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ReFrame is an initiative of the William Davidson Graduate School of Jewish Education at the Jewish Theological Seminary which has been operating over the last year and a half. Reframe aims to strengthen complementary schools, such as those housed in congregations, through the approach of experiential Jewish education. Reframe's Target Population Reframe's ultimate beneficiaries are the Jewish children and families who yearn to feel that the excitement of Shabbat and the freedom to study Hebrew in the summer by the lake can also be experienced over the course of the entire school year. The Davidson School recognizes that these experiences can only occur in schools where educators are properly prepared and supported. As such, ReFrame will focus primarily on the educators who serve Conservative congregations throughout North America. Participating educators can also engage in the ReFrame project in multiple ways: - International Online Conversation—Join the conversation on congregational schools and experiential Jewish education through our social media platforms and online technology. Through these platforms, we will disseminate new thinking, develop new ideas, and share innovative models. Educators will be able to contribute to and gain from the conversations from any location at any time. - ReFrame Design Labs—Through ReFrame, we will convene groups of educators for short-term gatherings during which they can experiment with ReFrame questions and ideas in a “design laboratory setting.” - ReFrame Action-Research Sites—Schools interested in a deeper ReFrame experience will be invited to design and pilot new models of teacher education or student learning. The educators in these schools will benefit from: - Training in the approach of experiential Jewish education and skills in assessment - The opportunity to experiment with powerful models of experiential - Jewish education that will strengthen the quality of learning for children and their families - Assessment of new models A wide range of leaders in Jewish education were asked to contribute to the ReFrame initiative by addressing a series of questions related to the integration of experiential Jewish education into complementary school settings. Leaders draw on their experiences in schools, camps, central agencies, and academia. Introduction by Zachary Lasker, Ed.D. - ReFraming Jewish Education Experiential Jewish Education: Broad Implications - Dr. Jeffrey S. Kress: What is Experiential Jewish Education? - Rabbi Mitchell Cohen: Extending the Camp Experience Beyond the Lake - Dr. Gil Graff: Navigating Through the Range of Jewish Experiences - Jeffrey Lasday: How Do You Build an Ecosystem of Jewish Education? Advancing Content Through an Experiential Approach - Dr. Barry W. Holtz: What Should Jews Know? - Lesley Litman: Experiential Education & Curriculum Design - Johanna Sohn: Giving Hebrew Language Acquisition Velocity and Attention - Rabbi Sarah Graff: How did camp help me become a praying Jew? - Cantor Marcey Wagner: What is the range of goals for t’fillah education? Preparing Experiential Educators - Gila Hadani Ward: Preparing Complementary School Teachers in the 21st Century - Dr. Sarah Tauber: 21st Century Educational Leaders in the Complementary Setting - Amy Skopp Cooper: From Counselors to Jewish Education Professionals Sustaining & Measuring Innovations in Experiential Jewish Education - Dr. Jack Wertheimer: Identifying Goals and Measuring Impact - Cyd B. Weissman: Is The ReFrame Project Successful?
Social and Humanitarian Assistance SOCIAL AND HUMANITARIAN International disaster relief, the special problems of children, refugees, the elderly, youth, the disabled, and families are all subjects for which member states have directed the UN to provide international leadership and expert guidance. The global nature of trade in illicit narcotic drugs and the internationalization of criminal activities were social ills that became so destabilizing at the end of the twentieth century that member states requested their international organization to implement innovative global programs to maintain security and social justice. INTERNATIONAL DISASTER RELIEF The international community is faced with the growing challenge of preventing, mitigating the effects of, and providing humanitarian assistance to affected populations in crises that require rapid and effective response. The 1990s saw a dramatic increase in "complex emergencies" that often involved ethnic and civil strife. In mid-1994 more than 30 million people in 29 countries were in dire need of emergency assistance. Severe drought threatening over 20 million people in sub-Saharan Africa added an additional element of suffering to that already faced by millions in Burundi, Liberia, Rwanda, Somalia, southern Sudan, and Zaire. A study released at the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, convened by the General Assembly in May 1994, showed that the previous three decades had seen a steady and rapid increase in the number of significant natural disasters—and in the numbers of people affected. As of the mid-2000s, there was an increasing human vulnerability in crisis situations-both in natural disasters (200 million affected in 2003) and in complex emergencies (45 million in need of life-saving assistance in 2003). Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO) Beginning in 1965, proposals were put forward in the General Assembly to increase the UN's ability to help people stricken by disasters, but it was the disasters of 1970 that brought international concern for emergency relief to a head. In 1971, the General Assembly established the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO), with headquarters in Geneva. UNDRO was not designed to assume all the responsibilities of meeting disasters from its own resources. Its principal function was that of catalyst and coordinator of donors of aid and services. Its data bank and independent telecommunications system, supplemented by the worldwide UN system, gave it the capacity to define the specific needs arising from a disaster and to respond rapidly by identifying potential sources of relief. It directed and mobilized aid emanating from the UN system and coordinated aid from other sources. UNDRO's mandate also included assisting governments in preventing disasters or mitigating their effects by contingency planning, in association with similarly concerned voluntary organizations. It promoted the study, prevention, control, and prediction of natural disasters and gathered and disseminated information relevant to disaster relief. Between its inception in 1972 and 1987, UNDRO helped coordinate relief and raise money for emergency aid in more than 380 major disasters. The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) In December 1991, the General Assembly, by its Resolution 46/182, recognized the need to strengthen coordination for rapid response to humanitarian emergencies. Over the years ad hoc arrangements had sprung up in many of the UN departments and specialized agencies to deal with emergency relief. Sometimes these arrangements were found to be working at cross-purposes or competing for financial support from the same potential donors. The General Assembly requested the Secretary-General to designate an emergency relief coordinator, supported by a secretariat, to ensure that the entire UN system was better prepared for, and more capable of rapid and coherent response to national disasters and other humanitarian emergencies. The resolution also stipulated guiding principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality for the provision of humanitarian assistance. It also stressed respect for the sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of states. In April 1992, the Secretary-General established the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), incorporating UNDRO, various UN units that had been dealing with specific emergency programs, and the secretariat for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The Secretary-General appointed an Emergency Relief Coordinator to head the new department. The DHA had its headquarters in New York and an office in Geneva. Resolution 46/182 gave the DHA three tools to speed up the response of the international community to emergencies: the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) to formulate and coordinate policy; the Central Emergency Revolving Fund (CERF) as a quick source of emergency funding; and the Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeals Process (CAP), which assesses the needs of a critical situations and prepares a comprehensive interagency response strategy. With UN reforms in the late 1990s, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) was established to manage complex emergencies (through the Consolidated Appeals Process), natural disasters, and other humanitarian crises. OCHA replaced the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). The core functions of OCHA are supported by 1,140 staff members in New York, Geneva and in the field. OCHA's 2006 budget was approximately us$ 128.5 million. As the successor organization to DHA, OCHA took over management and coordination of DHA's programs including IASC, CERF, and CAP. The IASC is chaired by the Emergency Relief Coordinator and is composed of the executive heads of the following UN organizations: the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF); the World Food Program (WFP); the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO). Other humanitarian organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) also take part in the IASC. Representatives of relevant nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are invited to participate. In addition to coordinating overall policy on humanitarian assistance, the IASC addresses issues such as: access to victims, security of personnel and relief supplies, ensuring humanitarian imperatives in conflict situations, examining special needs arising from application of UN sanctions, demobilization of combatants, de-mining, resource mobilization, assistance to internally displaced persons, field coordination of international humanitarian responses, and ensuring transition from relief to development. The Central Emergency Revolving Fund (CERF) of us$ 50 million was created under the terms of Resolution 46/182 as a cashflow mechanism for use by operational organizations, especially during the critical initial stages of emergencies. The CERF is financed by voluntary contributions and managed by the Department of Humanitarian Affairs. Agencies draw on the CERF and repay the advances they receive as donors respond to their own fundraising efforts. On 15 December 2005, the General Assembly adopted resolution A/RES/60/1241, upgrading the former Central Emergency Revolving Fund to the Central Emergency Response Fund. This Fund will ensure a more predictable and timely response to humanitarian crises. The revamped Fund aims to achieve an overall target of $500 million and will add to the current $50 million revolving facility, a grant facility of $450 million. The Consolidated Appeals Process (CAP), coordinated and monitored by OCHA, is an interagency exercise by which UN system organizations and other humanitarian organizations assess the full range of requirements for responding to emergencies. The CAP helps the international community to identify the most critical needs of affected people and to determine the most appropriate ways to provide assistance. This process enables donors and agencies to concentrate their efforts where they are needed most and eliminates wasteful competition among agencies for donor funds. From 1995 through 2002, appeals were launched for countries including Afghanistan, Albania, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, Colombia, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Ecuador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Georgia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Japan, Kenya, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Lebanon, Liberia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Occupied Palestinian territory, Pakistan, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tajikistan, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, and Yugoslavia. Appeals are often made by region as well—including for the Caucasus, Great Lakes Region of Africa, and Southeastern Europe (including the Kosovo province of Yugoslavia). On average, some 20 appeals are launched annually to meet the requirements of nearly 40 million people. For 2006, 18 programs required a total of $4.7 billion to ensure that 31 million people in 26 countries got the best available protection and assistance, on time. The year 2005 was marked by devastating disasters-the Indian Ocean tsunami in the final days of 2004 and the South Asia earthquake of October 2005, on top of a disastrous hurricane season-which stretched all humanitarian agencies to their maximum capacity. Funding, led by private donations for the tsunami, reached unprecedented worldwide totals-but because the majority of funds were earmarked for the tsunami, most agencies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) still lacked sufficient funding to assist millions of people struck by other crises. OCHA's work takes place where the fields of international security, political affairs, and humanitarian concerns converge. An important responsibility entrusted to OCHA involves humanitarian diplomacy in efforts to prevent emergencies and in negotiation with parties to conflicts aimed at ensuring access to those in need. OCHA's staff is involved in policy planning and early warning functions, emergency operational support and relief coordination, and disaster mitigation. The OCHA maintains close contact with the UN Departments of Political Affairs and Peacekeeping Operations in order to coordinate the security, political, and humanitarian aspects of complex emergencies. To help manage its efforts, OCHA set up Relief Web, available at http://www.reliefweb.int. The Internet site provides up-to-date information on complex emergencies and natural disasters collected from over 170 sources. Users from over 150 countries access an average of 200,000 documents each month. In addition, OCHA runs the Humanitarian Early Warning System (HEWS), which identifies crises with humanitarian implications. Through analysis of field-based information and the evaluation of trends, HEWS informs decision-makers at headquarters about the likelihood and extent of crises. An extensive database of information for more than 100 countries supports this activity. The Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN), at Nairobi, was set up in 1995 to analyze and synthesize data on developments in Africa's Great Lakes region. It issues daily reports and thematic studies for over 2,000 primary subscribers in more than 50 countries. IRIN at Abidjan was set up in 1997 and began providing similar reports covering West Africa. IRIN coverage was expected to be expanded in the late 1990s to cover southern Africa, Central Asia and the Caucasus region, as well as the Balkans. OCHA also facilitates the work of the Geographic Information Support Team (GIST), which is an inter-agency initiative that promotes the use of geographic data standards and geographic information systems in support of humanitarian relief operations. GIST members are technical experts and information specialists from the UN and donor agencies involved in disaster management and/or humanitarian assistance. Another arm of OCHA is the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG), a global network of more than 80 countries and disaster response organizations. INSARAG deals with urban search and rescue (USAR) related issues. INSARAG aims at establishing standards for international USAR teams and methodology for international coordination in earthquake response. Members of INSARAG are both earthquake-prone and responding countries and organizations. INSARAG was established in 1991, following initiatives of international search and rescue teams that responded to the 1988 Armenia earthquake. The Field Coordination Support Section (FCSS) in the Emergency Services Branch (ESB) of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) in Geneva functions as INSARAG Secretariat. International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Between 1960 and 1990 deaths from natural disasters rose by a factor of 10, with 90% of casualties occurring in developing countries ill prepared to respond to natural disasters. Although the World Meteorological Organization has shown that each dollar spent on disaster preparedness is equivalent to 100 dollars spent after a disaster, no mechanisms existed to transfer the huge body of knowledge on disaster preparedness and prevention from the industrialized countries to developing countries. For example, an earthquake of 6.6 magnitude on the Richter scale in California in January 1994 caused fewer than 100 deaths. An earthquake of 6.4 magnitude in India's Maharashtra State in September 1993 caused 10,000 deaths. Most of the deaths in the Indian tragedy were caused by the collapse of homes while people slept. By contrast, California has long been a proving ground for earthquake-resistant architectural innovations. In 1989, the General Assembly declared the 1990s the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction to reduce loss of life and property damage resulting from natural disasters. It established a high-level council of 10 internationally renowned personalities, a scientific and technical committee of 24 scientists from around the world, and approximately 120 national committees to promote the decade and the formulation of disaster preparedness programs. 13 October was declared "International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction," and observed by public gatherings and publicity to raise awareness of the need to implement disaster preparedness. In May 1994, the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction was convened in Yokohama, Japan. Representatives from 147 countries and 37 nongovernmental organizations and observers from UN specialized agencies participated in the conference, which both reviewed implementation of the General Assembly's recommendations during the first half of the decade and adopted the "Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation," also called the "Yokohama Strategy." It noted that the first half of the decade had seen some improvement in the field of disaster response, but that the goals for disaster prevention and preparedness had not received wide publicity. The conference document stated that, while natural phenomena that cause disasters are outside human control, vulnerability of populations was a result of human activity (or nonactivity). In its "Strategy for the Year 2000 and Beyond," the conference called for a global culture of prevention and a policy of self-reliance in each vulnerable country and community. Other elements of the strategy included education and training in disaster prevention, strengthening research and development for disaster reduction and mitigation, and improving awareness in vulnerable communities through more active use of media. Finally the conference called on all countries to express the political commitment to reduce their vulnerability by means of legislation and policy decisions at the highest levels to mobilize domestic resources, develop risk assessment programs, and emergency plans and to design projects for subregional, regional, and international cooperation. It also recommended an improvement in communications capabilities on natural disasters among countries for preparedness and early warning systems. Through its resolution A/RES/58/214, the General Assembly convened a second World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, from 18-22 January 2005, to coincide with the commemoration of the 10th anniversary of the Great Hanshin-Awaiji earthquake that occurred on 17 January 1995, killing more than 6,400 people and injuring more than 40,000. The WCDR was to take stock of progress in disaster risk reduction accomplished since the Yokohama Conference of 1994 and to make plans for the next ten years. The WCDR aimed to increase the international profile of disaster risk reduction, promote its integration into development planning and practice, and strengthen local and national capacities to address the causes of disasters that hamper development in many countries. Discussions at the WCDR resulted in two negotiated documents: a program outcome document entitled "Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters: Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015," and the Hyogo Declaration. Delegates also took note of the "Review of the 1994 Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World and its Plan of Action" and adopted a "Common statement on the Special Session on the Indian Ocean Disaster: Risk Reduction for a Safer Future." Man-made Humanitarian Disasters Perhaps the thorniest problem for OCHA (then the DHA) was the increase in and complexity of humanitarian disasters caused by internal civil strife in places like Angola, the former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda. In the largest exodus ever known, 2 million people in Rwanda abandoned their homes in one week during the resumption of a civil war and the organized slaughter of hundreds of thousands of civilians in that country in the summer of 1994. The exodus overwhelmed the capacity of international aid organizations to deal with the crisis, and thousands of people died of cholera, dysentery, and other diseases in makeshift camps hurriedly set up along Rwanda's border with other countries. In August 1994, the UN agencies appealed to member states for us$470 million to respond to the disaster. The initial response to the appeal yielded us$137 million. In his report to the 49th General Assembly on "Strengthening of the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance" (A/49/177), the Secretary-General stated: Complex emergencies are presenting serious new challenges to humanitarian organizations and others involved in providing relief assistance. Disregard for fundamental humanitarian principles, serious violations of humanitarian law and threats to the safety and protection of relief personnel have underscored the need for enhancing awareness of all involved in complex emergencies—including the Security Council—of humanitarian concerns and objectives and for appropriate measures to protect humanitarian mandates in conflict situations. While the new generation of multifaceted United Nations operations require close interaction between the political, military and humanitarian dimensions, it is important, at the same time, to ensure that the humanitarian component can preserve its unique identity by maintaining neutrality and impartiality. (emphasis added). In this connection, the IASC established a set of guidelines for humanitarian missions in conflict situations: - The need for humanitarian relief assistance to be undertaken in accordance with the principles of impartiality, neutrality, and humanity; - Reaffirmation of free, safe, and unimpeded access for humanitarian assistance and the role of humanitarian diplomacy in that regard; - The need for greater collaboration with nongovernmental organizations engaged in humanitarian relief; - The need to ensure security and protection of all relief personnel; - The need to apprise the Security Council fully on relevant humanitarian issues that should be appropriately reflected in its decisions on complex emergencies; - The importance of shielding humanitarian assistance against the effects of sanctions, particularly in relation to vulnerable groups. United Nations Drylands Development Center Another UN undertaking in disaster relief developed in response to the desiccation of the Sudano-Sahelian zone of West Africa. Many years of drought in Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal had, by 1973, resulted in a crisis and the threat of mass starvation in the region. In May, the Secretary-General, acting under resolutions of the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council, designated FAO as the "focal point" of an emergency operation of the UN system to provide and transport rations, seeds for sowing, animal feed, and vaccines to victims in the six countries. The following month, the UN Sahelian Office (UNSO) was created to promote medium- and long-term recovery in cooperation with the Permanent Interstate Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel, known by its French acronym CILSS and composed of nine affected states—Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal. In 1977, UNSO's mandate was expanded to assist the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in implementing the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification in the Sudano-Sahelian Region. From 1995 to 2002, UNSO managed us $18 million to support 29 countries in Africa, 22 in Asia and 19 in Latin America and the Caribbean to develop national action plans to combat desertification and drought. UNSO mobilized general and earmarked contributions to promote sustainable management of the natural resources in arid and semi-arid lands. It helped governments plan and coordinate natural resource management and implement field projects on soil and water conservation and integrated land management. The UNSO was later renamed the UN Drylands Development Center. UN CHILDREN'S FUND (UNICEF) The UN International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) was established by the General Assembly on 11 December 1946 to provide emergency relief assistance in the form of food, medicine, and clothing to the children of postwar Europe and China. In December 1950, the General Assembly extended the life of the fund for three years, changing its mandate to emphasize health and nutrition programs of long-range benefit to children of developing countries. In October 1953, the General Assembly decided that UNICEF should continue its work as a permanent arm of the UN system, and charged the organization to emphasize programs giving long-term benefit to children everywhere, particularly those in developing countries who are in the greatest need. The organization's name was changed to the UN Children's Fund, but the acronym "UNICEF" was retained. The UNICEF Executive Board reaffirmed its mandate in January 1996, when it adopted a statement on the mission of UNICEF saying that UNICEF "is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and strives to establish children's rights as enduring ethical principles and international standards of behavior towards children." In 1959 the General Assembly unanimously adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, affirming the right of children to special protection and opportunities and facilities for healthy, normal development. Following a global study of the needs of children in 1961, UNICEF increased the scope and flexibility of its approach to children to include projects that promote the role of children as an invaluable "human resource" in national development, thus making it possible to provide aid for education. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. In November 1989, the General Assembly voted to transform the rights and obligations under the 1959 Declaration into the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the most comprehensive treaty ever to address the individual rights of children and set universally accepted standards for their children. The convention entered into force as international law in September 1990. In 2002, UNICEF reported that the convention had been ratified by every country in the world except two (the United States and Somalia), and "therefore uniquely places children center-stage in the quest for the universal application of human rights." As of May 2006, the United States and Somalia were still the only two countries in the world that had not ratified the CRC. As the only United Nations agency devoted exclusively to the needs of children, UNICEF promoted the full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child by 1995. UNICEF also participated in the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in June 1993, speaking out forcefully on behalf of children and against violation of their rights. UNICEF also participated in the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt, in September 1994; the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen, Denmark, in March 1995; the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, in September 1995; the Habitat II World Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities in Istanbul, Turkey, in June 1996; and the World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in Stockholm, Sweden, in August 1996, strongly promoting measures for child survival, protection, and development. UNICEF was one of the host organizations and core participants of Beijing+5, the first follow-up meeting to the watershed Fourth World Conference on Women (1995). Convened in June 2000 in New York City, Beijing+5 (also called Women 2000) was set up to review progress and establish action plans for the next five years. More than 150 countries and thousands of non-governmental organizations participated in programs at UN headquarters. UNICEF focused on four key themes at the event: gender equality starts early; women's rights and girls' rights are independent (laws and structures that protect women also need to be made to protect girls); children's rights cannot be achieved without girls' rights; and community partnerships are needed to end violence and prevent HIV/AIDS. In support of women's issues, UNICEF funded a news web site, http://www.womenswire.org, to publicize areas of concern and advance public understanding of the issues. Purposes and Scope of Work Combining humanitarian and development objectives, UNICEF's primary goal is to help children of the poorest and least developed countries. It helps them directly, by supporting government programs to improve child health, nutrition, education, and social services, and indirectly, by serving as child advocate, appealing to governments and to the consciences of individuals worldwide to find and commit the resources required to protect and prepare children adequately. UNICEF's mandate from the General Assembly's 1946 resolution for "strengthening … the permanent child health and welfare programs of the countries receiving assistance" has been developed and continuously adapted to current conditions. It places strong emphasis on community participation in the development and operation of services for children and has increasingly focused on community-based action. As a funding agency—as distinct from a specialized agency—UNICEF is able to work with various ministries and nongovernmental organizations, maintaining an intersectoral approach to community action in meeting the needs of children. In 1976, UNICEF adopted an approach to the provision of basic health and welfare services, the key element of which was community participation. This new approach resulted from experiences in economically and politically diverse developing countries showing that services are likely to be not only cheaper but also more effective when community members are involved, because they mobilize hitherto unused abilities within the community and the services can be run at recurrent costs that the country and community can afford. Integration of women into the establishment of community-based services is especially important, since their participation can have a significant impact on the quality of life for their children. UNICEF gives priority to the establishment of long-term programs and places special emphasis on the use of national expertise wherever feasible. UNICEF cooperates with developing countries in several ways: it assists in the planning and extension of services benefiting children and in the exchange of experience between countries; it provides funds to strengthen the training and orientation of national personnel, complementing, wherever possible, the work of specialized agencies; and it delivers technical supplies, equipment, and other aid for extending services. In September 1990, the Convention on the Rights of the Child entered into force, less than one year after its adoption by the General Assembly. That month, UNICEF organized the World Summit for Children, attended by representatives from more than 159 countries, including 71 heads of state or government. It produced a Declaration and a Plan of Action, which recognized the rights of the young to "first call" on nations' resources and set goals for the year 2000, including: - A reduction of the 1990 infant and under-five child mortality rates by one third or to 50 to 70 per 1,000 live births respectively, whichever is lower; - A reduction by half of the 1990 maternal mortality rate; - A reduction by half of the 1990 rate for severe malnutrition among children under the age of five; - Universal access to safe drinking water and to sanitary means of excreta disposal, and - Universal access to basic education and completion of primary education by at least 80% of school-age children. In September 1996, the Secretary-General of the UN reported to the General Assembly that significant progress was made toward the World Summit goals in some 90 countries in the previous 6 years. Over 150 countries had drawn up National Programs of Action (NPAs) to implement the goals. Recognizing that survival and development of children is intricately linked to the status of women in developing countries, the Executive Board, at its annual meeting in May 1994, requested the executive director to give high priority to UNICEF efforts to develop gender-sensitive indicators in each sectoral area of development and to set gender-specific goals in national programs of action. UNICEF supports gender equality, organized participation of women at all levels, and capacity-building and mobilization of youth for a more gender-equitable society. At the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, in September 1995, UNICEF advocated more attention and resources to girls' education and the linkage between goals for girls and women. It drew attention to the complementary objectives of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. As a result of the Beijing conference, UNICEF identified the following areas of concern or emphasis: women and poverty; education and training of women; women's health, including safe motherhood and reproductive health (including HIV/AIDS); violence against women, including family violence and harmful traditional practices (such as female genital mutilation), sexual abuse, and exploitation and trafficking in women and girls; women and armed conflict; women in power and