y afines Ir directamente al contenido principal Aplicaciones OBP español English français русский Menú Normas Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Diversidad e inclusión Sostenibilidad ambiental Alimentos y agricultura Materiales Edificación y construcción Ingeniería Sobre nosotros Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Ciberseguridad Gestión de la calidad Energías renovables Seguridad y salud en el trabajo Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Tienda Buscar Carrito Tecnologías de la información y afines IA Seguridad de la información Programación Software IoT TI en sanidad Centros de datos Audiovisuales Otros Los datos, las tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones son la columna vertebral de cualquier organización o empresa moderna. Las normas garantizan que sus sistemas informáticos, infraestructuras técnicas y procesos sean seguros, eficientes y conformes a las mejores prácticas. Find the right IT standard for your organization Get a tailored ISO/IEC recommendation in 30 seconds. Quick quiz to guide you. --> Start What’s your main goal right now? Protect company data and systems Improve IT service quality and SLAs Strengthen privacy and compliance (PII/GDPR) Secure our cloud workloads Protect personal data in public clouds Be resilient to outages and incidents Manage AI responsibly across the organization Identify and reduce risks in AI projects Structure information-security risk management Next Where do most of your critical systems live? Mostly cloud / SaaS Mostly on-prem / hybrid We build or plan to build AI systems We handle sensitive personal data Back Next How many people work in your organization? 1–10 11–50 51–250 250+ Back Next Which pain sounds most familiar? Customer/security audits are painful Incidents or service disruptions hurt us Privacy requests (DSARs, DPIAs, breaches) Cloud misconfigurations / shared responsibility gaps We lack a clear information-security risk method AI is new and risky for us Back Next What’s your experience with ISO/IEC standards? New to ISO/IEC Familiar with one or two We’re already certified Back See my recommendation This quiz needs JavaScript. Explore our IT standards: ISO/IEC 27001, 20000-1, 27701, 27017, 27018, ISO 22301, ISO/IEC 42001, 23894, 27005. Normas esenciales ISO/IEC 19790 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Security requirements for cryptographic modules Publicado en 2025 CHF 0 ISO/IEC 24759 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Test requirements for cryptographic modules Publicado en 2025 CHF 0 ISO/IEC 11072 Information technology — Computer graphics — Computer Graphics Reference Model Revisado en 2025 CHF 0 ISO/IEC 23009-1 Information technology — Dynamic adaptive streaming over HTTP (DASH) Part 1: Media presentation description and segment formats Publicado en 2022 CHF 0 ISO/IEC 19775-1 Computer graphics, image processing and environmental data representation — Extensible 3D (X3D) Part 1: Architecture and base components Publicado en 2023 CHF 0 ISO/IEC 19777-2 Information technology — Computer graphics and image processing — Extensible 3D (X3D) language bindings Part 2: Java Revisado en 2025 CHF 0 ISO/IEC 27001 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Information security management systems — Requirements Publicado en 2022 CHF 155 Cargar más Perspectivas Seguridad de la información: pilar de resiliencia en la era digital En un mundo conectado digitalmente, los datos de su empresa no sólo son esenciales, sino que son la piedra angular de la creación de valor. Pero este recurso inestimable se enfrenta a ciberamenazas incesantes. Ciberseguridad en la asistencia sanitaria: diagnosticar riesgos, recetar soluciones Los ciberataques pueden afectar gravemente la vida de una persona y poner en riesgo a los pacientes. Por esta razón, la ciberseguridad es fundamental para que las organizaciones sanitarias puedan proteger en todo momento el bienestar y la privacidad de sus pacientes. Inteligencia artificial: qué es, cómo funciona y por qué es importante Para quienes no están familiarizados con la informática, puede resultar abrumador intentar comprender las múltiples facetas de la inteligencia artificial y sus implicaciones. En este artículo, esclarecemos qué es la inteligencia artificial, cómo funciona, la diferencia entre aprendizaje automático, aprendizaje profundo, procesamiento del lenguaje natural y otras muchas cuestiones. Sectores Tecnologías de la información y … Mapa del sitio Normas Beneficios Normas más comunes Evaluación de la conformidad ODS Sectores Salud Tecnologías de la información y afines Gestión y servicios Seguridad, protección y gestión de riesgos Transporte Energía Sostenibilidad ambiental Materiales Sobre nosotros Qué es lo que hacemos Estructura Miembros Events Estrategia Perspectivas y actualidad Perspectivas Todos los artículos Salud Inteligencia artificial Cambio climático Transporte Actualidad Opinión de expertos El mundo de las normas Kit de prensa Resources ISO 22000 explained ISO 9001 explained ISO 14001 explained Participar Who develops standards Deliverables Get involved Colaboración para acelerar una acción climática eficaz Resources Drafting standards Tienda Tienda Publications and products ISO name and logo Privacy Notice Copyright Cookie policy Media kit Jobs Help and support Seguimos haciendo que la vida sea mejor , más fácil y más segura . Inscríbase para recibir actualizaciones por correo electrónico © Reservados todos los derechos Todos los materiales y publicaciones de ISO están protegidos por derechos de autor y sujetos a la aceptación por parte del usuario de las condiciones de derechos de autor de ISO. Cualquier uso, incluida la reproducción, requiere nuestra autorización por escrito. Dirija todas las solicitudes relacionadas con los derechos de autor a copyright@iso.org . Nos comprometemos a garantizar que nuestro sitio web sea accesible para todo el mundo. Si tiene alguna pregunta o sugerencia relacionada con la accesibilidad de este sitio web, póngase en contacto con nosotros. Añadir al carrito | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://support.microsoft.com/ar-sa/account-billing/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84-%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A3%D9%88-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9-%D8%A3%D9%88-%D8%A5%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-xbox-%D8%A3%D9%88-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84-%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85-windows-78ee8071-c8ab-40c4-1d89-f708582062e4 | قبل إعادة تدوير أو بيع أو إهداء جهاز Xbox أو جهاز الكمبيوتر الشخصي الذي يعمل بنظام Windows - دعم Microsoft المواضيع ذات الصلة × الأمن والأمان والخصوصية في Windows نظرة عامة نظرة عامة على الأمان والسلامة والخصوصية أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows المحافظة على الحماية باستخدام أمان Windows قبل إعادة تدوير أو بيع أو إهداء جهاز Xbox أو جهاز الكمبيوتر الشخصي الذي يعمل بنظام Windows إزالة البرامج الضارة من كمبيوتر Windows أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows عرض محفوظات المستعرض وحذفها في Microsoft Edge حذف ملفات تعريف الارتباط وإدارتها إزالة المحتوى القيم بأمان عند إعادة تثبيت Windows البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وتأمينه خصوصية Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول خصوصية Windows إعدادات الخصوصية في Windows التي تستخدمها التطبيقات عرض بياناتك على لوحة معلومات الخصوصية تخطي إلى المحتوى الرئيسي Microsoft الدعم الدعم الدعم الصفحة الرئيسية Microsoft 365 Office المنتجات Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows المزيد ... الأجهزة Surface ملحقات الكمبيوتر Xbox ألعاب الكمبيوتر HoloLens Surface Hub ضمانات الأجهزة الحساب & والفوترة حساب Microsoft Store &والفوترة الموارد أحدث الميزات منتديات المجتمعات Microsoft 365 للمسؤولين مدخل الشركات الصغيرة المطور التعليم الإبلاغ عن دعم احتيالي أمان المنتج المزيد شراء Microsoft 365 Microsoft بالكامل Global Microsoft 365 Office Copilot Windows Surface Xbox الدعم Software Software تطبيقات Windows الذكاء الاصطناعي OneDrive Outlook انتقال من Skype إلى Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams PCs & Devices PCs & Devices تسوق للحصول على Xbox Accessories Entertainment Entertainment Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox Game Pass Essential Xbox والألعاب ألعاب الكمبيوتر الشخصي اعمال اعمال الأمان من Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 for business صناعة Microsoft Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 المطور وذلك المطور وذلك مطور Microsoft Microsoft Learn دعم تطبيقات مواقع تسوق الذكاء الاصطناعي مجتمع Microsoft Tech Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards أخرى أخرى الأمان والتنزيلات المجانية التعليم بطاقات الهدايا عرض خريطة الموقع بحث بحث عن التعليمات لا نتائج إلغاء تسجيل الدخول تسجيل الدخول باستخدام حساب Microsoft تسجيل الدخول أو إنشاء حساب. مرحباً، تحديد استخدام حساب مختلف! لديك حسابات متعددة اختر الحساب الذي تريد تسجيل الدخول باستخدامه. المواضيع ذات الصلة الأمن والأمان والخصوصية في Windows نظرة عامة نظرة عامة على الأمان والسلامة والخصوصية أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows المحافظة على الحماية باستخدام أمان Windows قبل إعادة تدوير أو بيع أو إهداء جهاز Xbox أو جهاز الكمبيوتر الشخصي الذي يعمل بنظام Windows إزالة البرامج الضارة من كمبيوتر Windows أمان Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول أمان Windows عرض محفوظات المستعرض وحذفها في Microsoft Edge حذف ملفات تعريف الارتباط وإدارتها إزالة المحتوى القيم بأمان عند إعادة تثبيت Windows البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وتأمينه خصوصية Windows الحصول على تعليمات حول خصوصية Windows إعدادات الخصوصية في Windows التي تستخدمها التطبيقات عرض بياناتك على لوحة معلومات الخصوصية قبل إعادة تدوير أو بيع أو إهداء جهاز Xbox أو جهاز الكمبيوتر الشخصي الذي يعمل بنظام Windows ينطبق على Microsoft account Windows 11 Windows 10 لوحة معلومات حساب Microsoft إذا كنت تخطط لإعادة تدوير جهاز Windows أو جهاز Xbox One أو بيعه أو إهدائه، فتأكد من إزالة جميع المعلومات الشخصية منه. إعادة تعيين جهاز Windows قم بإجراء نسخ احتياطي لأي معلومات تريد حفظها باستخدام نسخ احتياطي لـ Windows. بعد إجراء نسخ احتياطي للمعلومات التي تحتاجها، افتح إعدادات الاسترداد: في تطبيق الإعدادات على جهاز Windows، حدد النظام > الاسترداد أو استخدم الاختصار التالي: فتح إعدادات الاسترداد ملاحظة: في Windows 10، يمكنك الوصول إليه من Update & Security > Recovery. ضمن إعادة ضبط هذا الكمبيوتر الشخصي ، حدد بدء الاستخدام ، ثم اتبع التعليمات التي تظهر على الشاشة. حدد إعادة تعيين الكمبيوتر. اختر من بين الخيارات و/أو الإعدادات في جدول خيارات إعادة التعيين. إعادة تعيين Xbox نسخ إعداداتك احتياطياً إعادة تعيين وحدة التحكم إلى الإعدادات الافتراضية للمصنع على Xbox إزالة جهاز من حساب Microsoft بعد إجراء النسخ الاحتياطي لجهازك وإعادة ضبطه، يجب إزالته من حساب Microsoft الخاص بك. إليك كيفية إجراء ذلك: انتقل إلى https://account.microsoft.com/devices , وسجل الدخول واعثر على الجهاز الذي تريد إزالته. حدد إظهار التفاصيل لعرض المعلومات الخاصة بهذا الجهاز. تحت اسم جهازك، حدد المزيد من الإجراءات > إزالة . راجع تفاصيل جهازك، وحدد خانة الاختيار أنا مستعد لإزالة جهازي ، ثم حدد إزالة . يمكنك بعد ذلك إلغاء ارتباط الجهاز من حساب Microsoft الخاص بك حتى لا يؤثر على حد أجهزة Microsoft Store الخاص بك: سجل دخولك باستخدام حساب Microsoft في https://account.microsoft.com/devices . اعثر على الجهاز الذي تريد إزالته، ثم حدد إلغاء الربط . راجع تفاصيل جهازك وحدد إلغاء الربط . موضوعات ذات صلة إذا تلقيت جهازاً لم تتم إعادة ضبطه، يمكنك إجراء تثبيت نظيف . إذا فقدت مفتاح Bitlocker، فانتقل إلى البحث عن مفتاح استرداد BitLocker . لمعرفة كيفية إعادة تسمية جهاز، انتقل إلى إدارة أجهزتك لـ Microsoft Store . إذا كان جهازك مفقوداً أو مسروقاً، يمكنك تحديد موقعه وقفله عن بُعد - انتقل إلى البحث عن جهاز Windows مفقود وقفله . بالنسبة لجهاز Xbox المسروق، انتقل إلى اعرف ما يجب فعله إذا تعرض Xbox للسرقة. إذا كنت قلقاً بشأن أمان حساب Microsoft الخاص بك، فانتقل إلى كيفية المساعدة في الحفاظ على سلامة وأمان حساب Microsoft . لعرض وإدارة جميع الأجهزة المسجلة في حساب Microsoft الخاص بك، انتقل إلى إدارة الأجهزة المستخدمة مع حساب Microsoft الخاص بك. لمزيد من المعلومات حول أساليب استرداد كمبيوتر Windows، انتقل إلى خيارات الاسترداد في Windows. هل تحتاج إلى مزيد من المساعدة؟ الاتصال بالدعم للحصول على الدعم التقني، انتقل إلى الاتصال بدعم Microsoft وأدخل مشكلتك وحدد الحصول على المساعدة . إذا ما زلت بحاجة إلى المساعدة، فحدد الاتصال بالدعم لكي يتم توجيهك إلى خيار الدعم الأفضل. الاشتراك في موجز ويب لـ RSS هل تحتاج إلى مزيد من المساعدة؟ الخروج من الخيارات إضافية؟ اكتشاف المجتمع الاتصال بنا استكشف مزايا الاشتراك، واستعرض الدورات التدريبية، وتعرف على كيفية تأمين جهازك، والمزيد. ميزات اشتراك Microsoft 365 تدريب Microsoft 365 أمان من Microsoft مركز إمكانية وصول ذوي الاحتياجات الخاصة تساعدك المجتمعات على طرح الأسئلة والإجابة عليها، وتقديم الملاحظات، وسماعها من الخبراء ذوي الاطلاع الواسع. طرح أسئلة في Microsoft Community مجتمع Microsoft التقني مشتركو Windows Insider المشاركون في برنامج Microsoft 365 Insider ابحث عن حلول للمشاكل الشائعة أو احصل على المساعدة من وكيل دعم. الدعم عبر الإنترنت هل كانت المعلومات مفيدة؟ نعم لا شكراً لك! هل لديك أي ملاحظات إضافية لـ Microsoft? هل يمكنك مساعدتنا على التحسين؟ (أرسل ملاحظات إلى Microsoft حتى نتمكن من المساعدة.) ما مدى رضاك عن جودة اللغة؟ ما الذي أثّر في تجربتك؟ ساعد على حل مشكلتي مسح الإرشادات سهل المتابعة لا توجد لغة غير مفهومة كانت الصور مساعِدة جودة الترجمة غير متطابق مع شاشتي إرشادات غير صحيحة تقني بدرجة كبيرة معلومات غير كافية صور غير كافية جودة الترجمة هل لديك أي ملاحظات إضافية؟ (اختياري) إرسال الملاحظات بالضغط على "إرسال"، سيتم استخدام ملاحظاتك لتحسين منتجات Microsoft وخدماتها. سيتمكن مسؤول تكنولوجيا المعلومات لديك من جمع هذه البيانات. بيان الخصوصية. نشكرك على ملاحظاتك! × الجديد Surface Pro Surface Laptop Copilot للمؤسسات Copilot للاستخدام الشخصي Microsoft 365 استكشف منتجات Microsoft Microsoft Store ملف تعريف الحساب مركز التنزيل تعقب الطلب التعليم Microsoft Education أجهزة التعليم Microsoft Teams للتعليم Microsoft 365 Education Office Education تدريب المعلمين وتطويرهم عروض للطلاب وأولياء الأمور Azure للطلاب الأعمال الأمان من Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 Microsoft Advertising Microsoft 365 Copilot Microsoft Teams المطور وتكنولوجيا المعلومات مطور Microsoft Microsoft Learn دعم تطبيقات مواقع تسوق الذكاء الاصطناعي مجتمع Microsoft Tech Microsoft Marketplace Microsoft Power Platform Marketplace Rewards Visual Studio الشركة الوظائف نبذة عن Microsoft الخصوصية في Microsoft المستثمرون الاستدامة العربية (المملكة العربية السعودية) أيقونة إلغاء الاشتراك في اختيارات خصوصيتك خيارات خصوصيتك أيقونة إلغاء الاشتراك في اختيارات خصوصيتك خيارات خصوصيتك خصوصية صحة المستهلك الاتصال بشركة Microsoft الخصوصية إدارة ملفات تعريف الارتباط بنود الاستخدام العلامات التجارية حول إعلاناتنا © Microsoft 2026 | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://support.microsoft.com/sk-sk/windows/spravujte-s%C3%BAbory-cookie-v-microsoft-edgei-zobrazenie-povolenie-blokovanie-odstr%C3%A1nenie-a-pou%C5%BE%C3%ADvanie-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Spravujte súbory cookie v Microsoft Edgei: Zobrazenie, povolenie, blokovanie, odstránenie a používanie - Podpora spoločnosti Microsoft Príbuzné témy × Zabezpečenie, zabezpečenie a ochrana osobných údajov vo Windowse Prehľad Prehľad zabezpečenia, bezpečnosti a ochrany osobných údajov Zabezpečenie systému Windows Získanie pomoci s Windows Zabezpečenie Chráňte sa pomocou aplikácie Windows Zabezpečenie Pred recyklovaním, predajom alebo darom pre Xbox alebo počítač s Windowsom Odstránenie malvéru z počítača s Windowsom Windows Bezpečnosť Získanie pomoci s aplikáciou Windows Bezpečnosť Zobrazenie a odstránenie histórie prehliadača Microsoft Edge Odstránenie a správa súborov cookie Bezpečné odstránenie cenného obsahu pri opätovnej inštalácii Windowsu Vyhľadanie a zamknutie strateného zariadenia s Windowsom Ochrana osobných údajov vo Windowse Získanie pomoci s ochranou osobných údajov vo Windowse Nastavenia ochrany osobných údajov vo Windowse používané aplikáciami Zobrazenie vašich údajov na tabuli ochrany osobných údajov Prejsť na hlavný obsah Microsoft Podpora Podpora Podpora Domov Microsoft 365 Office Produkty Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows viac ... Zariadenia Surface Príslušenstvo počítača Xbox PC hry HoloLens Surface Hub Záruky na hardvér Konto a fakturácia zákazník Microsoft Store a fakturácia Zdroje informácií Čo je nové Fóra komunity Správcovia služby Microsoft 365 Portál pre malé podniky Pre vývojárov Vzdelávanie Nahlásiť podvod podpory Bezpečnosť produktu Viac Kúpiť Microsoft 365 Všetko Microsoft Global Microsoft 365 Teams Copilot Windows Surface Xbox Podpora Softvér Softvér Aplikácie systému Windows Umelá inteligencia OneDrive Outlook OneNote Microsoft Teams Počítače a zariadenia Počítače a zariadenia Počítačové príslušenstvo Zábava Zábava Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox a hry Hry pre PC Podniky Podniky Zabezpečenie od spoločnosti Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 pre podnikateľov Priemyselné riešenia Microsoft Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 Vývojár a IT Vývojár a IT Vývojár Microsoftu Microsoft Learn Podpora pre aplikácie na trhu umelej inteligencie Technická komunita spoločnosti Microsoft Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards Ostatné Ostatné Bezplatné súbory na prevzatie a zabezpečenie Vzdelanie Darčekové poukážky Zobraziť mapu stránky Hľadať Vyhľadanie pomoci Žiadne výsledky Zrušiť Prihlásiť sa Prihláste sa s kontom Microsoft Prihláste sa alebo si vytvorte konto. Dobrý deň, Vyberte iné konto. Máte viacero kont Vyberte konto, s ktorým sa chcete prihlásiť. Príbuzné témy Zabezpečenie, zabezpečenie a ochrana osobných údajov vo Windowse Prehľad Prehľad zabezpečenia, bezpečnosti a ochrany osobných údajov Zabezpečenie systému Windows Získanie pomoci s Windows Zabezpečenie Chráňte sa pomocou aplikácie Windows Zabezpečenie Pred recyklovaním, predajom alebo darom pre Xbox alebo počítač s Windowsom Odstránenie malvéru z počítača s Windowsom Windows Bezpečnosť Získanie pomoci s aplikáciou Windows Bezpečnosť Zobrazenie a odstránenie histórie prehliadača Microsoft Edge Odstránenie a správa súborov cookie Bezpečné odstránenie cenného obsahu pri opätovnej inštalácii Windowsu Vyhľadanie a zamknutie strateného zariadenia s Windowsom Ochrana osobných údajov vo Windowse Získanie pomoci s ochranou osobných údajov vo Windowse Nastavenia ochrany osobných údajov vo Windowse používané aplikáciami Zobrazenie vašich údajov na tabuli ochrany osobných údajov Spravujte súbory cookie v Microsoft Edgei: Zobrazenie, povolenie, blokovanie, odstránenie a používanie Vzťahuje sa na Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Súbory cookie sú malé časti údajov uložené vo vašom zariadení webovými lokalitami, ktoré navštívite. Slúžia na rôzne účely, ako je napríklad zapamätanie prihlasovacích poverení, preferencií lokality a sledovanie správania používateľa. Súbory cookie však možno budete chcieť odstrániť z dôvodu ochrany osobných údajov alebo vyriešiť problémy s prehľadávaním. Tento článok obsahuje pokyny na: Zobraziť všetky súbory cookie Povoliť všetky súbory cookie Povolenie súborov cookie z konkrétnej webovej lokality Blokovanie súborov cookie tretích strán Blokovať všetky súbory cookie Blokovanie súborov cookie z konkrétnej lokality Odstránenie všetkých súborov cookie Odstránenie súborov cookie z konkrétnej lokality Odstránenie súborov cookie pri každom zatvorení prehliadača Používanie súborov cookie na predinštalovanie stránky na rýchlejšie prehľadávanie Zobraziť všetky súbory cookie Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položku Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte položku Súbory cookie a potom kliknutím na položku Zobraziť všetky súbory cookie a údaje lokality zobrazte všetky uložené súbory cookie a súvisiace informácie o lokalite. Povoliť všetky súbory cookie Povolením súborov cookie budú môcť webové lokality ukladať a načítať údaje vo vašom prehliadači, čo môže zlepšiť vaše prehľadávanie zapamätaním si vašich preferencií a prihlasovacích informácií. Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položku Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte súbory cookie a povoľte prepínač Povoliť lokalitám ukladať a čítať údaje o súboroch cookie (odporúča sa), aby sa povolili všetky súbory cookie. Povolenie súborov cookie z konkrétnej lokality Povolením súborov cookie budú môcť webové lokality ukladať a načítať údaje vo vašom prehliadači, čo môže zlepšiť vaše prehľadávanie zapamätaním si vašich preferencií a prihlasovacích informácií. Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položku Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte položku Súbory cookie a prejdite do časti Povolené na ukladanie súborov cookie. Výberom položky Pridať lokalitu povolíte súbory cookie pre jednotlivé lokality zadaním URL adresy lokality. Blokovanie súborov cookie tretích strán Ak nechcete, aby lokality tretích strán ukladali súbory cookie do počítača, súbory cookie môžete blokovať. Blokovanie súborov cookie môže spôsobiť, že niektoré stránky sa nebudú zobrazovať správne. Lokalita vás tiež môže upozorniť na to, že na zobrazenie lokality je nutné povoliť súbory cookie. Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položku Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte súbory cookie a zapnite prepínač Blokovať súbory cookie tretích strán. Blokovať všetky súbory cookie Ak nechcete, aby lokality tretích strán ukladali súbory cookie do počítača, súbory cookie môžete blokovať. Blokovanie súborov cookie môže spôsobiť, že niektoré stránky sa nebudú zobrazovať správne. Lokalita vás tiež môže upozorniť na to, že na zobrazenie lokality je nutné povoliť súbory cookie. Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položku Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte súbory cookie a zakážte lokalitám povoliť ukladanie a čítanie údajov o súboroch cookie (odporúča sa), aby sa zablokovali všetky súbory cookie. Blokovanie súborov cookie z konkrétnej lokality Microsoft Edge vám umožňuje blokovať súbory cookie z konkrétnej lokality, môže to však brániť správnemu zobrazeniu niektorých stránok alebo sa môže zobraziť hlásenie z lokality s informáciou, že na zobrazenie tejto lokality je potrebné povoliť súbory cookie. Blokovanie súborov cookie z konkrétnej lokality: Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položku Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte položku Cookies a prejdite na položku Nie je povolené ukladať a čítať súbory cookie . Výberom položky Pridať lokalitu zablokujte súbory cookie pre jednotlivé lokality zadaním URL adresy lokality. Odstránenie všetkých súborov cookie Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položky Nastavenia > Ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte položku Vymazať údaje prehľadávania a potom vyberte položku Vybrať, čo sa má vymazať vedľa položky Vymazať údaje prehľadávania . V časti Časový rozsah vyberte obdobie v zozname. Vyberte položku Súbory cookie a iné údaje lokality a potom položku Vymazať . Poznámka: Súbory cookie môžete odstrániť aj stlačením kombinácie klávesov CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE a následným vykonaním krokov 4 a 5. Všetky súbory cookie a iné údaje lokality sa odstránia pre vybratý časový rozsah. Týmto sa odhlásite z väčšiny lokalít. Odstránenie súborov cookie z konkrétnej lokality Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položky Nastavenia a ďalšie > Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte súbory cookie , potom kliknite na položku Zobraziť všetky súbory cookie a údaje lokality a vyhľadajte lokalitu, ktorej súbory cookie chcete odstrániť. Vyberte šípku nadol napravo od lokality, ktorej súbory cookie chcete odstrániť, a vyberte ikonu Odstrániť . Súbory cookie pre vybratú lokalitu sa teraz odstránia. Tento krok zopakujte pre všetky lokality, ktorých súbory cookie chcete odstrániť. Odstránenie súborov cookie pri každom zatvorení prehliadača Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položky Nastavenia a ďalšie > Nastavenia > ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte položku Vymazať údaje prehľadávania a potom vyberte položku Vybrať, čo sa má vymazať pri každom zatvorení prehliadača . Zapnite prepínač Súbory cookie a iné údaje lokality . Po zapnutí tejto funkcie sa pri každom zatvorení prehliadača Edge odstránia všetky súbory cookie a iné údaje lokality. Týmto sa odhlásite z väčšiny lokalít. Používanie súborov cookie na predinštalovanie stránky na rýchlejšie prehľadávanie Otvorte prehliadač Edge, vyberte položku Nastavenia a ďalšie možnosti v pravom hornom rohu okna prehliadača. Vyberte položky Nastavenia > Ochrana osobných údajov, vyhľadávanie a služby . Vyberte súbory cookie a zapnite prepínač Preload stránky pre rýchlejšie prehliadanie a vyhľadávanie. PRIHLÁSIŤ SA NA ODBER INFORMAČNÝCH KANÁLOV RSS Potrebujete ďalšiu pomoc? Chcete ďalšie možnosti? 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https://support.microsoft.com/ja-jp/windows/microsoft-edge-%E3%81%A7-cookie-%E3%82%92%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E3%81%99%E3%82%8B-%E8%A1%A8%E7%A4%BA-%E8%A8%B1%E5%8F%AF-%E3%83%96%E3%83%AD%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF-%E5%89%8A%E9%99%A4-%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Microsoft Edge で Cookie を管理する: 表示、許可、ブロック、削除、使用 - Microsoft サポート 関連トピック × Windows のセキュリティ、安全性、プライバシー 概要 セキュリティ、安全性、プライバシーの概要 Windows のセキュリティ Windows のセキュリティに関するヘルプ Windows セキュリティで安全性を維持する Xbox または Windows PC をリサイクル、売却、または譲渡する前に Windows PC からマルウェアを削除する Windows の安全性 Windows の安全性に関するヘルプ Microsoft Edge の閲覧履歴を表示および削除する Cookie の削除と管理を行う Windows を再インストールするときに貴重なコンテンツを安全に削除する 紛失した Windows デバイスを探し、ロックする Windows のプライバシー Windows のプライバシーに関するヘルプ アプリが使用する Windows のプライバシー設定 プライバシー ダッシュボードでデータを表示する メイン コンテンツへスキップ Microsoft サポート サポート サポート ホーム Microsoft 365 Office 製品 Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows さらに表示... デバイス Surface PC アクセサリ Xbox PC ゲーム HoloLens Surface Hub ハードウェアの保証 アカウントと請求 アカウント 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セキュリティで安全性を維持する Xbox または Windows PC をリサイクル、売却、または譲渡する前に Windows PC からマルウェアを削除する Windows の安全性 Windows の安全性に関するヘルプ Microsoft Edge の閲覧履歴を表示および削除する Cookie の削除と管理を行う Windows を再インストールするときに貴重なコンテンツを安全に削除する 紛失した Windows デバイスを探し、ロックする Windows のプライバシー Windows のプライバシーに関するヘルプ アプリが使用する Windows のプライバシー設定 プライバシー ダッシュボードでデータを表示する Microsoft Edge で Cookie を管理する: 表示、許可、ブロック、削除、使用 適用先 Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Cookie は、アクセスした Web サイトによってデバイスに保存される小さなデータです。 ログイン資格情報の記憶、サイトの設定、ユーザーの動作の追跡など、さまざまな目的に役立ちます。 ただし、プライバシー上の理由から Cookie を削除したり、閲覧の問題を解決したりすることもできます。 この記事では、次の方法について説明します。 すべての Cookie を表示する すべての Cookie を許可する 特定の Web サイトからの Cookie を許可する サード パーティの Cookie をブロックする [すべての Cookie をブロックする] 特定のサイトからの Cookie をブロックする すべての Cookie を削除する 特定のサイトから Cookie を削除する ブラウザーを閉じるたびに Cookie を削除する Cookie を使用してページを事前に読み込み、閲覧を高速化する すべての Cookie を表示する Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [ 設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] を選択します。 [ Cookie] を選択し、[ すべての Cookie とサイト データを表示 ] をクリックして、保存されているすべての Cookie と関連するサイト情報を表示します。 すべての Cookie を許可する クッキーを許可することで、ウェブサイトはブラウザ上のデータを保存および取得することができ、お客様の好みやログイン情報を記憶することで閲覧エクスペリエンスを向上させることができます。 Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [ 設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] を選択します。 [ Cookie] を選択し、[ サイトで Cookie データの保存と読み取りを許可する (推奨)] を有効にして、すべての Cookie を許可します。 特定のサイトからの Cookie を許可する クッキーを許可することで、ウェブサイトはブラウザ上のデータを保存および取得することができ、お客様の好みやログイン情報を記憶することで閲覧エクスペリエンスを向上させることができます。 Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [ 設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] を選択します。 [ Cookie] を選択し、[ 許可] に移動して Cookie を保存します。 サイトの URL を入力して、サイトごとに Cookie を許可するには、[サイトの 追加] を選択します。 サード パーティの Cookie をブロックする サード パーティのサイトが COOKIE を PC に保存したくない場合は、Cookie をブロックできます。 ただし、この操作を行うと、一部のページが正常に表示されなくなることがあります。また、サイトを閲覧するには Cookie を許可する必要があることを知らせるメッセージが表示されることがあります。 Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [ 設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] を選択します。 [ Cookie]\(Cookies\ ) を選択し、[ サード パーティの Cookie をブロック する] トグルを有効にします。 [すべての Cookie をブロックする] サード パーティのサイトが COOKIE を PC に保存したくない場合は、Cookie をブロックできます。 ただし、この操作を行うと、一部のページが正常に表示されなくなることがあります。また、サイトを閲覧するには Cookie を許可する必要があることを知らせるメッセージが表示されることがあります。 Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [ 設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] を選択します。 [ Cookie] を選択し 、[サイトで Cookie データの保存と読み取りを許可する (推奨)] を無効にして、すべての Cookie をブロックします。 特定のサイトからの Cookie をブロックする Microsoft Edge を使用すると、特定のサイトからの Cookie をブロックできますが、これを行うと、一部のページが正しく表示できなくなる場合や、Cookie がそのサイトの表示を許可する必要があることを通知するメッセージがサイトから届く場合があります。 特定のサイトからの Cookie をブロックするには: Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [ 設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] を選択します。 [ Cookie] を選択し、[ Cookie の保存と読み取りが許可されていません] に 移動します。 サイト の URL を入力してサイトごとに Cookie をブロックするには、[サイトの 追加] を選択します。 すべての Cookie を削除する Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [設定] > [プライバシー、検索、サービス] を選択します。 [ 閲覧データの消去 ] を選択し、[ 今すぐ閲覧データ を消去する ] の横にある [クリアする内容を選択する] を選択します。 [時間の範囲] で、時間の範囲を選択します。 [Cookie およびその他のサイト データ] を選択し、 [今すぐクリア] を選択します。 注: または、 Ctrl キー を押しながら Shift キーを押しながら DELETE キー を押し、手順 4 と 5 に進んで Cookie を削除することもできます。 これで、選択した時間範囲のすべての Cookie とその他のサイト データが削除されます。 これにより、ほとんどのサイトからサインアウトされます。 特定のサイトから Cookie を削除する Edge ブラウザーを開き、[ 設定など] を選択 > [設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス ] 。 [ Cookie] を選択し、[ すべての Cookie とサイト データを表示 する] をクリックし、Cookie を削除するサイトを検索します。 Cookie を削除するサイトの右側にある下矢印 を選択し、 [削除] を選択します。 選択したサイトの Cookie が削除されるようになりました。 Cookie を削除するサイトに対して、この手順を繰り返します。 ブラウザーを閉じるたびに Cookie を削除する Edge ブラウザーを開き、[ 設定など] を選択 > [設定] > [プライバシー]、[検索]、[サービス] の順に 選択します。 [ 閲覧データの消去 ] を選択し、 ブラウザーを閉じるたびにクリアする内容を選択 します。 [Cookie およびその他のサイト データ] トグルをオンにします。 この機能を有効にすると、Edge ブラウザーを閉じるたびに、すべての Cookie やその他のサイト データが削除されます。 これにより、ほとんどのサイトからサインアウトされます。 Cookie を使用してページを事前に読み込み、閲覧を高速化する Edge ブラウザーを開き ブラウザー ウィンドウの右上隅にある [設定など] を選択します。 [設定] > [プライバシー、検索、サービス] を選択します。 [Cookie] を 選択し、[ ページの事前読み込み] トグルを有効にして、閲覧と検索を高速化します。 RSS フィードを購読する ヘルプを表示 その他のオプションが必要ですか? ディスカバー コミュニティ お問い合わせ サブスクリプションの特典の参照、トレーニング コースの閲覧、デバイスのセキュリティ保護方法などについて説明します。 Microsoft 365 サブスクリプションの特典 Microsoft 365 のトレーニング Microsoft Security アクセシビリティ センター 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https://bugs.php.net/bug.php?id=60412&edit=2 | PHP :: Request #60412 :: UTF-8 functions doesn't respect unicode equivalence - Need Normalization php.net | support | documentation | report a bug | advanced search | search howto | statistics | random bug | login go to bug id or search bugs for Request #60412 UTF-8 functions doesn't respect unicode equivalence - Need Normalization Submitted: 2011-11-29 22:17 UTC Modified: 2015-01-08 22:11 UTC Votes: 1 Avg. Score: 1.0 ± 0.0 Reproduced: 1 of 1 (100.0%) Same Version: 0 (0.0%) Same OS: 0 (0.0%) From: mike dot squire at gmail dot com Assigned: Status: Analyzed Package: mbstring related PHP Version: 5.4SVN-2011-11-04 (SVN) OS: all Private report: No CVE-ID: None View Developer Edit [2011-11-29 22:17 UTC] mike dot squire at gmail dot com Description: ------------ Quote from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode_equivalence: "...the code point U+006E (the Latin lowercase 'n') followed by U+0303 (the combining tilde '◌̃') is defined by Unicode to be canonically equivalent to the single code point U+00F1 (the lowercase letter 'ñ' of the Spanish alphabet). Therefore, those sequences should be displayed in the same manner, should be treated in the same way by applications such as alphabetizing names or searching, and may be substituted for each other." It might be this is more a case of just documenting that the unicode functions don't support unicode equivalence (for completeness). Test script: --------------- echo "Output recorded from a terminal interpreting UTF-8\n\n"; var_dump("\x6e\xcc\x83"); var_dump(utf8_encode("\xf1")); var_dump(utf8_decode("\x6e\xcc\x83") == "\xf1"); var_dump(mb_convert_encoding("\x6e\xcc\x83", "ISO-8859-1", "UTF-8") == "\xf1"); Expected result: ---------------- Output recorded from a terminal interpreting UTF-8 string(3) "ñ" string(2) "ñ" bool(true) bool(true) Actual result: -------------- Output recorded from a terminal interpreting UTF-8 string(3) "ñ" string(2) "ñ" bool(false) bool(false) Patches Pull Requests History All Comments Changes Git/SVN commits Related reports [2011-11-29 23:58 UTC] yohgaki@php.net -Summary: UTF-8 functions doesn't respect unicode equivalence +Summary: UTF-8 functions doesn't respect unicode equivalence - Need Normalization -Status: Open +Status: Analyzed -Package: Unicode Engine related +Package: mbstring related -Operating System: OSX (though probably all) +Operating System: all -PHP Version: 5.3.8 +PHP Version: 5.4SVN-2011-11-04 (SVN) [2011-11-29 23:58 UTC] yohgaki@php.net What you are looking for is normalization. Intl module has it, but mbstring does not. I changed bug type to feature request. [2015-01-08 22:11 UTC] ajf@php.net -Type: Bug +Type: Feature/Change Request [2015-01-08 22:11 UTC] ajf@php.net Yasuo's change apparently didn't take effect. This change to Feature Request should stick? Copyright © 2001-2026 The PHP Group All rights reserved. Last updated: Tue Jan 13 09:00:01 2026 UTC | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
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https://support.microsoft.com/el-gr/windows/%CE%BB%CE%AE%CF%88%CE%B7-%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%AE%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82-%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1-%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD-%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD-%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD-%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD-windows-f7a99c80-4a85-4556-9264-a3f6c55ab89f | Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows - Υποστήριξη της Microsoft Σχετικά θέματα × Προστασία, ασφάλεια και προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Επισκόπηση Επισκόπηση προστασίας, ασφάλειας και προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την ασφάλεια των Windows Παραμείνετε προστατευμένοι με την ασφάλεια των Windows Πριν από την ανακύκλωση, την πώληση ή τη δωρεά του υπολογιστή Xbox ή Windows σας Κατάργηση λογισμικού κακόβουλης λειτουργίας από τον προσωπικό υπολογιστή Windows σας Ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας με την ασφάλεια των Windows Προβολή και διαγραφή ιστορικού περιήγησης στο Microsoft Edge Διαγραφή και διαχείριση cookies Ασφαλής κατάργηση του πολύτιμου περιεχομένου σας κατά την επανεγκατάσταση των Windows Εύρεση και κλείδωμα χαμένης συσκευής Windows Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές Προβολή των δεδομένων σας στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Μετάβαση στο κύριο περιεχόμενο Microsoft Υποστήριξη Υποστήριξη Υποστήριξη Αρχική Microsoft 365 Office Προϊόντα Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows περισσότερα ... Συσκευές Surface Αξεσουάρ υπολογιστή Xbox Παιχνίδι σε υπολογιστή HoloLens Surface Hub Εγγυήσεις υλικού Λογαριασμός και χρέωση λογαριασμός Microsoft Store και χρέωση Πόροι Τι νέο υπάρχει Φόρουμ κοινότητας Διαχειριστές του Microsoft 365 Πύλη για μικρές επιχειρήσεις Προγραμματιστής Εκπαίδευση Αναφορά απάτης υποστήριξης Ασφάλεια προϊόντος Περισσότερα Αγορά του Microsoft 365 Όλη η Microsoft Global Microsoft 365 Teams Copilot Windows Surface Xbox Υποστήριξη Λογισμικό Λογισμικό Εφαρμογές Windows Τεχνητή νοημοσύνη OneDrive Outlook Μετάβαση από το Skype στο Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams Υπολογιστές και συσκευές Υπολογιστές και συσκευές Αξεσουάρ υπολογιστή Ψυχαγωγία Ψυχαγωγία Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox Game Pass Essential Xbox και παιχνίδια Παιχνίδια για υπολογιστή Επαγγελματίες Επαγγελματίες Ασφάλεια Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 για Επιχειρήσεις Microsoft Industry Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 Προγραμματιστής και IT Προγραμματιστής και IT Πρόγραμμα για προγραμματιστές της Microsoft Microsoft Learn Υποστήριξη για εφαρμογές αγοράς AI Τεχνολογική κοινότητα της Microsoft Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards Άλλα Άλλα Δωρεάν στοιχεία λήψης και ασφάλεια Εκπαίδευση Δωροκάρτες Προβολή χάρτη τοποθεσίας Αναζήτηση Αναζήτηση βοήθειας Δεν υπάρχουν αποτελέσματα Άκυρο Είσοδος Είσοδος με Microsoft Είσοδος ή δημιουργία λογαριασμού. Γεια σας, Επιλέξτε διαφορετικό λογαριασμό. Έχετε πολλούς λογαριασμούς Επιλέξτε τον λογαριασμό με τον οποίο θέλετε να εισέλθετε. Σχετικά θέματα Προστασία, ασφάλεια και προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Επισκόπηση Επισκόπηση προστασίας, ασφάλειας και προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την ασφάλεια των Windows Παραμείνετε προστατευμένοι με την ασφάλεια των Windows Πριν από την ανακύκλωση, την πώληση ή τη δωρεά του υπολογιστή Xbox ή Windows σας Κατάργηση λογισμικού κακόβουλης λειτουργίας από τον προσωπικό υπολογιστή Windows σας Ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας με την ασφάλεια των Windows Προβολή και διαγραφή ιστορικού περιήγησης στο Microsoft Edge Διαγραφή και διαχείριση cookies Ασφαλής κατάργηση του πολύτιμου περιεχομένου σας κατά την επανεγκατάσταση των Windows Εύρεση και κλείδωμα χαμένης συσκευής Windows Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές Προβολή των δεδομένων σας στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Ισχύει για Windows 11 Windows 10 Η προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων ξεκινά δίνοντας σε εσάς τον έλεγχο των δεδομένων σας κατά τη χρήση των Windows και άλλων προϊόντων της Microsoft. Θέλουμε να σας δώσουμε τα εργαλεία και τις πληροφορίες που χρειάζεστε για να κάνετε ουσιαστικές επιλογές σχετικά με τον τρόπο χρήσης των δεδομένων σας. Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες, ανατρέξτε στο θέμα Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων στη Microsoft . Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Μπορείτε να ελέγξετε και να αλλάξετε τις ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων για τα Windows ανά πάσα στιγμή. Για παράδειγμα, μπορείτε να ελέγξετε ποιες εφαρμογές και υπηρεσίες μπορούν να έχουν πρόσβαση στην τοποθεσία, την κάμερα ή το μικρόφωνό σας. Πίνακα προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Για να διαχειριστείτε τις ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων και τα δεδομένα δραστηριότητας για τα προϊόντα και τις υπηρεσίες της Microsoft που χρησιμοποιείτε ενώ είστε συνδεδεμένοι με τον λογαριασμό Microsoft, μεταβείτε στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων . Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες, ανατρέξτε στο θέμα Προβολή των δεδομένων σας στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων . Δήλωση προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Στη Microsoft, τα προσωπικά σας δεδομένα είναι σημαντικά για εμάς. Η δήλωση προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων μας περιγράφει τα προσωπικά δεδομένα που επεξεργαζόμαστε, τον τρόπο με τον οποίο τα επεξεργαζόμαστε και για ποιους σκοπούς. ΕΓΓΡΑΦΗ ΣΤΙΣ ΤΡΟΦΟΔΟΣΙΕΣ RSS Χρειάζεστε περισσότερη βοήθεια; Θέλετε περισσότερες επιλογές; Ανακαλύψτε Κοινότητα Εξερευνήστε τα πλεονεκτήματα της συνδρομής, περιηγηθείτε σε εκπαιδευτικά σεμινάρια, μάθετε πώς μπορείτε να προστατεύσετε τη συσκευή σας και πολλά άλλα. Πλεονεκτήματα συνδρομής Microsoft 365 Εκπαίδευση Microsoft 365 Ασφάλεια της Microsoft Κέντρο προσβασιμότητας Οι κοινότητες σάς βοηθούν να κάνετε και να απαντάτε σε ερωτήσεις, να δίνετε σχόλια και να ακούτε από ειδικούς με πλούσια γνώση. Ρωτήστε την κοινότητα της Microsoft Τεχνική Κοινότητα Microsoft Windows Insiders Microsoft 365 Insiders Σας βοήθησαν αυτές οι πληροφορίες; Ναι Όχι Ευχαριστούμε! Έχετε άλλα σχόλια για τη Microsoft; Μπορείτε να μας βοηθήσετε να βελτιωθούμε; (Στείλτε σχόλια στη Microsoft, ώστε να μπορέσουμε να βοηθήσουμε.) Πόσο ικανοποιημένοι είστε με τη γλωσσική ποιότητα; Τι επηρέασε την εμπειρία σας; Το ζήτημά μου επιλύθηκε Απαλοιφή οδηγιών Ευνόητο Χωρίς τεχνική ορολογία Οι εικόνες βοήθησαν Ποιότητα μετάφρασης Δεν συμφωνούσε με την οθόνη μου Εσφαλμένες οδηγίες Πολύ τεχνικό Ανεπαρκείς πληροφορίες Δεν υπάρχουν αρκετές εικόνες Ποιότητα μετάφρασης Έχετε πρόσθετα σχόλια; (Προαιρετικό) Υποβολή σχολίων Πατώντας "Υποβολή" τα σχόλια σας θα χρησιμοποιηθούν για τη βελτίωση των προϊόντων και των υπηρεσιών της Microsoft. Ο διαχειριστής IT θα έχει τη δυνατότητα να συλλέξει αυτά τα δεδομένα. Δήλωση προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων. Σας ευχαριστούμε για τα σχόλιά σας! × Τι νέο υπάρχει Copilot για οργανισμούς Copilot για προσωπική χρήση Microsoft 365 Εφαρμογές των Windows 11 Microsoft Store Προφίλ λογαριασμού Κέντρο λήψης Επιστροφές Παρακολούθηση παραγγελίας Ανακύκλωση Commercial Warranties Εκπαίδευση Microsoft για εκπαιδευτικά ιδρύματα Συσκευές για εκπαιδευτικά ιδρύματα Microsoft Teams για εκπαιδευτικά ιδρύματα Microsoft 365 για εκπαιδευτικά ιδρύματα Office για εκπαιδευτικά ιδρύματα Εκπαίδευση και ανάπτυξη εκπαιδευτικών Προσφορές για σπουδαστές και γονείς Azure για σπουδαστές Επιχειρήσεις Ασφάλεια Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 Microsoft Advertising Microsoft 365 Copilot Microsoft Teams Προγραμματιστής και IT Πρόγραμμα για προγραμματιστές της Microsoft Microsoft Learn Υποστήριξη για εφαρμογές αγοράς AI Τεχνολογική κοινότητα της Microsoft Microsoft Marketplace Microsoft Power Platform Marketplace Rewards Visual Studio Εταιρεία Σταδιοδρομίες Εταιρικά νέα Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων στη Microsoft Επενδυτές Βιωσιμότητα Ελληνικά (Ελλάδα) Εικονίδιο εξαίρεσης σχετικά με τις επιλογές προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων σας Οι επιλογές προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων σας Εικονίδιο εξαίρεσης σχετικά με τις επιλογές προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων σας Οι επιλογές προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων σας Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων για την υγεία των καταναλωτών Επικοινωνήστε με τη Microsoft Προστασία δεδομένων Διαχείριση cookies Όροι χρήσης Εμπορικά σήματα Σχετικά με τις διαφημίσεις μας EU Compliance DoCs © Microsoft 2026 | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://bugs.php.net/search.php?cmd=display&package_name[]=mbstring+related | PHP :: Bugs :: Search php.net | support | documentation | report a bug | advanced search | search howto | statistics | random bug | login go to bug id or search bugs for Showing 1-30 of 2334 Show Next 30 Entries » ID# Date Last Modified Package Type Status PHP Version OS Summary Assigned 35894 (edit) 2006-01-04 15:40 UTC 2010-12-01 16:17 UTC IMAP related Req Analyzed 5.1.2 Linux php-imap doesn't trap USR2 when mailbox is locked 38915 (edit) 2006-09-21 19:15 UTC 2014-06-05 09:01 UTC Program Execution Req Analyzed 5.2.2, 4.4.7 UNIX Apache: system() (and similar) don't cleanup opened handles of Apache 42816 (edit) 2007-10-01 16:44 UTC 2021-11-10 16:30 UTC Website problem Bug Analyzed Irrelevant Irrelevant [PATCH] Add support for core and magic constants to error.php 46451 (edit) 2008-11-01 14:19 UTC 2020-11-16 16:24 UTC Session related Req Analyzed * * Session module needs a hook into the evaluator 49106 (edit) 2009-07-30 02:40 UTC 2021-10-27 09:18 UTC Apache2 related Bug Analyzed 5.*, 6 * PHP incorrectly sets no_local_copy=1 on response as Apache 2 module 54051 (edit) 2011-02-18 22:28 UTC 2021-10-12 12:50 UTC PHP options/info functions Bug Analyzed Irrelevant Debian GNU/Linux output_buffering boolean values not interpreted correctly 55820 (edit) 2011-09-30 15:45 UTC 2021-12-18 21:19 UTC OpenSSL related Req Analyzed 5.3.8 Ubuntu Linux 10.04 php openssl csr parser ignores SANs 60224 (edit) 2011-11-05 13:50 UTC 2021-07-13 14:05 UTC Doc Build problem Bug Analyzed Irrelevant div nesting in html docs 60412 (edit) 2011-11-29 22:17 UTC 2015-01-08 22:11 UTC mbstring related Req Analyzed 5.4SVN-2011-11-04 (SVN) all UTF-8 functions doesn't respect unicode equivalence - Need Normalization 61972 (edit) 2012-05-07 21:09 UTC 2018-08-07 15:20 UTC SimpleXML related Doc Analyzed 5.4.2 Windows XP addchild treats text as a tag 63343 (edit) 2012-10-24 00:06 UTC 2021-06-14 09:03 UTC PDO related Bug Analyzed Irrelevant Mixed Commit failure for repeated persistent connection 63501 (edit) 2012-11-13 12:00 UTC 2015-12-30 17:12 UTC gmagick Bug Analyzed 5.4.8 Linux (CentOS) Setfillopacity causes a box around each letter 63709 (edit) 2012-12-06 13:12 UTC 2013-04-04 08:32 UTC Filesystem function related Bug Analyzed 5.3.19 Linux flock() doesn't trigger mandatory locks on linux 64312 (edit) 2013-02-27 15:43 UTC 2021-09-01 12:31 UTC *General Issues Doc Analyzed 5.4.12 Win7 32 bits set_error_handler always return handler if called inside an error_handler 64447 (edit) 2013-03-18 19:09 UTC 2018-04-29 11:15 UTC Doc Build problem Bug Analyzed Irrelevant Syntax highlighting is old 65014 (edit) 2013-06-11 15:50 UTC 2020-12-07 16:46 UTC Scripting Engine problem Bug Analyzed 5.6.11 * namespaced class not found after including it in an error handler 65343 (edit) 2013-07-26 13:34 UTC 2021-08-30 14:37 UTC Network related Req Analyzed 5.5.1 any Not all DNS types supported in dns_get_record 65455 (edit) 2013-08-15 11:25 UTC 2020-11-17 12:49 UTC IMAP related Bug Analyzed 5.4.17 in Unknown on line 0 65500 (edit) 2013-08-22 08:30 UTC 2021-08-31 13:43 UTC FPM related Bug Analyzed 5.4 or later any debug_backtrace doesn't identify file name when config contains invalid comment 65987 (edit) 2013-10-29 00:42 UTC 2020-05-13 13:48 UTC *Extensibility Functions Bug Analyzed Irrelevant Windows memory leak and handle leak in shmop 66232 (edit) 2013-12-04 05:14 UTC 2022-12-27 17:35 UTC Streams related Bug Analyzed 5.5Git-2013-12-04 (Git) Linux 3.11.4-vhost-blk+ x86_64 proc_open: Inconsistent handling of EOFs on pipes bukka 70379 (edit) 2015-08-28 09:00 UTC 2015-08-30 13:54 UTC Unknown/Other Function Doc Analyzed 7.0.0RC1 OSX call_user_func_array only accepts explicit references 71101 (edit) 2015-12-12 13:09 UTC 2021-09-24 14:09 UTC Session related Doc Analyzed Irrelevant * serialize_handler must not be switched for existing sessions 71340 (edit) 2016-01-11 18:24 UTC 2018-06-18 07:22 UTC PHP options/info functions Doc Analyzed 7.0 Any php_admin_value[error_reporting] in fpm/apache conf can be bypassed in user code 71506 (edit) 2016-02-03 10:54 UTC 2016-08-02 15:18 UTC Zlib related Bug Analyzed Irrelevant Slackware 14.1 inflate_add() does not detect truncated data 71607 (edit) 2016-02-16 07:51 UTC 2016-02-18 14:00 UTC Apache2 related Doc Analyzed 5.6.18 Windows 8.1 putenv/getenv parameters are passed to subrequests 72247 (edit) 2016-05-20 02:46 UTC 2019-09-19 01:55 UTC OpenSSL related Req Analyzed master-Git-2016-05-20 (Git) Windows10/CentOS7.2 There is no way to get key length for cipher algorithms 75554 (edit) 2017-11-22 12:37 UTC 2020-03-25 15:48 UTC Apache2 related Bug Analyzed 7.1.11 Linux Mint 18, Ubuntu 12.04 LTS session_regenerate_id() causes duplicate Set-Cookie header to be sent 75584 (edit) 2017-11-28 01:11 UTC 2022-12-28 17:42 UTC Streams related Bug Analyzed 7.1.12 Arch Linux=Y Windows=? macOS=? Docs?: stream_select() ignores proc_open() streams for buffered fopen() streams bukka 76268 (edit) 2018-04-25 14:35 UTC 2020-06-17 16:25 UTC cURL related Bug Analyzed 7.1.16 linux, debian 10 x64 k4.15.11-1 stream_get_contents fail to seek on streams modified by curl_exec Showing 1-30 of 2334 Show Next 30 Entries » Copyright © 2001-2026 The PHP Group All rights reserved. Last updated: Tue Jan 13 09:00:01 2026 UTC | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://support.microsoft.com/el-gr/windows/%CF%81%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82-%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82-%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD-%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD-%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD-windows-%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85-%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B9-%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%8C-%CE%B5%CF%86%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AD%CF%82-8b7f2cf4-c359-bf99-0f69-2123cc9ddfc1 | Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές - Υποστήριξη της Microsoft Σχετικά θέματα × Προστασία, ασφάλεια και προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Επισκόπηση Επισκόπηση προστασίας, ασφάλειας και προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την ασφάλεια των Windows Παραμείνετε προστατευμένοι με την ασφάλεια των Windows Πριν από την ανακύκλωση, την πώληση ή τη δωρεά του υπολογιστή Xbox ή Windows σας Κατάργηση λογισμικού κακόβουλης λειτουργίας από τον προσωπικό υπολογιστή Windows σας Ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας με την ασφάλεια των Windows Προβολή και διαγραφή ιστορικού περιήγησης στο Microsoft Edge Διαγραφή και διαχείριση cookies Ασφαλής κατάργηση του πολύτιμου περιεχομένου σας κατά την επανεγκατάσταση των Windows Εύρεση και κλείδωμα χαμένης συσκευής Windows Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές Προβολή των δεδομένων σας στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Μετάβαση στο κύριο περιεχόμενο Microsoft Υποστήριξη Υποστήριξη Υποστήριξη Αρχική Microsoft 365 Office Προϊόντα Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows περισσότερα ... Συσκευές Surface Αξεσουάρ υπολογιστή Xbox Παιχνίδι σε υπολογιστή HoloLens Surface Hub Εγγυήσεις υλικού Λογαριασμός και χρέωση λογαριασμός Microsoft Store και χρέωση Πόροι Τι νέο υπάρχει Φόρουμ κοινότητας Διαχειριστές του Microsoft 365 Πύλη για μικρές επιχειρήσεις Προγραμματιστής Εκπαίδευση Αναφορά απάτης υποστήριξης Ασφάλεια προϊόντος Περισσότερα Αγορά του Microsoft 365 Όλη η Microsoft Global Microsoft 365 Teams Copilot Windows Surface Xbox Υποστήριξη Λογισμικό Λογισμικό Εφαρμογές Windows Τεχνητή νοημοσύνη OneDrive Outlook Μετάβαση από το Skype στο Teams OneNote Microsoft Teams Υπολογιστές και συσκευές Υπολογιστές και συσκευές Αξεσουάρ υπολογιστή Ψυχαγωγία Ψυχαγωγία Xbox Game Pass Ultimate Xbox Game Pass Essential Xbox και παιχνίδια Παιχνίδια για υπολογιστή Επαγγελματίες Επαγγελματίες Ασφάλεια Microsoft Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 για Επιχειρήσεις Microsoft Industry Microsoft Power Platform Windows 365 Προγραμματιστής και IT Προγραμματιστής και IT Πρόγραμμα για προγραμματιστές της Microsoft Microsoft Learn Υποστήριξη για εφαρμογές αγοράς AI Τεχνολογική κοινότητα της Microsoft Microsoft Marketplace Visual Studio Marketplace Rewards Άλλα Άλλα Δωρεάν στοιχεία λήψης και ασφάλεια Εκπαίδευση Δωροκάρτες Προβολή χάρτη τοποθεσίας Αναζήτηση Αναζήτηση βοήθειας Δεν υπάρχουν αποτελέσματα Άκυρο Είσοδος Είσοδος με Microsoft Είσοδος ή δημιουργία λογαριασμού. Γεια σας, Επιλέξτε διαφορετικό λογαριασμό. Έχετε πολλούς λογαριασμούς Επιλέξτε τον λογαριασμό με τον οποίο θέλετε να εισέλθετε. Σχετικά θέματα Προστασία, ασφάλεια και προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Επισκόπηση Επισκόπηση προστασίας, ασφάλειας και προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την ασφάλεια των Windows Παραμείνετε προστατευμένοι με την ασφάλεια των Windows Πριν από την ανακύκλωση, την πώληση ή τη δωρεά του υπολογιστή Xbox ή Windows σας Κατάργηση λογισμικού κακόβουλης λειτουργίας από τον προσωπικό υπολογιστή Windows σας Ασφάλεια των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας με την ασφάλεια των Windows Προβολή και διαγραφή ιστορικού περιήγησης στο Microsoft Edge Διαγραφή και διαχείριση cookies Ασφαλής κατάργηση του πολύτιμου περιεχομένου σας κατά την επανεγκατάσταση των Windows Εύρεση και κλείδωμα χαμένης συσκευής Windows Προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Λήψη βοήθειας για την προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές Προβολή των δεδομένων σας στον πίνακα εργαλείων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων των Windows που χρησιμοποιούνται από εφαρμογές Ισχύει για Privacy Windows 11 Windows 10 Τα Windows παρέχουν πρόσβαση σε πληθώρα δεδομένων, προκειμένου οι εφαρμογές σας να είναι χρήσιμες και πολύτιμες για εσάς. Αυτές οι δυνατότητες, οι οποίες είναι κατασκευαστές ασφαλείας που αποκτούν πρόσβαση σε προσωπικά δεδομένα, περιλαμβάνουν στοιχεία όπως το Ημερολόγιο, οι Επαφές, το Ιστορικό κλήσεων και πολλά άλλα. Κάθε δυνατότητα έχει τη δική της σελίδα ρυθμίσεων προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων, έτσι ώστε να μπορείτε να ελέγχετε τόσο την ίδια όσο και ποιες εφαρμογές και υπηρεσίες μπορούν να τη χρησιμοποιούν. Για να ελέγξετε ποιες εφαρμογές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιούν κάθε δυνατότητα στο Windows 10 Μεταβείτε στην Έναρξη και, στη συνέχεια, επιλέξτε Ρυθμίσεις > προστασία προσωπικών δεδομένων . Επιλέξτε τη δυνατότητα που θέλετε να επιτρέψετε να χρησιμοποιούν οι εφαρμογές, όπως Ημερολόγιο ή Επαφές. Επιλέξτε την προτιμώμενη ρύθμιση για να επιτρέψετε σε εφαρμογές να χρησιμοποιούν, να έχουν πρόσβαση, να ελέγχουν ή να διαβάζουν τη δυνατότητα Επιλέξτε ποιες εφαρμογές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιούν, να έχουν πρόσβαση, να ελέγχουν ή να διαβάζουν τη δυνατότητα, ενεργοποιώντας ή απενεργοποιώντας μεμονωμένες εφαρμογές και υπηρεσίες. Για να ελέγξετε ποιες εφαρμογές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιούν κάθε δυνατότητα στο Windows 11 Μεταβείτε στην Έναρξη και, στη συνέχεια, επιλέξτε Ρυθμίσεις >την ασφάλεια & προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων . Επιλέξτε τη δυνατότητα που θέλετε να επιτρέψετε να χρησιμοποιούν οι εφαρμογές, όπως Ημερολόγιο ή Επαφές. Ενεργοποιήστε ή απενεργοποιήστε τη ρύθμιση που επιτρέπει σε οποιονδήποτε χρησιμοποιεί τη συσκευή να έχει πρόσβαση στη δυνατότητα. Επιλέξτε ποιες εφαρμογές μπορούν να έχουν πρόσβαση στη δυνατότητα ενεργοποιώντας ή απενεργοποιώντας μεμονωμένες εφαρμογές και υπηρεσίες. Εξαιρέσεις στις ρυθμίσεις προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων Οι εφαρμογές υπολογιστή δεν θα εμφανίζονται στις λίστες εφαρμογών και υπηρεσιών που μπορείτε να ενεργοποιήσετε και να απενεργοποιήσετε και δεν επηρεάζονται από τη ρύθμιση που επιτρέπει στις εφαρμογές να έχουν πρόσβαση σε μια δυνατότητα. Για την αποδοχή ή τον αποκλεισμό εφαρμογών επιφάνειας εργασίας, χρησιμοποιήστε τις ρυθμίσεις της εκάστοτε εφαρμογής. Σημείωση: Πώς μπορείτε να καταλάβετε αν μια εφαρμογή είναι εφαρμογή επιφάνειας εργασίας; Συνήθως, οι εφαρμογές επιφάνειας εργασίας λαμβάνονται από το Internet ή εγκαθίστανται μέσω κάποιου μέσου εγκατάστασης (όπως ένα CD, ένα DVD ή μια συσκευή αποθήκευσης USB). Εκκινούνται με τη χρήση ενός αρχείου .EXE ή .DLL και τυπικά εκτελούνται στη συσκευή σας, σε αντίθεση με τις εφαρμογές που βασίζονται στο web (οι οποίες εκτελούνται στο cloud). Επίσης, οι εφαρμογές επιφάνειας εργασίας είναι διαθέσιμες στο Microsoft Store. ΕΓΓΡΑΦΗ ΣΤΙΣ ΤΡΟΦΟΔΟΣΙΕΣ RSS Χρειάζεστε περισσότερη βοήθεια; Θέλετε περισσότερες επιλογές; Ανακαλύψτε Κοινότητα Επικοινωνήστε μαζί μας Εξερευνήστε τα πλεονεκτήματα της συνδρομής, περιηγηθείτε σε εκπαιδευτικά σεμινάρια, μάθετε πώς μπορείτε να προστατεύσετε τη συσκευή σας και πολλά άλλα. Πλεονεκτήματα συνδρομής Microsoft 365 Εκπαίδευση Microsoft 365 Ασφάλεια της Microsoft Κέντρο προσβασιμότητας Οι κοινότητες σάς βοηθούν να κάνετε και να απαντάτε σε ερωτήσεις, να δίνετε σχόλια και να ακούτε από ειδικούς με πλούσια γνώση. Ρωτήστε την κοινότητα της Microsoft Τεχνική Κοινότητα Microsoft Windows Insiders Microsoft 365 Insiders Βρείτε λύσεις σε συνηθισμένα προβλήματα ή λάβετε βοήθεια από έναν συνεργάτη υποστήριξης. Ηλεκτρονική υποστήριξη Σας βοήθησαν αυτές οι πληροφορίες; Ναι Όχι Ευχαριστούμε! Έχετε άλλα σχόλια για τη Microsoft; Μπορείτε να μας βοηθήσετε να βελτιωθούμε; (Στείλτε σχόλια στη Microsoft, ώστε να μπορέσουμε να βοηθήσουμε.) Πόσο ικανοποιημένοι είστε με τη γλωσσική ποιότητα; Τι επηρέασε την εμπειρία σας; Το ζήτημά μου επιλύθηκε Απαλοιφή οδηγιών Ευνόητο Χωρίς τεχνική ορολογία Οι εικόνες βοήθησαν Ποιότητα μετάφρασης Δεν συμφωνούσε με την οθόνη μου Εσφαλμένες οδηγίες Πολύ τεχνικό Ανεπαρκείς πληροφορίες Δεν υπάρχουν αρκετές εικόνες Ποιότητα μετάφρασης Έχετε πρόσθετα σχόλια; (Προαιρετικό) Υποβολή σχολίων Πατώντας "Υποβολή" τα σχόλια σας θα χρησιμοποιηθούν για τη βελτίωση των προϊόντων και των υπηρεσιών της Microsoft. Ο διαχειριστής IT θα έχει τη δυνατότητα να συλλέξει αυτά τα δεδομένα. Δήλωση προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων. 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http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/ifstatements.html#multiple-tests-and-if-elif-statements | 3.1. If Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.1. If Statements ¶ 3.1.1. Simple Conditions ¶ The statements introduced in this chapter will involve tests or conditions . More syntax for conditions will be introduced later, but for now consider simple arithmetic comparisons that directly translate from math into Python. Try each line separately in the Shell 2 < 5 3 > 7 x = 11 x > 10 2 * x < x type ( True ) You see that conditions are either True or False . These are the only possible Boolean values (named after 19th century mathematician George Boole). In Python the name Boolean is shortened to the type bool . It is the type of the results of true-false conditions or tests. Note The Boolean values True and False have no quotes around them! Just as '123' is a string and 123 without the quotes is not, 'True' is a string, not of type bool. 3.1.2. Simple if Statements ¶ Run this example program, suitcase.py. Try it at least twice, with inputs: 30 and then 55. As you an see, you get an extra result, depending on the input. The main code is: weight = float ( input ( "How many pounds does your suitcase weigh? " )) if weight > 50 : print ( "There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy." ) print ( "Thank you for your business." ) The middle two line are an if statement. It reads pretty much like English. If it is true that the weight is greater than 50, then print the statement about an extra charge. If it is not true that the weight is greater than 50, then don’t do the indented part: skip printing the extra luggage charge. In any event, when you have finished with the if statement (whether it actually does anything or not), go on to the next statement that is not indented under the if . In this case that is the statement printing “Thank you”. The general Python syntax for a simple if statement is if condition : indentedStatementBlock If the condition is true, then do the indented statements. If the condition is not true, then skip the indented statements. Another fragment as an example: if balance < 0 : transfer = - balance # transfer enough from the backup account: backupAccount = backupAccount - transfer balance = balance + transfer As with other kinds of statements with a heading and an indented block, the block can have more than one statement. The assumption in the example above is that if an account goes negative, it is brought back to 0 by transferring money from a backup account in several steps. In the examples above the choice is between doing something (if the condition is True ) or nothing (if the condition is False ). Often there is a choice of two possibilities, only one of which will be done, depending on the truth of a condition. 3.1.3. if - else Statements ¶ Run the example program, clothes.py . Try it at least twice, with inputs 50 and then 80. As you can see, you get different results, depending on the input. The main code of clothes.py is: temperature = float ( input ( 'What is the temperature? ' )) if temperature > 70 : print ( 'Wear shorts.' ) else : print ( 'Wear long pants.' ) print ( 'Get some exercise outside.' ) The middle four lines are an if-else statement. Again it is close to English, though you might say “otherwise” instead of “else” (but else is shorter!). There are two indented blocks: One, like in the simple if statement, comes right after the if heading and is executed when the condition in the if heading is true. In the if - else form this is followed by an else: line, followed by another indented block that is only executed when the original condition is false . In an if - else statement exactly one of two possible indented blocks is executed. A line is also shown de dented next, removing indentation, about getting exercise. Since it is dedented, it is not a part of the if-else statement: Since its amount of indentation matches the if heading, it is always executed in the normal forward flow of statements, after the if - else statement (whichever block is selected). The general Python if - else syntax is if condition : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition else: indentedStatementBlockForFalseCondition These statement blocks can have any number of statements, and can include about any kind of statement. See Graduate Exercise 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions ¶ All the usual arithmetic comparisons may be made, but many do not use standard mathematical symbolism, mostly for lack of proper keys on a standard keyboard. Meaning Math Symbol Python Symbols Less than < < Greater than > > Less than or equal ≤ <= Greater than or equal ≥ >= Equals = == Not equal ≠ != There should not be space between the two-symbol Python substitutes. Notice that the obvious choice for equals , a single equal sign, is not used to check for equality. An annoying second equal sign is required. This is because the single equal sign is already used for assignment in Python, so it is not available for tests. Warning It is a common error to use only one equal sign when you mean to test for equality, and not make an assignment! Tests for equality do not make an assignment, and they do not require a variable on the left. Any expressions can be tested for equality or inequality ( != ). They do not need to be numbers! Predict the results and try each line in the Shell : x = 5 x x == 5 x == 6 x x != 6 x = 6 6 == x 6 != x 'hi' == 'h' + 'i' 'HI' != 'hi' [ 1 , 2 ] != [ 2 , 1 ] An equality check does not make an assignment. Strings are case sensitive. Order matters in a list. Try in the Shell : 'a' > 5 When the comparison does not make sense, an Exception is caused. [1] Following up on the discussion of the inexactness of float arithmetic in String Formats for Float Precision , confirm that Python does not consider .1 + .2 to be equal to .3: Write a simple condition into the Shell to test. Here is another example: Pay with Overtime. Given a person’s work hours for the week and regular hourly wage, calculate the total pay for the week, taking into account overtime. Hours worked over 40 are overtime, paid at 1.5 times the normal rate. This is a natural place for a function enclosing the calculation. Read the setup for the function: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' The problem clearly indicates two cases: when no more than 40 hours are worked or when more than 40 hours are worked. In case more than 40 hours are worked, it is convenient to introduce a variable overtimeHours. You are encouraged to think about a solution before going on and examining mine. You can try running my complete example program, wages.py, also shown below. The format operation at the end of the main function uses the floating point format ( String Formats for Float Precision ) to show two decimal places for the cents in the answer: def calcWeeklyWages ( totalHours , hourlyWage ): '''Return the total weekly wages for a worker working totalHours, with a given regular hourlyWage. Include overtime for hours over 40. ''' if totalHours <= 40 : totalWages = hourlyWage * totalHours else : overtime = totalHours - 40 totalWages = hourlyWage * 40 + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime return totalWages def main (): hours = float ( input ( 'Enter hours worked: ' )) wage = float ( input ( 'Enter dollars paid per hour: ' )) total = calcWeeklyWages ( hours , wage ) print ( 'Wages for {hours} hours at ${wage:.2f} per hour are ${total:.2f}.' . format ( ** locals ())) main () Here the input was intended to be numeric, but it could be decimal so the conversion from string was via float , not int . Below is an equivalent alternative version of the body of calcWeeklyWages , used in wages1.py . It uses just one general calculation formula and sets the parameters for the formula in the if statement. There are generally a number of ways you might solve the same problem! if totalHours <= 40 : regularHours = totalHours overtime = 0 else : overtime = totalHours - 40 regularHours = 40 return hourlyWage * regularHours + ( 1.5 * hourlyWage ) * overtime The in boolean operator : There are also Boolean operators that are applied to types others than numbers. A useful Boolean operator is in , checking membership in a sequence: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' in vals True >>> 'was' in vals False It can also be used with not , as not in , to mean the opposite: >>> vals = [ 'this' , 'is' , 'it] >>> 'is' not in vals False >>> 'was' not in vals True In general the two versions are: item in sequence item not in sequence Detecting the need for if statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include if or if - else statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [2] 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise ¶ Write a program, graduate.py , that prompts students for how many credits they have. Print whether of not they have enough credits for graduation. (At Loyola University Chicago 120 credits are needed for graduation.) 