decision-making; institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women; human rights of women; women and the media; and women and the environment. In May 2002, the UN General Assembly Special Session on Children was held, the first global gathering of world leaders and children's advocates since the 1990 World Summit. UNICEF was instrumental in furthering children's participation in the event, and throughout the year hosted or supported regional consultations and other events related to the special session. In April 2001, UNICEF had launched the "Say Yes for Children" pledge campaign for voluntary contributions. By May 2002, when the organizers presented their achievements to the special session, nearly 100 million people in 194 countries had joined the grass-roots campaign. Education was a top priority of the campaign. UNICEF is an integral part of the UN, with semiautonomous status. The Executive Board, which is the governing body of UNICEF, meets once a year to establish policy, review programs, and approve expenditures. It also holds regular sessions between the annual formal meetings. The Executive Board has 36 members, elected for a three-year term with the following regional allocation of seats: eight African states, seven Asian states, four Central and Eastern European states, five Latin American and Caribbean states, and 12 Western European and other states (including Japan). The board year runs from 1 January to 31 December. In 2006, the board members included: from Africa-Algeria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Djibouti, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal; from Asia-Bangladesh, China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Lebanon, Myanmar, Pakistan, Republic of Korea; from Central and Eastern Europe-Belarus, Russian Federation, Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine; from Latin America and the Caribbean-Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala; and from Western Europe and other states-Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, United States. The executive director of UNICEF is appointed by the UN Secretary-General in consultation with the Executive Board. The administration of UNICEF and the appointment and direction of staff are the responsibility of the executive director, under policy directives laid down by the Executive Board, and under a broad authority delegated to the executive director by the Secretary-General. The executive director as of 2006 was Ann M. Veneman of the United States. UNICEF has a network of country and regional offices serving 155 countries and territories. UNICEF maintains headquarters offices in New York, Geneva, Brussels, Tokyo, Florence (site of the Innocenti Research Centre, available at http://www.uniceficdc.org), Copenhagen, and Huningue (France). Eight regional offices serve Latin America and the Caribbean, Central and Eastern Europe (including Commonwealth of Independent States and Baltic States), East Asia and the Pacific, Eastern and Southern Africa, Middle East and North Africa, South Asia, and West and Central Africa. In 2006, UNICEF employed a total staff of approximately 10,000 people, 85% of which were in the field. In 1985, only 27% of international professional posts were filled by women. By 1996, that figure had been raised to 40%. In 2000, UNICEF reported that it endorsed its own policy of gender equality and empowerment of women and girls by mobilizing and organizing women for participation in its programs. The organization paid particular attention to ensuring that women, both in its offices and in the field, were in decision-making roles that would help guide UNICEF's work. UNICEF is supported by 37 National Committees, mostly in the industrialized countries, whose more than 100,000 volunteer members raise money through various activities, including the sale of greeting cards. The committees also undertake advocacy, education for development, and information activities. About 30% of the organization's budget is contributed through the National Committees. In 2006 the National Committees maintained offices in Andorra, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States. Cooperation with Other Agencies UNICEF collaborates closely with the specialized agencies, including the International Labour Organization (ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and World Health Organization (WHO), as well as with the units of the UN Secretariat concerned with services benefiting children. It also works with the funding agencies and programs of the UN system—such as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), World Food Programme (WFP), the World Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)—to exchange information, discuss policies of cooperation affecting the situation of children, and explore potential program collaboration. Close working relations are maintained with the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in emergency relief and aid to refugees, respectively. UNICEF also works with regional development banks and the regional economic and social commissions and with bilateral aid agencies. Of particular importance is UNICEF's cooperation and collaboration in programs with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), both national and international. The NGO Committee on UNICEF comprises over 100 international professional and voluntary groups involved with children and either directly or indirectly, through concern with aspects of social development. A roster of international and national correspondent organizations is continuing to grow, particularly from developing countries. Some 400 organizations participate in activities and share information through UNICEF/NGO liaison offices in New York and Geneva. Many of these organizations have become important supporters of UNICEF by providing a channel for advocacy on behalf of children and by participating in fund-raising and in UNICEF programs. UNICEF's work is accomplished with voluntary contributions from both governments and nongovernmental sources. Total contributions for 2004 amounted to us$1,978 million. Contributions from governments and intergovernmental organizations accounted for 68% of this income; 29% was from nongovernmental and private sources; and 3% was derived from a variety of other sources. The United States remained the largest donor to UNICEF, providing a total of us$263 million. The United Kingdom was the second largest government donor in total funds, with $188 million, followed by Japan at $156 million and Norway at $135 million. The Netherlands, Sweden, Canada, Denmark, Australia, and Italy were the next largest donors of total funds. Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands were the top contributors in total funds per capita. (For a list of the top 20 donor nations and their contributions to regular resources, see the following table.) Additionally, the United Nations Foundation, Inc., established in 1997 by American businessman Ted Turner with a us$1 billion grant, approved more than us$18 million in funds for UNICEF in 1998. In 2001, UNICEF was the recipient of more than $60 million from \|Republic of Korea\|\|3,100\| the sale of a collection of modern art at the bequest of Mme. René Gaffé, the collection's owner. UNICEF's total expenditure in 2004 amounted to us$1,606 million, of which $1,508 went directly to programs and $92 million was spent on administration and other charges. Expenditure by program sector was as follows: early childhood development (34%); immunization plus (22%); girls' education (21%); child protection (10%); HIV/AIDS (9%); and other (4%). Through its extensive field network in developing countries UNICEF undertakes, in coordination with governments, local communities, and other partners, programs in health, nutrition, education, water and sanitation, the environment, women in development, and other activities that improve the well-being of children. Emphasis is placed on community-based programs in which people participate actively and are trained in such skills as health care, midwifery, and teaching. UNICEF facilitates the exchange of programming experience among developing countries, and encourages governments to undertake a regular review of the situation of their children and to incorporate a national policy for children in their comprehensive development plans. It also places emphasis on national capacity building and the use of national expertise wherever possible. UNICEF provides assistance on the basis of mutually agreed priorities for children in collaboration with the governments concerned. Priority is given to the world's most vulnerable—almost all its resources are therefore invested in the poorest developing countries, with the greatest share going to children under five years old. As of 2004, UNICEF maintained programs in 157 countries. In cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF supports the expanded Program on Immunization that each year prevents an estimated 2.5 million child deaths from six diseases—diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis, tetanus, tuberculosis, and whooping cough. However, in 2001 more than 30 million children remain unprotected against common vaccine-preventable diseases. In October 1991, UNICEF and the WHO announced that their goal of protecting 80% of the world's children before their first birthday had been achieved (compared to less than 5% in 1975, when the program was launched). UNICEF and WHO made an effort to raise immunization coverage for the six diseases to this level in all countries, eliminate neonatal tetanus, poliomyelitis and substantially reduce measles deaths and cases by the end of 1995. As a result, a large majority of countries have reached the immunization coverage goal of 80% for all antigens except tetanus toxoid; polio has been eradicated in many countries; major progress has been made towards elimination of neonatal tetanus; and measles mortality and morbidity have been reduced in some regions. UNICEF procures 40% of the world's doses of vaccines for children and is the main supplier to developing countries. The global procurement of 2.8 billion doses of vaccines amounted to $374 million in 2004. Also in 2004, UNICEF procured 2.1 billion doses of polio vaccine, valued at $203 million, due to the fact that in 2003 and 2004, wild poliovirus spread rapidly from Nigeria across West and Central Africa and into Sudan, paralyzing children in 12 previously polio-free countries. Oral rehydration therapy UNICEF works closely with WHO to control diarrheal dehydration, which is the single largest cause of death among children under five years of age in the developing world. UNICEF-assisted programs for the control of diarrheal diseases promote the manufacture and distribution of prepackaged salts—oral rehydration salt (ORS)—or homemade solutions. The use of oral rehydration therapy (ORT) has significantly increased from 17% in 1985 to 85% at present, and is believed to prevent more than 1.5 million deaths each year. Acute respiratory infections (ARI) ARI, in particular pneumonia, are the single biggest cause of child mortality in the world and account for over 2 million deaths among children under five years of age in developing countries. UNICEF has adopted a comprehensive approach to control ARI, including helping countries to develop national plans and infrastructures; decentralizing activities to substantial level; training health workers; supporting access to essential drugs and appropriate technological devices; and helping with monitoring and communication. In the 1990s it was estimated that more than a half million women die every year from causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. In cooperation with WHO, UNICEF worked to reduce maternal mortality by 50% by the year 2000, to improve prenatal care, and to ensure safe delivery for all pregnant women and access by all couples to family planning services. It also focuses on information, education, and communication on birth-spacing, responsible parenthood, and discouraging early marriage and early pregnancy. By December 2002, 3.2 million children (800,000 in new infections in 2002) had been infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the vast majority of whom lived in sub-Saharan Africa. A report by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) indicated that the majority of the 5 million newly infected adults in 2002 were under 25 years old, nearly half of them women. It was estimated that in 2002, 42 million people were HIV-infected worldwide. There were 3.1 million AIDS deaths in 2002, of which 610,000 were children. By the end of 2005, there were approximately 15 million children who had been orphaned by HIV and AIDS. UNICEF works closely with governments and supports prevention programs such as youth health and development promotion; school-based interventions; sexual and reproductive health promotion; family and community care; and mass communication and mobilization. It also helps AIDS-infected families and AIDS orphans. UNICEF supported HIV/AIDS prevention for adolescents in 71 countries in 2001. That year, more than 720,000 children contracted HIV from their mothers. UNICEF thus supports "prevention of mother-to-child transmission" (PMTCT) of HIV/AIDS in 47 countries. UNICEF contributed research and logistical support to the UN General Assembly Special Session on HIV/AIDS held in June 2001. In 2004, UNICEF procured $18.4 million of antiretroviral medicine, and supplied HIV and AIDS-related test kits and diagnostic equipment worth $2.9 million. UNICEF participates in UNAIDS, cosponsored by the UN Development Fund (UNDF), UN Population Fund (UNFPA), UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Bank. In 1996, 174 million children were malnourished as a result of frequent bouts of diarrhea and other illnesses, bottle-feeding of infants and poor weaning practices, low birth-weight, infrequent feeding and micronutrient deficiencies. On average, over 50% of young child deaths in developing countries are associated with malnutrition. In 2000, UNICEF's statistics showed that 30% of the world's children were moderately to severely underweight and 11% were wasting. UNICEF fights malnutrition by empowering communities; protecting and promoting breastfeeding and appropriate child feeding practices; controlling the three main forms of micronutrient deficiencies—iron, iodine, and vitamin A; improving nutrition information system; and helping countries to reach consensus as to the causes of malnutrition. It aims to achieve universal salt iodization to prevent iodine deficiency disorders, and to eliminate vitamin A deficiency. UNICEF participated in the International Conference on Nutrition held in Rome in December 1992 and contributed to the formulation of the World Declaration on Nutrition and the Plan of Action for Nutrition adopted by the conference. The declaration identified children under five years of age as the group most affected by malnutrition. In coordination with WHO, UNICEF launched in June 1991, a "baby-friendly hospital initiative" to promote breastfeeding. The initiative aims at empowering women to breastfeed by ending the distribution of free and low-cost supplies of infant formula in hospitals and maternity facilities. As of 1996, 8,120 hospitals and maternity facilities had become "baby-friendly" by implementing the "Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding" recommended by UNICEF and WHO. Baby-friendly hospitals encourage mothers to initiate breastfeeding immediately after birth and to continue exclusive breastfeeding, and they do not accept free and low-cost formula from companies. Water supply and sanitation Polluted water is estimated to affect the health of more than 1.2 billion people, and to contribute to the death of an average 15 million children every year. In 1994, WHO estimated the number of people without access to clean drinking water at 1.3 billion. By 2000, nearly 1.2 billion people lacked access to clean water, while 2.4 billion lacked access to adequate sanitation services. Two of every five Africans lack access to an improved water supply. Throughout Africa, rural water services lag far behind urban services. At the beginning of 2000, two-fifths of the world's population (2.4 billion people) lacked access to improved sanitation facilities. The majority of those people lived in Asia and Africa, where fewer than half of all Asians have access to improved sanitation. To meet the goals of universal access to safe drinking water and to sanitary means of excreta disposal, and elimination of guinea worm disease by the end of the decade, UNICEF allocates a large portion of its income to this sector (for the amount see section on expenditure). In addition to provision of effective low-cost water supply and sanitary services, UNICEF promotes hygiene education and environmental protection. UNICEF is working to eliminate the water-borne guinea worm disease (dracunculiasis). In its 1999 Annual Report, UNICEF stated that nearly a billion people would enter the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names and that two-thirds of them were women. The total included more than 130 million school-age children, 73 million of them girls, who were growing up in the developing world without access to basic education. UNICEF works to improve access to primary education and to reduce drop-out rates. It gives priority to the education of girls, with the aim of reducing gender disparities. At the Habitat II in Istanbul, Turkey in June 1996, UNICEF advocated for the inclusion of children's concerns in the Global Action Plan adopted by the assembly. At the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, UNICEF made a successful effort to include girls' education in the Platform for Action adopted by the conference. Also at the conference, UNICEF promised to more than double its resources to basic education during the 1990s, with special attention to girls' education. The organization reported on its progress at the Beijing+5 conference, in New York in June 2000. In 2002, UNICEF was helping 74 countries break down barriers that exclude girls from education. In 2001, 21 countries reported improvements in school enrollment and retention for girls. UNICEF supports the UN Millennium Development Goals for education: by 2015, all girls and boys were to be able to complete a quality primary and secondary education; by 2005, girls and boys were to be equally represented in the classroom. Urban basic services Almost half of the developing world's urban dwellers are children whose vulnerability has increased with the rapid growth of towns and cities amid economic and environmental crisis and recurring conflict. UNICEF revised its policy in 1993 by focusing on poverty reduction, primary environmental care, rehabilitation, and preventive approaches for urban children in especially difficult circumstances. It also provides advocacy and technical support and emphasizes the need for concerted effort at all levels—national, subnational, and community. Children in especially difficult circumstances Around the world, millions of children are at special risk because of acute poverty, wars, natural calamities, disabilities, and other circumstances. Children in such situations often become separated from their relatives, left without the protection and security families provide and vulnerable to terrible forms of exploitation and abuse. Over 250 million children in the world work, many of them are at risk from hazardous exploitative labor, in factories, in domestic services, on the streets, or in degrading conditions of sexual exploitation. An estimated one million children are believed to work as prostitutes. UNICEF supports special projects for children affected in these ways, by helping provide education, reuniting families, and counseling to help heal trauma. It vigorously advocates against the exploitation of children by working with governments international organizations, and non-governmental organizations to protect child rights as set forth in the Convention on the Rights of the child. At the World Conference against Commercial Exploitation of Children that convened in Stockholm in August 1996, UNICEF strongly called for the immediate end to commercial exploitation of children everywhere in the world. Emergency relief and rehabilitation Although most UNICEF activities focus on the "silent" emergencies that claim 12 million children's lives every year, natural disasters and armed conflicts constitute the main "loud" emergencies that challenge the organization's resources. In any emergency situation, UNICEF works closely with other UN agencies and many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Removal of Land Mines The scale of the land mine problem almost defies imagination. Due to the persistence of armed conflicts throughout the world, it is estimated that there are more than 110 million land mines in 68 countries around the world, or one mine for every 20 children in the world today. An estimated 25,000 people are killed or maimed every year by land mines—90% of these victims are civilians and 5,000–6,000 are children. The countries most devastated by land-mines are Afghanistan, Angola and Cambodia. Afghanistan has an estimated 10–15 million mines in place. In Africa, countries with high numbers of lands mines are Mozambique and Somalia, but land mines are also destroying the lives of children in Asia, Central America, the Middle East, and Central and Eastern Europe. The UN has established a voluntary trust fund through which countries can share the burden of mine clearance. As of 2006, UNICEF was undertaking mine action in 30 mine-affected countries worldwide, coordinating a variety of programs focused on mine risk education, advocacy, and survivor assistance. UNICEF strongly advocates for a total ban of the production, marketing, and use of land mines and supports land mine awareness programs. In November 1995, UNICEF executive board director Carol Bellamy announced UNICEF's commitment to not deal with companies manufacturing or selling land mines. Since 1989, UNICEF has assisted in the conversion of foreign debt in developing countries to funds that supplement UNICEF's ongoing contributions to child survival and development in basic education, primary health care, and water and sanitation. The essential feature of the program is that the government concerned agrees to spend local currency on programs for children rather than using its scarce foreign exchange to service the debt. Major UNICEF Publications The State of the World's Children (annual). The Progress of Nations (annual, first appeared 1993). Ranks the nations of the world according to their achievements for children in health, nutrition, and education, as well as progress in the field of family planning and in women's development. UNICEF Annual Report. OFFICE OF UN HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES (UNHCR) The UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was established on 9 November 1943, to bring material aid to war-stricken areas of the world. Through its services, some 6 million displaced persons were repatriated. The constitution of a successor agency, broader in scope, the International Refugee Organization (IRO), was approved by the General Assembly on 15 December 1946. In addition to the relief and repatriation assistance provided by UNRRA, the IRO was charged with the protection of refugees and displaced persons and with resettlement responsibilities. The IRO Preparatory Commission became operative on 30 June 1947; by 31 December 1951, when IRO's operational activities ceased, more than 1 million persons had been resettled. As part of a series of initiatives designed to address refugee problems following the dissolution of the IRO, the General Assembly, in December 1949, agreed on the necessity of setting up a body primarily responsible for the international protection of refugees and the search for durable solutions to their plight. As a consequence, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was established as of 1 January 1951 for a limited period of three years. It was soon evident, however, that international assistance was needed, and as new situations that created refugees have continued to arise, UNHCR's mandate has been renewed by the General Assembly for successive periods of five years. UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1954 and again in 1981. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees is elected by the General Assembly on the nomination of the Secretary-General and follows policy directives given by the General Assembly. The Executive Committee of UNHCR meets annually to review activities in the fields of protection and material assistance, approve assistance projects to be included in the next year's annual program, and provide overall guidance. The high commissioner reports to the committee on the implementation of special tasks that he or she may have been called upon to carry out—often at the request of the Secretary-General—and on the administration of special trust funds. In July 1994, ECOSOC recommended that the General Assembly increase the membership of the Executive Committee to 50 states. In 2006, the Executive Committee had been extended to 66 member countries. UNHCR headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. As of May 2006, the organization had offices in 116 countries and a worldwide staff of 6,540 of whom about 85% were at work in the field. By the end of 2004, 19.2 million people fell under the concern of the UNHCR. They included 9.2 million refugees, 676,000 asylum seekers, and 7.6 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), returned IDPs, stateless persons, and others of concern. The financial arrangements made at the creation of UNHCR reflected the fundamental difference between it and the IRO. The IRO's budget was separate from that of the UN, while a very limited amount of the basic administrative costs of UNHCR is covered by the regular UN budget, since UNHCR is an integral part of the Secretariat, rather than a specialized agency. Its substantive activities in the field of protection and material assistance, however, depend entirely on voluntary contributions. At the outset, UNHCR was not allowed to appeal to governments for funds without the express authorization of the General Assembly. The first funds of any magnitude put at the high commissioner's disposal came from the Ford Foundation in 1952 in the form of a grant of us$ 2.9 million (later increased to us$ 3.1 million) for a pilot program of projects intended to promote the local settlement of some 100,000 refugees in Europe through such measures as low-rent housing, small loans, vocational training, and rehabilitation of the handicapped. Subsequently, in 1954, the General Assembly authorized the high commissioner to appeal to governments for a four-year us$ 16 million program oriented toward permanent solutions and modeled on the Ford experimental undertaking. The target was eventually reached through us$ 14.5 million in contributions by governments and over us$ 2 million by private organizations. Clearing refugee camps in Europe was the main objective of UNHCR at this time, and the funds needed to finish this task were raised to a large extent through World Refugee Year (1959/60), a campaign that extended to 100 countries and areas. In 1957, UNHCR's capacity to react effectively to unexpected situations was enhanced when the General Assembly authorized the high commissioner to establish an emergency fund not to exceed us$ 500,000. This innovation grew out of the experience of 1956, when some 200,000 refugees from Hungary crossed into Austria and Yugoslavia within a matter of weeks, prompting the high commissioner to appeal for funds for the emergency. By 1993, the emergency fund's ceiling was raised to us$ 25 million, with up to us$ 8 million available for a single emergency in a given year. With the exception of a very limited subsidy from the United Nations regular budget (which is used exclusively for administrative costs), UNHCR's assistance programs are funded by voluntary contributions from governments, intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations, and individuals. These so-called "voluntary funds" finance all UNHCR assistance programs worldwide. UNHCR's annual voluntary funds expenditure rose rapidly during the last decades of the 1900s, surpassing an annual budget of more than us$ 1 billion for a fifth consecutive year in 1998. The 1999 budget also surpassed the billion-dollar mark; the us$ 1.17 billion budget was revised to cover the Kosovo emergency. In 2004, the budget was approximately $928.9 million. The High Commissioner's Responsibilities The high commissioner's primary responsibility is international protection. In addition, he or she promotes durable solutions to the problems of refugees through voluntary repatriation, local integration, or resettlement in another country. Whatever the field of activity, he or she and his or her staff are always guided by humanitarian and strictly nonpolitical considerations. UNHCR's ability to adhere to this policy over the years since its inception in 1951 has led the General Assembly to extend the scope of its material assistance activities, in many cases to persons who do not necessarily meet the definition of refugees contained in the high commissioner's statute. This definition describes refugees as persons who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, are outside their country of nationality and are unable or unwilling, because of such fear, to avail themselves of the protection of that country. In recent years, UNHCR has increasingly been called on to help not only refugees but also persons uprooted by man-made disasters and displaced either outside or within their country of origin. However, UNHCR's competence does not extend to refugees already receiving help from another UN organization, notably the Arab refugees from Palestine who are cared for by UNRWA (see separate section). From its outset, UNHCR's work was intended to be undertaken jointly with other members of the international community. UNHCR draws on the expertise of other United Nations organizations in matters such as food production (FAO), health measures (WHO), education (UNESCO), child welfare (UNICEF), and vocational training (ILO). It also cooperates closely with the World Food Programme in providing basic food supplies to refugees, and with the World Bank and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) in implementing projects that aim to promote self-reliance. Over the decades, the most sustained and devoted service to the cause of refugees has been provided by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Over 200 NGOs cooperate in UNHCR's relief and legal assistance programs. In 1993, the Nansen Medal, awarded for outstanding service to the cause of refugees, recognized the valuable collaboration of one such NGO, Médecins sans Frontières (Doctors without Borders). Since refugees no longer enjoy the protection of the countries they have fled, they must rely on the international community to provide it. The main vehicle for international protection is the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, which lays down minimum standards for the treatment of refugees by countries that have acceded to it. By 1 July 2004, 145 states were party to either the convention or its protocol. One of the most important provisions of the 1951 convention is that refugees must not be sent back to a country where they may face persecution on grounds of race, political opinion, religion, nationality, or membership in a particular social group (the principle of non-refoulement ). The convention also defines the rights of refugees in the country of asylum with respect to such matters as the right to work, education, access to courts, and social security. Moreover, it provides for the issuance of travel documents by the country of residence to compensate for the fact that refugees are not in a position to use their national passports. By its statute and under the 1951 convention, UNHCR is given specific responsibility for supervising the application of the provisions of the convention. It is also available to supply technical advice to governments on appropriate legal and administrative measures to give effect to the stipulations of the convention. Another important legal instrument concerning refugees is the Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, adopted by the Organization of African Unity in 1969. This convention, which came into force on 20 June 1974, emphasizes that the granting of asylum is a peaceful and humanitarian act that should not be regarded as unfriendly by any member state. A similar provision can be found in the Declaration on Territorial Asylum adopted by the General Assembly in December 1967 (see the section on Other Declarations in the chapter on Human Rights). Asylum is the key aspect of the protection work of the high commissioner's office. A conference of plenipotentiaries convened by the General Assembly in 1977 "to consider and adopt a convention on territorial asylum" failed to achieve its objectives, and the absence of such a convention remains a gap in the legal basis for the protection of asylum-seekers. In 1975, UNHCR undertook new duties in the field of protection on a provisional basis, following the entry into force on 13 December of the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness. Under the terms of the convention, stateless persons may apply to national authorities to have nationality accorded to themselves or to their children or may ask UNHCR's assistance in presenting a claim. Material Assistance Activities UNHCR's material assistance activities include emergency relief, assistance in voluntary repatriation or local integration, and resettlement through migration to other countries, as well as social services. UNHCR's involvement in Africa dates from 1957, when thousands of people fled from the fighting in Algeria to Morocco and Tunisia. Working in conjunction with the League of Red Cross Societies, UNHCR provided both immediate and long-term assistance and helped to organize the repatriation of some 200,000 refugees in 1962, after the cessation of hostilities. By 1967 there were an estimated 750,000 refugees in Africa, many of them victims of the struggles for independence in Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique. In 1974–75, UNHCR assisted in repatriating many of these refugees to their newly independent countries. A large-scale repatriation and rehabilitation program involving some 200,000 refugees and displaced persons in Zimbabwe was coordinated by UNHCR in 1980, and a major repatriation to Chad was completed in 1982. By the early 1990s, Africa harbored over 6 million refugees, or around one-third of the global refugee population. During the previous decade, refugee situations persisted or erupted in the Horn of Africa, West Africa, and southern Africa. In some cases, such as for Mozambican refugees in Malawi and in the Horn, these situations were exacerbated by drought. A number of refugees were able to return home, notably Namibians, Ethiopians, and Ugandans in the Sudan, and Somalis in Ethiopia. The repatriation of some 1.7 million Mozambicans got under way in mid-1993. In the Horn, a cross-border approach was put into action aimed at creating conditions conducive to the voluntary repatriation of refugees and safe return of internally displaced persons. This approach has been characterized by the use of "quick impact projects" (QIPs). QIPs entail the execution of small-scale projects, such as the repair and reconstruction of essential facilities; the provision of livestock, seed, and processing machinery; and the establishment of small-scale businesses. The projects are designed to bridge the gap between relief and development by helping returnees and their communities regain self-sufficiency. In certain areas such as North-West Somalia and Mozambique, however, repatriation has been bedeviled by the presence of landmines in the areas of return. In 1993, violent upheavals in the central African state of Burundi drove some 580,000 persons to seek refuge in neighboring countries. The following year, bloodshed engulfed neighboring Rwanda, creating, by May 1994, over 800,000 refugees. UNHCR launched emergency assistance programs to cope with refugees from both situations. In 2003, fighting erupted in Sudan's western region of Darfur. Hundreds of thousands of people were uprooted by the conflict. By late 2004, some 200,000 Sudanese had fled across the border to neighboring Chad and an estimated 1.6 million were displaced within Darfur, where militias reportedly killed, raped and forced hundreds of thousands from their homes. UNHCR estimated the cost of the annual program budget for Africa in 2006 at us$ 449.4 million. Central and Southwest Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East In August 1974, following events in Cyprus, the high commissioner was designated to coordinate humanitarian relief for 241,300 people who had been uprooted and displaced. In the absence of a political settlement, aid is still being channeled to the island. Events in Afghanistan in the late 1970s and the 1980s provoked a tremendous exodus from the country. Despite the unprecedented repatriation of 1.5 million Afghans in 1992, at the beginning of 1995 over 2.7 million Afghans remained in exile (1.6 million in Iran and 1.5 million in Pakistan). Hopes for their continued repatriation were stymied by a resurgence of fighting in Afghanistan in April 1992. In that year, Afghanistan itself became a country of asylum when some 60,000 Tajiks escaping from their country's civil war found sanctuary in northern Afghanistan. By 1995, there were still some 18,800 Tajik refugees in Afghanistan. Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, the US-led campaign (Operation Enduring Freedom) against the Taliban and Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda organization in Afghanistan began on 7 October 2001. At the beginning of 2002, nearly 200,000 Afghans joined 3.5 million countrymen already living abroad as refugees, and an additional 511,000 civilians became 'internally displaced persons' (IDPs) within Afghanistan. During the first quarter of 2002, however, the number of Afghan asylum-seekers dropped by 33% across Europe, due most likely to the changes in Afghanistan following 11 September. During the previous decade, the average monthly applications of Afghan asylum-seekers submitted in Europe increased five-fold. In 1991, the Gulf War led to a situation of mass displacement, creating, by May 1991, some 1.4 million refugees in Iran and 400,000 on the border with Turkey. UNHCR mounted a massive emergency assistance program for these groups, as well as for internally displaced Kurds in northern Iraq. By the end of 1991, most of the Iraqis in Iran and on the Turkish border had returned home. However, due to a decade of repression under Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, 530,100 Iraqis were refugees in Iran as of 2001. As of 2002, Iraqi asylum-seekers replaced Afghans as the top nationality seeking asylum in Europe. Following the US-led attack on Iraq and the fall of the Hussein government in March 2003, UNHCR returned to Iraq to assist the estimated 500,000 refugees and 800,000 internally displaced persons. UNHCR established support for organized voluntary repatriation, since the majority of Iraqi refugees desired to return to their homes. On 8 October 2005, a massive Himalayan earthquake struck Pakistan. The damage was huge with thousands killed, many more injured, and several million homeless. The estimated death toll from the earthquake—which measured around 7.6 on the Richter scale—climbed from 10-15,000 during the first day, to more than 50,000 after the first two weeks. Although India was also badly affected, the vast majority of casualties occurred in Pakistan-administered Kashmir-where the epicenter was located-and parts of neighboring North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). UNHCR estimated the cost of the annual program budget for Central and South West Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East in 2006 at us$ 137.1 million. Asia and the Pacific In May 1971, the high commissioner was appointed "focal point" for UN assistance to millions of Bengali refugees from East Pakistan (later Bangladesh) in India. More than us$180 million in cash, goods, or services was channeled through this focal point, mainly for emergency relief in India but also for the repatriation operation that began early in 1972, following the creation of Bangladesh. The operation involved the transfer of non-Bengalis from Bangladesh to Pakistan and of Bengalis from Pakistan to Bangladesh. By the time it was concluded in July 1974, 241,300 people had been moved, nearly all by air, across the subcontinent in either direction. Another major crisis erupted in mid-1978, when nearly 200,000 refugees from the Arakan state of Burma flooded into Bangladesh. UNHCR was again designated as coordinator of UN assistance. Following an agreement concluded with the Burmese government in July 1978, repatriation began in November of that year. The UNHCR program included assistance to the returnees once they were back in their country of origin. Early in 1975, the conflict that for almost three decades had involved Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos came to an end with changes of regime in the three countries of Indochina. Since that time, over 2.8 million Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Lao have left their homes and sought asylum in neighboring countries. These mass movements reached their peak in 1979, when some 393,560 people arrived by boat or overland in various asylum countries throughout the region, and in early 1980, when additional large numbers of Kampucheans moved into the border area with Thailand to escape hostilities in their own country. UNHCR has undertaken to provide temporary assistance for Indochinese in various countries of Southeast Asia, to ask governments to extend permanent resettlement opportunities, and to facilitate voluntary repatriation where feasible. In addition, large numbers of displaced persons in the Thai-Kampuchean border area have been assisted by other UN agencies and the ICRC. By the beginning of 1994, some 2.7 million Indo-Chinese Refugees and displaced persons had been resettled, repatriated, or integrated locally, while around 88,000 remained in camps throughout the region. Under the terms of a memorandum of understanding concluded with the Vietnamese government in May 1979, UNHCR has been coordinating a program of orderly departure from Vietnam. A further coordinating role has been played by UNHCR in the funding of a major program to combat piracy against refugee boats and other vessels in the South China Sea. In 1995, there were an estimated 341,600 Vietnamese refugees, mostly seeking asylum in China or Hong Kong. The Comprehensive Plan of Action for Indo-Chinese Refugees (CPA) was adopted in June 1989 with the objective of discouraging clandestine departures; assuring access to status determination procedures for all asylum-seekers; providing resettlement opportunities for bona fide refugees; and ensuring a safe and dignified repatriation for those not determined to be refugees. The CPA had the effect of dramatically reducing the numbers of Lao and Vietnamese asylum-seekers; the number of Vietnamese asylum-seekers, for example, dropped from 71,364 in 1989 to a mere 55 in 1992. The repatriation of Cambodians from Thailand, which began in March 1992, resulted in the return home of some 387,000 refugees, or nearly the whole caseload in Thailand. Returnees and the communities receiving them were assisted, in some cases, by means of QIPs (see the section on Africa, above), to consolidate their reintegration. In 1991–92, around 250,000 mainly Muslim refugees fled Myanmar to Bangladesh. At the request of the government of Bangladesh, UNHCR began assisting this group in February 1992. At the beginning of 1995, there were some 203,900 refugees from Myanmar seeking asylum, mostly in Thailand and Bangladesh. Some 140,000 Sri Lankan Tamils sought safety from their country's communal violence in the Indian State of Tamil Nadu. In Sri Lanka, UNHCR assists both the returnees and internally displaced persons. In 2002, UNHCR was assisting 66,000 refugees in the government-run refugee camps in south India for repatriation. Over 70,000 internally displaced people had also returned to their homes in the northeast of Sri Lanka since the beginning of 2002, and the trend had increased after a ceasefire accord was signed early that year. On 26 December 2004, an undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean set off a series of tsunamis that affected Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, and other countries. As of May 2006, casualties included approximately 187,000 dead and 43,000 missing, for a total of 230,000 affected. Although UNHCR is not normally involved in natural disasters, the sheer magnitude of the destruction, the fact that UNHCR had on-the-ground presence and emergency capacities to respond quickly, and the fact that many of the affected populations were of concern to the Office, prompted the organization to take action. In January 2005, a flash appeal went out for an initial $977 million to aid 5 million affected people in a six-month period. UNHCR's requirements were $75.8 million for its activities in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Somalia. UNHCR estimated the cost of the annual program budget for Asia and the Pacific for 2006 at us$ 53.8 million. Latin America and the Caribbean Originally, Latin America was a primary resettlement area for European refugees. However, the events in Chile in September 1973 involved UNHCR in major assistance measures for Latin American refugees. UNHCR had to contend first with the problem of several thousand refugees of various nationalities in Chile, providing relief, care, and maintenance and helping establish "safe havens" where they could live until their resettlement could be arranged. In addition to ongoing assistance to Chilean refugees, UNHCR was called on to assist an increasing number of Nicaraguans in Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama in late 1978. By 1979, the number of Nicaraguan refugees receiving such assistance had risen to 100,000. However, following the change of government in Nicaragua in July 1979, voluntary repatriation began, and UNHCR launched a special program to facilitate both the return itself and the rehabilitation of returnees through assistance in areas such as agriculture, health, and housing. In the early 1980s, Central America became an area of increasingly grave concern to UNHCR. By the end of 1980, 80,000 refugees from El Salvador had sought refuge in neighboring countries. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREFCA), which was convened in May 1989, proved to be of considerable help in facilitating a convergence towards durable solutions for uprooted populations. The move towards democratization in the region, the success of regional peace initiatives, and the CIREFCA process resulted in a reduction in refugee numbers as a result of attainment of durable solutions. In Haiti, however, the overthrow of the country's democratically elected president in September 1991 led to an exodus of Haitians seeking asylum in the region. Despite UNHCR's plea to governments in the region to uphold the principle of non-refoulement, Haitian asylum-seekers continued to be interdicted on the high seas. Beginning in 1992, political violence prompted many Guatemalans to go into exile. At the start of 1995, UNHCR was assisting over 42,000 Guatemalan refugees who had gone to neighboring Mexico. About 10,000 Guatemalans per year have returned as the situation became conducive to repatriation. Due to civil war in Colombia during the late 1990s and into the new millennium, UNHCR was working to address the worsening humanitarian situation of internally displaced people (IDPs) in Colombia. Thousands of Colombians, the majority of whom are women and children, have been displaced in a country where the total number of displaced people since 1995 has been estimated at over two million UNHCR estimated the cost of the annual program budget for the Americas and the Caribbean for 2006 at us$ 33.3 million. When UNHCR came into existence in 1951, it inherited responsibility for some 120,000 persons still living in refugee and displaced persons' camps, mainly in the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, Italy, and Greece. The great majority of these persons had been uprooted during World War II, primarily through the Nazi policies of removing people from occupied territories for forced labor and forcibly shifting populations for racial reasons. Particularly deplorable was the situation of the children born in the camps. Clearance of those camps was long delayed, mainly for lack of funds. Eventually, some 100,000 people, refugees since World War II, were settled as a result of UNHCR's programs. New movements of refugees have, however, continued to occur. One of the largest of these was the result of the Hungarian crisis in 1956. The high commissioner was called on, in October 1956, to coordinate the activities of governments and voluntary organizations on behalf of the 200,000 Hungarians who sought refuge in Austria and Yugoslavia. From October 1956 until the end of 1959, about 180,000 Hungarian refugees arrived in Austria, and 19,000 in Yugoslavia. The total movement involved 203,100 persons. Of these, 18,000 eventually chose to return to Hungary, 9,600 elected to remain in Austria, 65,400 went to other European countries, and 107,400 emigrated overseas; the whereabouts of 2,700 are unknown. In November 1991, UNHCR received a mandate from the United Nations Secretary-General to act as the lead United Nations agency to provide protection and assistance to those affected by conflict in the former Yugoslavia, then estimated at half a million people. By the beginning of 1995, there were 843,000 refugees from the former Yugoslavia seeking asylum, mostly in Croatia, Serbia, and Germany. There also were 1,282,000 internally displaced persons in Bosnia-Herzegovina and 307,000 in Croatia. The war between Armenia and Azerbaijan in the early 1990s created some 663,100 displaced Azeris and some 299,000 refugees from Azerbaijan seeking asylum in Armenia at that time, and 201,500 refugees from Armenia seeking asylum in Azerbaijan. The military conflict in Georgia created around 280,000 refugees and displaced persons. UNHCR, in coordination with the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs and other UN agencies, operated emergency response programs in all three countries. In May 1996, UNHCR convened a regional conference to address the problems of refugees, displaced persons, and returnees in the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). UNHCR estimated at that time there were 2.4 million refugees and internally displaced persons in the CIS countries. As of May 2002, around 900,000 refugees had returned to Kosovo since June 1999, when UN peacekeeping troops entered the province. But the vast majority of these were from the Kosovo Albanian majority in the province. Around 231,000 people from Kosovo, mostly Serbs, were in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and there were around 22,000 people from minorities still displaced inside Kosovo itself. Fighting in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) took place in early 2001, when an ethnic Albanian guerrilla group emerged in Macedonia and began clashing with government security forces. By June 2001, some 48,000 people had fled Macedonia for Kosovo. By mid-2002, more than 150,000 of the 170,000 persons displaced during the spring and summer of 2001 had returned home. UNHCR estimated the cost of the annual program budget for Europe in 2006 at us$ 110.2 million. UN RELIEF AND WORKS AGENCY FOR PALESTINE REFUGEES IN THE NEAR EAST (UNRWA) The plight of Palestine refugees has been a serious concern of the UN ever since the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. When a cease-fire came into effect early in 1949, hundreds of thousands of Arabs who lived in the territory that is now Israel were stranded on the other side of the armistice line from their homes. The Arab states claim that the refugees were driven out by the Israelis or fled in fear of reprisals. Israel, on the other hand, asserts that the Arab states told the Arab population to evacuate the area temporarily so that their armies could more easily drive the Israelis into the sea. (For the political background, see the section on the Middle East in the chapter on International Peace and Security.) The refugees were given emergency relief at first by the ICRC, the League of Red Cross Societies, and the American Friends Service Committee, using money and supplies provided by the temporary UN Relief for Palestine Refugees, established in December 1948. In December 1949, the General Assembly created a special agency, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), to provide relief and works projects in collaboration with the local governments. In the following year, the General Assembly extended UNRWA's mandate to June 1952 and instructed it to carry out development projects that would enable the refugees to be absorbed into the economy of the region. As originally conceived, UNRWA was a large-scale but definitely temporary operation, to be terminated by the end of 1952. The General Assembly accordingly asked Israel and its neighbors to secure "the permanent reestablishment of the refugees and their removal from relief." In carrying out programs of resettlement, however, all parties concerned, including UNRWA, were to act without prejudice to the rights of those refugees who "wished to return to their homes and live in peace with their neighbors." These were to "be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date"; those who chose not to do so were to be compensated for their losses. These goals were not achieved by 1952 and have not been met since then. Large-scale development projects to induce the refugees to leave the camps and enable them to become self-supporting in their host countries were approved by the General Assembly but never realized. Since 1952, UNRWA's mandate has been repeatedly extended. For more information on UNRWA, see the chapter on International Peace and Security. Concern for youth has been expressed within the UN system ever since its inception and particularly since the adoption by the General Assembly in 1965 of the Declaration on the Promotion Among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding Between Peoples. In that declaration, the General Assembly stressed the importance of the role of youth in today's world, especially its potential contribution to development, and proposed that governments give youth an opportunity to take part in preparing and carrying out national development plans and international cooperation programs. Other recommendations made to member states by the General Assembly relate to the preparation of youth, through education, for full participation in all aspects of life and development; health policies and programs to ensure that young people are able to take advantage of opportunities open to them; the adoption of all possible means to increase employment for youth; the opening up of channels of communication between the UN and youth organizations; and measures aimed at promoting human rights and their enjoyment by youth. The World Youth Assembly, held at UN headquarters in July 1970, was the first international youth convocation organized by the UN. It brought together some 650 young people to express their views on issues relating to world peace, development, education, and the environment and to discuss ways in which they could support the UN. In 1979, the General Assembly decided to designate 1985—the twentieth anniversary of the 1965 Declaration—as International Youth Year, with the three themes of participation, development, and peace. The objectives of the year were to bring about widespread awareness of the situation of young people and of their problems and aspirations, and to engage them in the development process. International Youth Year resulted in the endorsement by the General Assembly of guidelines for strategies and activities in favor of youth at the national, regional, and international levels in coming years. In observance of the tenth anniversary of International Youth Year, in 1995, the General Assembly devoted a plenary meeting to the subject of youth to set forth goals for a world youth program of actions towards the year 2000 and beyond. Its principal objective was to provide a global framework for national and regional action. The plan of action was draft ed by the UN secretariat following the submission of proposals by member states, organizations of the UN system, and nongovernmental organizations. A trust fund established for International Youth Year and renamed the UN Youth Fund is used to support projects involving young people in the development of their countries. AGING AND THE ELDERLY In the 75 years between 1950 and the year 2025, the world elderly population is projected to increase from 8% to 14% of the total global population, or 1.2 billion persons. While the total world population will have grown by a factor of a little more than three, the elderly will have grown by a factor of six and the very old by a factor of 10. The developing countries are projected to age more quickly in the coming decades, and are concerned by two factors: a weak institutional infrastructure for accommodating the elderly, and the uncertainty that families will be able to continue providing traditional care for the elderly. In 1948, Argentina first presented a draft declaration on old age rights to the General Assembly, which referred it to ECOSOC. ECOSOC requested the Secretary-General to draft a report on the matter, and in 1950 he submitted a report entitled "Welfare of the Aged: Old Age Rights." However, the rapid change in the world's population structure was not evident in 1950, and an interval of 20 years elapsed before Malta tabled another initiative on the agenda of the General Assembly in 1969. This initiative was followed throughout the 1970s and led to the convening of the World Assembly on Aging in 1982. In 1973, the General Assembly considered a comprehensive report that noted the demographic increase in the absolute and relative size of the older populations of the world (a trend that was expected to continue because of medical advances and decreases in birth and death rates) and estimated that the number of persons 60 years of age or over throughout the world would double between 1970 and the year 2000. The General Assembly recommended guidelines to governments in formulating policies for the elderly, including development of programs for the welfare, health, and protection of older people and for their retraining in accordance with their needs, in order to maximize their economic independence and their social integration with other segments of the population. In 1978, the General Assembly decided to convene a world assembly for the purpose of launching "an international action program aimed at guaranteeing economic and social security to older persons," as well as opportunities for them to contribute to national development. The General Assembly later decided that the conference should also consider the interrelated issue of the aging of whole populations. The World Assembly on Aging, held in Vienna in July–August 1982, was attended by representatives of more than 120 countries. It adopted an international plan of action, both to help the aging as individuals and to deal with the long-term social and economic effects of aging populations. Recommendations contained in the plan of action covered (1) the need to help the elderly lead independent lives in their own family and community for as long as possible, instead of being excluded and cut off from all activities of society; (2) the importance of giving the elderly a choice in regard to the kind of health care they receive and the importance of preventive care, including nutrition and exercise;(3) the need to provide support services to assist families, particularly low-income families, to continue to care for elderly relatives; and (4) the need to provide social-security schemes, to assist the elderly in finding (or returning to) employment, and to provide appropriate housing. The plan of action also included recommendations for meeting the needs of particularly vulnerable persons, such as elderly refugees and migrant workers. The Commission for Social Development, which is entrusted with reviewing implementation of the plan of action every four years, noted in 1985 that by the year 2025, more than 70% of persons over 60 years of age would live in developing countries. In 2025, experts estimate that the elderly population of the world will number 1.2 billion, six times more than the 200 million elderly worldwide in 1950. The commission listed priorities for action, including the creation of national committees on aging, coordinated planning, strengthening of information exchange, training, research, and education programs. In 1988, the UN established the International Institute on Aging in Valetta, Malta, to conduct training, research, collection and publication of data, and technical cooperation in the field of aging. In 1990, the General Assembly designated 1 October as the International Day for the Elderly. In 1991, the General Assembly adopted a set of 18 United Nations "Principles for Older Persons" clustered under five themes: independence, participation, care, self-fulfillment, and dignity. The principles mandate that older persons should have the opportunity to work and to determine when to leave the work force; remain integrated in society and participate actively in the formation of policies that affect them; have access to health care to help them maintain the optimum level of physical, mental, and emotional well-being; be able to pursue opportunities for their full development; and be able to live in dignity and security. In 1992, the General Assembly gave its patronage to the privately-created Banyan Fund Association's World Fund for Aging, in Torcy, France, which assists developing countries, at their request, in activities aimed at formulating and implementing policies and programs on aging. Also in 1992, the General Assembly devoted four special plenary meetings in October to a conference on aging. It issued a Proclamation on Aging (resolution A/47/5), which reaffirmed its previous resolutions and established the year 1999 as the International Year of the Elderly "in recognition of humanity's demographic coming of age and the promise it holds for maturing attitudes and capabilities in social, economic, cultural and spiritual undertakings, not least for global peace and development in the next century." In its Resolution 47/86, the General Assembly adopted a set of global targets on aging for the year 2001 as a practical strategy for countries to provide for the needs of the elderly. On 5 October 2000, the UN held a 10th Annual Celebration of the International Day of Older Persons, sponsored by the UN/NGO Committee on Aging in collaboration with the UN Department of Public Information and the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The conference raised the issue of interdependence between generations. Under the charter principles of the dignity and worth of the human being and the promotion of social justice, the General Assembly has acted to protect the rights of disabled persons. In 1971, it adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons, and in 1975, the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (see the section on Other Declarations in the chapter on Human Rights). In 1976, the General Assembly decided to proclaim 1981 as International Year of Disabled Persons, and it called for a plan of action for the year at the national, regional, and international levels. The year's purpose, and its theme, was the promotion of "full participation and equality," defined as the right of disabled persons to take part fully in the life and development of their societies, to enjoy living conditions equal to those of other citizens, and to have an equal share in improved conditions resulting from socioeconomic development. Other objectives of the year included increasing public understanding of disability and encouraging disabled persons to organize themselves to express their views effectively. During the year, national committees were set up in more than 140 countries to map out plans of action to implement the objectives of the year. Regional seminars—for Asia and the Pacific, Africa, Latin America, Western Asia, and Europe—held during the year discussed regional cooperation on behalf of disabled persons. At the international level, organizations of the UN system and other intergovernmental organizations, as well as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), discussed ways in which the world community could aid the disabled through technical cooperation and other means. The year's activities were followed by the General Assembly's adoption, in 1982, of a World Program of Action Concerning Disabled Persons, aimed at continuing long-term programs at the national, regional, and international levels. To provide the necessary time frame for implementation of the program, the General Assembly proclaimed the period 1983–92 as the UN Decade of Disabled Persons. The World Program of Action has proved to be a valuable guide for improving the social, economic, and physical conditions of disabled persons by defining disability issues in the context of human rights and recommending measures aimed at equalizing opportunities for the full participation of disabled persons in society. The program has offered a new approach on disability, representing a step forward in social thinking on such aspects as prevention of disabilities, rehabilitation, equalization of opportunities, and participation of disabled persons in all aspects of life. During the first five years of the Decade of Disabled Persons, 1983–87, there was a significant growth in the number of organizations of disabled persons throughout the world, which were able to articulate and identify their needs. Governments, NGOs, and regional bodies reported an increased awareness by disabled persons of their rights. There was also an increase in research and exchange of information on the prevention of disabilities and the rehabilitation of the disabled, on the mobility of the disabled, and on their participation in leisure and sports activities. At the same time, obstacles impeding the implementation of the World Program of Action were identified, including the demographic increase in the number of disabled persons worldwide because of poverty, malnutrition, wars, civil unrest, and deteriorating social and economic conditions in many countries. Because of these obstacles, the General Assembly drew up a set of priority activities to ensure the effective implementation of the program of action during the remaining half of the decade. Although several specialized agencies in the UN system had prepared guidelines and manuals on key disability issues, those guidelines were not incorporated into national programs in the majority of countries. In order to make the World Program of Action more operational, the General Assembly called for a long-term strategy setting out standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for disabled persons. In 1990 ECOSOC passed Resolution 1990/26 authorizing the Commission for Social Development to establish a working group to create a set of standard rules for submission to the General Assembly in 1993. This new instrument offered governments clear policy options on how to implement measures for full equalization of opportunities for disabled persons. In 1992, the last year of the designated decade, Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali reported that the 1981 Year for Disabled Persons was so successful in getting the issue of disability and the concerns of disabled people on national agendas that it had come to be regarded as a milestone in the long struggle of disabled people for equal rights. Four plenary sessions of the General Assembly in October 1992 were devoted to a celebration and evaluation of the progress made during the decade. Prior to then, an International Conference of Ministers Responsible for Disability met in Montreal to seek consensus on a framework for action to continue the momentum generated by the decade. It was clear that the major achievement of the decade was increased public awareness of disability issues among policy-makers, planners, politicians, service providers, parents, and disabled persons themselves. For example, information on disability issues is now included in censuses and some 55 countries now maintain statistical information on disability. In 1960, such information was available in only 15 countries. Several European countries set up computerized information networks to share disability-related information. It was also observed that nongovernmental organizations dedicated to the welfare of disabled people were able to increase their influence and gain the respect of their communities. The Voluntary Fund for the United Nations Decade of Disabled Persons had supported 161 projects by the end of 1991, for a total of approximately us$ 2.9 million. By its resolution 47/88, the General Assembly decided that the fund would continue in the period beyond the Decade as the United Nations