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise ¶ Write a program headstails.py . It should include a function flip() , that simulates a single flip of a coin: It randomly prints either Heads or Tails . Accomplish this by choosing 0 or 1 arbitrarily with random.randrange(2) , and use an if - else statement to print Heads when the result is 0, and Tails otherwise. In your main program have a simple repeat loop that calls flip() 10 times to test it, so you generate a random sequence of 10 Heads and Tails . 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise ¶ Save the example program jumpFuncStub.py as jumpFunc.py , and complete the definitions of functions jump and main as described in the function documentation strings in the program. In the jump function definition use an if - else statement (hint [3] ). In the main function definition use a for -each loop, the range function, and the jump function. The jump function is introduced for use in Strange Sequence Exercise , and others after that. 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements ¶ Often you want to distinguish between more than two distinct cases, but conditions only have two possible results, True or False , so the only direct choice is between two options. As anyone who has played “20 Questions” knows, you can distinguish more cases by further questions. If there are more than two choices, a single test may only reduce the possibilities, but further tests can reduce the possibilities further and further. Since most any kind of statement can be placed in an indented statement block, one choice is a further if statement. For instance consider a function to convert a numerical grade to a letter grade, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ or ‘F’, where the cutoffs for ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’ are 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively. One way to write the function would be test for one grade at a time, and resolve all the remaining possibilities inside the next else clause: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' else : # grade must be B, C, D or F if score >= 80 : letter = 'B' else : # grade must be C, D or F if score >= 70 : letter = 'C' else : # grade must D or F if score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter This repeatedly increasing indentation with an if statement as the else block can be annoying and distracting. A preferred alternative in this situation, that avoids all this indentation, is to combine each else and if block into an elif block: def letterGrade ( score ): if score >= 90 : letter = 'A' elif score >= 80 : letter = 'B' elif score >= 70 : letter = 'C' elif score >= 60 : letter = 'D' else : letter = 'F' return letter The most elaborate syntax for an if - elif - else statement is indicated in general below: if condition1 : indentedStatementBlockForTrueCondition1 elif condition2 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition2 elif condition3 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition3 elif condition4 : indentedStatementBlockForFirstTrueCondition4 else: indentedStatementBlockForEachConditionFalse The if , each elif , and the final else lines are all aligned. There can be any number of elif lines, each followed by an indented block. (Three happen to be illustrated above.) With this construction exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. It is the one corresponding to the first True condition, or, if all conditions are False , it is the block after the final else line. Be careful of the strange Python contraction. It is elif , not elseif . A program testing the letterGrade function is in example program grade1.py . See Grade Exercise . A final alternative for if statements: if - elif -.... with no else . This would mean changing the syntax for if - elif - else above so the final else: and the block after it would be omitted. It is similar to the basic if statement without an else , in that it is possible for no indented block to be executed. This happens if none of the conditions in the tests are true. With an else included, exactly one of the indented blocks is executed. Without an else , at most one of the indented blocks is executed. if weight > 120 : print ( 'Sorry, we can not take a suitcase that heavy.' ) elif weight > 50 : print ( 'There is a $25 charge for luggage that heavy.' ) This if - elif statement only prints a line if there is a problem with the weight of the suitcase. 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise ¶ Write a program sign.py to ask the user for a number. Print out which category the number is in: 'positive' , 'negative' , or 'zero' . 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise ¶ In Idle, load grade1.py and save it as grade2.py Modify grade2.py so it has an equivalent version of the letterGrade function that tests in the opposite order, first for F, then D, C, .... Hint: How many tests do you need to do? [4] Be sure to run your new version and test with different inputs that test all the different paths through the program. Be careful to test around cut-off points. What does a grade of 79.6 imply? What about exactly 80? 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise ¶ * Modify the wages.py or the wages1.py example to create a program wages2.py that assumes people are paid double time for hours over 60. Hence they get paid for at most 20 hours overtime at 1.5 times the normal rate. For example, a person working 65 hours with a regular wage of $10 per hour would work at $10 per hour for 40 hours, at 1.5 * $10 for 20 hours of overtime, and 2 * $10 for 5 hours of double time, for a total of 10*40 + 1.5*10*20 + 2*10*5 = $800. You may find wages1.py easier to adapt than wages.py . Be sure to test all paths through the program! Your program is likely to be a modification of a program where some choices worked before, but once you change things, retest for all the cases! Changes can mess up things that worked before. 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements ¶ The power of a language like Python comes largely from the variety of ways basic statements can be combined . In particular, for and if statements can be nested inside each other’s indented blocks. For example, suppose you want to print only the positive numbers from an arbitrary list of numbers in a function with the following heading. Read the pieces for now. def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' For example, suppose numberList is [3, -5, 2, -1, 0, 7] . You want to process a list, so that suggests a for -each loop, for num in numberList : but a for -each loop runs the same code body for each element of the list, and we only want print ( num ) for some of them. That seems like a major obstacle, but think closer at what needs to happen concretely. As a human, who has eyes of amazing capacity, you are drawn immediately to the actual correct numbers, 3, 2, and 7, but clearly a computer doing this systematically will have to check every number. In fact, there is a consistent action required: Every number must be tested to see if it should be printed. This suggests an if statement, with the condition num > 0 . Try loading into Idle and running the example program onlyPositive.py , whose code is shown below. It ends with a line testing the function: def printAllPositive ( numberList ): '''Print only the positive numbers in numberList.''' for num in numberList : if num > 0 : print ( num ) printAllPositive ([ 3 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , 0 , 7 ]) This idea of nesting if statements enormously expands the possibilities with loops. Now different things can be done at different times in loops, as long as there is a consistent test to allow a choice between the alternatives. Shortly, while loops will also be introduced, and you will see if statements nested inside of them, too. The rest of this section deals with graphical examples. Run example program bounce1.py . It has a red ball moving and bouncing obliquely off the edges. If you watch several times, you should see that it starts from random locations. Also you can repeat the program from the Shell prompt after you have run the script. For instance, right after running the program, try in the Shell bounceBall ( - 3 , 1 ) The parameters give the amount the shape moves in each animation step. You can try other values in the Shell , preferably with magnitudes less than 10. For the remainder of the description of this example, read the extracted text pieces. The animations before this were totally scripted, saying exactly how many moves in which direction, but in this case the direction of motion changes with every bounce. The program has a graphic object shape and the central animation step is shape . move ( dx , dy ) but in this case, dx and dy have to change when the ball gets to a boundary. For instance, imagine the ball getting to the left side as it is moving to the left and up. The bounce obviously alters the horizontal part of the motion, in fact reversing it, but the ball would still continue up. The reversal of the horizontal part of the motion means that the horizontal shift changes direction and therefore its sign: dx = - dx but dy does not need to change. This switch does not happen at each animation step, but only when the ball reaches the edge of the window. It happens only some of the time - suggesting an if statement. Still the condition must be determined. Suppose the center of the ball has coordinates (x, y). When x reaches some particular x coordinate, call it xLow, the ball should bounce. The edge of the window is at coordinate 0, but xLow should not be 0, or the ball would be half way off the screen before bouncing! For the edge of the ball to hit the edge of the screen, the x coordinate of the center must be the length of the radius away, so actually xLow is the radius of the ball. Animation goes quickly in small steps, so I cheat. I allow the ball to take one (small, quick) step past where it really should go ( xLow ), and then we reverse it so it comes back to where it belongs. In particular if x < xLow : dx = - dx There are similar bounding variables xHigh , yLow and yHigh , all the radius away from the actual edge coordinates, and similar conditions to test for a bounce off each possible edge. Note that whichever edge is hit, one coordinate, either dx or dy, reverses. One way the collection of tests could be written is if x < xLow : dx = - dx if x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy if y > yHigh : dy = - dy This approach would cause there to be some extra testing: If it is true that x < xLow , then it is impossible for it to be true that x > xHigh , so we do not need both tests together. We avoid unnecessary tests with an elif clause (for both x and y): if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy Note that the middle if is not changed to an elif , because it is possible for the ball to reach a corner , and need both dx and dy reversed. The program also uses several methods to read part of the state of graphics objects that we have not used in examples yet. Various graphics objects, like the circle we are using as the shape, know their center point, and it can be accessed with the getCenter() method. (Actually a clone of the point is returned.) Also each coordinate of a Point can be accessed with the getX() and getY() methods. This explains the new features in the central function defined for bouncing around in a box, bounceInBox . The animation arbitrarily goes on in a simple repeat loop for 600 steps. (A later example will improve this behavior.) def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) The program starts the ball from an arbitrary point inside the allowable rectangular bounds. This is encapsulated in a utility function included in the program, getRandomPoint . The getRandomPoint function uses the randrange function from the module random . Note that in parameters for both the functions range and randrange , the end stated is past the last value actually desired: def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) The full program is listed below, repeating bounceInBox and getRandomPoint for completeness. Several parts that may be useful later, or are easiest to follow as a unit, are separated out as functions. Make sure you see how it all hangs together or ask questions! ''' Show a ball bouncing off the sides of the window. ''' from graphics import * import time , random def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. ''' delay = . 005 for i in range ( 600 ): shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx if y < yLow : dy = - dy elif y > yHigh : dy = - dy time . sleep ( delay ) def getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ): '''Return a random Point with coordinates in the range specified.''' x = random . randrange ( xLow , xHigh + 1 ) y = random . randrange ( yLow , yHigh + 1 ) return Point ( x , y ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def bounceBall ( dx , dy ): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, initially moving by (dx, dy) at each jump.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = win . getHeight () - radius center = getRandomPoint ( xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) bounceInBox ( ball , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh ) win . close () bounceBall ( 3 , 5 ) 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise ¶ Write a program short.py with a function printShort with heading: def printShort ( strings ): '''Given a list of strings, print the ones with at most three characters. >>> printShort(['a', 'long', one']) a one ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of strings. Hint: Find the length of each string with the len function. The function documentation here models a common approach: illustrating the behavior of the function with a Python Shell interaction. This part begins with a line starting with >>> . Other exercises and examples will also document behavior in the Shell. 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise ¶ Write a program even1.py with a function printEven with heading: def printEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers nums, print the even ones. >>> printEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) 4 2 ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers. Hint: A number is even if its remainder, when dividing by 2, is 0. 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise ¶ Write a program even2.py with a function chooseEven with heading: def chooseEven ( nums ): '''Given a list of integers, nums, return a list containing only the even ones. >>> chooseEven([4, 1, 3, 2, 7]) [4, 2] ''' In your main program, test the function, calling it several times with different lists of integers and printing the results in the main program. (The documentation string illustrates the function call in the Python shell, where the return value is automatically printed. Remember, that in a program, you only print what you explicitly say to print.) Hint: In the function, create a new list, and append the appropriate numbers to it, before returning the result. 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise ¶ * The madlib2.py program has its getKeys function, which first generates a list of each occurrence of a cue in the story format. This gives the cues in order, but likely includes repetitions. The original version of getKeys uses a quick method to remove duplicates, forming a set from the list. There is a disadvantage in the conversion, though: Sets are not ordered, so when you iterate through the resulting set, the order of the cues will likely bear no resemblance to the order they first appeared in the list. That issue motivates this problem: Copy madlib2.py to madlib2a.py , and add a function with this heading: def uniqueList ( aList ): ''' Return a new list that includes the first occurrence of each value in aList, and omits later repeats. The returned list should include the first occurrences of values in aList in their original order. >>> vals = ['cat', 'dog', 'cat', 'bug', 'dog', 'ant', 'dog', 'bug'] >>> uniqueList(vals) ['cat', 'dog', 'bug', 'ant'] ''' Hint: Process aList in order. Use the in syntax to only append elements to a new list that are not already in the new list. After perfecting the uniqueList function, replace the last line of getKeys , so it uses uniqueList to remove duplicates in keyList . Check that your madlib2a.py prompts you for cue values in the order that the cues first appear in the madlib format string. 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions ¶ To be eligible to graduate from Loyola University Chicago, you must have 120 credits and a GPA of at least 2.0. This translates directly into Python as a compound condition : credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 This is true if both credits >= 120 is true and GPA >= 2.0 is true. A short example program using this would be: credits = float ( input ( 'How many units of credit do you have? ' )) GPA = float ( input ( 'What is your GPA? ' )) if credits >= 120 and GPA >= 2.0 : print ( 'You are eligible to graduate!' ) else : print ( 'You are not eligible to graduate.' ) The new Python syntax is for the operator and : condition1 and condition2 The compound condition is true if both of the component conditions are true. It is false if at least one of the conditions is false. See Congress Exercise . In the last example in the previous section, there was an if - elif statement where both tests had the same block to be done if the condition was true: if x < xLow : dx = - dx elif x > xHigh : dx = - dx There is a simpler way to state this in a sentence: If x < xLow or x > xHigh, switch the sign of dx. That translates directly into Python: if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx The word or makes another compound condition: condition1 or condition2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true. It is false if both conditions are false. This corresponds to one way the word “or” is used in English. Other times in English “or” is used to mean exactly one alternative is true. Warning When translating a problem stated in English using “or”, be careful to determine whether the meaning matches Python’s or . It is often convenient to encapsulate complicated tests inside a function. Think how to complete the function starting: def isInside ( rect , point ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () Recall that a Rectangle is specified in its constructor by two diagonally oppose Point s. This example gives the first use in the tutorials of the Rectangle methods that recover those two corner points, getP1 and getP2 . The program calls the points obtained this way pt1 and pt2 . The x and y coordinates of pt1 , pt2 , and point can be recovered with the methods of the Point type, getX() and getY() . Suppose that I introduce variables for the x coordinates of pt1 , point , and pt2 , calling these x-coordinates end1 , val , and end2 , respectively. On first try you might decide that the needed mathematical relationship to test is end1 <= val <= end2 Unfortunately, this is not enough: The only requirement for the two corner points is that they be diagonally opposite, not that the coordinates of the second point are higher than the corresponding coordinates of the first point. It could be that end1 is 200; end2 is 100, and val is 120. In this latter case val is between end1 and end2 , but substituting into the expression above 200 <= 120 <= 100 is False. The 100 and 200 need to be reversed in this case. This makes a complicated situation. Also this is an issue which must be revisited for both the x and y coordinates. I introduce an auxiliary function isBetween to deal with one coordinate at a time. It starts: def isBetween ( val , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if val is between the ends. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' Clearly this is true if the original expression, end1 <= val <= end2 , is true. You must also consider the possible case when the order of the ends is reversed: end2 <= val <= end1 . How do we combine these two possibilities? The Boolean connectives to consider are and and or . Which applies? You only need one to be true, so or is the proper connective: A correct but redundant function body would be: if end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 : return True else : return False Check the meaning: if the compound expression is True , return True . If the condition is False , return False – in either case return the same value as the test condition. See that a much simpler and neater version is to just return the value of the condition itself! return end1 <= val <= end2 or end2 <= val <= end1 Note In general you should not need an if - else statement to choose between true and false values! Operate directly on the boolean expression. A side comment on expressions like end1 <= val <= end2 Other than the two-character operators, this is like standard math syntax, chaining comparisons. In Python any number of comparisons can be chained in this way, closely approximating mathematical notation. Though this is good Python, be aware that if you try other high-level languages like Java and C++, such an expression is gibberish. Another way the expression can be expressed (and which translates directly to other languages) is: end1 <= val and val <= end2 So much for the auxiliary function isBetween . Back to the isInside function. You can use the isBetween function to check the x coordinates, isBetween ( point . getX (), p1 . getX (), p2 . getX ()) and to check the y coordinates, isBetween ( point . getY (), p1 . getY (), p2 . getY ()) Again the question arises: how do you combine the two tests? In this case we need the point to be both between the sides and between the top and bottom, so the proper connector is and . Think how to finish the isInside method. Hint: [5] Sometimes you want to test the opposite of a condition. As in English you can use the word not . For instance, to test if a Point was not inside Rectangle Rect, you could use the condition not isInside ( rect , point ) In general, not condition is True when condition is False , and False when condition is True . The example program chooseButton1.py , shown below, is a complete program using the isInside function in a simple application, choosing colors. Pardon the length. Do check it out. It will be the starting point for a number of improvements that shorten it and make it more powerful in the next section. First a brief overview: The program includes the functions isBetween and isInside that have already been discussed. The program creates a number of colored rectangles to use as buttons and also as picture components. Aside from specific data values, the code to create each rectangle is the same, so the action is encapsulated in a function, makeColoredRect . All of this is fine, and will be preserved in later versions. The present main function is long, though. It has the usual graphics starting code, draws buttons and picture elements, and then has a number of code sections prompting the user to choose a color for a picture element. Each code section has a long if - elif - else test to see which button was clicked, and sets the color of the picture element appropriately. '''Make a choice of colors via mouse clicks in Rectangles -- A demonstration of Boolean operators and Boolean functions.''' from graphics import * def isBetween ( x , end1 , end2 ): '''Return True if x is between the ends or equal to either. The ends do not need to be in increasing order.''' return end1 <= x <= end2 or end2 <= x <= end1 def isInside ( point , rect ): '''Return True if the point is inside the Rectangle rect.''' pt1 = rect . getP1 () pt2 = rect . getP2 () return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) def makeColoredRect ( corner , width , height , color , win ): ''' Return a Rectangle drawn in win with the upper left corner and color specified.''' corner2 = corner . clone () corner2 . move ( width , - height ) rect = Rectangle ( corner , corner2 ) rect . setFill ( color ) rect . draw ( win ) return rect def main (): win = GraphWin ( 'pick Colors' , 400 , 400 ) win . yUp () # right side up coordinates redButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 350 ), 80 , 30 , 'red' , win ) yellowButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 310 ), 80 , 30 , 'yellow' , win ) blueButton = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 310 , 270 ), 80 , 30 , 'blue' , win ) house = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 60 , 200 ), 180 , 150 , 'gray' , win ) door = makeColoredRect ( Point ( 90 , 150 ), 40 , 100 , 'white' , win ) roof = Polygon ( Point ( 50 , 200 ), Point ( 250 , 200 ), Point ( 150 , 300 )) roof . setFill ( 'black' ) roof . draw ( win ) msg = Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , 375 ), 'Click to choose a house color.' ) msg . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' house . setFill ( color ) msg . setText ( 'Click to choose a door color.' ) pt = win . getMouse () if isInside ( pt , redButton ): color = 'red' elif isInside ( pt , yellowButton ): color = 'yellow' elif isInside ( pt , blueButton ): color = 'blue' else : color = 'white' door . setFill ( color ) win . promptClose ( msg ) main () The only further new feature used is in the long return statement in isInside . return isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and \ isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) Recall that Python is smart enough to realize that a statement continues to the next line if there is an unmatched pair of parentheses or brackets. Above is another situation with a long statement, but there are no unmatched parentheses on a line. For readability it is best not to make an enormous long line that would run off your screen or paper. Continuing to the next line is recommended. You can make the final character on a line be a backslash ( '\\' ) to indicate the statement continues on the next line. This is not particularly neat, but it is a rather rare situation. Most statements fit neatly on one line, and the creator of Python decided it was best to make the syntax simple in the most common situation. (Many other languages require a special statement terminator symbol like ‘;’ and pay no attention to newlines). Extra parentheses here would not hurt, so an alternative would be return ( isBetween ( point . getX (), pt1 . getX (), pt2 . getX ()) and isBetween ( point . getY (), pt1 . getY (), pt2 . getY ()) ) The chooseButton1.py program is long partly because of repeated code. The next section gives another version involving lists. 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise ¶ A person is eligible to be a US Senator who is at least 30 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 9 years. Write an initial version of a program congress.py to obtain age and length of citizenship from the user and print out if a person is eligible to be a Senator or not. A person is eligible to be a US Representative who is at least 25 years old and has been a US citizen for at least 7 years. Elaborate your program congress.py so it obtains age and length of citizenship and prints out just the one of the following three statements that is accurate: You are eligible for both the House and Senate. You eligible only for the House. You are ineligible for Congress. 3.1.8. More String Methods ¶ Here are a few more string methods useful in the next exercises, assuming the methods are applied to a string s : s .startswith( pre ) returns True if string s starts with string pre : Both '-123'.startswith('-') and 'downstairs'.startswith('down') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.startswith('-') is False . s .endswith( suffix ) returns True if string s ends with string suffix : Both 'whoever'.endswith('ever') and 'downstairs'.endswith('airs') are True , but '1 - 2 - 3'.endswith('-') is False . s .replace( sub , replacement , count ) returns a new string with up to the first count occurrences of string sub replaced by replacement . The replacement can be the empty string to delete sub . For example: s = '-123' t = s . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t equals '123' t = t . replace ( '-' , '' , 1 ) # t is still equal to '123' u = '.2.3.4.' v = u . replace ( '.' , '' , 2 ) # v equals '23.4.' w = u . replace ( '.' , ' dot ' , 5 ) # w equals '2 dot 3 dot 4 dot ' 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise ¶ In library alphabetizing, if the initial word is an article (“The”, “A”, “An”), then it is ignored when ordering entries. Write a program completing this function, and then testing it: def startsWithArticle ( title ): '''Return True if the first word of title is "The", "A" or "An".''' Be careful, if the title starts with “There”, it does not start with an article. What should you be testing for? 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise ¶ ** In the later Safe Number Input Exercise , it will be important to know if a string can be converted to the desired type of number. Explore that here. Save example isNumberStringStub.py as isNumberString.py and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in both parts of this exercise. A legal whole number string consists entirely of digits. Luckily strings have an isdigit method, which is true when a nonempty string consists entirely of digits, so '2397'.isdigit() returns True , and '23a'.isdigit() returns False , exactly corresponding to the situations when the string represents a whole number! In both parts be sure to test carefully. Not only confirm that all appropriate strings return True . Also be sure to test that you return False for all sorts of bad strings. Recognizing an integer string is more involved, since it can start with a minus sign (or not). Hence the isdigit method is not enough by itself. This part is the most straightforward if you have worked on the sections String Indices and String Slices . An alternate approach works if you use the count method from Object Orientation , and some methods from this section. Complete the function isIntStr . Complete the function isDecimalStr , which introduces the possibility of a decimal point (though a decimal point is not required). The string methods mentioned in the previous part remain useful. [1] This is an improvement that is new in Python 3. [2] “In this case do ___; otherwise”, “if ___, then”, “when ___ is true, then”, “___ depends on whether”, [3] If you divide an even number by 2, what is the remainder? Use this idea in your if condition. [4] 4 tests to distinguish the 5 cases, as in the previous version [5] Once again, you are calculating and returning a Boolean result. You do not need an if - else statement. Table Of Contents 3.1. If Statements 3.1.1. Simple Conditions 3.1.2. Simple if Statements 3.1.3. if - else Statements 3.1.4. More Conditional Expressions 3.1.4.1. Graduate Exercise 3.1.4.2. Head or Tails Exercise 3.1.4.3. Strange Function Exercise 3.1.5. Multiple Tests and if - elif Statements 3.1.5.1. Sign Exercise 3.1.5.2. Grade Exercise 3.1.5.3. Wages Exercise 3.1.6. Nesting Control-Flow Statements 3.1.6.1. Short String Exercise 3.1.6.2. Even Print Exercise 3.1.6.3. Even List Exercise 3.1.6.4. Unique List Exercise 3.1.7. Compound Boolean Expressions 3.1.7.1. Congress Exercise 3.1.8. More String Methods 3.1.8.1. Article Start Exercise 3.1.8.2. Is Number String Exercise Previous topic 3. More On Flow of Control Next topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » © Copyright 2019, Dr. Andrew N. Harrington. Last updated on Jan 05, 2020. Created using Sphinx 1.3.1+. | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://penneo.com/da/use-cases/digital-document-signing/ | Sikker digital underskrift med MitID eller pas - Penneo Produkter Penneo Sign Validator Hvorfor Penneo Integrationer Løsninger Anvendelsesscenarier Digital signering Dokumenthåndtering Udfyld og underskriv PDF-formularer Automatisering af underskriftsprocesser Overholdelse af eIDAS Brancher Revision og regnskab Finans og bank Advokatydelser Ejendom Administration og HR Priser Ressourcer Vidensunivers Trust Center Produktopdateringer SIGN Hjælpecenter KYC Hjælpecenter Systemstatus LOG PÅ Penneo Sign Log ind på Penneo Sign. LOG PÅ Penneo KYC Log ind på Penneo KYC. LOG PÅ BOOK ET MØDE GRATIS PRØVEPERIODE DA EN NO FR NL Produkter Penneo Sign Validator Hvorfor Penneo Integrationer Løsninger Revision og regnskab Finans og bank Advokatydelser Ejendom Administration og HR Anvendelsesscenarier Digital signering Dokumenthåndtering Udfyld og underskriv PDF-formularer Automatisering af underskriftsprocesser Overholdelse af eIDAS Priser Ressourcer Vidensunivers Trust Center Produktopdateringer SIGN Hjælpecenter KYC Hjælpecenter Systemstatus BOOK ET MØDE GRATIS PRØVEPERIODE LOG PÅ DA EN NO FR NL Penneo Sign Log ind på Penneo Sign. LOG PÅ Penneo KYC Log ind på Penneo KYC. LOG PÅ Optimer jeres arbejdsgange med digital underskrift Underskriv dokumenter digitalt på få minutter med dit MitID eller pas – helt uden printer, scanner eller frem og tilbage på mail. Det er en hurtig og sikker måde at få dokumenter underskrevet, uanset hvor du er. Alle underskrifter er juridisk bindende , så du kan spare tid uden at gå på kompromis med sikkerhed eller overholdelse af lovgivningen. BOOK ET MØDE Hvorfor vælge Penneo? Sikre digitale underskrifter på få minutter med MitID eller pas Grænseoverskridende interoperabilitet med QES Du kan bruge dit pas, norsk BankID, .beID eller itsme® til at opnå en kvalificeret elektronisk signatur, der lever op til eIDAS-kravene og er juridisk ligestillet med en håndskrevet underskrift. Pålidelige digitale underskrifter med nationale eID’er Med avancerede elektroniske underskrifter (AdES) via MitID, MitID Erhverv, eller svensk BankID kan både fagfolk og deres kunder underskrive dokumenter hurtigt og sikkert. Digital underskrift for alle – også uden eID Brugere uden adgang til et elektronisk ID kan underskrive sikkert med pas . Løsningen gør det nemt at underskrive dokumenter – også på tværs af landegrænser. 3.000+ virksomheder – herunder de fire største revisionshuse – bruger Penneo. 60 % af alle dokumenter, der sendes via Penneo, bliver underskrevet inden for 24 timer. 81 % af alle årsrapporter i Danmark bliver underskrevet med Penneo. Hvad er en digital underskrift? En digital underskrift (også kaldet digital signatur) er en type elektronisk signatur, som er knyttet til underskriveren, beskytter dokumentets integritet, og sikrer uigenkaldelighed – det betyder, at underskriveren ikke efterfølgende kan benægte at have underskrevet dokumentet. Digitale underskrifter oprettes typisk ved hjælp af et certifikat udstedt af en betroet tjenesteudbyder og involverer ofte sikre identifikationsmetoder, såsom MitID eller pas. I henhold til eIDAS-forordningen er digitale underskrifter elektroniske signaturer, der opfylder kravene til enten en avanceret elektronisk signatur (AdES) eller en kvalificeret elektronisk signatur (QES). Særligt kvalificerede elektroniske signaturer har samme juridiske gyldighed som en håndskrevet underskrift i hele EU. Læs mere Se, hvorfor dokumenter bliver underskrevet på under 24 timer med Penneo Underskriv selv et testdokument. Oplev hvor nemt det er og se, hvorfor det hjælper dine underskrivere med at færdiggøre dokumenter hurtigere. Comments Dette felt er til validering og bør ikke ændres. E-mail * Jeg vil gerne modtage nyheder om Penneo og dets produkter. Jeg kan til enhver tid afmelde mig. Dette felt er skjult, når du får vist formularen Country Åland Islands Albania Andorra Australia Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Canada China Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Faroe Islands Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Greenland Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy Japan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macau Macedonia Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States Land Skabt til selv de mest komplekse underskriftsprocesser Uanset om du arbejder med revision, regnskab, ejendomshandel, finans eller HR, gør Penneo det nemt og sikkert for dit team at håndtere underskrifter digitalt. Platformen er udviklet til at automatisere selv de mest komplekse forløb, så I kan fokusere på det, der virkelig tæller. Revision og regnskab Send aftalebreve, revisionspåtegninger og årsrapporter til underskrift med få klik. Læs mere Ejendomshandel Gør ejendomshandler hurtigere og nemmere ved at fjerne behovet for fysiske møder og papirarbejde. Læs mere Juridisk sektor Lad dine klienter underskrive dokumenter på afstand med sikre digitale signaturer, der overholder eIDAS-forordningen. Læs mere Finans og bank Reducer papirarbejde og manuelle processer – uden at gå på kompromis med en smidig og professionel kundeoplevelse. Læs mere HR og rekruttering Forkort ansættelsesprocessen ved at sende ansættelseskontrakter til digital underskrift på få minutter. Læs mere Arbejd hurtigere med integrationer og åben API Forbind dine systemer på få minutter. Med vores integrationer og åbne API kan du automatisere arbejdsgange og få mere fra hånden. Få overblik over alle integrationer Penneo hjælper Coop med hurtigere og nemmere underskrifter Der er ingen tvivl om, at Penneo har reduceret tidsforbruget markant og strømlinet processen. Jeg kan give et konkret eksempel fra efterårsferien: Der var flere, som ikke var på kontoret, men der skulle handles hurtigt. Normalt ville det betyde, at nogen måtte køre rundt med papirdokumenter mellem folk for at få dem underskrevet – men det undgår vi fuldstændigt med Penneo. Det er en væsentlig forbedring! — Henrik Øgaard, seniorprojektleder hos Coop Læs mere om samarbejdet Ofte stillede spørgsmål Er digitale signaturer oprettet via Penneo juridisk bindende? Ja, digitale signaturer oprettet via Penneo er juridisk bindende. Penneo understøtter både avancerede elektroniske signaturer (AdES) og kvalificerede elektroniske signaturer (QES) i overensstemmelse med eIDAS-forordningen (EU nr. 910/2014). Tilbyder Penneo kvalificerede elektroniske signaturer (QES)? Ja, Penneo tilbyder kvalificerede elektroniske signaturer via pas, norsk BankID, itsme® og. beID . Disse signaturer har samme retsgyldighed som en håndskrevet underskrift i hele EU. Tilbyder Penneo avancerede elektroniske signaturer (AdES)? Ja, Penneo gør det muligt at oprette avancerede elektroniske signaturer med MitID, MitID Erhverv og svensk BankID . Disse signaturer er unikt knyttet til underskriveren og beskytter dokumentet mod ændringer. Hvordan sikrer jeg, at en digital signatur er gyldig? Du kan verificere en digital signaturs gyldighed på flere måder: Åbn dokumentet i en PDF-læser og brug det indbyggede valideringsværktøj Upload dokumentet til Penneo Validator Upload dokumentet til EU-Kommissionens valideringsplatform Læs mere om validering af Penneo-signaturer Hvad er forskellen på en simpel elektronisk signatur og en digital signatur? En simpel elektronisk signatur (SES) kan være så enkel som at indtaste et navn eller klikke på en knap. Det er nemt, men giver kun begrænset sikkerhed og retsgyldighed. En digital signatur – enten avanceret eller kvalificeret – giver langt højere sikkerhed og juridisk vægt i henhold til eIDAS-forordningen. Læs mere om forskellen på digitale og elektroniske signaturer Hvad koster Penneo? Penneo tilbyder fleksible prismodeller, der tager højde for din organisations behov. Se vores priser og find den løsning, der passer til jer . Bliv klogere på digitale signaturer Ny til digitale underskrifter? Overvej disse 9 punkter først Læs mere Hvad betyder eIDAS 2.0 for digitale transaktioner? Læs mere Guide til brug af elektroniske signaturer Læs mere Se hvad du kan opnå med Penneo BOOK ET MØDE Se hvordan det fungerer Produkter Penneo Sign Priser Integrationer Åben API Validator Hvorfor Penneo Løsninger Revision og regnskab Finans og bank Advokatydelser Ejendom Administration og HR Anvendelsesscenarier Digital signering Dokumenthåndtering Udfyld og underskriv PDF-formularer Automatisering af underskriftsprocesser Overholdelse af eIDAS Ressourcer Vidensunivers Trust Center Produktopdateringer SUPPORT SIGN Hjælpecenter KYC Hjælpecenter Systemstatus Virksomhed Om os Karriere Privatlivspolitik Vilkår Brug af cookies Accessibility Statement Whistleblower Policy Kontakt os PENNEO A/S - Gærtorvet 1-5, DK-1799 København V - CVR: 35633766 | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