Voluntary Fund on Disability, and that its terms of reference would include support for action to achieve the target of a "society for all" by the year 2010. During the 20-month period of 1 January 1998 to 31 August 1999, the fund provided nearly us$ 1 million in grants to 35 disability-related projects. However, despite its relative success, by the end of the decade, it was estimated that 300 million people with disabilities lived in developing countries and that only 1% of these had access to basic health, education, and adequate sanitation services. THE FAMILY–SOCIETY'S BUILDING BLOCK Although many of the UN's resolutions and instruments deal tangentially with the needs of families, the General Assembly's first formal recognition of the family unit's special status as the basic building block of civilized society came in 1989 when it passed resolution A/44/82 (1989) proclaiming 1994 as the first International Year of the Family. The theme of the year was "Family: resources and responsibilities in a changing world," and its motto was "Building the smallest democracy at the heart of society." In 1993, the General Assembly declared 15 May 1994 the first International Day of Families, to be celebrated annually thereafter. The General Assembly sought to raise the awareness of governments at the national, local, and regional levels about the threat posed to families and the possible consequences to society of the fragmentation and disintegration of the family unit. The erosion of social safety nets around the world had placed tremendous burdens on families. Abject poverty, which affected 20% of the world population, contributed to the destruction of families, for example, when members left the family unit to search for employment. Studies showed that within the space of a few decades the traditional extended family had shrunk to the nuclear family and finally to the single-parent family. In the United Kingdom alone, half of all births in 1990 were to single women. UN agencies called for recognition of the family's contribution towards achieving human development, alleviating poverty, and providing health care, nutrition, education, shelter, and employment for family members. The UN called for governments to formulate "family-sensitive" national policies and to assess how decisions would affect families. Rather than try to narrowly define the family, the General Assembly took the broadest possible approach, encouraging celebration of the vast diversity observed in families throughout the world. A study showed that average family size varied from 2.2 members in Sweden to 7.1 members in Iraq. In all industrial countries except the former Soviet Union, the average household size shrank between 1970 and 1990. In the United States the average household shrank from 3.1 persons in 1970 to 2.6 persons in 1990. On the other hand, households grew in size in Africa, south Asia, and the Middle East. In Algeria, for example, average household size grew from 5.9 persons in 1966 to 7 persons in 1987. Despite the many cultural and economic differences in families around the world, according to the Secretary-General, some elements of an international consensus regarding families emerged: - The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the state; - Various concepts of the family exist in different social, cultural, and political systems, but it is recognized that families are basic to the social structure and development of all societies. It is also recognized that families around the world exhibit many common problems. - Gender equality, women's equal participation in employment, and shared parental responsibilities are essential elements of modern family policy; - Families are the fullest reflection, at the grass-roots level, of the strengths and weaknesses of the social and developmental environment; and - Families, as basic units of social life, are major agents of sustainable development at all levels of society, and their contribution is crucial for its success. Besides four regional preparatory meetings and two nongovernmental events held in 1993 to prepare for the International Year of the Family, the General Assembly held an International Conference on Families in October 1994. The secretariat for the International Year, based in Vienna, coordinated technical cooperation projects in Africa and the countries of the former Soviet Union. A world forum of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) held in Malta in late 1993 called for the UN and its member nations to enter into an ongoing process of building a family-friendly society. It also called for the elaboration of a declaration on the rights and responsibilities of families in the follow-up to the International Year of the Family. Some of the most important existing international instruments that refer to the family are: - the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights; - the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; - the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women; - the 1981 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief; and - the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child. CRIME PREVENTION AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE The work of the UN in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice has two main purposes: to lessen the human and material costs of crime and its impact on socioeconomic development and to formulate international standards and norms in crime prevention and criminal justice and promote their observance. By 1990, United Nations statistics showed that worldwide incidence of assaults had risen from around 150 per 100,000 population in 1970 to nearly 400 per 100,000 population in 1990. The incidence of theft s had more than tripled in the same period. In addition, the number of adults held in legal detention worldwide increased from around 1 million in 1975 to 1,100,000 in 1980, a 10% jump. Another UN study showed that developed countries were spending an average of 2 to 3% of their budgets on crime control, while developing countries were devoting an average of 9 to 14% of their precious national resources to crime control. Traffic in illicit drugs was estimated to total us$ 500 billion a year. The intertwined expansion of transnational organized crime and the traffic in illicit drugs, and their link to international terrorism, provided the most powerful arguments for international cooperation. Evidence of systems of criminal justice date back to the dawn of human civilization. Clay tablets from 2400 BC listing a code of conduct have been unearthed in Syria. The ancient civilization of Sumeria left an elaborate set of laws dating back to the twenty-first century BC. Standards for imposing penalties on criminals were handled more informally, rarely being codified into law before the advent of the modern era. The earliest form of international cooperation between sovereign nations may have been efforts to control piracy on the high seas. However, it was the nineteenth century that saw the development of widespread concern about the growth of urban crime, and the proliferation of reformatories and penal institutions. The First International Congress on the Prevention and Repression of Crime was held in London in 1872 to consider the proper administration of prisons, possible alternatives to imprisonment, modes of rehabilitating criminals, treatment of juvenile offenders, extradition treaties, and the "means of repressing criminal capitalists." These subjects continue to challenge the international community at the end of the twentieth century. The London congress established the International Prison Commission with a mandate to collect penitentiary statistics, encourage penal reform, and convene international conferences every five years. The IPC established an affiliation with the League of Nations and, in 1935, was renamed the International Penal and Penitentiary Commission (IPPC). For 75 years, the IPPC did invaluable work in the collection of research materials; however, at the 1935 congress, it became dominated by adherents of the Nazi government in power in Germany. During the war years a substantial part of its funding came from the Axis powers, and it became a publicist for Fascist theories on the biological roots of crime and draconian measures for its control. When the United Nations was established at the close of World War II, it declined to accept affiliation with the IPPC. The UN did, however, decide that the control and prevention of crime would be one of its areas of concern. United Nations Activities On 1 December 1950, by its resolution 415(V), the United Nations dissolved the IPPC and officially assumed its functions. These functions include the convening of international congresses every five years, the formulation of policies, and the development of international programs of action. To discharge these responsibilities, the General Assembly, in 1950, authorized the UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders to be convened every five years. In its resolution 415(V), the General Assembly also created an Ad Hoc Advisory Committee composed of seven experts to formulate programs for study and action in the field of crime prevention and treatment of offenders. This ad hoc committee eventually became the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control (CCPC), established in 1971 in response to the 1970 crime congress (held in Kyoto, Japan), which broadened considerably the scope of issues relating to criminal justice policy. The CCPC had 27 members who were nominated by their governments and elected by ECOSOC. It was charged with coordinating the efforts of UN bodies and prepared for the international crime congresses. It frequently draft ed proposed texts for international standards and guidelines concerning criminal justice policy. In November 1991, a Ministerial Summit, attended by 114 state ministers, was held in Versailles, France, and called for creation of a new UN crime prevention and criminal justice program. The General Assembly responded by transforming the CCPC into a functional commission of ECOSOC: the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice. The commission held its first session in April 1992 at Vienna. It is charged with developing, monitoring, and reviewing the UN's program on crime prevention and mobilizing support from member states. It coordinates the activities of the UN's regional and interregional institutes on crime prevention and criminal justice. It also is responsible for preparing for UN crime congresses. The Office on Drugs and Crime (ODC) This branch of the UN Secretariat, headquartered in Vienna, is the UN's central repository of technical expertise in matters of crime prevention, criminal justice, criminal law reform, and major criminological concern. It prepares studies and reports for the quinquennial congresses and for the Center for International Crime Prevention. The branch collects and analyzes statistics and provides technical assistance to member states and regional institutes. It prepares periodic country-by-country surveys of crime trends and criminal justice policies. The branch issues two regular publications: The International Review of Criminal Policy, a journal of applied criminology published annually since 1952, and the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Newsletter, which disseminates information on United Nations activities in the field. The Office on Drugs and Crime also works closely with various regional centers, a research institute and an international computer information network. The international standards proposed by the UN are meant as springboards to for appropriate national action. Differences in history, culture, economic structures, and governmental institutions dictate against a wholesale adoption of UN guidelines and standards. Regional centers can take into account the differing cultures and traditions of geographically linked countries and can better guide and harmonize national policies. The United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) is based in Rome. It was founded in 1968, in response to concerns voiced by the 1965 Stockholm crime conference, under the name United Nations Social Defence Research Institute. UNICRI is housed in the heart of the old section of Rome, in an edifice built at the order of Pope Innocent X as a model prison for the replacement of dungeons used in the Middle Ages. The Italian government modernized the building's interior and made it available to UNICRI. UNICRI carries out field research in conjunction with local institutions and experts. The institute is often charged with specific research projects in preparation for international crime congresses. It also holds international seminars and workshops. Its experts execute technical cooperation missions to assist member countries in implementing specific projects. It has a small but highly specialized library on criminology, penology, and related fields of law, sociology, and psychology. It also maintains a collection of United Nations and Council of Europe documents concerning criminal justice affairs. It publishes major research papers and an annual catalog of relevant research from around the world. UNICRI has computerized its World Directory of Criminological Resources, and it has created the soft ware and user manual for a computerized international expert roster. It has taken the lead in developing a UN global information network (see UNCJIN, below). The African Regional Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (UNAFRI) was established in January 1987, in temporary quarters at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It is now based in Kampala, Uganda. It organizes training courses and research and brings together criminal justice officials and development planners from all over Africa. It has conducted a feasibility study on the establishment of a regional, computerized information network to link up with the United Nations Criminal Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) (see below). UNAFRI operates under the auspices of the Economic Commission for Africa with financial assistance from the United Nations Development Program. The Asian and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (UNAFEI) was established in 1961 and is based in Tokyo, Japan. It provides facilities for training courses and sends its staff to countries within the region to conduct classes in cooperation with host governments. UNAFEI publishes a regular newsletter and studies such as Forms and Dimensions of Criminality in Asian Countries, Alternatives to Imprisonment in Asia, and Criminal Justice in Asia—the Quest for an Integrated Approach. Although UNAFEI was initially a joint venture between the United Nations and the government of Japan, financial assistance from the UN was discontinued in 1970. The director of UNAFEI is assigned by the government of Japan in consultation with the UN. The European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control (HEUNI) was established in 1981 in an agreement between the United Nations and the government of Finland. It is based in Helsinki. Its funds are provided by the government of Finland with assistance from other governments. HEUNI conducts training seminars and holds expert meetings to study regional issues in depth. Its expert meetings are often convened in order to offer a European perspective on draft documents of UN criminal justice policy. HEUNI has been actively involved with plans for a global UN information system on crime and criminal justice. Its publications include: Criminal Justice Systems in Europe, The Role of the Victim of Crime in European Criminal Justice Systems, and Non-Custodial Alternatives in Europe. The Latin American Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Delinquency (ILANUD) was established in 1975 and is based in San José, Costa Rica. ILANUD devises practical strategies taking into account UN recommendations in criminal justice. It organizes regular training courses, workshops, seminars, and conferences for personnel in the criminal justice systems of Latin American governments. In 1987 it established an Agrarian Justice Program that aimed at improving procedures governing agricultural production. ILANUD also implemented a computerized data base in its documentation center. ILANUD was established with financial assistance from the United Nations, but now is supported mainly by the government of Costa Rica. In 1989, the United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) began operating under the auspices of the Criminal Justice Branch. UNCJIN is a computer network accessible by modem and gopher technology on the Internet. The UNCJIN gopher was resident on the computer system of the State University of New York at Albany. UNCJIN is funded in part by the United States Bureau of Justice Statistics, the State University of New York at Albany, and the Research Foundation of the State University of New York. UNCJIN's goal is to establish a worldwide network to disseminate and exchange information concerning criminal justice and crime prevention issues. Information available through the UNCJIN is constantly evolving and expanding. UNCJIN data and documents (many in PDF, portable document format) are available on their web site at http://www.uncjin.org/. In 2000 it included: criminal justice profiles of more than 120 countries; basic constitutional documents of countries; summaries of the latest United States Supreme Court decisions; international criminal justice statistics from the UN World Crime Surveys; United States Bureau of Justice Statistics reports; the entire CIA Factbook; and an annotated list of publication outlets in criminal justice and criminology. One can also search the on-line library catalogs of major criminal justice and law libraries around the world, examine all the major United Nations rules and guidelines on criminal justice, and access to other UN online resources. UN Congresses on Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders Participants in UN crime congresses include criminologists, penologists, and senior police officers as well as experts in criminal law, human rights, and rehabilitation. Representatives of UN member states and of intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations also attend. Eight crime congresses were held between 1955 and 1990. The tenth congress was held in Vienna, Austria, in April 2000. The first congress, held in Geneva in 1955, was attended by delegates from 51 governments and representatives from the ILO, UNESCO, WHO, the Council of Europe, and the League of Arab States. The topics of the first congress reflected the pressing concerns of Europeans recovering from the turmoil of World War II. Many delegates had experienced brutality and deprivation while incarcerated in their own countries by the occupying Fascist powers. It adopted 95 standard minimum rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, which set out what is accepted to be good general principle and practice in the treatment of prisoners and are also intended to guard against mistreatment. An additional rule, adopted in 1977, provides that persons arrested or imprisoned without charge are to be accorded the same protection as persons under arrest or awaiting trial and prisoners under sentence. The success of the Standard Minimum Rules paved the way for many other international models, standards, norms, and guidelines touching on every aspect of criminal justice. The prevention of juvenile delinquency was also considered at the congress, since so many children were growing up abandoned or orphaned. The second congress, held in London in 1960, was attended by representatives of 70 governments and delegates from 60 nongovernmental organizations. In all, there were 1,131 participants. The second congress dealt with a wider range of issues than the first congress. It considered the growing problem of juvenile delinquency, as well as questions of prison labor, parole, and after-care. The addition of new member states to the United Nations required the expansion of the largely European perspective that dominated the first congress. The congress analyzed crime and criminal justice in relation to overall national development. Experts warned that economic improvement alone was not a one-way street leading away from crime. Tumultuous economic growth could lead to a greater prevalence of crime. The third congress, held in Stockholm in 1965, addressed the ambitious theme of "Prevention of Criminality." Topics on the agenda included a continuation of the discussion on social change and criminality; social forces and the prevention of crime; community-based preventive action; measures to curtail recidivism; probation policies; and special preventive and treatment programs for young adults. A total of 1,083 participants, representatives of 74 governments and 39 nongovernmental organizations, attended the third congress. The influence of the increasing numbers of developing member nations made itself felt in 1965. The congress asserted that developing nations should not restrict themselves to mechanically copying criminal justice institutions developed in Western countries. The fourth congress, held in Tokyo in 1970, was the first to take place outside of Europe. Although the number of participants declined slightly, to 1,014, the number of governments represented rose to 85. The fourth congress was convened under the slogan "Crime and Development," reflecting the dramatic increase in the number of developing countries who had become members of the UN during the 1960s. It stressed the need for crime control and prevention measures (referred to as "social defense policies") to be built into development planning. The third congress expanded the theme of community-based prevention, noting the successful utilization of civic involvement in the host nation, Japan. The congress also investigated the nation-by-nation implementation of the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, relying on results of a questionnaire submitted to member states before the opening of the congress. The fifth congress, held in Geneva in 1975, the number of nations represented increased to 101 and the participation of the specialized agencies was augmented by the presence of Interpol and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The congress's theme was "Crime Prevention and Control: the Challenge of the Last Quarter of the Century." Among the many topics considered were: - changes in the form and dimension of criminality at national and transnational levels; - crime as a business and organized crime; - the role of criminal legislation, judicial procedures, and other forms of social control in the prevention of crime; - the addition of crime-prevention activities to the traditional law enforcement roles of police; - the implementation of the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Offenders; - the economic and social consequences of crime; - alcohol and drug abuse; - victim compensation as a substitute for retributive criminal justice. The fifth congress was responsible for two documents that rank in importance with the standard minimum rules: the "Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment," which was adopted by the General Assembly by its Resolution 3452 (XXX); and the "Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials," which has been called a Hippocratic oath for police professionals. The code was adopted by the General Assembly in 1979. The declaration on torture was given binding legal form in 1984, when the General Assembly adopted a convention on the same subject (see the section on Other International Human Rights Conventions in the chapter on Human Rights). The sixth congress, held in Caracas in 1980, was the first UN crime congress to be hosted by a developing nation and the first held in the western hemisphere. Delegations from 102 nations, the ILO, WHO, the Council of Europe, Interpol, the League of Arab States, the Organization for African Unity, and the Pan-Arab Organization for Social Defence attended. The congress's theme was "Crime Prevention and the Quality of Life." It considered the following matters: - new trends in crime and appropriate prevention strategies; - the application of juvenile justice measures; - offenses by the powerful, who quite often stand beyond the effective reach of the law; - deinstitutionalization of correction measures; - the role of UN guidelines and standards in criminal justice; - capital punishment; - the importance of international cooperation. A working group of experts from Latin America and the Caribbean contributed an innovative approach on the classification of crimes. It suggested that the scope of criminal law statutes should be broadened to include willful actions harmful to the national wealth and well-being—destruction of the ecology, or participation in drug trafficking, or trafficking in persons. By way of corollary, the working group recommended a decrease in the number of statutes covering petty crimes or crimes that had little socially destructive effect. The seventh congress, held in Milan in 1985, adopted the Milan Plan of Action as a means of strengthening international cooperation in crime prevention and criminal justice. The plan was approved later the same year by the General Assembly, which also approved international instruments and principles adopted by the Milan Congress. These were the UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (the Beijing Rules), the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, and a Model Agreement on the Transfer of Foreign Prisoners. The Beijing Rules aim at promoting juvenile welfare to the greatest possible extent, thereby minimizing the necessity of intervention by the juvenile justice system. The rules set minimum standards for the handling of juvenile offenders, enumerate the rights of juveniles, and include principles for adjudication and disposition of juvenile offenses and for institutional and noninstitutional treatment of juvenile offenders. The Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power defines "victims" as persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss, or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws or constitute violations of internationally recognized norms relating to human rights. It sets forth the rights of such victims and their families to restitution, compensation, and social assistance. The Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary stipulate that the judiciary shall have jurisdiction over all issues of a judicial nature and that judges shall decide matters before them impartially, without any restrictions, improper influences, or interference. The right of everyone to be tried by ordinary courts or tribunals is reaffirmed. The Model Agreement on the Transfer of Foreign Prisoners is aimed at promoting the social resettlement of offenders by facilitating the return of persons convicted of crimes abroad to their country of nationality or residence to serve their sentence at the earliest possible stage. The Milan Congress also considered questions relating to human rights in the administration of justice and to the prevention of juvenile delinquency and domestic violence. The eighth congress was held in Havana, Cuba, from 27 August to 7 September 1990. The congress was attended by 1,400 participants from 127 countries, five intergovernmental organizations, and 40 nongovernmental organizations. Its overall theme was "International cooperation in crime prevention and criminal justice for the twenty-first century." The congress considered five topics: (1) crime prevention and criminal justice in the context of development; (2) criminal justice policies in relation to problems of imprisonment, other penal sanctions, and alternative measures; (3) effective national and international action against organized crime, terrorist criminal activities; (4) prevention of juvenile delinquency and protection of the young; and (5) United Nations norms and guidelines in crime prevention and criminal justice. The eighth congress adopted a number of new instruments and resolutions that the General Assembly promptly approved. These included model treaties on extradition, mutual assistance in criminal matters, the transfer of proceedings in criminal matters, and the supervision of offenders conditionally sentenced or conditionally released. Other instruments passed were: - A model treaty for the prevention of crimes against a peoples' cultural heritage; - Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials; - Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers; - Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors; - United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-custodial Measures (the Tokyo Rules); - Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners; - Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (the Riyadh Guidelines); and - Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of Their Liberty. The conference also adopted resolutions on computerization, prevention of urban crime, protection of the environment, corruption in government, racketeering and illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, computer-related crimes, measures against drug addiction, organized crime and terrorism, domestic violence, and the instrumental use of children in criminal activities. The congress also requested that guidelines be prepared on the management of prisoners infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The eighth congress called for the elaboration of an effective international crime and justice program to assist countries in combating problems of national and transnational crime. An important outcome was the creation of the Commission on Crime Prevention as a functional commission of ECOSOC. Substantive topics at the ninth congress (in 1995) included the fight against transnational organized crime; the elimination of violence against women; improvements in the administration of justice and the rule of law; migration and crime; technical cooperation and coordination of activities. The tenth congress (2000) took as its title "Crime and justice, meeting the challenges of the 21st century." The congress discussed the following topics: (1) how to promote the rule of law and to strengthen the criminal justice system; (2) international cooperation in combating transnational organized crime; (3) effective crime prevention—keeping pace with the new developments; and (4) offenders and victims—accountability and fairness in the justice process. In addition, four workshops were held on combating corruption, crimes related to the computer network, community involvement in crime prevention, and women in the criminal justice system. At the tenth congress, a "Vienna Declaration on Crime and Justice" was adopted, in which delegates pledged to take measures to combat terrorism, trafficking in human beings, illicit trade in firearms, smuggling of migrants and the estimated $600 billion money laundering business. Considerable attention was paid to the need to address the rising tide of computer-related crime and crime resulting from xenophobia and ethnic hatred. The eleventh congress (2005) took as its theme "Synergies and responses: strategic alliances in crime prevention and criminal justice." Major issues discussed included: effective measures to combat transnational organized crime; international cooperation against terrorism and links between terrorism and other criminal activities in the context of the work of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; corruption-threats and trends in the twenty-first century; economic and financial crimes-challenges to sustainable development; and making standards work-fifty years of standard-setting in crime prevention and criminal justice. The following workshops were held: Workshop 1: Enhancing international law enforcement cooperation, including extradition measures; Workshop 2: Enhancing criminal justice reform, including restorative justice; Workshop 3: Strategies and best practices for crime prevention, in particular in relation to urban crime and youth at risk; Workshop 4: Measures to combat terrorism, with reference to the relevant international conventions and protocols; Workshop 5: Measures to combat economic crime, including money-laundering; and Workshop 6: Measures to combat computer-related crime. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION FOR NARCOTIC DRUGS CONTROL "…Let us resolve that at this special session of the General Assembly, words lead to action and that this action leads to success. Drug abuse is a time bomb ticking away in the heart of our civilization. We must now find measures to deal with it before it explodes and destroys us." —Secretary-General Javier Pérez De Cuéllar (From remarks to the 17th Special Session of the General Assembly, 20 February 1990) Until the end of the 19th century, trade in narcotics was considered a legitimate business. Misuse of addiction-producing substances—opium, coca leaf, and Indian hemp—was thought to be the result of ingrained habits in particular areas of the world. The problem was considered a domestic one. However, modern technology and the expansion of transport and world trade introduced a new dimension. An increasing number of alkaloids and derivatives were being produced from opium and coca leaves and easily distributed. In addition, a large number of psychotropic substances (depressors of the central nervous system such as barbiturates, stimulants of the central nervous system such as amphetamines, and hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide, or LSD) were developed and their consumption increased enormously; hence, problems once considered local became global. The UN exercises functions and powers relating to the worldwide control of narcotic drugs in accordance with a number of international treaties concluded since 1912, when the first International Opium Convention was signed at The Hague. By 1994, the majority of countries were parties to one or more of the treaties. The international control system is based on the cooperation of the states that are bound by these treaties in controlling the manufacture and sale of drugs within their jurisdiction. The treaties stipulate that these states are bound to adopt appropriate legislation, introduce necessary administrative and enforcement measures, and cooperate with international control organs as well as with each other. Narcotics Control Under the League of Nations The League of Nations Covenant provided that League members should "entrust the League with the general supervision over agreements with regard … to the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs." The first League Assembly created an Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs to assist and advise the League's Council in its supervisory tasks in the field. The League established a Permanent Central Board, later renamed the Permanent Central Narcotics Board, to supervise the control system introduced by the second International Opium Convention, which came into force in 1928. The board was composed of independent experts, to whom League members were required to submit annual statistics on the production of opium and coca leaves and on the manufacture, consumption, and stocks of narcotic drugs and quarterly reports on the import and export of narcotic drugs. Specific governmental authorizations were required for every import and export of narcotic drugs. The Convention for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs, signed at Geneva in 1931, created a new technical organ, also composed of independent experts, the Drug Supervisory Body. The aim of the 1931 convention was to limit world manufacture of drugs to the amount actually needed for medical and scientific purposes. The Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs, signed at Geneva in 1936, called for severe punishment of illicit traffickers in narcotics and extradition for drug offenses. A protocol signed on 11 December 1946 (and which entered into force on 10 October 1947) transferred to the United Nations the functions previously exercised by the League of Nations under the pre-World War II narcotics treaties. The United Nations and International Drug Control The functions of the League's Advisory Committee were transferred to the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND), established in 1946 as a functional commission of the Economic and Social Council. Over the years a number of bodies were created to carry out the work of the United Nations in the field of narcotics control, including the International Narcotics Board (INCB), the Division of Narcotic Drugs (part of the United Nations Secretariat), and the United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control (UNFDAC). In addition, several specialized agencies, notably the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), also were called on to contribute to the war on illegal drugs. By the mid-1980s the General Assembly recognized that, while several important treaties had been elaborated (see under The Treaty System below), the system had not produced the desired result. Illicit traffic in drugs had achieved crisis proportions all over the world, threatening the stability of governments and regional peace and security in Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. In 1984, the General Assembly requested the CND to elaborate a new treaty to explicitly treat the problem of illegal drug trafficking. In 1985 the General Assembly decided to convene an International conference on Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Vienna in June 1987. That Conference adopted a Declaration and a Comprehensive Multidisciplinary Outline of Future Activities in Drug Abuse Control. However, the 1987 annual report of INCB revealed that drug-trafficking syndicates now held enough financial power to challenge the elected authorities of some South American countries. In addition, the spread of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and the HIV virus had assumed pandemic proportions, due in large part to the sharing of infected needles by drug abusers. The INCB noted that international drug traffic was financed and organized by criminal organizations with international links and with accomplices in financial circles who helped "launder" money obtained through the drug trade. Member states proclaimed 26 June 1988 as the first International Day Against Drug Abuse, to begin to focus public attention on the worldwide scope of the problem. In February 1988, a plenipotentiary conference of the United Nations member states was convened in Vienna. It adopted the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (see under The Treaty System below), which was immediately ratified by 43 nations. However, for lack of sufficient ratifications and accessions, the convention did not come into effect until December 1990. The Global Programme of Action Against Drug Abuse In November 1989, the General Assembly expressed its alarm at the slow pace of accessions holding up the entry into force of the 1988 convention. To consolidate international efforts, the General Assembly held a four-day special session (its seventeenth special session) in February 1990 to adopt a Political Declaration (A/RES/S-17/2) affirming the determination of the international community to band together to fight drug trafficking. In its declaration the General Assembly recognized the links between drug trafficking and the economic and social conditions of the countries producing drugs. It also voiced its concern about the link between drug trafficking and international terrorism, and the threat posed by transnational crime organizations that corrupted elected governments. The member states resolved to "protect mankind from the scourge of drug abuse and illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances…." They reaffirmed their commitment to support the international effort to eradicate drug trafficking both financially and by bringing national laws into line with the various United Nations treaties on narcotics control. The document also noted that international cooperation in restraining drug trafficking should be conducted in accordance with the principles of national sovereignty embodied in the United Nations charter. The General Assembly concluded the document by adopting a Global Programme of Action and declaring the period 1991–2000 the United Nations Decade Against Drug Abuse. The 100-paragraph Global Programme of Action contained proposals for worldwide cooperation to stem the rising tide of drug abuse. Some of its provisions were based on the Multidisciplinary Outline mentioned above, and included: - Raising national priorities for drug abuse prevention and reduction programs; - Commissioning an analysis of the social causes generating drug demand; - Providing UN financial support to prevent drug abuse by children, and the use of children in the drug trade in developing countries; - Having the UN act as a global information clearinghouse on treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts; - Using high resolution satellite imagery and aerial photography (with the agreement of producing countries) to identify illegal narcotic cultivation; - Convening an international conference to elaborate ways to prevent the diversion of the chemicals and substances used to process the raw materials of illicit drugs; - Developing international mechanisms should be developed to prevent drug money laundering and to confiscate funds and property acquired with drug money; - Promoting through the UN the exchange of information among states on the flows of drug money; coordinating antidrug operation training. On 15 February 1990, just before the General Assembly's special session, the United States, Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru met in Cartagena, Colombia, and signed the Cartagena Declaration, agreeing to cooperate to stem the flow of drugs to the United States. The four countries, representing the world's largest consumer (the United States) and the largest suppliers of illicit cocaine, agreed to wage a war on drugs on three fronts: demand reduction, consumption reduction, and supply reduction. The United States agreed to financially support alternative development to replace the coca-growing economy in Peru and Bolivia and to fund emergency social programs. The multilateral cooperation begun at the Cartagena summit was extended in 1992 at a summit held in San Antonio, Texas, to include Mexico in the international struggle against drug trafficking organizations. 1990 World Ministerial Summit The government of the United Kingdom, in association with the United Nations, organized a three-day World Ministerial Summit to Reduce the Demand for Drugs and to Combat the Cocaine Threat. The summit was held in London from 9–11 April 1990, and was attended by 650 delegates, most at the ministerial level, from 124 countries. The summit adopted the London Declaration committing the nations to giving higher priority to prevention and reduction of illicit drug demand at national and international levels. The London summit produced a consensus that, whereas producing countries had previously felt that drug abuse did not threaten their own populations, developing countries now realized that drug abuse had become a worldwide phenomenon cutting across national boundaries, class, race and income levels. Some of the London Declaration's provisions include: - Drug abuse prevention and treatment should be part of national health, social, education, legal and criminal justice strategies; - Drug education should be developed at all school stages; - Prevention programs in the workplace should be developed and implemented; - Mass media campaigns against drugs should be used; - The United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control (later the United Nations International Drug Control Program, see below) should be provided the funds to devise a strategy for the Andean sub-region, where most of the world's coca is grown and illicitly processed into cocaine. - Nations that had not yet done so should ratify or accede to the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, and, in the meanwhile, they should try to apply its terms provisionally. In October 1993, China, Laos, and Myanmar (referred to as the "Golden Triangle") signed a Memorandum of Understanding, expanding existing cooperation on drug control, in cooperation with the UNDCP. The countries aimed to eliminate opium poppy cultivation through economic and social development programs; curb traffic in narcotic drugs and essential chemicals used in manufacturing drugs; and implement programs to reduce the demand for illicit drugs. Despite the growing alarm of nations, the phenomenon of illicit drug trafficking and drug abuse continued to rise. The 1994 report of the INCB stated that the worldwide drug menace had broken past geographic limits and outgrown its traditional classification as a criminal or social issue and penetrated the spheres of international politics and world economics. Drug organizations had become illegal transnational corporations. In 1994 the CND concluded that UNDCP should, once again, review existing international drug control instruments and activities in order to identify ways to strengthen the system and make appropriate changes. In June 1994, the International Conference on Preventing and Controlling Money Laundering and the Use of the Proceeds of Crime was held in Italy (see Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, above). UN Bodies Concerned With Narcotics Control The United Nations International Drug Control Programme In December 1990, the General Assembly requested that the Secretary-General merge the various units of the organization that were concerned with drug control into a single, integrated program. In 1991, the United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) integrated the functions of the Division of Narcotic Drugs, UNFDAC, and the secretariat for the INCB. Headquartered in Vienna, UNDCP is charged with the responsibility of coordinating and leading United Nations drug control activities. UNDCP is headed by an executive director. The program publishes a quarterly Bulletin on Narcotics as well as information letters, scientific notes, and publications on drug abuse control activities. UNDCP's budget comes from both the UN regular budget and from the voluntary Fund of UNDCP. UNDCP's Global Programme Against Money Laundering assists governments to confront criminals who launder dirty drug money through the international financial system. The program provides training in financial investigation to business, law enforcement and judicial professionals. UNDCP's Global Assessment Programme (GAP) supplies current statistics on illicit drug consumption worldwide. And UNDCP's Legal Assistance Programme works with states to implement drug control treaties by helping to draft legislation and train judicial officials. More than 1,400 key personnel have received legal training and over 130 countries worldwide have received legal assistance. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) The Commission on Narcotic Drugs is the main policy-making body within the United Nations system for all issues pertaining to international drug abuse control. It analyzes the world drug abuse situation and develops proposals to strengthen international efforts. It is one of the functional commissions of the Economic and Social Council. In addition, it prepares such draft international conventions as may be necessary; assists the council in exercising such powers of supervision over the application of international conventions and agreements dealing with narcotic drugs as may be assumed by or conferred on the council; and considers what changes may be required in the existing machinery for the international control of narcotic drugs and submits proposals thereon to the council. In addition, the commission has special functions under the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (see under The Treaty System, below), such as placing drugs under international control and making recommendations for the implementation of the aims and provisions of the convention, including programs of scientific research and the exchange of scientific or technical information. The commission also reviews implementation of the Global Programme of Action, provides policy guidance to UNDCP, and monitors its activities. The commission meets annually in regular or in special sessions. The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) The International Narcotics Control Board is responsible for promoting compliance with the provisions of drug control treaties. It was created by the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs as a successor to the Permanent Central Board and the Drug Supervisory Body. The members of the board are not government representatives but experts acting in their private, individual capacities. The board has important functions to perform under the treaties. It watches over statistics of drug production, manufacture, trade, and consumption and also over the estimates needed for the coming year that states are required to furnish to it; if a state does not send estimates, the board makes them itself. The board may request any state to explain a condition that in its view indicates an improper accumulation of narcotic drugs. It may even recommend, in case of difficulties created by a country for the international control, that other states stop the shipment of drugs to that country. A most effective means of ensuring compliance is publicity: the reports of the board (and of other international bodies) ensure that the public is made aware of any situation that may contribute to the spread of drug abuse. Other United Nations Bodies Cooperating with UNDCP The United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) was formerly known as the United Nations Social Defence Research Institute. UNICRI carried out a four-year research study funded by UNDCP on the interaction between criminal behavior and drug abuse and on control measures adopted in individual countries. It conducts research, surveys, and workshops on the criminal aspects of drug abuse for UNDCP. UNICRI is more fully described above, under the Office on Drugs and Crime. The International Labour Organization (ILO) carries out activities on drug-related problems in the workplace and on the vocational rehabilitation of recovering drug addicts. WHO and UNDCP prepared a multi-media resource kit to assist enterprises in developing solutions to those problems. The World Health Organization (WHO) carries out activities related to drug dependence and other drug control activities assigned to it by international drug control treaties. WHO plays an integral role in determining which substances should be placed under international control, in accordance with the provisions of the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. WHO's Global Programme on Drug Dependence cooperates with member states in the prevention, treatment, and management of drug addiction. WHO also develops guidelines and manuals for teachers and health professionals. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) focuses on the prevention of drug abuse through public education and awareness. UNESCO works with media organizations in producing radio and television programs. With the support of UNDCP, UNESCO is carrying out research projects on drug use and prevention in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is concerned with the transportation of illicit drugs by ships. IMO has compiled guidelines on the prevention of drug smuggling on ships engaged in international traffic. The guidelines set out security precautions, methods of concealments, actions to be taken when drugs are discovered, identification of addicts, and cooperation with customs. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) seeks to counteract the shipment of illicit drugs by air. It develops technical specifications and guidance material for civil flights, and suggests measures to ensure that commercial carriers are not used to transport illicit drugs. The Universal Postal Union (UPU) has carried out studies to establish international measures covering the shipment of illicit drugs through the mails. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) manages several multidisciplinary programs financed by UNDCP. FAO covers the agricultural aspects of the drug crisis. Its programs are aimed at raising the income level of farmers, and thereby reducing the incentive to cultivate narcotic crops. It has participated in UNDCP-financed projects in Bolivia, Myanmar, and Pakistan. FAO and UNDCP are studying the potential of remote sensing techniques and satellite imagery (already in use by FAO to predict droughts and other international crop statistics) in the detection of illicit crops. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) incorporates drug abuse control programs into its development projects in Asia and the Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. UNDP's resident coordinators and resident representatives work closely with the UNDCP in countries where serious drug problems exist. The United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) focuses on the world's 100 million street children, who are often drug abusers and/or drug sellers. UNICEF has programs in Latin America and the Caribbean to strengthen families and provide services to children in need. UNAIDS works with countries to help prevent the spread of HIV and help those already afflicted with the virus. The virus can infect drug abusers who share syringe needles. The Treaty System One of the tasks of the UN in drug control is to adapt international treaty machinery to changing conditions. Six agreements have been drawn up under United Nations auspices. The Paris Protocol of 1948. The prewar international conventions on narcotics applied to all addictive products of three plants—the opium poppy, the coca bush, and the cannabis plant—and to products belonging to certain chemical groups known to have addictive properties. By the end of World War II, however, a number of synthetic narcotics not belonging to the defined chemical groups had been developed. A protocol signed in Paris on 19 November 1948 authorized WHO to place under international control any new drug not covered by the previous conventions that was or could be addictive. The Paris protocol came into force on 1 December 1949. The Opium Protocol of 1953. Despite earlier international treaties on opium, its production continued and found its way into illicit channels. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs first proposed an international opium monopoly, with production quotas and a system of international inspection. It was impossible, however, to obtain agreement on such important questions as the price of opium and inspection rights. A compromise was worked out by the United Nations Opium Conference, held in New York in May–June 1953, and was embodied in a Protocol for Limiting and Regulating the Cultivation of the Poppy Plant, the Production of, International Trade in, and Use of Opium. Under this protocol, only seven states—Bulgaria, Greece, India, Iran, Turkey, the USSR, and Yugoslavia—were authorized to produce opium for export. Producing states were required to set up a government agency to license opium poppy cultivators and designate the areas to be cultivated. Cultivators were to deliver all opium immediately after harvesting to this agency, the only body with the legal right to trade in opium. The Permanent Central Narcotics Board, under the protocol, was empowered to employ certain supervisory and enforcement measures and, with the consent of the government concerned, to carry out local inquiries. The protocol came into force in December 1964. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961. On 30 March 1961, a conference at United Nations headquarters adopted and opened for signature the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961. This convention, which came into force on 13 December 1964, was a milestone in international narcotics control. The first objective of the convention—codification of existing multilateral treaty law in this field—was almost achieved. The second goal—simplification of the international control machinery—was achieved: the Permanent Central Board and the Drug Supervisory Body were combined as the International Narcotics Control Board, as described earlier. The third goal was extension of control to cover cultivation of plants grown for narcotics. The treaty continued controls on opium, including national opium monopolies and the obligation of governments to limit production to medical and scientific purposes. Provisions dealing with medical treatment and rehabilitation of addicts were quite new as treaty obligations. Opium smoking, opium eating, coca-leaf chewing, hashish (cannabis) smoking, and the use of cannabis for nonmedical purposes were prohibited. The convention required states that are parties to it to take special control measures for particularly dangerous drugs, such as heroin and ketobemidone. Earlier treaty provisions, requiring (1) that exports and imports of narcotic drugs be made only on government authorization from both sides, (2) that governments report on the working of the treaty, and (3) that they exchange, through the Secretary-General, laws and regulations passed to implement the treaty, were retained. Provisions for controlling the manufacture of narcotic drugs and the trade and distribution of narcotic substances also were continued, together with measures for controlling new synthetic drugs. The Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971. During the 1960s there was increasing concern over the harmful effects of such drugs as barbiturates, amphetamines, LSD, and tranquilizers. WHO and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs recommended that governments take legislative and administrative control measures. On the basis of a draft drawn up by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, in close collaboration with WHO, a plenipotentiary conference for the adoption of a protocol on psychotropic substances met in Vienna in 1971, with 71 states represented. On 21 February 1971, it adopted and opened for signature the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971. The convention has been in force since 1976. The 1971 convention was a major step in the extension of international drug control. It contains a number of prohibitive measures for hallucinogens that present a high risk of abuse and have no therapeutic application. Special provisions regarding substances such as LSD prescribe, among other things, prohibition of their use except for research authorized and supervised by governments. The requirement of licenses for manufacture, trade, and distribution, the supervision of these activities, and the repression of acts contrary to laws and regulations are applied to all of the drugs enumerated in the 1971 convention. Governments may limit or prohibit the import (and export) of any psychotropic drug. With this regulatory system, governments can protect themselves against unwanted drugs. Psychotropic drugs used in therapy but with great abuse potential, such as sleeping pills, are controlled by requiring medical prescriptions and by supervision of export import activity. International trade in the most dangerous stimulants—the amphetamines—is subject to a more stringent authorization system. Strict record-keeping of drug movements and statistical reports to the International Narcotics Control Board are also required. A humane provision in the treaty requires that "all practicable measures for the prevention of abuse, the early identification, treatment, education, after-care, rehabilitation, and social reintegration of persons involved" be taken and that "either as an alternative to conviction or punishment or in addition to conviction or punishment, such abusers shall undergo measures of treatment, education, after-care, rehabilitation, and social reintegration." The Protocol Amending the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1972. A plenipotentiary conference adopted, on 25 March 1972, amendments to strengthen the international narcotics control system and to include new concepts and means. The International Narcotics Control Board was increased from 11 to 13 members, to serve for five years instead of three. Technical measures included in the protocol concern limitation of the production of opium, seizure and destruction of illicitly cultivated opium poppies, and the option of the board to recommend technical or financial assistance to governments. The protocol, like the 1971 Convention, provides for after-care and rehabilitation of drug abusers. Also, drug offenders are made extraditable in any extradition treaty. The protocol came into force on 8 August 1975. Convention Against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988. In recognition of the increasing difficulty faced by law enforcement and other government agencies in coping with the expansion of illicit drug trafficking, the General Assembly, in 1985, requested the Commission on Narcotic Drugs to prepare a new convention covering areas not adequately regulated by existing treaties. In 1988, the United Nations convened a conference in Vienna that was attended by representatives of 106 nations. The conference adopted the new convention, which was immediately ratified by 43 nations. The convention entered into force on 11 November 1990. World leaders met in New York 8–10 June 1998 in a special session of the UN General Assembly to adopt a worldwide plan to substantially reduce drug demand and supply by the year 2008. The session addressed guiding principles on reducing demand for illicit drugs, eradication of illicit crops and alternative development, amphetamine-type stimulants (stated as a priority requiring urgent action), money laundering, controlling precursor chemicals (intermediate substances used to manufacture drugs), and judicial cooperation to promote drug control. By February 2006, 179 states had ratified the 1988 convention. The 34-article convention addresses the issues of tracing, freezing, and confiscating proceeds and property derived from drug trafficking. Courts may seize bank, financial, or commercial records, without the imposition of bank secrecy laws. The convention also provides for extradition of major drug traffickers, mutual legal assistance between states on drug-related investigations, and transfer of proceedings for criminal prosecution. The convention also commits states to eliminate or reduce illicit demand for narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. One of the most important provisions of the treaty, Article 12, sets forth two tables of substances used to manufacture illicit drugs and agrees to implement controls on the manufacture and shipment of such substances. In essence, Article 12 imposed the same controls on the chemicals used to manufacture illicit drugs as are imposed on the raw materials like opium and cocaine. The substances controlled by the convention included ephedrine, ergometrine, ergotamine, lysergic acide, 1-phenyl-2-proanone, pseudoephedrine, acetic anhydride, acetone, anthranilic acide, ethyl ether, phenylacetic acide, and piperidine. Narcotic Drugs Under International Control Opium and Its Derivatives. Opium, the coagulated juice of the poppy plant Papaver somniferum L., was known to the Sumerians living in lower Mesopotamia in 3000 BC. It was used by the Greeks and Arabs for medicinal purposes and was probably introduced into China by the Arabs in the ninth or tenth century. The opium poppy can be grown in most of the habitable parts of the world and is often cultivated for its beautiful flowers or its seeds, which are a valuable food. As an addictive drug, opium was originally eaten or drunk as an infusion. The practice of smoking opium is only a few hundred years old. The best-known derivatives of opium are morphine, codeine, and diacetylmorphine, more commonly called heroin. While morphine and codeine have valuable medicinal properties, heroin has no medical uses for which less dangerous analgesics cannot be substituted, and upon the recommendation of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, its manufacture has been banned in most countries. A number of drugs are derived from morphine or are compounded with it, including ethylmorphine and benzylmorphine. Some morphine derivatives, such as apomorphine, are not addictive in themselves. The most important drugs in national and international illicit traffic are still opium and its derivatives, in particular morphine and heroin. As a result of effective international controls, there has been little diversion of opium or opiates from legitimate channels into the illicit trade. There is, however, illicit production of opium in some countries. From these supplies, clandestine factories manufacture morphine that is converted into heroin. Opium contains as an average 10% of morphine, which is made into diacetylmorphine or heroin in equal weight by relatively simple methods. Clandestine factories have been moving closer to the opium-producing areas. Morphine can be extracted from poppy capsules whether or not the opium has been extracted; at least 30% of licit morphine comes from this process. When Turkey, in 1974, resumed cultivation of the opium poppy, which had been stopped two years earlier, it decided not to produce opium but to use the "poppy-straw method" for extraction of morphine. About 90% of the licit morphine is used to make codeine, whereas 90% of illicit morphine is used to make heroin. An effective way of eradicating heroin is to stop illicit poppy cultivation. This is the intent of the international treaties and also of crop substitution undertaken in several countries with the support of the UNDCP. Coca Leaf and Cocaine. Coca leaves grow on an evergreen shrub, Erythroxylon coca, native to the mountainous western region of South America. The leaves are the raw material for the manufacture of cocaine. The leaves themselves have been chewed by some of the Andean peoples for centuries to help combat hunger and overcome the fatigue and exhaustion caused by the high altitude. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs concluded that coca-leaf chewing is a dangerous habit and constitutes a form of addiction. In 1954, the Economic and Social Council recommended that the countries concerned should gradually limit the cultivation and export of coca leaf to medical, scientific, and other legitimate purposes and should progressively abolish the habit of coca-leaf chewing. At the same time, it was recognized that there was little chance of eliminating coca-leaf addiction unless the living conditions of those among whom the habit was widespread could be improved and that the problem must be attacked on this front as well. Coca leaves are used to make licit cocaine, the production of which has declined to about one ton a year, but they are also used for the illicit market that supplies increasing quantities of this dangerous drug to North America, Western Europe, and other regions. A new, more addictive, and more deadly form of cocaine called "crack" is an inexpensive, potent form of the base drug in crystalline form. It is usually smoked, giving a quick, intense high, which lasts only a few minutes. "Crack" is harmful to the brain, heart, lungs, and nervous system and produces serious psychological effects. The plant Cannabis sativa, or the crude drug derived from it, is known under almost 200 different names—marijuana, hashish, Indian hemp, charas, ganji, kif, bhang, and maconha, to name a few. Widely used as an intoxicant by millions of people for at least 4,000 years, it can be grown in most parts of the inhabited world. Depending on the soil and cultivation, the plant grows to a height of one to 20 feet. The narcotic resin is found in the flowering tops. Cannabis is used as a narcotic in many parts of Africa, the Middle East, and the Americas. Because the plant grows wild and is easy to cultivate illicitly, traffickers have little difficulty in obtaining cannabis. Statistics on users are not available, but their number must run well in the millions. Synthetic Narcotic Drugs. A number of synthetic substitutes, especially for morphine, are widely used. They were placed under control by the 1948 protocol. They may and do give rise to abuse but in a relatively limited way, and there is little, if any, illicit traffic in them. The most widely known are pethidine and methadone. Psychotropic substances placed under international control by the 1971 convention are listed, like narcotic drugs, in treaty schedules that may be modified from time to time by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. They have widely different characteristics, and, according to complex criteria having to do with the dangers they present to the individual and society, they have been placed in four schedules with decreasing severity of control. In Schedule I are found mainly hallucinogens, such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocine. All are made by synthesis, but the last two are also found in plants, the peyotl cactus and the hallucinatory mushroom, respectively. Schedule II contains mainly drugs of the amphetamine type that stimulate the central nervous system. They have limited therapeutic value but are widely abused, especially by young people who inject them intravenously, possibly causing psychoses. In Schedule III are found mainly the most powerful depressants of the central nervous system—barbiturates used as hypnotics (sleeping pills) by a very large number of consumers everywhere. These drugs, if used without therapeutic necessity, produce a form of addiction that can be extremely dangerous. Barbiturates are often used in association with heroin, with alcohol (with an especially dangerous interaction), and even with stimulants. Schedule IV has some barbiturate depressants and a number of tranquilizers. These constitute a very large body of medicaments supposed to eliminate anxiety and nervousness. Large quantities of such drugs as meprobamate and diazepam are consumed without therapeutic need and may alter mood and behavior. Methamphetamines, amphetamines and other stimulants are covered by the 1971 convention. In November 1996 UNDCP declared that the global rise in the abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants was likely to be a major drug problem in the 21st century. By 2000, the prediction had already been borne out. These stimulants have the potential to pose more health problems to society than heroin or cocaine because they are simple to produce and the necessary precursor materials are readily accessible. Phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) is an immediate precursor that can be easily synthesized into methamphetamine. Amphetamine-type stimulants are usually taken orally or injected. Crystalline d-methamphetamine hydrochloride, commonly referred to as "ice" or "crystal meth," is ingested by smoking. "Social and Humanitarian Assistance." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. . Encyclopedia.com. (July 16, 2019). https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/social-and-humanitarian-assistance "Social and Humanitarian Assistance." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations. . Retrieved July 16, 2019 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/social-and-humanitarian-assistance Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: Modern Language Association The Chicago Manual of Style American Psychological Association - Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. - In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list. Disaster Relief Organizations Disaster Relief Organizations Natural disasters, as well as some human-caused disasters, lead to human suffering and create needs that the victims cannot alleviate without assistance. Examples of disasters include hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, drought, blizzards, famine , war, fire, volcanic eruption, a building collapse, or a transportation wreck. When any such disaster strikes, a variety of international organizations offer relief to the affected country. Each organization has different objectives, expertise, and resources to offer, and several hundred may become involved in a single major disaster. International disaster relief on such a large scale must be properly coordinated to avoid further chaos and confusion both during and after the disaster. In the event of a disaster, the government of the affected country must conduct a needs assessment to determine what emergency supplies and personnel are required. These needs should be communicated to those relief organizations that will potentially provide assistance. The process of requesting and receiving supplies is lengthy and includes many events that could delay the arrival of assistance. Requests for assistance must first be reviewed and approved by relief organizations, and then supplies and personnel must be collected and transported to the disaster site. Effective management of relief assistance depends on anticipating and identifying problems, and on delivering specific supplies and personnel at the times and places they are needed. Disasters often pose significant health threats. One of the most serious concerns after a disaster, especially a natural disaster, is sanitation. Disruptions in water supplies and sewage systems can pose serious health risks to victims because they decrease the amount and quality of available drinking water and create difficulties in waste disposal. Drinking water can be contaminated by breaks in sewage lines or the presence of animal cadavers in water sources. These factors can facilitate the spread of disease after a disaster. Providing potable drinking water to victims and adopting alternative methods of sanitation must be a priority after a disaster. Food shortages are often an immediate health consequence of disasters. Existing food stocks may be destroyed or disruptions to distribution systems may prevent the delivery of food. In these situations, food relief programs should include the following elements: (1) assessment of food supplies available after the disaster, (2) determination of the nutritional needs of victims, (3) calculation of daily food needs, and (4) surveillance of victims' nutritional status. Some populations are particularly susceptible to malnutrition , such as children under five years of age and pregnant women. In addition to food, these populations should be given nutritional supplements whenever possible. After a disaster, victims must be protected from hazardous climatic conditions, such as severe temperatures or precipitation. People should be kept dry, reasonably well clothed, and able to access emergency shelter. Disasters can also cause disruptions to the health care infrastructure. Hospitals and health centers may suffer structural damage, or health personnel may be among the casualties, limiting the ability to provide health services to disaster victims. Emergency Health Kits that contain essential medical supplies and drugs are often provided to victims as part of the immediate response to disasters. Developed through the collaboration of various relief organizations, these kits are designed to meet the primary health care needs of people without access to medical facilities. Each kit covers the needs of about 10,000 persons for three months, at a cost of about fifty cents per person. The twelve essential drugs in the basic kit include anti-inflammatories, an antacid, a disinfectant, oral dehydration salts, an antimalarial, a basic antibiotic (effective against the most common bacteria ), and an ointment for eye infections. These medicines can treat the most common illnesses of disaster victims, such as anemia , pain, diarrhea, fever, respiratory tract infections, eye and ear infections, measles, and skin conditions. The basic kit also includes simple medical supplies such as cotton, soap, bandages, thermometers, some medical instruments, health cards and record books, and items to help create a clean water supply. Risk of Disease Natural disasters do not usually result in infectious disease outbreaks. However, certain circumstances can increase the chance for disease transmission. Immediately after a disaster, most increases in disease incidence are caused \|Organization or Agency Name\|\|Services\| \|Adventist Development and Relief Agency International (ADRA)\|\|Provides immediate disaster relief; supports development programs in community development, construction, and agriculture\| \|Church World Service (CWS)\|\|Provides material aid to refugees and disaster victims; supports development programs in agriculture, energy, soil conservation, reforestation, preventive medicine, sanitation, and potable water supply\| \|Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE)\|\|Provides refugee and disaster relief; supports development programs in reforestation, conservation, and agriculture\| \|Direct Relief International (DRI)\|\|Specializes in emergency health care, providing pharmaceuticals, medical supplies, and equipment in famine, refugee, and disaster-affected areas\| \|Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response Association (DERA)\|\|Assists international communities in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery; serves as a professional association linking disaster relief personnel\| \|Food for the Hungry (FH)\|\|Provides food aid and disaster relief supplies; provides technological support to eliminate hunger\| \|League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (LICROSS)\|\|Coordinates relief activities for disaster victims; provides assistance to refugees; helps countries increase their capacity to respond to humanitarian needs of victims\| \|Lutheran World Federation (LWF)\|\|Provides emergency relief for disaster victims; supports refugee settlement programs and a variety of development assistance activities\| \|OXFAM International (formerly Oxford Committee for Famine Relief)\|\|Provides assistance to people affected by emergencies, disease, famine, earthquakes, war, and civil conflict; supports long-term development programs in impoverished nations\| \|Salvation Army World Service Office (SAWSO)\|\|Supports a variety of programs in disaster relief, community development, food production, public health, and social welfare\| \|United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)\|\|Provides disaster and refugee assistance, particularly to children; supports programs in sanitation and water supply; promotes training and education to improve child health care\| \|United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)\|\|Responsible for the coordination of UN assistance in humanitarian crises; provides support for international policy development; advocates humanitarian issues\| \|United States Agency for International Development (USAID)\|\|Provides humanitarian, economic, and development assistance to the international community; houses the Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance\| by fecal contamination of water and food supplies. This contamination usually results in intestinal disease. Outbreaks of communicable diseases are directly associated with population density and displacement. If disaster victims live in overcrowded conditions or are forced to leave their homes, the risk of a disease outbreak increases. An increased demand on water and food supplies, elevated risk of contamination, and disruption of sanitation services all contribute to the risk of a disease outbreak. In the longer term after a disaster, the risk for vector-borne diseases increases. Vector-borne diseases are spread to humans by insects and other arthropods, such as ticks or mosquitoes. Vector-borne diseases are of particular concern following heavy rains and floods. Insecticides may be washed away from buildings and the number of mosquito breeding sites may increase. In addition, wild or domestic animals that have been displaced can introduce infection to humans. International disaster relief organizations play an important role in the response to disasters. They provide valuable supplies and personnel to victims and help to minimize the social, economic, and health consequences of a disaster. Health concerns, such as potential disease outbreak, malnutrition, and poor sanitation, should be addressed immediately after a disaster to avoid serious health consequences. International relief organizations help victims fulfill unmet needs and play a vital role in effective disaster management. see also Emergency Nutrition Network; Famine. Gorman, R. F. (1994). Historical Dictionary of Refugee and Disaster Relief Organizations. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. Pan American Health Organization. "Natural Disasters: Protecting the Public's Health." Available from <http://www.paho.org> Grantmakers Without Borders. "International Emergency Relief Links." Available from <http://www.internationaldonors.org> Disaster Center. "Disaster Relief Agencies." Available from <http://www.disastercenter.com/agency.htm> Pan American Health Organization. "Disasters and Humanitarian Assistance." Available from <http://www.paho.org/disasters> UNICEF. "Emergency Health Kits." Available from <http://www.supply.unicef.dk/emergencies/healthkit.htm> "Disaster Relief Organizations." Nutrition and Well-Being A to Z. . Encyclopedia.com. (July 16, 2019). https://www.encyclopedia.com/food/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/disaster-relief-organizations "Disaster Relief Organizations." Nutrition and Well-Being A to Z. . Retrieved July 16, 2019 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/food/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/disaster-relief-organizations Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: Modern Language Association The Chicago Manual of Style American Psychological Association - Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. - In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list.
A new study by researchers at the University of Southampton will look for ways to better predict the risk of getting cancer. The five-year $3.2 million study, funded by the UK's National Institute for Health Research, will analyze blood samples and other clinical information of 20,000 patients who have had lung or colon cancer in order to better understand which symptoms are the most predictive of those who ultimately are diagnosed with cancer. The study will also conduct genetic testing to see what kinds of information genetics can provide in determining the risk of cancer beyond clinical information. Researchers believe this study can make the cancer screening process more efficient and less stressful for patients. “We need to improve both the early referral rates for cancer but, at the same time, we do not want to overload the system with lots of people who are at a low risk of having cancer and may have negative side-effects of being over-investigated," said lead researcher Paul Little. "Waiting for results and dealing with the possibility of having cancer can be a distressing and daunting time for patients and their families, our research aims to aid the patient pathway and help medical professionals, so every patient is dealt with in the most appropriate way and in a timely fashion.” The ultimate goal, of course, is to be able diagnose patients with cancer as quickly as possible, because, with cancer especially, the earlier it is caught the better the prognosis for the patient. [h/t Science Daily] Image courtesy of University of Southampton This post was originally published on Smartplanet.com
The battery tunes just like all other instruments. It does not have the strings, of course, but the skins, which are the plastic surfaces on which we hit with the sticks. The skins are tuned by means of the tie rods, those screws that stand on the metal circle of each drum. A higher tension of these screws generates a higher sound, while a slow tension generates a lower and deeper sound. Let’s better specify which are the 2 skins that are mounted on the drum: - beating skin – the skin above the drum (where we hit with the stick) - resonant skin – the skin under the drum The tension ratio between the two beating and resonating skins, in combination, generates a note. Depending on how much we pull the skins, the sound may be more prolonged or have a fast decay. Is there a “better” way to stretch the skins? Drums can have 6 to 10 tie-rods, depending on size. The case, for example, which is the largest drum, will have at least 8 or 10 tie-rods, while a smaller drum will have six or at most eight tie-rods. To correctly tighten a skin, it is used to pull the keys in a so-called “crossed” manner. In this way, the tension of the skin will be distributed equally close to the tie rods, leaving no areas of greater tension than others. In the picture below you can see three different drum examples, with six, eight or 10 tie rods. The numbers correspond to the order in which you should pull the keys to tighten the skin correctly. Just follow the numerical order to ensure uniform tension. Check your drum kit for the number of tie rods on the drum you want to tune and take your cue from this diagram. Each drum is to be considered as a whole given the main dimensions that are: – diameter of the drum; – depth of the drum; – thickness of the drum. The tonal range in which a drum can play depends fundamentally on the diameter. The depth of the sound and the sustain depend on it. The drum thickness determines the speed of sound propagation and the timbre. These three factors, combined together, produce the totality of the final sound of a drum, bearing in mind that everyone can influence the others as well. Each drum has a starting sound even without skins. Basically we will have a starting sound. By acting on the skins we give voice to the drum and by modifying the various tensions we can emphasize or diminish some of its characteristics. It must be kept in mind that each drum has a fundamental note which must be taken into account when proceeding with the tuning of the drum. There is no need for trick or machines that display the surface tension because only the ear (better if experienced) can understand if the sound is the right one. Depending on the style of music you have to play you can tune the drums in various ways and it is appropriate to have a starting idea of the type of sound you want to get. Regardless of the timbre you want to obtain, to make a drum sound good we will proceed in order to hear all the tonal possibilities to reach the one you want, taking into account that : – Some notes sound good; – Some notes may not sound good. It is preferable to loosen all the tie rods so that you can start from tension on both skins = 0 Proceed first with the resonant skin and then with the wing 1. Initially use only your fingers and screw all the tie rods from the side of the thread without the key up to the maximum that you can screw with your own strength; 2. Play flat on the skin and note that it is not yet taut enough to produce a resonant sound; 3. Proceeding crosswise (one key and then the one in front) start with 1/4 turn for each tie rod; 4. proceed gradually until both skins vibrate; 5. Probably some points on one of the skins will not be pulled enough so give 1/6 turn to bring it to the same tension as the others; 6. We have reached the lowest note that drum can produce; 7. Proceed in six turns and as the note goes up try to play piano and loud to understand if the sound is always given by skins + drum; 8. choose the height you want and always check that the volume is given by all parts of the drum; 9. If you go ahead with this procedure the volume decreases, it means that you are going beyond the possibilities of that drum so it is preferable to go back; 10. as long as the volume remains constant, it means that the tension of the skins will be in phase with the drum, which means that the tuning is consistent with the drum in question; 11. Move on to the other stages of tuning.
What do you get when you have a nation that stretches from coast to coast to coast? The perfect recipe for shipwrecks. After all Canada’s waters are home to more than a hundred. Of course some shipwrecks are more well-known than others. In case you ever wondered what they are and where they lie, here are eight of the country’s most famous. If you’ve done anything touristy in Tobermory, Ontario, then you’ve likely seen Sweepstakes. Lying at the bottom of Big Tub Harbour in no more than 7 metres of water, Sweepstakes can actually be seen from the shore. Built in 1867, the 119-foot schooner was used to transport coal until it was damaged off of Cove Island. The boat was towed to Big Tub where it sank in 1885 while awaiting repair. S.S. Edmund Fitzgerald Immortalized by the Gordon Lightfoot song The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald, this Great Lakes Freighter sank on November 10, 1975, killing the entire 29-person crew. Succumbing to a winter storm, the boat sank to 160 metres deep, about 17 kilometres from Sault Sainte Marie. Though the cause of the wreck has never been determined, many theories persist, which include rogue waves and structural failure. What we do know is that the S.S. Edmund Fitzgerald is still in two pieces at the bottom of Lake Superior. HMS Erebus and HMS Terror The infamous Franklin Expedition that was held to discover the Northwest Passage led to more than one shipwreck. The two ships involved (the HMS Erebus and HMS Terror) were abandoned by their crews when they became ice bound in 1845. Following this event, the entire crew got lost and recent anthropological studies concluded that the men died of pneumonia, tuberculosis, and lead poisoning from badly soldered tin cans. Parks Canada has since organized five expeditions to look for the wrecks, but nothing has been found. The two ships are designated by Parks Canada as a national historic site, making them the only non-discovered national historic site in the country. An indirect casualty of the Franklin Expedition, the Investigator was sent to search for Sir John Franklin and his men in 1848. The boat made two voyages to the Arctic but it was abandoned in 1853 after becoming trapped in the ice. In July 2010 Parks Canada discovered the wreck buried in silt, 150 metres off of the north shore of Banks Island. Perhaps the most famous of all shipwrecks, the Titanic’s bow can be found just off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, technically putting the wreck in Canadian waters. The boat sunk in the North Atlantic on April 15, 1912, and if you don’t know anything else about the Titanic, well, there was a little movie made about it in 1997 as well. RMS Empress of Ireland This ocean liner sank in the Saint Lawrence River in 1914 after colliding with a Norwegian Collier. The ship sank in 14 minutes and claimed the lives of more than a thousand people. Over the years many salvage divers have visited the wreck, retrieving everything from mail to a brass bell. In 1999 the wreck was added to Canada’s list of historic sites to prevent treasure hunters from continuing to pillage the site. The Robert Kerr In 1911 this 190-foot barque was running behind a towboat when it struck a reef just north of Thetis Island in British Columbia. Once the coal was removed the ship was abandoned. It became known as “the ship that saved Vancouver” when a fire destroyed much of the city in 1886 and residents boarded the vessel to escape the fire. The Robert Kerr now rests off the city’s coast in 15 metres of water and is a popular dive site.
Rising river could shut down NPPD nuclear plant - March 15, 2019 - 884 views The Nebraska Public Power District lost a small power plant on the Niobrara River because of flooding in north-central Nebraska. And hundreds of miles to the southeast, the utility has begun adding sandbags to the levee that protects its nuclear plant from the Missouri River. Thursday morning, the hydroelectric plant at the Spencer Dam on the Niobrara River was lost when the dam broke and a large ice floe jammed a hole in the building. Although workers were inside the plant, no one was injured, said Mark Becker, spokesman for the Nebraska Public Power District. In southeast Nebraska, the utility is monitoring the rapidly rising Missouri River. Becker said that if the Missouri reaches the levels projected by the National Weather Service this weekend, the utility will have to declare an alert and take Cooper Nuclear Station off line. According to computer simulations, the Missouri River could reach 45.5 feet sometime Sunday. At that level, the plant must be shut down. Becker said workers were adding sandbags to the levee that protects the nuclear station and other key facilities from the Missouri River. When the river reaches 42.5 feet, which is forecast to be Friday, the utility is required to issue a Notice of Unusual Event to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and state and local officials. That simply means that conditions are not ordinary, and Cooper would still be able to continue generating power. If the river rises a foot higher, to 43.5 feet, workers will start barricading internal doorways and taking other precautions. During the historic summerlong flood of 2011, Cooper reached the level of an unusual event notice, and sandbagged and barricaded internal doorways, but the plant was able to continue functioning. Cooper accounts for about 35 percent of NPPD's power. If the plant is shut down, NPPD will be able to get power elsewhere through its own facilities or through a power-sharing network that it belongs to. "That's not going to be an issue," he said. "We're going to have enough electricity." The loss of the hydroelectric plant also will not be crippling for NPPD. It was built in the 1920s, and the utility already had plans to discontinue the use of its electricity, Becker said. NPPD had been planning to sell the plant and its water rights to a group of natural resources districts.
If you think animals see the world like we see, then its not true because different animals see the world differently. Animals like dogs and cats are living without full range of colour spectrum perception. Even bull fighting bulls can’t see the red colour. Red colour really don’t make bulls angry, they are colour-blind to red. Its the natural state of these animals for colour perception. Dogs, cats and other such animals see the world differently than us and not able to distinguish between different colours. Unlike humans animals like dogs, cats, rabbits have different colour vision than humans and see the world in shades of blues and yellows. About a decade ago scientists did a test on cat’s colour vision by putting one coloured jar and one grey jar in front of a cat. If cat touched the coloured jar they offered cat a fish and if it touched the grey one then nothing was offered to cat. And after about 100,000 tries they concluded about 50/50 results and thought that cats can’t see the colours. What actually causes different living beings have different vision is the cone and rod cells in retina of eyes. Cones are responsible for colour vision while rods helps view in dim lights. Humans normally have three types of cone cells let them view a wide range of colours while animals like dogs and cats have two types of cone cells make then colour-blind to most of the colour ranges. Whereas, some animals have more than three types of cones make them able to view more colours that humans can’t see. Each of three cones have their own range of wavelengths and defined by L, M and S cone. L cone is response to orange/red colours and long wavelengths M cone is response to green/yellow colours and medium wavelengths S cone is response to blue/purple colours and short wavelengths If some of the animals are colour-blind, there’re animals which can see the colours which we humans can’t see. Ability to see in more colour wavelengths make diving birds to see and catch prey and food underwater and let bees to see deep inside flowers that humans can’t see with naked eye. Some species like goldfish, guppy, primate fish and other such mammals have three types of cones and have more vibrant vision than other animals and species. Bulls are completely blind to colours and have only grey vision, then why bull charge the red cape in bullfighting? Well its not because of red colour of cape but because of the movement of the cape that irritate the bull, and that’s why bulls charge the cape in bullfighting. Horse vision is somewhat like grey with different shades of black and white but slightly parted view because eyes pointed to sideways unlike straight vision of humans and has black spot in between two eyes visions. Snakes are capable of viewing more wavelengths than humans and have day and night vision to catch prey independent of sun-light. Humans normally have short, medium and long wavelength range whereas snakes take it to microwaves which let them sense the prey with heat and their night vision is similar to thermal imaging. Most animals not even have a single cone in their eyes and they are completely colour-blind. Colour-blind doesn’t mean someone can’t see, but see in different colours or in grey spectrum and that’s all because of the lack of one or two types of cones in the eyes. Because, cone cells define the wavelength of someone’s vision. Photo credit: yukariryu
Some of our common English sayings have a very ancient past. As a follow-up to The History in our Language: Idioms from Ancient Times, Part 1, here is Part 2 of idioms with ancient roots. THE WRITING IS ON THE WALL This phrase, meaning that danger is imminent, derives from the Aramaic “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin.” These words come from the Old Testament story of Belshazzar’s feast and forewarn of the fall of Babylon to Persia. According to this account, while Belshazzar is drinking and partying in the temple—and desecrating sacred temple wares—a disembodied hand appears and writes “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin” on the temple wall. Belshazzar and the Babylonians cannot figure out what the words mean, so he calls for Daniel, a Jewish exile brought from Judah, to interpret. Daniel explains: “This is the interpretation of the thing: MENE; God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished it. TEKEL; Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. PERES; Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians.” “The writing is on the wall” is not a translation, but rather a reference to a bad outcome that should have been obvious, and was literally written on the wall. EVEN A BLIND PIG FINDS AN ACORN SOMETIMES According to Martha and Grant from Wayword Radio, this saying was a favorite of Bill Clinton’s. It means that whatever you have just accomplished was pure luck – not skill. Variations of this phrase date all the way back to ancient Rome, where they would say in Latin “a blind dove sometimes finds a pea.” So whenever you accomplish something purely by chance, remember that luck figured in the vagaries of life even for the Romans. OPEN PANDORA’S BOX This is something you definitely don’t want to do. When someone is wary that an action will be the equivalent of “opening Pandora’s box,” he or she is referring to the ancient Greek myth in Hesiod’s Works and Days. Zeus, annoyed with Prometheus for getting fire from Hephaestos and returning it to man, decided to give Prometheus’ brother a “gift” in the form of the first woman. Pandora was given to the Titan Epimetheus as a bride along with a box (a jar in some versions of the story) warning the couple never to open it. When each of the gods were contributing gifts to the creation of Pandora, Zeus instructed Hermes to “put in her a shameless mind and a deceitful nature,” so Pandora found it impossible to contain her curiosity. She opened the box, which released all the evils, diseases and troubles known to men. The moral of the story? If someone warns you that what you are about to do would be like opening Pandora’s Box, think twice. You never know what you will find—or what will find you. A great version of this myth for kids can be found at E2BN’s Myths and Legends page. If you have other phrases and idioms with ancient origins, please leave them in the Comments box. We’d also love some suggestions for a Part 3! 1.“The writing is on the wall.” Phrase Finder. http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/the-writing-is-on-the-wall.html 2. “Daniel Chapter 5.” The Official King James Bible Online. http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Daniel-Chapter-5/ 3. Martha Barnette and Grant Barett. “Not Those Thongs.” A Way with Words. December 3, 2011. Wayword Radio. http://www.waywordradio.org/thongs/ 4. N.S. Gill.“Pandora’s Box.”About.com. http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/grecoromanmyth1/a/050410Pandora_and_her_box_or_pithos.htm 5. “Hesiod, Works and Days.”Perseus Digital Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0132:card=59&highlight=pandora
School bells are ringing throughout the country, as an estimated 55 million children begin another school year. About 13 percent, or 7-1/2 million children, will walk or ride bicycles to and from school every day. Cottman Transmission and Total Auto Care, a nationwide chain of total auto care centers, cautions motorists to be extra careful, especially during afternoon hours. Statistics from The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration show that nearly half — 42 percent — of fatalities among pedestrians ages 15 and under occur between 4 and 8 p.m. The number of pedestrian deaths from traffic crashes has increased over the past six years, the government agency says. “It’s up to all of us, drivers and parents, to help keep our children safe as they travel to and from school,” said Cottman President Randy Wright. “We know, from what we do every day, that cars can usually be fixed. But it can be a very different story — a tragic one — for a child who gets hit by a car.” School Zone Driving Safety Cottman offers some simple tips for drivers and for parents to help keep school children safe and avoid tragedy when going back to school: - Follow the speed limit and slow down in and around school zones. If driving during school travel times, allow extra time to avoid rushing. - Use extra caution near school buses, and always stop when a school bus has its lights flashing or its stop sign raised. Never pass a stopped school bus if its lights are flashing. Even once the lights stop flashing and the bus begins to move, be extra careful to watch for children crossing. - Come to a complete stop at stop signs and watch for children on sidewalks or near crosswalks. If in doubt about a child’s intent to cross the street, wait, make eye or verbal contact and, if safe, let him or her cross. - Eliminate distractions when you drive, especially as you drive near schools and through residential neighborhoods. We all now realize the danger of calling or texting while driving, but other activities like eating, tuning the radio or looking at the GPS system can also take your eyes and your mind off the road, with potentially disastrous results. Safety experts encourage parents to remind their children of pedestrian safety tips, including: - Use crosswalks or traffic signals to cross, and always look both ways before entering the street. - Don’t cross from between parked cars, shrubs or other things that might block you from a driver’s view. - If in an area with no sidewalks, walk along the curb facing traffic, which makes you more visible to oncoming drivers. Always keep an eye on oncoming traffic and don’t use a cell phone or handheld game while walking. - If riding in the street, ride in the same direction as traffic. Wear a properly-fitted safety helmet. - Wear light colors that can be easily seen by motorists. If walking at night or in bad weather, wear reflective material or use a flashlight or blinker so you can be more easily seen by drivers. About Cottman Transmission and Total Auto Care: With locations across the U.S., Cottman Transmission and Total Auto Care is a transmission and auto repair company for almost any make or model vehicle, foreign or domestic. Cottman Transmission and Total Auto Care continues to take claim of the growing $250 billion aftermarket auto industry and specializes in complete transmission service, brakes, suspension, air conditioning service and much more. Cottman is based in Horsham, Pa. For more information, please visit www.cottman.com.