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Aveți mai multe conturi Alegeți contul cu care doriți să vă conectați. Subiecte asociate Securitatea, siguranța și confidențialitatea Windows Prezentare generală Prezentare generală a securității, siguranței și confidențialității Securitate Windows Obțineți ajutor pentru securitatea Windows Rămâneți protejat cu securitatea Windows Înainte de a recicla, a vinde sau a face cadou un Xbox sau un PC Windows Eliminarea malware-ului de pe PC-ul Windows Siguranță Windows Obțineți ajutor pentru siguranța Windows Vizualizarea și ștergerea istoricului navigării în Microsoft Edge Ștergerea și gestionarea modulelor cookie Eliminați în siguranță conținutul valoros atunci când reinstalați Windows Găsirea și blocarea unui dispozitiv Windows pierdut Confidențialitatea Windows Obțineți ajutor pentru confidențialitatea Windows Setări de confidențialitate Windows pe care le utilizează aplicațiile Vedeți datele în tabloul de bord de confidențialitate Gestionați module cookie în Microsoft Edge: vizualizați, permiteți, blocați, ștergeți și utilizați Se aplică la Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Modulele cookie sunt mici date stocate pe dispozitivul dvs. de site-urile web pe care le vizitați. Acestea au diverse scopuri, cum ar fi reținerea acreditărilor de conectare, preferințele site-ului și urmărirea comportamentului utilizatorului. Totuși, se recomandă să ștergeți modulele cookie din motive de confidențialitate sau să rezolvați problemele de navigare. Acest articol oferă instrucțiuni despre: Vedeți toate modulele cookie Permiteți toate modulele cookie Permiteți module cookie de la un anumit site web Blocați modulele cookie de la terți Blocați toate modulele cookie Blocarea modulelor cookie de pe un anumit site Ștergeți toate modulele cookie Ștergerea modulelor cookie de pe un anumit site Ștergeți modulele cookie de fiecare dată când închideți browserul Utilizați module cookie pentru a preîncărca pagina pentru o navigare mai rapidă Vedeți toate modulele cookie Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie , apoi faceți clic pe Vedeți toate modulele cookie și datele de site pentru a vizualiza toate modulele cookie stocate și informațiile asociate despre site. Permiteți toate modulele cookie Prin permiterea modulelor cookie, site-urile web vor putea să salveze și să regăsească date în browserul dvs., ceea ce vă poate îmbunătăți experiența de navigare prin reținerea preferințelor și a informațiilor de conectare. Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie și activați comutatorul Permiteți site-urilor să salveze și să citească datele modulelor cookie (recomandat) pentru a permite toate modulele cookie. Permiteți module cookie de la un anumit site Prin permiterea modulelor cookie, site-urile web vor putea să salveze și să regăsească date în browserul dvs., ceea ce vă poate îmbunătăți experiența de navigare prin reținerea preferințelor și a informațiilor de conectare. Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie și accesați Permiteți salvarea modulelor cookie. Selectați Adăugare site pentru a permite module cookie în funcție de site, introducând adresa URL a site-ului. Blocați modulele cookie de la terți Dacă nu doriți ca site-urile de la terți să stocheze module cookie pe PC-ul dvs., puteți bloca modulele cookie. Însă acest lucru poate împiedica afișarea corectă a unor pagini sau este posibil să primiți un mesaj de la un site prin care sunteți informat că trebuie să permiteți module cookie pentru a vizualiza site-ul respectiv. Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie și activați comutatorul Blocați modulele cookie de la terți. Blocați toate modulele cookie Dacă nu doriți ca site-urile de la terți să stocheze module cookie pe PC-ul dvs., puteți bloca modulele cookie. Însă acest lucru poate împiedica afișarea corectă a unor pagini sau este posibil să primiți un mesaj de la un site prin care sunteți informat că trebuie să permiteți module cookie pentru a vizualiza site-ul respectiv. Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie și dezactivați Permiteți site-urilor să salveze și să citească datele modulelor cookie (recomandat) pentru a bloca toate modulele cookie. Blocarea modulelor cookie de pe un anumit site Microsoft Edge vă permite să blocați modulele cookie de la un anumit site, însă acest lucru poate împiedica afișarea corectă a unor pagini sau este posibil să primiți un mesaj de la un site care vă anunță că trebuie să permiteți module cookie pentru a vizualiza site-ul respectiv. Pentru a bloca modulele cookie de pe un anumit site: Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie și accesați Nu este permis să salvați și să citiți module cookie . Selectați Adăugare site pentru a bloca modulele cookie în funcție de site, introducând adresa URL a site-ului. Ștergeți toate modulele cookie Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Goliți datele de navigare , apoi selectați Alegeți ce să goliți lângă Ștergeți datele de navigare acum . Sub Interval de timp , alegeți un interval de timp din listă. Selectați Modulele cookie și datele site-urilor , apoi selectați Goliți acum . Notă: Alternativ, puteți șterge modulele cookie apăsând CTRL + SHIFT + DELETE împreună și apoi urmând pașii 4 și 5. Toate modulele cookie și alte date de site vor fi șterse acum pentru intervalul de timp pe care l-ați selectat. Acest lucru vă deconecta de la cele mai multe site-uri. Ștergerea modulelor cookie de pe un anumit site Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele > Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie , apoi faceți clic pe Vedeți toate modulele cookie și datele de site și căutați site-ul ale cărui module cookie doriți să le ștergeți. Selectați săgeata în jos din partea dreaptă a site-ului ale cărui module cookie doriți să le ștergeți și selectați Ștergere . Modulele cookie pentru site-ul pe care l-ați selectat sunt șterse acum. Repetați acest pas pentru orice site ale cărui module cookie doriți să le ștergeți. Ștergeți modulele cookie de fiecare dată când închideți browserul Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele > Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Ștergeți datele de navigare , apoi selectați Alegeți ce goliți de fiecare dată când închideți browserul . Activați comutatorul Module cookie și alte date de site . După ce această caracteristică este activată, de fiecare dată când închideți browserul Edge, toate modulele cookie și alte date de site sunt șterse. Acest lucru vă deconecta de la cele mai multe site-uri. Utilizați module cookie pentru a preîncărca pagina pentru o navigare mai rapidă Deschideți browserul Microsoft Edge, selectați Setări și altele în colțul din dreapta sus al ferestrei browserului. Selectați Setări > Confidențialitate, căutare și servicii . Selectați Module cookie și activați comutatorul Preîncărcați pagini pentru o navigare și o căutare mai rapidă. ABONAȚI-VĂ LA FLUXURI RSS Aveți nevoie de ajutor suplimentar? Doriți mai multe opțiuni? Descoperiți Comunitate Contactați-ne Explorați avantajele abonamentului, navigați prin cursurile de instruire, aflați cum să vă securizați dispozitivul și multe altele. Beneficiile abonamentului Microsoft 365 Instruire Microsoft 365 Securitate Microsoft Centru de accesibilitate Comunitățile vă ajută să adresați întrebări și să răspundeți la întrebări, să oferiți feedback și să primiți feedback de la experți cu cunoștințe bogate. Întrebați Comunitatea Microsoft Comunitatea tehnică Microsoft Utilizatorii Windows Insider Utilizatori Insider Microsoft 365 Găsiți soluții la problemele uzuale sau obțineți ajutor de la un agent de asistență. Asistență online Au fost utile aceste informații? Da Nu Vă mulțumim! Mai aveți feedback pentru Microsoft? Ne puteți ajuta să îmbunătățim? 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404 Page not found | Krita Skip to content Features Download Learn Get Involved Shop ♥ Donate Toggle theme Light Dark Select your language Languages English Català Català (Valencià) Český Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Gaeilge Italiano Lietuvių Nederlands Português Português brasileiro Slovenčina Slovenščina Svenska Türkçe Українська עברית العربيّة 한국어 中文（香港） 日本語 正體中文 简体中文 Nope. Not in here either... (404) Either the page does not exist any more, or the web address was typed wrong. Go back to the home page ▴ Software Report a bug Roadmap Release History Source Code Sitemap Education Documentation FAQ Privacy Statement Tutorials Foundation About Donations Get Involved What is KDE Website license Contact | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 | |
http://anh.cs.luc.edu/handsonPythonTutorial/whilestatements.html#strange-seq-ex | 3.3. While Statements — Hands-on Python Tutorial for Python 3 Navigation index next | previous | Hands-on Python Tutorial » 3. More On Flow of Control » 3.3. While Statements ¶ 3.3.1. Simple while Loops ¶ Other than the trick with using a return statement inside of a for loop, all of the loops so far have gone all the way through a specified list. In any case the for loop has required the use of a specific list. This is often too restrictive. A Python while loop behaves quite similarly to common English usage. If I say While your tea is too hot, add a chip of ice. Presumably you would test your tea. If it were too hot, you would add a little ice. If you test again and it is still too hot, you would add ice again. As long as you tested and found it was true that your tea was too hot, you would go back and add more ice. Python has a similar syntax: while condition : indentedBlock Setting up the English example in a similar format would be: while your tea is too hot : add a chip of ice To make things concrete and numerical, suppose the following: The tea starts at 115 degrees Fahrenheit. You want it at 112 degrees. A chip of ice turns out to lower the temperature one degree each time. You test the temperature each time, and also print out the temperature before reducing the temperature. In Python you could write and run the code below, saved in example program cool.py: 1 2 3 4 5 6 temperature = 115 while temperature > 112 : # first while loop code print ( temperature ) temperature = temperature - 1 print ( 'The tea is cool enough.' ) I added a final line after the while loop to remind you that execution follows sequentially after a loop completes. If you play computer and follow the path of execution, you could generate the following table. Remember, that each time you reach the end of the indented block after the while heading, execution returns to the while heading for another test: Line temperature Comment 1 115 2 115 > 112 is true, do loop 3 prints 115 4 114 115 - 1 is 114, loop back 2 114 > 112 is true, do loop 3 prints 114 4 113 114 - 1 is 113, loop back 2 113 > 112 is true, do loop 3 prints 113 4 112 113 - 1 is 112, loop back 2 112 > 112 is false, skip loop 6 prints that the tea is cool Each time the end of the indented loop body is reached, execution returns to the while loop heading for another test. When the test is finally false, execution jumps past the indented body of the while loop to the next sequential statement. A while loop generally follows the pattern of the successive modification loop introduced with for -each loops: initialization while continuationCondition : do main action to be repeated prepare variables for the next time through the loop Test yourself: Following the code. Figure out what is printed. : i = 4 while i < 9 : print ( i ) i = i + 2 Check yourself by running the example program testWhile.py . Note In Python, while is not used quite like in English. In English you could mean to stop as soon as the condition you want to test becomes false. In Python the test is only made when execution for the loop starts (or starts again), not in the middle of the loop. Predict what will happen with this slight variation on the previous example, switching the order in the loop body. Follow it carefully, one step at a time. 1 2 3 4 i = 4 # variation on testWhile.py while ( i < 9 ): i = i + 2 print ( i ) Check yourself by running the example program testWhile2.py . The sequence order is important. The variable i is increased before it is printed, so the first number printed is 6. Another common error is to assume that 10 will not be printed, since 10 is past 9, but the test that may stop the loop is not made in the middle of the loop. Once the body of the loop is started, it continues to the end, even when i becomes 10. Line i Comment 1 4 2 4 < 9 is true, do loop 3 6 4+2=6 4 print 6 2 6 < 9 is true, do loop 3 8 6+2= 8 4 print 8 2 8 < 9 is true, do loop 3 10 8+2=10 No test here 4 print 10 2 10 < 9 is false, skip loop Predict what happens in this related little program: nums = list () i = 4 while ( i < 9 ): nums . append ( i ) i = i + 2 print ( nums ) Check yourself by running the example program testWhile3.py . 3.3.2. The Most General range Function ¶ There is actually a much simpler way to generate the previous sequences like in testWhile3.py , using a further variation of the range function. Enter these lines separately in the Shell . As in the simpler applications of range , the values are only generated one at a time, as needed. To see the entire sequence at once, convert the sequence to a list before printing: nums = range ( 4 , 9 , 2 ) print ( list ( nums )) The third parameter for the range function is the step size. It is needed when the step size from one element to the next is not 1. The most general syntax is range( start , pastEnd , step ) The value of the second parameter is always past the final element of the list. Each element after the first in the list is step more than the previous one. Predict and try in the Shell : list ( range ( 4 , 10 , 2 )) Actually the range function is even more sophisticated than indicated by the while loop above. The step size can be negative. Try in the Shell : list ( range ( 10 , 0 , - 1 )) Do you see how 0 is past the end of the list? Try it: Make up a range function call to generate the list of temperatures printed in the tea example, 115, 114, 113 . Test it in the Shell . These ranges, like the simpler ranges that we used earlier, are most often used as the sequence in a for loop heading: for i in range ( 10 , 0 , - 1 ): # countdown... print ( i ) print ( 'Blastoff!' ) 3.3.3. Interactive while Loops ¶ The earlier examples of while loops were chosen for their simplicity. Obviously they could have been rewritten with range function calls. Now lets try a more interesting example. Suppose you want to let a user enter a sequence of lines of text, and want to remember each line in a list. This could easily be done with a simple repeat loop if you knew the number of lines to enter . For example, in readLines0.py , the user is prompted for the exact number of lines to be entered: lines = list () n = int ( input ( 'How many lines do you want to enter? ' )) for i in range ( n ): line = input ( 'Next line: ' ) lines . append ( line ) print ( 'Your lines were:' ) # check now for line in lines : print ( line ) The user may want to enter a bunch of lines and not count them all ahead of time. This means the number of repetitions would not be known ahead of time. A while loop is appropriate here. There is still the question of how to test whether the user wants to continue. An obvious but verbose way to do this is to ask before every line if the user wants to continue, as shown below and in the example file readLines1.py . Read it and then run it: lines = list () testAnswer = input ( 'Press y if you want to enter more lines: ' ) while testAnswer == 'y' : line = input ( 'Next line: ' ) lines . append ( line ) testAnswer = input ( 'Press y if you want to enter more lines: ' ) print ( 'Your lines were:' ) for line in lines : print ( line ) See the two statements setting testAnswer : one before the while loop and one at the bottom of the loop body. Note The data must be initialized before the loop, in order for the first test of the while condition to work. Also the test must work when you loop back from the end of the loop body. This means the data for the test must also be set up a second time, in the loop body (commonly as the action in the last line of the loop). It is easy to forget the second time! The readLines1.py code works, but it may be more annoying than counting ahead! Two lines must be entered for every one you actually want! A practical alternative is to use a sentinel : a piece of data that would not make sense in the regular sequence, and which is used to indicate the end of the input. You could agree to use the line DONE! Even simpler: if you assume all the real lines of data will actually have some text on them, use an empty line as a sentinel. (If you think about it, the Python Shell uses this approach when you enter a statement with an indented body.) This way you only need to enter one extra (very simple) line, no matter how many lines of real data you have. What should the while condition be now? Since the sentinel is an empty line, you might think line == '' , but that is the termination condition, not the continuation condition: You need the opposite condition. To negate a condition in Python, you may use not , like in English, not line == '' Of course in this situation there is a shorter way, line != '' Run the example program readLines2.py , shown below: lines = list () print ( 'Enter lines of text.' ) print ( 'Enter an empty line to quit.' ) line = input ( 'Next line: ' ) # initalize before the loop while line != '' : # while NOT the termination condition lines . append ( line ) line = input ( 'Next line: ' ) # !! reset value at end of loop! print ( 'Your lines were:' ) for line in lines : print ( line ) Again the data for the test in the while loop heading must be initialized before the first time the while statement is executed and the test data must also be made ready inside the loop for the test after the body has executed. Hence you see the statements setting the variable line both before the loop and at the end of the loop body. It is easy to forget the second place inside the loop! After reading the rest of this paragraph, comment the last line of the loop out, and run it again: It will never stop! The variable line will forever have the initial value you gave it! You actually can stop the program by entering Ctrl-C . That means hold the Ctrl key and press c . Note As you finish coding a while loop, it is good practice to always double-check: Did I make a change to the variables, inside the loop, that will eventually make the loop condition False ? The earliest while loop examples had numerical tests and the code to get ready for the next loop just incremented a numerical variable by a fixed amount. Those were simple examples but while loops are much more general! In the interactive loop we have seen a continuation condition with a string test, and getting ready for the next time through the loop involves input from the user. Some of the exercises that follow involve interactive while loops. Others were delayed until here just because they have a wider variety of continuation condition tests and ways to prepare for the next time through the loop. What is consistent is the general steps to think of and questions to ask yourself. They keep on applying! Keep these in mind! the need to see whether there is a kind of repetition, even without a fixed collection of values to work through to think from the specific situation and figure out the continuation condition that makes sense for your loop to think what specific processing or results you want each time through the loop, using the same code to figure out what supporting code you need to make you ready for the next time through the loop: how to make the same results code have new data values to process each time through, and eventually reach a stopping point. Detecting the need for while statements : Like with planning programs needing``for`` or if statements, you want to be able to translate English descriptions of problems that would naturally include while statements. What are some words or phrases or ideas that suggest the use of these statements? Think of your own and then compare to a few I gave: [1] 3.3.3.1. Interactive Sum Exercise ¶ Write a program sumAll.py that prompts the user to enter numbers, one per line, ending with a line containing only 0, and keep a running sum of the numbers. Only print out the sum after all the numbers are entered (at least in your final version). Do not create a list! Each time you read in a number, you can immediately use it for your sum, and then be done with the number just entered. 3.3.3.2. Safe Number Input Exercise ¶ * There is an issue with reading in numbers with the input statement. If you make a typo and enter something that cannot be converted from a string to the right kind of number, a naive program will bomb. This is avoidable if you test the string and repeat if the string is illegal. In this exercise write safe utility function replacements for the input function that work to read in a whole number, an integer or a decimal number. All parts refer to the previous Is Number String Exercise . Part a. refers to the introduction in the previous exercise. Parts b. and c. refer to functions in the solution, isNumberStr.py , of the previous exercise. Make sure you look back at these first. Save the example safeNumberInputStub.py as safeNumberInput.py , and complete it. It contains headings and documentation strings for the functions in each part of this exercise. This part considers the simplest case, where you are trying to enter a whole number. Complete the definition of the function safeWholeNumber . Complete the function safeInt . This easily parallels part a. if you copy in and use the function (not method) isIntegerStr . Complete the function safeDecimal . This easily parallels part b. if you copy in and use the function isDecimalStr . 3.3.3.3. Savings Exercise ¶ The idea here is to see how many years it will take a bank account to grow to at least a given value, assuming a fixed annual interest. Write a program savings.py . Prompt the user for three numbers: an initial balance, the annual percentage for interest as a decimal, like .04 for 4%, and the final balance desired. All the monetary amounts that you print should be rounded to exactly two decimal places. Start by printing the initial balance this way. For example, if the initial balance was entered as 123.5, it should be reprinted by your program as 123.50. Also print the balance each year until the desired amount is reached or passed. The first balance at or past the target should be the last one printed. The math: The amount next year is the amount now times (1 + interest fraction), so if I have $500 now and the interest rate is .04, I have $500*(1.04) = $520 after one year and after two years I have, $520*(1.04) = $540.80.... For example, if I respond to the prompts, and enter into the program a $500 starting balance, .04 interest rate and a target of $550, the program prints: 500.00 520.00 540.80 562.43 3.3.3.4. Strange Sequence Exercise ¶ * Recall Strange Function Exercise and its jumpFunc.py which contains the function jump : For any integer n, jump(n) is n//2 if n is even, and 3*n+1 if n is odd. You can start with one number, say n = 3, and keep applying the jump function to the last number given, and see how the numbers jump around! jump ( 3 ) = 3 * 3 + 1 = 10 ; jump ( 10 ) = 10 // 2 = 5 ; jump ( 5 ) = 3 * 5 + 1 = 16 ; jump ( 16 ) = 16 // 2 = 8 ; jump ( 8 ) = 8 // 2 = 4 ; jump ( 4 ) = 4 // 2 = 2 ; jump ( 2 ) = 2 // 2 = 1 This process of repeatedly applying the same function to the most recent result is called function iteration . In this case you see that iterating the jump function, starting from n=3, eventually reaches the value 1. It is an open research question whether iterating the jump function from an integer n will eventually reach 1, for every starting integer n greater than 1. Researchers have only found examples of n where it is true. Still, no general argument has been made to apply to the infinite number of possible starting integers. In this exercise you iterate the jump function for specific starting values n, until the result is 1. Save example jumpSeqStub.py as jumpSeq.py and complete the missing function bodies. If you coded the function jump before in jumpFunc.py , you can copy it. You can complete either printJumps or listJumps first, and test before completing the other. Hint [2] After you have finished and saved jumpSeq.py copy it and save the file as jumpSeqLengths.py . First modify the main method so it prompts the user for a value of n, and then prints just the length of the iterative sequence from listJumps(n). Hint [3] Then elaborate the program so it prompts the user for two integers: a lowest starting value of n and a highest starting value of n. For all integers n in the range from the lowest start through the highest start, including the highest, print a sentence giving the starting value of n and the length of the list from listJumps(n) . An example run: Enter lowest start: 3 Enter highest start: 6 Starting from 3, jump sequence length 8. Starting from 4, jump sequence length 3. Starting from 5, jump sequence length 6. Starting from 6, jump sequence length 9. 3.3.4. Graphical Applications ¶ Another place where a while loop could be useful is in interactive graphics. Suppose you want the user to be able to create a Polygon by clicking on vertices they choose interactively, but you do not want them to have to count the number of vertices ahead of time. A while loop is suggested for such a repetitive process. As with entering lines of text interactively, there is the question of how to indicate that you are done (or how to indicate to continue). If you make only a certain region be allowed for the Polygon, then the sentinel can be a mouse click outside the region. The earlier interactive color choice example already has a method to check if a mouse click is inside a Rectangle, so that method can be copied and reused. Creating a polygon is a unified activity with a clear result, so let’s define a function. It involves a boundary rectangle and mouse clicks in a GraphWin, and may as well return the Polygon constructed. Read the following start: def polyHere ( rect , win ): ''' Draw a polygon interactively in Rectangle rect, in GraphWin win. Collect mouse clicks inside rect into the vertices of a Polygon, and always draw the Polygon created so far. When a click goes outside rect, stop and return the final polygon. The Polygon ends up drawn. The method draws and undraws rect. ''' It is useful to start by thinking of the objects needed, and give them names. A Polygon is needed. Call it poly . A list of vertices is needed. Call it vertices . I need to append to this list. It must be initialized first. The latest mouse click point is needed. Call it pt . Certainly the overall process will be repetitious, choosing point after point. Still it may not be at all clear how to make an effective Python loop. In challenging situations like this it is often useful to imagine a concrete situation with a limited number of steps, so each step can be written in sequence without worrying about a loop. For instance to get up to a triangle (3 vertices in our list and a fourth mouse click for the sentinel), you might imagine the following sequence, undrawing each old polygon before the next is displayed with the latest mouse click included: rect . setOutline ( 'red' ) rect . draw ( win ) vertices = list () pt = win . getMouse () vertices . append ( pt ) poly = Polygon ( vertices ) poly . draw ( win ) # with one point pt = win . getMouse () poly . undraw () # missing latest point vertices . append ( pt ) poly = Polygon ( vertices ) poly . draw ( win ) # with two points pt = win . getMouse () poly . undraw () # missing latest point vertices . append ( pt ) poly = Polygon ( vertices ) poly . draw ( win ) # with three points pt = win . getMouse () # assume outside the region rect . undraw () return poly There is a fine point here that I missed the first time. The vertices of an existing Polygon do not get mutated in this system. A new Polygon gets created each time with the new vertex list. The old Polygon does not go away automatically, and extraneous lines appear in the picture if the old polygon is not explicitly undrawn each time before a new version is redrawn with an extra vertex. The last Polygon you draw should be visible at the end, so in the example above where I was assuming the third click was the last for the triangle, I did not undraw the Polygon. The timing for each undraw needs to be after the next mouse click and presumably before the revised Polygon is created, so it could be before or after the line vertices.append(pt) . I arbitrarily chose for it to go before the vertices list is changed. The rest of the order of the lines is pretty well fixed by the basic logic. If you think of the repetitions through a large number of loops, the process is essentially circular (as suggested by the word ‘loop’). The body of a loop in Python, however, is written as a linear sequence: one with a first line and a last line, a beginning and an end. We can cut a circular loop anywhere to get a piece with a beginning and an end. In practice, the place you cut the loop for Python has one main constraint: The processing in Python from the end of one time through the loop to the beginning of the next loop is separated by the test of the condition in the heading. The continuation condition in the while heading must make sense where you cut the loop. It can help to look at a concrete example sequence, like the steps listed above for creating a triangle, only now assuming we do not know how many vertices will be chosen. The continuation condition is for pt to be in the rectangle, so using the previously written function isInside , the loop heading will be while isInside ( pt , rect ): With this condition in mind, look for where to split to loop. It needs to be after a new pt is clicked (so it can be tested) and before the next Polygon is created (so it does not include the sentinel point by mistake). In particular, with the sequence above, look and see that the split could go before or after the poly.undraw() line. Exercise Moving Undraw considers the case where the split goes before this line. I will proceed with the choice of splitting into a Python loop after the undraw line. This makes the loop be while isInside ( pt , rect ): vertices . append ( pt ) poly = Polygon ( vertices ) poly . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () poly . undraw () If you follow the total sequence of required steps above for making the concrete triangle, you see that this full sequence for the loop is only repeated twice. The last time there is no poly.undraw() step. I could redo the loop moving the undraw line to the top, which caused different issues ( Exercise Moving Undraw below). Instead think how to make it work at the end of the final time through the loop.... There are several possible approaches. You want the undraw line every time except for the last time. Hence it is a statement you want sometimes and not others. That suggests an if statement. The times you want the undraw are when the loop will repeat again. This is the same as the continuation condition for the loop, and you have just read the next value for pt ! You could just add a condition in front of the last line of the loop: if isInside ( pt , rect ): poly . undraw () I find this option unaesthetic: it means duplicating the continuation test twice in every loop. Instead of avoiding the undraw as you exit the loop, another option in this case is to undo it: just re draw the polygon one final time beyond the loop. This only needs to be done once, not repeatedly in the loop. Then the repetitious lines collapse neatly into the loop. If you look at the overall concrete sequence for the triangle, not all the lines are in the loop. You must carefully include the lines both that come before the loop and those that come after the loop. Make sure these lines are not put in the loop, but before or after, as indicated by the concrete sequence in the example. In the end the entire function is: def polyHere ( rect , win ): ''' Draw a polygon interactively in Rectangle rect, in GraphWin win. Collect mouse clicks inside rect into the vertices of a Polygon, and always draw the Polygon created so far. When a click goes outside rect, stop and return the final polygon. The Polygon ends up drawn. The method draws and undraws rect. ''' rect . setOutline ( "red" ) rect . draw ( win ) vertices = list () pt = win . getMouse () while isInside ( pt , rect ): vertices . append ( pt ) poly = Polygon ( vertices ) poly . draw ( win ) pt = win . getMouse () poly . undraw () poly . draw ( win ) rect . undraw () return poly Make sure you understand: Follow this code through, imagining three mouse clicks inside rect and then one click outside of rect. Compare the steps to the ones in the concrete sequence written out above and see that the match (aside from the last canceling undraw and draw of poly ). This function is illustrated in the example program makePoly.py . Other than standard graphics example code, the main program contains: rect1 = Rectangle ( Point ( 5 , 55 ), Point ( 200 , 120 )) poly1 = polyHere ( rect1 , win ) poly1 . setFill ( 'green' ) rect2 = Rectangle ( Point ( 210 , 50 ), Point ( 350 , 350 )) poly2 = polyHere ( rect2 , win ) poly2 . setOutline ( 'orange' ) As you can see, the returned polygons are used to make color changes, just as an illustration. In earlier animation examples a while loop would also have been useful. Rather than continuing the animation a fixed number of times, it would be nice for the user to indicate by a mouse click when she has watched long enough. Thus far the only way to use the mouse has been with getMouse() . This is not going to work in an animation, because the computer stops and waits for a click with getMouse() , whereas the animation should continue until the click. In full-fledged graphical systems that respond to events, this is no problem. Zelle’s graphics is built on top of a capable event-driven system, and in fact, all mouse clicks are registered, even outside calls to getMouse() . As an example, run example program randomCirclesWhile.py . Be sure to follow the prompt saying to click to start and to end. Aside from the prompts, the difference from the previous randomCircles.py program is the replacement of the original simple repeat loop heading for i in range ( 75 ): by the following initialization and while loop heading: while win . checkMouse () == None : #NEW* The graphics module remembers the last mouse click, whether or not it occurred during a call to getMouse() . A way to check if the mouse has been clicked since the last call to getMouse() is checkMouse() . It does not wait for the mouse as in getMouse() . Instead it returns the remembered mouse click - the most recent mouse click in the past , unless there has been no mouse click since the last call to getMouse or checkMouse. In that case checkMouse() returns None (the special object used to indicate the lack of a regular object). The checkMouse method allows for a loop that does not stop while waiting for a mouse click, but goes on until the heading test detects that the mouse was clicked. A similar elaboration can be made for the other examples of animation, like bounce1.py . In bounceWhile.py I modified bounce1.py to have a while loop in place of the for-loop repeating 600 times. Run it. The only slight added modification here was that win was not originally a parameter to bounceInBox , so I included it. Look at the source code for bounceWhile.py , with the few changes marked NEW. In bounce2.py I also made a more interesting change to the initialization, so the initial direction and speed of the mouse are determined graphically by the user, with a mouse click. Try example program bounce2.py . The program includes a new utility function to help determine the initial (dx, dy) for the animation. This is done by calculating the move necessary to go from one point (where the ball is in this program) to another (specified by a user’s mouse click in this program). : def getShift ( point1 , point2 ): # NEW utility function '''Returns a tuple (dx, dy) which is the shift from point1 to point2.''' dx = point2 . getX () - point1 . getX () dy = point2 . getY () - point1 . getY () return ( dx , dy ) Since the function calculates both a change in x and y, it returns a tuple . A straightforward interactive method, getUserShift , is wrapped around this function to get the user’s choice, which ultimately returns the same tuple: def getUserShift ( point , prompt , win ): #NEW direction selection '''Return the change in position from the point to a mouse click in win. First display the prompt string under point.''' text = Text ( Point ( point . getX (), 60 ), prompt ) text . draw ( win ) userPt = win . getMouse () text . undraw () return getShift ( point , userPt ) In the new version of the main driver, bounceBall , excerpted below, this interactive setting of (dx, dy) is used. Note the multiple assignment statement to both dx and dy, set from the tuple returned from getUserShift . This shift would generally be much too much for a single animation step, so the actual values passed to bounceBall are scaled way down by a factor scale . center = Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , win . getHeight () / 2 ) #NEW central starting point ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) #NEW interactive direction and speed setting prompt = ''' Click to indicate the direction and speed of the ball: The further you click from the ball, the faster it starts.''' ( dx , dy ) = getUserShift ( center , prompt , win ) scale = 0.01 # to reduce the size of animation steps bounceInBox ( ball , dx * scale , dy * scale , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ) The bounceInBox method has the same change to the loop as in the randomCircles.py example. The method then requires the GraphWin , win , as a further parameter, since checkMouse is a GraphWin method. You can look in Idle at the full source code for bounce2.py if you like. The changes from bounce1.py are all marked with a comment starting with #NEW , and all the major changes have been described above. In the examples so far of the use of checkMouse() , we have only used the fact that a point was clicked, not which point. The next example version, bounce3.py , does use the location of mouse clicks that are read with checkMouse() to change the direction and speed of the ball. Try it. This version only slightly modifies the central animation function, bounceInBox , but wraps it in another looping function that makes the direction and speed of the ball change on each mouse click. Hence the mouse clicks detected in bounceInBox need to be remembered and then returned after the main animation loop finishes. That requires a name, pt , to be given to the last mouse click, so it can be remembered. This means modifying the main animation loop to initialize the variable pt before the loop and reset it at the end of the loop, much as in the use of getMouse() for the interactive polygon creation. That explains the first three NEW lines and the last two NEW lines in the revised bounceInBox : def bounceInBox ( shape , dx , dy , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ): ''' Animate a shape moving in jumps (dx, dy), bouncing when its center reaches the low and high x and y coordinates. The animation stops when the mouse is clicked, and the last mouse click is returned.''' delay = . 001 pt = None #NEW while pt == None : #NEW shape . move ( dx , dy ) center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () isInside = True #NEW if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx isInside = False #NEW if y < yLow or y > yHigh : dy = - dy isInside = False #NEW time . sleep ( delay ) if isInside : # NEW don't mess with dx, dy when outside pt = win . checkMouse () #NEW return pt #NEW def moveInBox ( shape , stopHeight , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ): #NEW '''Shape bounces in win so its center stays within the low and high x and y coordinates, and changes direction based on mouse clicks, terminating when there is a click above stopHeight.''' scale = 0.01 pt = shape . getCenter () # starts motionless while pt . getY () < stopHeight : ( dx , dy ) = getShift ( shape . getCenter (), pt ) pt = bounceInBox ( shape , dx * scale , dy * scale , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ) def makeDisk ( center , radius , win ): '''Return a red disk that is drawn in win with given center and radius.''' disk = Circle ( center , radius ) disk . setOutline ( "red" ) disk . setFill ( "red" ) disk . draw ( win ) return disk def getShift ( point1 , point2 ): '''Returns a tuple (dx, dy) which is the shift from point1 to point2.''' dx = point2 . getX () - point1 . getX () dy = point2 . getY () - point1 . getY () return ( dx , dy ) def bounceBall (): '''Make a ball bounce around the screen, and react to mouse clicks.''' win = GraphWin ( 'Ball Bounce 3' , 290 , 290 ) win . yUp () #NEW to mark and label the area where a click stops the program lineHeight = win . getHeight () - 40 textHeight = win . getHeight () - 20 Line ( Point ( 0 , lineHeight ), Point ( win . getWidth (), lineHeight )) . draw ( win ) prompt = 'Click above the line to stop \n or below to move toward the click.' Text ( Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , textHeight ), prompt ) . draw ( win ) radius = 10 xLow = radius # center is separated from the wall by the radius at a bounce xHigh = win . getWidth () - radius yLow = radius yHigh = lineHeight - radius #NEW lower top to bouncing limits center = Point ( win . getWidth () / 2 , lineHeight / 2 ) ball = makeDisk ( center , radius , win ) moveInBox ( ball , lineHeight , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ) #NEW win . close () bounceBall () I initially made only the changes discussed so far (not the ones involving the new variable isInside ). The variable isInside was in response to a bug that I will discuss after introducing the simple function that wraps around bounceInBox : Each time the mouse is clicked, the ball is to switch direction and move toward the last click, until the stopping condition occurs, when there is a click above the stop line. This is clearly repetitive and needs a while loop. The condition is simply to test the y coordinate of the mouse click against the the height of the stop line. The body of the loop is very short, since we already have the utility function getShift , to figure out (dx, dy) values. def moveInBox ( shape , stopHeight , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ): #NEW '''Shape bounces in win so its center stays within the low and high x and y coordinates, and changes direction based on mouse clicks, terminating when there is a click above stopHeight.''' scale = 0.01 pt = shape . getCenter () # starts motionless while pt . getY () < stopHeight : ( dx , dy ) = getShift ( shape . getCenter (), pt ) pt = bounceInBox ( shape , dx * scale , dy * scale , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ) The variable pt for the last mouse click needed to be initialized some way. I chose to make the value be the same as the initial position of the ball, so both dx and dy are initially 0, and the ball does not start in motion. (Alternatives are in Random Start Exercise below.) I occasionally detected a bug when using the program. The ball would get stuck just outside the boundary and stay there. The fact that it was slightly beyond the boundary was a clue: For simplicity I had cheated, and allowed the ball to go just one animation step beyond the intended boundary. With the speed and small step size this works visually. The original code was sure to make an opposite jump back inside at the next step. After some thought, I noticed that the initial version of the bounce3.py code for bounceInBox broke that assumption. When the ball was where a bounce-back is required, a mouse click could change (dx, dy) and mess up the bounce. The idea for a fix is not to let the user change the direction in the moment when the ball needs to bounce back. Neither of the original boundary-checking if statements, by itself , always determines if the ball is in the region where it needs to reverse direction. I dealt with this situation by introducing a Boolean variable isInside . It is initially set as True , and then either of the if statements can correct it to False. Then, at the end of the loop, isInside is used to make sure the ball is safely inside the proper region when there is a check for a new mouse click and a possible user adjustment to (dx, dy). 