I had to do something like this a while ago, and I think you're going in the wrong direction: you need to make it more relevant. The main contact 8-year-olds have with computers today is video games and computer games, so the "Our friend the Univac" lecture from the 1960's is not going to mean much to them. I'd start with "Do you realize every web site you use is a computer somewhere?" Then describe how someone has to actually figure out every graphic, every animation, every piece of text that shows up. Make it visual: bring pictures from "The Incredibles" and talk about how artists and programmers collaborated to create the movie. I do like your "cashier" example. You might want to make it like a game: "Joey will be the cashier, and Mary will be the scanner. Sarah, pass your item by the scanner. Now Joey has to go look up the price." And so on. Most important piece of advice: have fun with it!
The photo has become emblematic. Rosa Parks is sitting on a Montgomery, Alabama, bus. In a seat behind her is a white UPI reporter. She is meticulously dressed, sporting a hat common among stylish 1950s women. She stares out the window, seemingly oblivious to the camera. It is the first day that the buses in Montgomery are integrated. Just a year before, on December 1, 1955, Parks, a 42 year-old seamstress and household domestic, shook the world of Jim Crow by refusing to give up her seat to a white man on her way home from work. She was arrested for her act of defiance and eventually paid a fine. A bus boycott, inspired by her the events and led by a young preacher named Martin Luther King Jr., eventually succeeded with the help of a federal lawsuit. Parks became the mother of the Civil Rights movement. Upon her death in 2005, she became the first woman to lay in state at the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. Her funeral in Detroit attracted political luminaries, including Bill and Hillary Clinton. Political liberals and conservatives of all races lionized her, affirming the legend that Parks’ singular action, an individual standing up to American apartheid, broke the back of legal segregation and oppression. As with most historic iconic legends, the historic reality, however, was more complicated. Parks was not the first to challenge bus segregation in Montgomery. Others, including Claudette Colvin, Aurelia Browder, Mary Louise Smith, and Pauli Murray, had gone before her. Parks was not a simple, uneducated woman just tired from a day’s work. While she did work as a seamstress and a domestic for a white family who encouraged her Civil Rights work, she was an educated social activist. She had attended social justice seminars in Tennessee and was the secretary for her local NAACP chapter. While she wasn’t the first, and didn’t quite fit the model of a simple woman acting with unexpected defiance, she was the most potent symbol of resistance. The local African American leadership was looking to challenge Jim Crow which, among other indignities, forced black people to ride on the back of the bus. But Colvin, arrested in March 1955, was pregnant with a married man’s child at the time. Smith, then just 18, was arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat in October of that year, but local leaders decided that her father’s reputation as an alcoholic would work against generating public sympathy. Parks filled the void. She was, according to sociologist Barry Schwartz, a married woman with no skeletons rattling in her personal closet. She was well-known to the local black leadership, was a counselor for a youth group, and was an active member of her church. Schwartz notes that Parks fills the role of “oneness, ” the concept that people can more easily relate to a specific person, even if the historic reality points to a wider social movement. Parks’ symbolic role helped outsiders relate to what was a complex series of events. The boycott was a complicated endeavor, filled with long meetings with the local white power structure and organizing taxi services to shuttle Montgomery’s black population to their jobs and appointments. Locals supportive of the boycott raised signs proclaiming “When They Messed With Her, They Messed with the Wrong One.” Parks spent much of that time on the road, speaking to national audiences. After the boycott, Parks eventually moved to Detroit, where she continued her civic activism and worked for Congressman John Conyers. “Given the limits of human cognition…complete information confuses,” writes Schwartz. “The action of a single individual is easy to graph and remember.” Rosa Parks wasn’t the first to step forward, and she wasn’t the main organizer of the boycott. And yet there are 21 streets in more than 14 states named for Parks. Her action galvanized a movement and generated massive sympathy, even if the narrative of a simple individual acting against the powers-that-be was grossly simplified. As Schwartz puts it, “History informs. Commemoration inspires and motivates.”
Posted: February 24th, 2017 Compare and Contrast- (length two to three pages) • Having analyzed three local and state government systems; what are the key factors in being a successful government? • If you were designing a state or local government from scratch, what structure or systems would you ensure were present for successful performance? • Comparing California State, Louisiana State, and New York City, which do you think is the most effective government? Why do you think your choice is the most effective? Place an order in 3 easy steps. Takes less than 5 mins.
"Umbilical cord blood transplant is an important alternative stem cell source for both children and adults with hematologic malignancies. Umbilical cord blood units are rapidly available and have less stringent human leukocyte antigen (HLA) Mismatch at two antigens actually improves the risk of relapse for umbilical cord blood transplant recipients with relatively low risk of severe acute or chronic graft vs host disease. However, umbilical cord blood transplant is associated with an inferior neutrophil recovery rate when compared to other stem It is for this reason that we have explored ‘double unit umbilical cord blood transplants,’ not only as a platform for evaluating the safety and effectiveness of new methods of ex vivo expansion or methods of enhanced homing, but also as an approach itself to remedy the problem of limited cell dose, particularly for adults. stem cell transplant* may sometimes be medically necessary for patients with lymphomas. With a stem cell transplant, the stem cells obtained from peripheral blood, or umbilical cord blood are given back to the patient following high dose treatment, which can damage or ablate (kill off) these vital cells. The engrafted stem cells can then restore bone marrow function impaired or destroyed by the high dose conditioning A stem cell transplant is sometimes called a bone The terms stem cell transplant, rescue, engraftment, or support may be used interchangeably and essentially have the same meaning. * Stem cells are "immature cells known as hematopoietic or blood-forming stem cells. Hematopoietic stem cells divide to form more blood-forming stem cells, or they mature into one of three types of blood cells: blood cells, which fight blood cells, which carry oxygen; and which help the blood to clot. Most hematopoietic stem cells are found in the bone marrow, but some cells, called peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs), are found in the bloodstream. Blood in the umbilical cord also contains hematopoietic stem cells. Cells from any of these sources can be used in transplants" [in order to restore bone marrow function.] - The different types of stem cell transplants are named from the origin of the stem cells: stem cells harvested from donor (following reduced for full intensity therapy) autologous - stem cells harvested from self - stem cells harvested from cord blood - stem cells from saved cord blood, from self or donor blood is now being investigated as a source of stem cells for patients receiving high dose treatment for lymphoma and other cancers. How does a cord blood transplant compare with other types? "Cord Blood Cord blood transplants are a "type" of allogeneic transplant. The reason they are different is that the stem cells found in the cord blood are more immunologically naive than the stem cells from marrow. As a result, they are more "forgiving" when it comes to inducing graft versus host disease (GVHD). This is when the donor cells start attacking the host (or recipient) of the transplant as if it were an GVHD is one of the more feared complications of allogeneic transplantation. The biggest problem is that "some" GVHD is helpful in that it helps to control the leukemia. This "beneficial" part is termed graft versus leukemia (GVL) effect. You need some of the GVL, and can tolerate some GVHD, but you do not want too much as it can be Cord blood, because it is less developed immunologically is thought to cause less GVHD. We do not yet know if it the less GVHD results in less GVL and less effectiveness in controlling the disease. " ~ Rick Furman, MD (Sept 2008) Also see: How are umbilical cord stem cells obtained for
Commentary & Opinion "Long Way to Go" in Fighting HIV/AIDS, Nobel Laureate Says in Opinion Piece October 21, 2008 Despite the progress made in the fight against HIV since it was discovered in 1983, there is "still a long way to go," Luc Montagnier, who recently shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in medicine for his work in the discovery of HIV, writes in a Wall Street Journal opinion piece. HIV/AIDS is "spreading in many countries," and even "developed countries like the U.S. have many new infections," he writes, adding, "There is also the danger of a new epidemic caused by viral strains resistant to treatment. Moreover, despite the effort of thousands of researchers, we still have no cure and no vaccine." According to Montagnier, more than 10 years ago he "proposed using vaccination against HIV antigens not for prophylaxis but as an additional therapy following a short antiviral treatment." The goal in this circumstance is to make HIV-positive people's immune systems "fully competent, after only partial restoration by an antiretroviral treatment reducing the viral load in the blood to undetectable levels," he writes. According to Montagnier, in "developing countries, many infected patients refuse to be tested and are not treated because of the stigma attached to AIDS." He writes that the "availability of treatment able to eradicate the infection will change their attitudes," concluding that the "epidemic will thus gradually decrease, perhaps helped by a preventive vaccine derived from a successful therapeutic vaccine" (Montagnier, Wall Street Journal, 10/21). This article was provided by Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. It is a part of the publication Kaiser Daily HIV/AIDS Report. Visit the Kaiser Family Foundation's website to find out more about their activities, publications and services.
Let’s talk a bit about how religion was handled at the time of our founding as it has been referenced many times on another site. Soemwhere I read the remark ‘they weren’t Deists they were Unitarians.” Umm…guys…let’s get this straight. “The Founders” (TM) weren’t anything. John Adams was a Unitarian. Thomas Jefferson was more or less a Deist (although he’s really a bit tricky to pin down), as were Ben Franklin and several others. Madison and Washington were Episcopalian (that is to say Anglican), Hamilton was Presbyterian, there were lots of Congregationalists, and a few Catholics, Lutherans and others thrown in for good measure. That statement is incredibly Anti-Semitic as well. It’s basically stating that no other religions have any protection under the First Amendment. Islam, Judaism, and many other religions were in existence when the Constitution was written. If the Founding Fathers had intended that it only protect Christianity, they would have written it to reflect that. Furthermore, what modern conservatives say the Founding Fathers believed about religion could not be farther from the truth. I mean “Under God” wasn’t added to the Pledge of Allegiance until 1954. It was to counter Communism, a notoriously anti-religion political theory. But prior to 1954, we WEREN’T one nation under God. That sentence is in actually, quite recent. By Eisenhower. The same President that got us the Prayer Breakfast and “In God We Trust” vice “E Pluribus, Unum” as the national motto. As a result, I might add, of a campaign by the Knights of Columbus and the anti-communist sermons of Reverend George M. Docherty, the pastor of the Presbyterian church in Washington that Eisenhower attended. Interestingly enough, the original pledge not only doesn’t mention God but it doesn’t mention the United States either! The pledge was written in 1892 by the socialist Francis Bellamy, a cousin of the famous radical writer Edward Bellamy. He devised it for the popular magazine Youth’s Companion on the occasion of the nation’s first celebration of Columbus Day. “I pledge allegiance to my flag and the republic for which it stands, one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.” The key words for Bellamy were “indivisible,” which recalled the Civil War and the triumph of federal union over states’ rights, and “liberty and justice for all,” which was supposed to strike a balance between equality and individual freedom.
Seedling Growth-3 is the third part of the Seedling Growth Experiment series, using the plant Arabidopsis thaliana to investigate the effects of gravity on the cellular signaling mechanisms of light sensing in plants (phototropism), and to investigate cell growth and proliferation responses to light stimulation under microgravity conditions. The investigation also seeks to determine: - the red light effect on blue-light-based phototropism and its effects - the alterations in red-light-based phototropism of plants defective in essential components of auxin transport or lacking essential factors of cell growth and proliferation, - the effects of a red light photostimulation on cell growth and proliferation under conditions of gravitational stress. This knowledge is valuable for developing an effective use of plants in life support systems in space, including on the Moon and Mars. It also has a strong relevance for improving crop species on earth to obtain increased production and sustainability. The experiment will be conducted with different genotypes of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana in experimental unique containers placed in the EMCS on the International Space Station. The experiment containers contain white, blue and red lights that can be controlled from ground to expose the plants to different kinds of light. By using the two centrifuges in the EMCS, it is possible to carry out the experiment in microgravity and fractional gravity along with the 1-g control within the same space environment. For Seedling Growth-3, the samples will be subjected to 1g, 0,3g and 0g. Following a six day time course in the EMCS, the samples will be either frozen or chemically fixed and returned to the investigators for analysis. Additionally, images will be taken throughout the whole experiment and downloaded real time Technology from Spain The European Space Agency (ESA) has selected NTE-SENER’s proposal for the design, development, manufacturing and verification activities for the procurement of the Fixation Box (FixBox) for a vegetal biology experiment in the International Space Station (ISS). The equipment’s complexity lies in the integration of the five cassettes with the seeds within a very restricted space (compatible with different ISS freezers, as well as an automatic mechanism for the fixation injection). - Experiment name: Seedling Growth-3 - Facility: EMCS - Test subject: Arabidopsis thaliana - Experiment duration: 2 runs x 6 days - Growth substrate: Filter paper - Water source< Internal EUE water - Principle Investigators: Francisco-Javier Medina, Centro de Investigaciones Bioligicas, Madrid, Spain - Co-Investigator(s)/Collaborator(s): E. Camero-Diaz, France; Elodie Boucheron-Dubuisson, Ph.D., Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France; Julio Saez-Vasquez, CNRS-IRD-Université Perpignan via Domitia, Perpignan, France; Raúl Herranz, Ph.D., Centro de Investigaciones Bioligicas, Madrid, Spain - Payload Developers: NASA Ames Research Center and NTE Sener - Launch vehicle: SpaxeX-11 - Launch day: 1st June 2017 - ISS Expedition Duration: March 2017 – September 2017
Subatomic particles found in mile-deep ice are of interstellar origins Physicists working with the particle detector IceCube, buried near the South Pole, have detected neutrinos of high enough energies to suggest origins in the cataclysms at the Milky Way's fringes, or perhaps even past its doorstep. Physicists working with the Antarctic particle detector IceCube have detected neutrinos of high enough energies to suggest origins at, or even beyond, our galaxy’s doorstep. The discovery of these proverbial poltergeists from the Milky Way’s fringes, after more than 50 years of hunting for them, is the first step in physicists’ goal of pinpointing these particles’ still-mysterious origins, a feat that would yield answers to big questions about the universe very far away, and very long ago. “Neutrinos are the most direct probes we have into the most violent events in the universe,” says Naoko Neilson, an IceCube researcher and a co-author on the paper, published in Science, “and the most violent events in the universe are not well understood.” The existence of neutrinos was first proposed in a 1930 letter from physicist Wolfgang Pauli to a group of fellow physicists. In the letter, Pauli suggested the subatomic particles as an explanation for the curious point that, in apparent violation of a fundamental law of nature, energy seemed to vanish during the decay of radioactive elements. Perhaps, he theorized, a crook of a particle, unknown to science, was carting off that missing energy. It was a befuddling proposition – outlandish, even. Still, as he put it in the letter, “those who wager win.” In 1934, Enrico Fermi, another physicist, called the still hypothetical particles neutrinos, after their perplexing, frustrating nothingness (Pauli had initially called them neutrons, but this name became attached to a different, much bigger particle in 1932). The neutrino has a negligible mass and a nil charge. It also moves at the speed of light. It’s possible for the slight particle to pass through an Earth-sized block of lead and interact with nothing at all. A 2004 BBC documentary called the decades long hunt for the particles that ensued from their theoretical prediction “Project Poltergeist.” Fixing the problem of energy loss in radioactive decay had landed physicists the vexing problem of ghost hunting. As in any good haunting, neutrinos are everywhere: after photons, they are the most common particles in the universe, the everyman poltergeist that inhabits the cosmos and the household toaster all the same. About ten trillion neutrinos pass through you each second. Most of them were produced during the Big Bang. These “primordial” neutrinos, once hot, have had some 14 billion years to cool, and are very low-energy particles. Even now, low-energy neutrinos are still produced all the time, both on Earth and in our solar system, zipping out of the sun’s pops and sizzles, or out of nuclear reactors, or even out of cat litter, which is just a little bit radioactive. Even your own body emits the occasional neutrino, especially if you eat a lot of potassium-rich foods, such as bananas. Since the first-ever detection of a neutrino – found in a nuclear reactor in 1956 – enormous particle detectors have been erected all over the world to detect something much, much smaller than a quark. Over the last few decades, low-energy neutrinos produced on or near Earth have been detected in celebrated drips and drabs. Once, in 1987, scientists detected multiple neutrinos of unusually high-energies: these were the first neutrinos found from outside the solar system, from a local supernova about 168,000 light years afield from us, and won their finders the Nobel Prize in physics in 2002. But there has remained one group of neutrinos missing from scientists’ smallest of the small portrait of the universe, one that physicists have been after for decades: extremely high-energy neutrinos, called astrophysical neutrinos, from the outermost regions of the Milky Way, or perhaps from other galaxies. These neutrinos are brewed in traumatic rumblings that are unlike anything happening in our somnolent local cosmos – “there are not enough violent things in our solar system to emit these high-energy neutrinos,” says Dr. Neilson. By the time astrophysical neutrinos reach our planet, they are the ghostly messengers of ancient cataclysms, bringers of bad news from millions, or even billions, of years ago. Just what these particles are telling us, though, is still an enigma, says Neilson. Physicists have proposed that the particles could be fleeing a supernova. Or it could be a gamma ray burst. Or something else. Physicists are hoping to find out what it is, and, precisely, where it is. In theory, that’s possible. Since neutrinos do not have a charge, and because they are so preposterously bantam, they interact little with matter as they pass through it – “they’re very interaction phobic,” as Neilson puts it. That means that physicists can trace the particles in a straight line back to the scene of the celestial crime. “Neutrinos are messengers of these violent forces in the universe,” says Neilson. Enter the IceCube Neutrino Observatory. Completed in 2010 after seven years of construction and at a cost of $279 million, it is the world’s largest neutrino detector. It measures about one quarter of a cubic mile, or about the volume of 500 Amiens cathedrals or 546 Giants stadiums. It is also buried at the South Pole, almost a mile deep in ice, which happens to be a good place to study things that happened millions-of-light-years-deep in the space. At the depth at which IceCube is buried, the pressure from above has squeezed all the bubbles out of the ice, so neutrino interactions can be detected with little dissonance. It is also dark, so that the blue light-emitting particle, called a muon, produced in interactions between neutrinos atoms in the ice is detectable. In April 2012, IceCube recorded two neutrinos notable for energies much higher than those of the some 100,000 atmospheric neutrinos found in the detector each year. The neutrinos, reported in the scientific journal Physical Review Letters, were called “Bert” and “Ernie.” Their energies, at more than 1,000 tetraelectronvolts, were high enough to suggest interstellar space origins (a flying mosquito has a kinetic energy of about one tetraelectronvolt). Now, in the latest paper, the IceCube team reports that on returning to their data from May 2010 to May 2012, IceCube in fact detected 26 neutrinos of lower energies than Bert and Ernie, but still suggestive of interstellar origins: all of these neutrinos measured energy levels of more than 30 tetraelectronvolts. Still, the team does not have enough data to pinpoint from where, precisely, the far-from-home neutrinos are originating, though preliminary work suggests that at least some of them are coming from outside the Milky Way, says Neilson. It could be about a decade before Ice Cube has amassed enough data to attach a precise home address to the particles, she says, and, even then, doing so will depend on how well the data groups into an identifiable cluster. Right now, the data presents an un-telling collection of vagabond neutrinos hailing from all around the skies, she says. “We’d like to be very sure before making a statement about discovering the source,” says Neilson, “and we just don’t know yet.”
YALE (US)—A team has developed a way to rapidly manipulate and sort different cells in the blood using liquids comprised of magnetic nanoparticles. The advance could dramatically improve the speed and sensitivity of tests used to detect cancer biomarkers, blood disorders, viruses, and other diseases. Ferrofluids suspended throughout a liquid carrier, and have been used in industrial applications for years, including in hard disk drives and loudspeakers. Now a team led by Hur Koser, associate professor at the Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, has developed a biocompatible ferrofluid—one with the right pH level and salinity so that human cells can survive in it for several hours—and has created a device with integrated electrodes that generate a magnetic field pattern, allowing them to manipulate and separate red blood cells, sickle cells, and bacteria contained in this unique solution. The magnetic field attracts the nanoparticles in the ferrofluid, effectively pushing and shuffling the much larger, nonmagnetic cells along specific channels. Depending on the frequency of the magnetic field they apply, the researchers are also able to manipulate and sort different types of cells depending on their size, elasticity, and shape. “It’s like the cells are surfing on magnetic forces,” Koser says. “When we turn on the magnetic field, the nonmagnetic cells are pushed immediately up to the top of the channel.” There, they roll along the surface and can be quickly directed toward a sensor. While other cell manipulation techniques exist, this new method is unique in that it doesn’t require attaching biomarkers, or labels, to the cells and there is no need for labor-intensive preparation or post-processing. Being able to effectively sort and move cells with this technique could allow for much greater efficiency in disease detection by directing diseased cells toward sensors. Many of today’s tests require hours or even days to complete, because the concentration of diseased cells in a blood sample may be so low that it takes a long time for them to randomly bump into the sensors. In early-stage cancer, for instance, there could be one tumor cell for every billion healthy cells, making them extremely difficult to detect. “Effective and efficient separation is very important when you’re looking for a needle in a haystack,” says Ayse Rezzan Kose, a graduate student in the Koser Lab and the lead author of the study. “We’re hoping we can achieve an increase of several orders of magnitude in the sensitivity of existing detection technologies. If so, a blood sample analysis could be completed in minutes, not hours or days.” Koser hopes that one day the new technique will lead to portable sensors that doctors can carry into the field and which could be used to test for a range of disorders, such as cancer and HIV. “Anything you can put into the ferrofluid solution is potentially detectable in this manner.” Researchers from Yale and the University of Georgia contributed to the research that was funded by the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and the Yale Institute for Nanoscience and Quantum Engineering. Yale University news: www.opa.yale.edu/
Tooth Development in Human Evolution and Bioarchaeology 21 March 2014 A new volume by Simon Hillson on Tooth Development in Human Evolution and Bioarchaeology has just been published by Cambridge University Press. Human children grow at a uniquely slow pace by comparison with other mammals. When and where did this schedule evolve? Have technological advances, farming and cities had any effect upon it? Addressing these and other key questions in palaeoanthropology and bioarchaeology, Simon examines the unique role of teeth in preserving detailed microscopic records of development throughout childhood and into adulthood. The volume critically reviews theory, assumptions, methods and literature, providing the dental histology background to anthropological studies of both growth rate and growth disruption. Chapters also examine existing studies of growth rate in the context of human evolution and primate development more generally, together with implications for life history. The final chapters consider how defects in the tooth development sequence shed light on the consequences of biological and social transitions, contributing to our understanding of the evolution of modern human development and cognition. Simon is curently the Co-ordinator of the Institute's MSc in Skeletal and Dental Boarchaeology and teaches courses on the archaeology of human remains, dental anthropology and evolution of the human skull.