3.3.4.1. Exercise Moving Undraw ¶ ** As discussed above at Where to split the loop , the basic loop logic works whether the poly.undraw() call is at the beginning or end of the loop. Write a variation makePoly2.py that makes the code work the other way, with the poly.undraw() at the beginning of the loop. Do not change or move any other statement in the loop. The new place to cut the loop does affect the code before and after the loop. In particular, the extra statement drawing poly is not needed after the loop is completed. Make other changes to the surrounding code to make this work. Hints: [4] 3.3.4.2. Make Path Exercise ¶ ** Write a program that is outwardly very similar to makePoly.py , and call it makePath.py , with a function pathHere . The only outward difference between polyHere and pathHere is that while the first creates a closed polygon, and returns it, and the new one creates a polygonal path, without the final point being automatically connected to the first point, and a list of the lines in the path is returned. Internally the functions are quite different. The change simplifies some things: no need to undraw anything in the main loop - just draw the latest segment each time going from the previous point to the just clicked point. There are complications however: You do need deal specially with the first point. It has no previous point to connect to. I suggest you handle this before the main loop: If the point is inside the rectangle, draw the point so it is a visible guide for the next point. Before returning, undraw this initial point. (The place on the screen will still be visible if an initial segment is drawn. If no more points were added, the screen is left blank, which is the way it should be, and an empty list of lines should be returned.) You also need to remember the previous point each time through the main loop. I suggest you think individually about what should happen if you stop the drawing when the first, second or third point is outside the rectangle. Also test each of those cases after the program is written. In your main program, call the makePath function two times. Use the list of lines returned to loop through and change the color of all the lines in one path and the width of the lines in the other path. A portion of a sample image from this program is shown below. 3.3.4.3. Random Start Exercise ¶ * (Optional) I chose to have the ball start motionless, by making the initial value of pt (which determines the initial (dx, dy) ) be the center of the ball. Write a variation startRandom.py so pt is randomly chosen. Also make the initial location of the ball be random. You can copy the function getRandomPoint from bounce1.py. 3.3.4.4. Mad Lib While Exercise ¶ ** Write a program madlib4.py that modifies the getKeys method of madlib2.py to use a while loop. (This is not an animation program, but this section is where you have had the most experience with while loops!) Hints: This is actually the most natural approach. I avoided while loops initially, when only for loops had been discussed. In the original approach, however, it is redundant to find every instance of '{' to count the number of repetitions and then find them all again when extracting the cue keys. A more natural way to control the loop is a while loop stopping when there are no further occurrences of '{' to find . This involves some further adjustments. You must cut the loop in a different place (to end after searching for '{' ). As discussed before, cutting a loop in a different place may require changes before and after the loop, too. 3.3.4.5. Find Hole Game Exercise ¶ ** Write a graphical game program, findHole.py , “Find the Hole”. The program should use a random number generator to determine a circular “hole”, selecting a point and a perhaps the radius around that point. These determine the target and are not revealed to the player initially. The user is then prompted to click around on the screen to “find the hidden hole”. You should show the points the user has tried. Once the user selects a point that is within the chosen radius of the mystery point, the mystery circle should appear. There should be a message announcing how many steps it took, and the game should end. Hint: you have already seen the code to determine the displacement (dx, dy) between two points: use the getShift function in bounce2.py . Once you have the displacement (dx, dy) between the hidden center and the latest mouse click, the distance between the points is (dx*dx + dy*dy)**0.5 , using the Pythagorean Theorem of geometry. If this distance is no more than the radius that you have chosen for the mystery circle, then the user has found the circle! You can use getShift as written, or modify it into a function getDistance that directly returns the distance between two points. Many elaborations on this game are possible! Have fun with it! 3.3.5. Fancier Animation Loop Logic (Optional) ¶ The final variation is the example program bounce4.py , which has the same outward behavior as bounce3.py, but it illustrates a different internal design decision. The bounce3.py version has two levels of while loop in two methods, moveInBox for mouse clicks and bounceInBox for bouncing. The bounce4.py version puts all the code for changing direction inside the main animation loop in the old outer function, moveInBox . There are now three reasons to adjust (dx, dy): bouncing off the sides, bouncing off the top or bottom, or a mouse click. That is a simplification and unification of the logic in one sense. The complication now is that the logic for determining when to quit is buried deep inside the if - else logic, not at the heading of the loop. The test for mouse clicks is inside the while loop and further inside another if statement. The test of the mouse click may merely lead to a change in (dx, dy), or is a signal to quit. Here is the revised code, with a discussion afterward of the return statement: def moveInBox ( shape , stopHeight , xLow , xHigh , yLow , yHigh , win ): ''' Animate a shape moving toward any mouse click below stopHeight and bouncing when its center reaches the low or high x or y coordinates. The animation stops when the mouse is clicked at stopHeight or above.''' scale = 0.01 delay = . 001 dx = 0 #NEW dx and dy are no longer parameters dy = 0 #NEW while True : #NEW exit loop at return statement center = shape . getCenter () x = center . getX () y = center . getY () isInside = True if x < xLow or x > xHigh : dx = - dx isInside = False if y < yLow or y > yHigh : dy = - dy isInside = False if isInside : pt = win . checkMouse () if pt != None : #NEW dealing with mouse click now here if pt . getY () < stopHeight : # switch direction ( dx , dy ) = getShift ( center , pt ) ( dx , dy ) = ( dx * scale , dy * scale ) else : #NEW exit from depths of the loop return #NEW shape . move ( dx , dy ) time . sleep ( delay ) Recall that a return statement immediately terminates function execution. In this case the function returns no value, but a bare return is legal to force the exit. Since the testing is not done in the normal while condition, the while condition is set as permanently True . This is not the most common while loop pattern! It obscures the loop exit. The choice between the approach of bounce3.py and bounce4.py is a matter of taste in the given situation. [1] “while ___”, “do ___ while”, “repeat while”, “repeat until”, “as long as ___, do”, “keep doing ___ as long as” [2] You will need a loop. You can print/append almost all the numbers in the loop. You are likely to omit one number with just this code, but after looking at what you produce, it is easy to separately include the remaining number. There are several ways to do this. [3] Recall the built-in len function! It applies to lists. [4] The basic issue is similar to the old version: the undraw is not always needed – at the beginning in this case. In this place it is not needed the first time through the loop. The two basic approaches considered for the previous version still work here: make an extra compensating action outside the loop or break into cases inside the loop. Further hint: It is legal to draw a polygon with an empty vertex list - nothing appears on the screen. Table Of Contents 3.3. While Statements 3.3.1. Simple while Loops 3.3.2. The Most General range Function 3.3.3. Interactive while Loops 3.3.3.1. Interactive Sum Exercise 3.3.3.2. Safe Number Input Exercise 3.3.3.3. Savings Exercise 3.3.3.4. Strange Sequence Exercise 3.3.4. Graphical Applications 3.3.4.1. Exercise Moving Undraw 3.3.4.2. Make Path Exercise 3.3.4.3. Random Start Exercise 3.3.4.4. Mad Lib While Exercise 3.3.4.5. Find Hole Game Exercise 3.3.5. Fancier Animation Loop Logic (Optional) Previous topic 3.2. Loops and Tuples Next topic 3.4. Arbitrary Types Treated As Boolean This Page Show Source Quick search Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. 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Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택하고 모든 쿠키를 허용 하도록 사이트에서 쿠키 데이터를 저장하고 읽을 수 있도록 허용(권장) 토글을 사용하도록 설정합니다. 특정 사이트에서 쿠키 허용 쿠키를 허용하면 웹 사이트에서 브라우저에서 데이터를 저장하고 검색할 수 있으므로 기본 설정 및 로그인 정보를 기억하여 검색 환경을 향상시킬 수 있습니다. Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택하고 허용됨으로 이동하여 쿠키를 저장합니다. 사이트 추가 를 선택하여 사이트의 URL을 입력하여 사이트별로 쿠키를 허용합니다. 타사 쿠키 차단 타사 사이트에서 PC에 쿠키를 저장하지 않으려면 쿠키를 차단할 수 있습니다. 그러나 쿠키를 차단하면 일부 페이지가 올바르게 표시되지 않거나 사이트를 보려면 쿠키를 허용해야 한다는 메시지가 표시될 수 있습니다. Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택하고 타사 쿠키 차단 토글을 사용하도록 설정합니다. 모든 쿠키 차단은 타사 사이트에서 PC에 쿠키를 저장하지 않으려면 쿠키를 차단할 수 있습니다. 그러나 쿠키를 차단하면 일부 페이지가 올바르게 표시되지 않거나 사이트를 보려면 쿠키를 허용해야 한다는 메시지가 표시될 수 있습니다. Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택하고 사이트에서 쿠키 데이터를 저장하고 읽을 수 있도록 허용(권장) 을 사용하지 않도록 설정하여 모든 쿠키를 차단합니다. 특정 사이트에서 쿠키 차단 Microsoft Edge를 사용하면 특정 사이트의 쿠키를 차단할 수 있지만 이렇게 하면 일부 페이지가 올바르게 표시되지 않거나 쿠키가 해당 사이트를 볼 수 있도록 허용해야 한다는 메시지가 사이트에서 수신될 수 있습니다. 특정 사이트에서 쿠키를 차단하려면 다음을 수행합니다. Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택하고 쿠키를 저장하고 읽을 수 없음으로 이동합니다. 사이트 추가 를 선택하여 사이트의 URL을 입력하여 사이트별로 쿠키를 차단합니다. 모든 쿠키 삭제 Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스 를 선택합니다. 검색 데이터 지우기를 선택한 다음, 지금 검색 데이터 지우 기 옆에 있는 선택을 선택합니다 . 시간 범위 의 목록에서 시간 범위를 선택합니다. 쿠키 및 기타 사이트 데이터 를 선택한 다음 지금 지우기 를 선택합니다. 참고: 또는 Ctrl + Shift + DELETE 를 함께 누 른 다음 4단계와 5단계를 진행하여 쿠키를 삭제할 수 있습니다. 이제 선택한 시간 범위에 대한 모든 쿠키 및 기타 사이트 데이터가 삭제됩니다. 대부분의 사이트에서 로그아웃됩니다. 특정 사이트에서 쿠키 삭제 Edge 브라우저를 열고 설정 및 기타 > 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택한 다음 모든 쿠키 및 사이트 데이터 보기를 클릭하고 쿠키를 삭제하려는 사이트를 검색합니다. 삭제하려는 쿠키가 있는 사이트 오른쪽에 있는 아래쪽 화살표 를 선택하고 삭제 를 선택합니다. 선택한 사이트의 쿠키는 이제 삭제됩니다. 쿠키를 삭제하려는 모든 사이트에 대해 이 단계를 반복합니다. 브라우저를 닫을 때마다 쿠키 삭제 Edge 브라우저를 열고 설정 및 기타 > 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스를 선택합니다. 검색 데이터 지우기를 선택한 다음 브라우저를 닫을 때마다 지울 항목 선택을 선택합니다. 쿠키 및 기타 사이트 데이터 토글을 켭니다. 이 기능이 켜지면 Edge 브라우저를 닫을 때마다 모든 쿠키 및 기타 사이트 데이터가 삭제됩니다. 대부분의 사이트에서 로그아웃됩니다. 쿠키를 사용하여 더 빠른 검색을 위해 페이지를 미리 로드합니다. Edge 브라우저를 열고 브라우저 창의 오른쪽 위 모서리에서 설정 등을 선택합니다. 설정 > 개인 정보, 검색 및 서비스 를 선택합니다. 쿠키를 선택하고 빠른 검색 및 검색을 위해 페이지 미리 로드 토글을 사용하도록 설정합니다. RSS 피드 구독 도움이 더 필요하세요? 더 많은 옵션을 원하세요? 검색 커뮤니티 문의 구독 혜택을 살펴보고, 교육 과정을 찾아보고, 디바이스를 보호하는 방법 등을 알아봅니다. Microsoft 365 구독 혜택 Microsoft 365 교육 Microsoft 보안 접근성 센터 커뮤니티를 통해 질문하고 답변하고, 피드백을 제공하고, 풍부한 지식을 갖춘 전문가의 의견을 들을 수 있습니다. Microsoft 커뮤니티에 질문하기 Microsoft Tech Community Windows 참가자 Microsoft 365 참가자 일반적인 문제에 대한 해결 방법을 찾거나 지원 에이전트로부터 도움을 받으세요. 온라인 지원 이 정보가 유용한가요? 예 아니요 감사합니다. Microsoft에 대한 피드백이 더 있으신가요? 사용자 환경 개선에 도움을 주시겠어요? (Microsoft에 피드백을 보내 주시면 도움을 드리겠습니다.) 언어 품질에 얼마나 만족하시나요? 사용 경험에 어떠한 영향을 주었나요? 문제가 해결됨 지침이 명확함 이해하기 쉬움 전문 용어가 없음 그림이 도움이 됨 번역 품질 내 화면과 일치하지 않음 지침이 잘못됨 너무 기술적임 정보가 부족함 그림이 부족함 번역 품질 추가 피드백이 있으신가요? (선택 사항) 피드백 제출 제출을 누르면 피드백이 Microsoft 제품과 서비스를 개선하는 데 사용됩니다. IT 관리자는 이 데이터를 수집할 수 있습니다. 개인정보처리방침 의견 주셔서 감사합니다! × 새로운 기능 Surface Pro Surface Laptop 조직용 Copilot 개인 사용자용 Copilot Microsoft 365 Microsoft 제품 살펴보기 Windows 11 앱 Microsoft Store 계정 프로필 다운로드 센터 Microsoft Store 지원 반품/환불 주문 조회 교육 Microsoft Education 교육용 장치 교육용 Microsoft Teams Microsoft 365 Education Office Education 교육자 트레이닝 및 개발 학생 및 학부모용 특가 혜택 Azure for students 기업 고객 Microsoft Security Azure Dynamics 365 Microsoft 365 Microsoft Advertising Microsoft 365 Copilot Microsoft Teams 개발자 및 IT Microsoft 개발자 Microsoft Learn AI 마켓플레이스 앱 지원 Microsoft Tech 커뮤니티 Microsoft Marketplace Microsoft Power Platform Marketplace Rewards Visual Studio 회사 채용 정보 Microsoft 정보 회사 뉴스 Microsoft 개인 정보 보호 투자자 지속 가능성 한국어(대한민국) 개인정보처리방침 선택 옵트아웃 아이콘 개인 정보 선택 사항 개인정보처리방침 선택 옵트아웃 아이콘 개인 정보 선택 사항 소비자 상태 개인정보처리방침 Microsoft에 문의 개인정보처리방침 및 위치정보이용약관 쿠키 관리 사용약관 상표 광고 정보 © Microsoft 2026 한국마이크로소프트(유) 대표이사: 조원우 주소: (우)110-150 서울 종로구 종로1길 50 더 케이트윈타워 A동 12층 전화번호: 02-531-4500, 메일: ms-korea@microsoft.com 사업자등록번호: 120-81-05948 사업자정보확인 호스팅서비스 제공자: Microsoft Corporation 통신판매신고: 제2013-서울종로-1009호 사이버몰의 이용약관: Microsoft Store 판매 약관 | 2026-01-13T09:30:32 |
https://support.microsoft.com/sv-se/windows/hantera-cookies-i-microsoft-edge-visa-till%C3%A5ta-blockera-ta-bort-och-anv%C3%A4nda-168dab11-0753-043d-7c16-ede5947fc64d | Hantera cookies i Microsoft Edge: Visa, tillåta, blockera, ta bort och använda - Microsoft Support Relaterade ämnen × Windows säkerhet och sekretess Översikt Översikt för säkerhet och sekretess Windows-säkerhet Få hjälp med Windows-säkerhet Skydda dig med Windows-säkerhet Innan du återanvänder, säljer eller ger bort din Xbox- eller Windows-dator Ta bort skadlig kod från din Windows-dator Windows-säkerhet Få hjälp med Windows-säkerhet Visa och ta bort webbhistorik i Microsoft Edge Ta bort och hantera cookies Ta bort värdefullt innehåll på ett säkert sätt när du installerar om Windows Hitta och låsa en borttappad Windows-enhet Windows-sekretess Få hjälp med Windows-sekretess Sekretessinställningar i Windows som används av appar Visa dina data på sekretesspanelen Gå till huvudinnehåll Microsoft Support Support Support Startsida Microsoft 365 Office Produkter Microsoft 365 Outlook Microsoft Teams OneDrive Microsoft Copilot OneNote Windows mer... 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Hej, Välj ett annat konto. Du har flera konton Välj det konto som du vill logga in med. Relaterade ämnen Windows säkerhet och sekretess Översikt Översikt för säkerhet och sekretess Windows-säkerhet Få hjälp med Windows-säkerhet Skydda dig med Windows-säkerhet Innan du återanvänder, säljer eller ger bort din Xbox- eller Windows-dator Ta bort skadlig kod från din Windows-dator Windows-säkerhet Få hjälp med Windows-säkerhet Visa och ta bort webbhistorik i Microsoft Edge Ta bort och hantera cookies Ta bort värdefullt innehåll på ett säkert sätt när du installerar om Windows Hitta och låsa en borttappad Windows-enhet Windows-sekretess Få hjälp med Windows-sekretess Sekretessinställningar i Windows som används av appar Visa dina data på sekretesspanelen Hantera cookies i Microsoft Edge: Visa, tillåta, blockera, ta bort och använda Gäller för Windows 10 Windows 11 Microsoft Edge Cookies är små data som lagras på din enhet av webbplatser du besöker. De har olika syften, till exempel att komma ihåg inloggningsuppgifter, webbplatsinställningar och spåra användarbeteende. Men du kanske vill ta bort cookies av sekretessskäl eller för att lösa problem med surfning. Den här artikeln innehåller instruktioner om hur du: Visa alla cookies Tillåt alla cookies Tillåt cookies från en viss webbplats Blockera cookies från tredje part Med Blockera alla cookies Blockera cookies från en viss webbplats Ta bort alla cookies Ta bort cookies från en särskild webbplats Ta bort cookies varje gång du stänger webbläsaren Använda cookies för att förinstallera sidan för snabbare surfning Visa alla cookies Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och klicka sedan på Visa alla cookies och webbplatsdata för att visa alla lagrade cookies och relaterad webbplatsinformation. Tillåt alla cookies Genom att tillåta cookies kan webbplatser spara och hämta data i din webbläsare, vilket kan förbättra din surfupplevelse genom att komma ihåg dina inställningar och inloggningsinformation. Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och aktivera växlingsknappen Tillåt att webbplatser sparar och läser cookie-data (rekommenderas) för att tillåta alla cookies. Tillåt cookies från en viss webbplats Genom att tillåta cookies kan webbplatser spara och hämta data i din webbläsare, vilket kan förbättra din surfupplevelse genom att komma ihåg dina inställningar och inloggningsinformation. Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och gå till Tillåts att spara cookies. Välj Lägg till webbplats om du vill tillåta cookies per webbplats genom att ange webbplatsens URL. Blockera cookies från tredje part Om du inte vill att webbplatser från tredje part ska lagra cookies på datorn kan du blockera cookies. Men om du gör det kan vissa sidor hindras från att visas korrekt, eller så kan du få ett meddelande från en webbplats om att du måste tillåta cookies för att kunna visa den webbplatsen. Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och aktivera växlingsknappen Blockera cookies från tredje part. Med Blockera alla cookies Om du inte vill att webbplatser från tredje part ska lagra cookies på datorn kan du blockera cookies. Men om du gör det kan vissa sidor hindras från att visas korrekt, eller så kan du få ett meddelande från en webbplats om att du måste tillåta cookies för att kunna visa den webbplatsen. Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och inaktivera Tillåt att webbplatser sparar och läser cookie-data (rekommenderas) för att blockera alla cookies. Blockera cookies från en viss webbplats Med Microsoft Edge kan du blockera cookies från en viss webbplats, men om du gör det kan vissa sidor inte visas korrekt, eller så kan du få ett meddelande från en webbplats om att du måste tillåta cookies för att kunna visa webbplatsen. Så här blockerar du cookies från en viss webbplats: Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och gå till Tillåts inte att spara och läsa cookies . Välj Lägg till webbplats om du vill blockera cookies per webbplats genom att ange webbplatsens URL. 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Cookies för den valda webbplatsen tas nu bort. Upprepa det här steget för webbplatser vars cookies du vill ta bort. Ta bort cookies varje gång du stänger webbläsaren Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera > Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Radera webbdata och välj sedan Välj vad du vill radera varje gång du stänger webbläsaren . Aktivera Cookies och andra webbplatsdata . När den här funktionen är aktiverad tas alla cookies och andra webbplatsdata bort varje gång du stänger webbläsaren Edge. Detta loggar ut dig från de flesta webbplatser. Använda cookies för att förinstallera sidan för snabbare surfning Öppna webbläsaren Edge, välj Inställningar med mera i det övre högra hörnet i webbläsarfönstret. Välj Inställningar > Sekretess, sökning och tjänster . Välj Cookies och aktivera växlingsknappen förinläsning av sidor för snabbare surfning och sökning. PRENUMERERA PÅ RSS-FEEDS Behöver du mer hjälp? Vill du ha fler alternativ? 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