Patna is the Capital city of Bihar and is the second largest city in East India. Patna holds huge historic importance and is also considered as the oldest inhabited places in the world. The city of Patna is situated on the banks of the famous river Ganges and holds the distinction of being the easiest place of starting a business as per the World Bank. The historic importance of Patna has made is one of the major travel tour destination in East India and there are a large number of travel attractions and destinations in Patna. Apart from travel spots and destinations there are a good number of religious pilgrimage destinations spread across various places in Patna. The religious and pilgrimage travel destination include places that are closely related to Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.
Do you like Classic Rock and Blues, but you think that the pentatonic scale is quite limiting for self-expression? After all there rare only 5 notes in it! How much "new" music can be composed with only 5 notes? You'll be surprised. I used to think that the pentatonic scale was the "baby" scale to learn just to have something simple to play before tackling the modal scales. Boy, was I wrong. Even after years and years of playing I'm still finding new and original melodies on the pentatonic scale. Now, of course, I do not want to sidetrack you from learning all your modal scales. I am not even saying that scales are the most important thing to learn (they are not). But sometimes it is important to know how to take a concept (like the pentatonic scale) that has been played and overplayed and STILL be able to take something original out of it. So, how do you do it? Well, there are many ways, and today I am going to share one of them with you. We are going to create a little melodic unity (a "motif") and to "sequence" it through the scale. You can see exactly how to do that by watching the video below. Example TABs in the video. If you implement this exercise into your practice routine, you will see that in a little time you will start to create new and original licks. This is due to a number of factors, that may not be apparent at first: 1. By doing this exercise you are forced to play a NEW thing every day. This will train your fingers to follow your orders in real time - something that they are not used to. 2. You are also forced to play the notes of the pentatonic in a different order than you are used to. You may not feel this limitation now, but give it a try and tell me if in a couple of weeks you don't feel much more free to "move" in the scale. 3. Finally you are also training your ear. By playing the melodic pattern throughout the scale as shown in the video your ear will learn to recognize the intervals inside the pentatonic scale, with no need of you knowing the names or anything. You will just associate the sound with the fretboard position. Even if you are not thinking consciously that you are training your ear, you will see an improvement when you need to pick up a phrase and play it on your guitar. About the Author:Tommaso Zillio is a prog rock guitarist and teacher with a passion for Music Theory applied to Guitar.
Children are not just our future, they are our present too, which is why World Children’s Day is celebrated on November 20 each year to promote and advocate for the rights of the child. On November 20, 1956 the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child. On the same day in 1989, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). This year’s theme for Children’s Day is: ‘For every child, every right’. Pakistan is one of the few countries that ratified the UNCRC within a year of its adoption on November 12, 1990 – 33 years ago. Pakistan submitted its first and initial report to the Committee on the Rights of the Child in January 1993 and the latest sixth and seventh combined periodic report in August 2023. The UNCRC Committee adopted the concluding observations on the fifth periodic report of Pakistan at its meeting held on June 3, 2016. In the concluding observations on the fifth periodic report of Pakistan, the UNCRC Committee reiterated its previous recommendation to Pakistan that it “ensure the full harmonization of its legislation as regards the definition of the child so as to define a child as any human being below the age of 18 years.” Pakistan has a wide population of children. According to the Pakistan Demographic Survey 2020, about 29,855,239 people in Pakistan belong to the 5-9 age group, 26,929,952 to the 10-14 age group and 23,420,804 to the 15-19 age group. About 45 per cent of Pakistan’s estimated population of 212 million are children (below the age of 18) and 22.7 per cent are adolescents aged 10–19 years. Birth registration rates for children are estimated to be 30 per cent for children under one year and 14 per cent for children between one and four years, as per Unicef. Even though almost half of Pakistan’s population are children (below 18 years as per Article1 of the UNCRC) and despite the fact that the country ratified the UNCRC 33 years ago, it is unfortunate that Pakistan’s provincial and national laws are inconsistent in terms of definition of a ‘child’. This confuses stakeholders and has contributed to numerous child rights abuses and violations, which include child marriages, child labour, children in conflict and contact with the law and children’s involvement in armed conflict, etc. Children who require social affirmative actions, such as girls, refugee and internally displaced children, children from religious and ethnic minorities, children without parental care, children with disabilities and children in street situations are disproportionately affected due to the inconsistent definition of a ‘child’ and low birth registration rates. An estimated 22.8 million children aged 5–16 years are out of school in Pakistan. A study conducted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2022 revealed that one in every four households in Pakistan employs a child in domestic labour (CDL). Ultimately, one of the reasons contributing significantly towards this crisis is the inconsistent age limits. While Article 11(3) of the constitution prohibits children under 14 years from being involved in “any factory or mine or any other hazardous employment’’, it contravenes their right to education up to 16 years of age, as provided by Article 25A of the constitution. Additionally, there is no single operational definition of ‘hazardous’ and ‘light’ child labour. Different categories of child labour are also not adequately defined, such as CDL and children engaged in home-based work such as those making bangles. Child labour laws in all provinces are inconsistent with their laws related to the right to compulsory education (up to 16 years of age). For example, at the federal level, Section 3(c) of the Mines Act 1923 (applicable in all provinces) defines a ‘child’ as “a person who has not completed his fifteenth year”, and the Factories Act 1934 (applicable in Balochistan and Islamabad) defines a ‘child’ as “a person who has not completed his fifteenth year.” Even though the provinces have the prerogative to enact provincial legislation on child labour after the 18th Amendment, inconsistences exist in different legislation regarding age of the child in the same province. For example, Sindh’s Home-Based Workers Act 2018 defines a ‘child’ as a person who is 14 years or below (Section 2(v)) whereas the Sindh Child Protection Authority Act 2011 and 2022 Amendment define a ‘child’ as a person who has not attained the age of eighteen years (Section 2(g)). Additionally, inconsistencies regarding a child’s age also exist in the legislation governing the same subject in each province. In Punjab and the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT), Section 3 of the Punjab Domestic Workers Act 2019 and the Islamabad Capital Territory Domestic Workers Act 2022 prohibit the employment of children under the age of 15 (Punjab) and 16 (ICT) from working in a household in any capacity. In Balochistan, the Employment of Children (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 2021 is applicable. Section 3(2) prohibits a child (defined as person who has not completed 14 of years of age, under Section 2(c)) or adolescent (completed 14 years but not completed 18 years of age, under Section 2(b)) from being employed or permitted to work in the processes mentioned in Part II of the Schedule. ‘Domestic Child Labour’ is mentioned in Serial no 38 in Part II of the Schedule. However, child labour is only one of the multiple challenges being faced by children in the country. Child rights abuses and violations are interconnected. For example, the high rate of child labour and the low rate of children able to access education has a link with the high number of early and forced marriages in Pakistan. Pakistan is home to nearly 19 million child brides and has the sixth highest number of girls married before the age of 18 in the world, according to UN Women. Sindh is the only province in Pakistan which sets a uniform minimum age of marriage as 18 for both girls and boys (Sindh Child Marriage Restraint Act 2013). The law in all other provinces and the ICT discriminates on the basis of gender. The minimum legal age for marriage for boys remains 18 years and for girls at 16 years. In the Ali Azhar case, the Federal Shariat Court 265 observed that fixation of minimum age limit provides a reasonable time period to girls to complete basic education at least, which normally helps in developing mental maturity (rushd) in a person. Therefore, the law must increase the marriage age for both boys and girls to 18 years. Recently, the federal government adopted legislation in the area of child rights which includes: the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2023, 2022 and 2021, Anti-Rape (Investigation and Trial) Act 2021, the Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace (Amendment) Act 2022, Zainab Alert, Response and Recovery Act 2020, Prevention of Trafficking in Persons Act 2018, Juvenile Justice System Act 2018 (JJSA) and the National Commission on the Rights of Child Act 2017, etc. Provinces have also enacted legislation governing child rights after the 18th Amendment. However, the threats being faced by children have not gone away. This is because inconsistencies and implementation gaps exist to a significant extent. In line with the concluding observations by the UNCRC Committee, all federal and provincial regulations should harmonize their definition of a child so that anybody under the age of 18 is considered a child, and provinces should raise the minimum age for employment to the age for compulsory school education (5-16 years) as specified in Article 25A of the constitution. Today, children in Pakistan face multiple challenges that are restricting their access to their rights, including the climate crisis, racism and discrimination. Pakistan is struggling to provide children their rights.The country has dropped seven places in the Human Development Index (HDI), ranking 161 out of 192 countries in the 2021-2022 period, according to the UNDP report. It also has the highest baseline neonatal mortality rate (NMR) in South Asia at 42/1,000 live births. World Children’s Day offers each of us a chance to advocate and promote children’s rights, translating into dialogue and actions that will build a better world for children. The writer is a barrister. She tweets/posts @RidaT95 and can be reached at: email@example.com Historian Greg Grandin, in his 2015 biography of Henry Kissinger, estimated that Kissinger’s policies were... Over the last few years, Pakistan has witnessed a significant surge in emigration, fuelled by the challenges the... As Pakistan struggled with ever-growing challenges in recent decades, a succession of regimes have sought to jumpstart... As declared and guaranteed by Article 17 of the constitution of Pakistan, every person shall have the right to form... To progress rapidly, Pakistan must create an Ease of Doing Business environment conducive to economic growth,... They say democracy is the best form of government. We have tried all forms of governments but the country failed to...
Today is St Margaret’s Day. Before Southwark Priory became the parish church (and later also cathedral) there was St Margaret of Antioch Church in Borough High Street. St Margaret’s in Borough High Street, rebuilt in the 13th century, was Southwark’s parish church until 1540. As you left the Tabard Inn you would have seen the church opposite on an island plot . The site is now The Bridge Tap pub with the war memorial outside its front door. Here Borough High Street was known as St Margaret’s Hill although the incline for London Bridge was little further north. The church became a court and was destroyed by fire in 1676.
The Galle Fort enjoys a special place among the fortifications built during the colonial era. It is the largest Fort in Sri Lanka and it still remains in an excellent state of preservation. It was first built during the Portuguese period, mainly as a defence fortification. During the British period, Galle Fort developed to be one of the main centres of administration in the island. It has also earned importance during a period of nearly five decades as a living fortified city, where people are living and carry out all their day to day activities. In 1971 Galle Fort earned further recognition when it was declared by the Department of Archaeology as a protected archaeological monument. Due to its unique nature, containing a mix of architectural features belonging to both European as well as Oriental styles, making it a monument of outstanding universal value, the Sri Lankan Government made an application to UNESCO to inscribe it in the list of World Heritage Sites, in 1986. Accordingly, the Galle Fort was inscribed by UNESCO in the list of World Heritages in 1988, under criterion No. 4 pertaining to World Cultural Heritages. Galle Fort also functioned as Ward No. 1 of the Galle Municipality and therefore comes under the purview of the Galle Municipal Council for local administrative purposes. There are also a number of other institutions which are directly or indirectly involved in the management of Galle Fort as a World Heritage Site. Some of the more important among them are listed below: – Due to this reason, there arose the need to properly co-ordinate the activities of all these different institutions, to ensure proper and efficient management and conservation of the site. For this purpose, initially a Committee named the Galle Heritage Conservation Committee was established under the chairmanship of Cabinet Minister Hon. Rupa Karunatilleka. The main responsibility of this Committee was to co-ordinate the activities of all these institutions to ensure proper management of the site. This Committee also embarked on various fund-raising events, even motor races. A significant event which followed was the establishment of the Galle Heritage Foundation by Act of Parliament No. 07 of 1994, which replaced the Committee. The declared objectives of the Galle Heritage Foundation were to promote, conserve, protect and develop Galle Fort and its historic hinterland as a historic city centre and an area of archaeological importance. A Board of Management, comprising 26 members, is responsible for the administration, management and control of the Galle Heritage Foundation. \|Serial No\|\|Name\|\|Year/date of Appointment\|\|Year/date of termination\| \|01\|\|Hon. Neville Kanakaratna, Governor of the Southern Province\|\|1994\|\|2000\| \|02\|\|Hon. Richard Pathirana, Minister of Education and Higher Education\|\|2000\|\|2002\| \|03\|\|Mr. Rienzie Wijetilleka, former Chairman of the Hatton National Bank\|\|2002\|\|2003\| \|04\|\|Hon. Wajira Abeywardena, Minister of Public Administration\|\|2003\|\|2004\| \|05\|\|Hon. G.H. Ajith Kumara, Member of Parliament\|\|2004\|\|2007\| \|06\|\|Mr. Parakrama Dahanayake,Member of the Galle Municipal Council\|\|2007\|\|2015\| \|07\|\|Mr. Ramya Siriwansa, Retired District Secretary\|\|19.02.2015\|\|29.02.2016\| \|08\|\|Mr. Channa Menaka Gehan Daswatte, Chartered Architect\|\|07.04.2016\|\|26.10.2018\| \|09\|\|Mr. Parakrama Dahanayake, Member of the Galle Municipal Council\|\|07.12.2018\|\|2018.12.26\| \|10\|\|Mr. Channa Menaka Gehan Daswatte, Chartered Architect\|\|2019.03.01\|\|Up to Now\| \|Serial No\|\|Name\|\|Date of Appointment\|\|Date of Termination\| \|01\|\|Mr. P. Hewawasam, former Government Agent, Galle\|\|15.12.2001\|\|01.04.2004\| \|02\|\|Mr. P. Wijeratna, former Additional Government Agent, Galle\|\|28.06.2004\|\|31.12.2005\| \|03\|\|Mr. S.O.N. de Silva, former Regional Manager, Bank of Ceylon\|\|12.01.2006\|\|28.02.2007\| \|04\|\|Mr. H.L. Gunawardena, former Divisional Secretary, Galle Four Gravets\|\|11.04.2007\|\|20.04.2018\| \|05\|\|D.K.S. Jayalakshmi , Divisional Secretary,Baddegama Four Gravets\|
Can language express truth? Can language give us a clear picture of reality? Discussing Postmodernism has become almost prosaic given the intellectual climate of the 2010s. However, it has posed questions which directly challenge the most classical assertions of how we understand the world around us. For that alone it is worth responding to. Postmodernism also remains relevant because much of current thinking is rooted in Postmodern ideas. This goes beyond just academic circles: it is easy to catch Postmodern ideas in everyday discourse. Nothing is unusual about hearing someone retort in an argument “Well, that’s subjective,” or if they are more well versed and a little bolder “That’s just interpretation, there’s never really any one meaning.” These ideas originate from Postmodern language theory in particular. What is referred to as “Postmodernism” refers to a specific idea of language and how it functions. These ideas were shaped by numerous thinkers in the 1960s and 1970s: most popularly through French thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, who took the core ideas on language and related them to concepts of power, oppression, and freedom. A critique of language of all things may appear benign and simply technical at first, but the challenge undermines confidence in our ability to have knowledge and the possibility of truth. Let us explore both, but first I will need to explain the Postmodern understanding of language which I have been alluding to. I do warn that in discussing “Postmodernism” that there is a risk in generalization. The term remains elusive and the various thinkers who are characterized as Postmodern are not totally unified in their views. I will stick to explaining the broadly agreed upon problems Postmodern thinkers find in language and dabble with some responses. Postmodern theories of language challenge the belief that language provides a stable way of understanding the world. When you use language, you are partaking in the act of representing things in the world through concepts. This does not have to be simply through speech, when you are thinking or simply identifying an object you are representing the world through language. If you are for instance looking at a red apple, you will have the corresponding thought “That is a red apple,” which frames the experience and allows you to understand it. In that case, language is being used to formulate a claim which represents something out there in the world, namely that the apple is there and that it has the characteristic of “redness”. “There” is used to represent a concept of space–namely where the object is–and “red” is used to represent a concept of colour. Real things are therefore represented with concepts in language. Postmodern language theories argue that this sort of linear connection between language and objects in the world is fallacious and that, in fact, these kinds of representations are unstable. Instead of language being an accurate link to understanding reality, it is a product of culture and social circumstances. Therefore, representations and language are more indicative of culture rather than an objective reality. The argument is that all human thought is done through language and that language has an intrinsic “messiness” to it. It relies on words and signs which Postmodernists claim can have countless meanings and interpretation. Without unified meanings Postmodernists argue that it becomes impossible to have singular representations of things in the world, meaning there is a large degree of interpretation to what is deemed reality–therefore, reality is never separated from a subject. Language having a cultural dimension also poses a challenge. Since, in this view, meaning is framed by the culture which creates it, what language can express about reality is structured by the types of discourses and meaning which is possible with the ideas of that culture. What Postmodernists are arguing is that the ideas of a culture limit what language can say about reality. If true, this has significant implications, because every human body of knowledge (“epistemology”) has relied on the intuition that language can at least roughly represent reality. Without that foundational assumption, it is impossible to make any claims about the world or have any form of understanding–consequently defeating the possibility of having knowledge entirely. To the Postmodernist, classical accounts of truth–like that of Plato’s–which use language via propositional logic, or other bodies of knowledge which rely on the experiential, reason, or narrative cannot tell us anything about the world, due to their use of language. The strong Postmodernist must therefore reject science, history, and philosophy, as they attempt to rationalize the world using language. This is synonymous with the Postmodern rejection of “totalizing” narratives, also abbreviated as meta-narratives. We will return to this, as it is linked with Postmodern views of freedom and what is dubbed the “domination of language.” If language cannot tell us anything about reality, then how can we understand the world? The answer is that social construction is the prime shaper of reality. This means that, in a Postmodern paradigm, it is impossible to separate reality from the experience of a subject rooted in social-cultural circumstances. Instead, reality is something which is interpreted and must be represented, so it cannot possibly be understood objectively. The world is therefore quite literally constructed out of how it is represented by a culture throughlanguage. Language and culture are seen to shape our notion of reality to such a degree that it is impossible to understand reality outside of them. This is why history is deemed an impossible pursuit in a Postmodern context. The argument is that the cultures and, therefore, the languages of the past and present are so different that they become alien to each other. The modern historian is detached from the framework with which people of the past understood the world–i.e.: their meanings and language. Because of this, it becomes impossible for a modern historian to truly understand the past. Ideas such as truth, value, and justice are also seen as meanings which are constructed through language and projected onto reality. In a Postmodern context, this means that these ideas must be seen as derived from human beings–not the world nor nature. What this all alludes to is the fact that subjectivity becomes important if language, ideas, and knowledge are not rooted in reality, but instead construct it. Subjects and the culture which frames their thinking create particular discourses, which in turn contextualizes how people understand reality. Reality, when paired with the belief that people are always determined by their culture, becomes rather atomistic, since there are series of interpretations of what reality is, but no singular, true “objective” reality. Taking this position entails that cultures and subjects are insular from the world or that their representations are not shaped by things in the world which they are referring to. This seems rather unintuitive because when people use language they do seem to be referencing things in the world around them. This account of language also does not take into account that some concepts are much more stable than others, and that such concepts limit the possibility of mixed meanings and interpretation. For example, if you take the concept of “tree” to signify tall wooded objects, that meaning is relatively stable across the languages of different cultures and time periods. You could take the French word for tree “arbre” and the old English world for tree “Treo” and they would signify the same concept–a tall wooded object. Though, it should be acknowledged that interpretive differences can arise if the trees have different symbolic or metaphorical meanings across the different cultures. Accordingly, another important concept of Postmodern thought comes from the Discourse theory of the Poststructuralists. Discourse theory states that the signs and symbols which language uses to represent the world fundamentally alters the psyche of people using language. This shapes their very ability to perceive the world around them. Postmodern discussions of politics tend to revolve around this idea of language. Power, therefore, becomes closely linked with language in Postmodern thought as a consequence of language’s ability to shape psyche. Thinkers like Foucault focus especially on power because they view language as a subtle, insidious form of power. It is seen as something which dominates people not through coercion or force of arms, but by shaping how they are even allowed to understand the world. In the view of Foucault and many Postmodern thinkers, power is not necessarily held by the rich elite or politician, but instead those that shape the discourses and ideas which everyone–from the rich elite, to the politician, to the layman–use to understand the world. Because of this, strong Postmodernists have a certain skepticism of bodies of knowledge like history, science, and religion or what they call “metanarratives,” since they are viewed as means of dominating our conceptions of the world. Foucault in his discussion of power talks about how language is selective. Here he takes inspiration from French poet Raymond Roussel who expresses the idea that language does not designate a word for every concept for which designation is possible. This implies that there is a poverty to language since it cannot express all that can be expressed. This is a recurring objection in philosophy preceding the Postmodernists; Ludwig Wittgenstein famously makes a similar critique of language amongst others. Where the Postmodern critique differs (though much of it is inspired by Wittgenstein) is the implication brought about when this idea is tied to power. Foucault posits that because language only selects certain parts of reality, it only provides a partial glimpse of reality. Those selections, to Foucault in particular, are tools of domination and power: reality is shaped in accordance with what those who have power want to be believed. Language is therefore restrictive in how it shapes reality and the fact that it only allows certain discourses, in accordance with those in power. Before I delve into a criticism, I would once more like to clarify that “those who have power” in this view is not discussing shadowy bureaucrats or a secret cabal of world leaders planning every event throughout world history. Instead, it is framed as those who have traditionally shaped ideas and discourses in Western thought. Foucault is referencing everything from the classics, the enlightenment thinkers, and science when he talks about “power.” That being said, questions should certainly be raised when Foucault argues that these thinkers have exercised a sort of domination over people and their discourse. It underestimates the capacity for people to challenge these frameworks of thought, and assumes a certain tyrannical agenda amongst these thinkers to shape reality. Freedom then becomes a prime goal for Postmodern philosophy. Understanding how to achieve it is a contentious point for Postmodern thought. Derrida’s understanding may be the most popular, which is that representation and language are inescapable–therefore making the achievement of freedom impossible. Most Postmodern thought stems from this initial position of Derrida’s, so the question then becomes: “If one cannot be free from the domination of language, how does one best find freedom?” The end is that each individual must find a relative truth for themselves; that is the best one can do to prevent themselves from being dominated through language and oppressive discourses. There is a problem with this Postmodern emphasis on Freedom, that makes it impossible to function within a Postmodern framework. To make this point more poignant, I will use a Postmodern argument to refute it. Let us start with Derrida’s idea of dichotomies. Derrida argues language in the West is flawed because it is limited to various dichotomies: Good vs Evil, Presence vs Absence, Male vs Female, Speech vs Writing. Discourse tends to privilege one part of the dichotomy over the other: Good rather than Evil, Presence rather than Absence, Male rather than Female, and Speech over Writing. The argument is that the choice of what to privilege has no basis in objectivity or goodness, and that in reality neither choice within these dichotomies is inherently better than the other. In a Postmodern framework, this has to be the case because if language does not refer to anything than truth does not exist. This introduces the problem that all discourses must become equal, meaning that you must believe that all ideas are equally privileged or equally worthless–a truly daunting proposition. The majority of Postmodernists choose to believe in the former: that all meanings, even within dichotomies should be treated as equal. Then the question becomes how can the Postmodernist value Freedom over Oppression? How do they discern that Freedom is indeed privileged to oppression? Why are Postmodern thinkers also quick to value the individual over the collective? Even while disparaging the ideas of the Enlightenment and the West, Postmodern thought seems rather happy to take some of it as baseline assumption. If the Postmodernist seeks to answer these questions, they will fall guilty to using value judgments rooted in language or needing to accept metanarrative. The photo shows, ” Triel sur Seine, le pont du chemin de fer,” by Robert Antoine Pinchon, painted in 1904.
Dirofilariasis ( heartworm ) in cats is caused by Dirofilaria immitis. Whilst many people are familiar with heartworm in dogs, many owners are less familiar with heartworm disease in cats. Heartworm disease in cats, although caused by the same organism, is expressed differently to heartworm disease in dogs. Whilst cats can be infected with infective heartworm microfilaria, they are thought to be more resistant to infection with adult ( heartworms than dogs and generally have lower worm burdens than dogs when infected. That said however, relative to the size of a cat, an infection with only a few worms is considered a heavy infection in regards to worm biomass. Heartworm infection is spread via mosquitoes. It is important to note that it is essential for part of the heartworm lifecycle to occur within a mosquito so without mosquitoes, transmission of disease producing infections will not occur. The transmission of heartworm is at its peak during the main mosquito season due to the number of mosquitoes available to feed on animals. Peak mosquito season varies between areas due to its reliance on environmental factors. Warmth and moisture, especially from stagnant water, increase the mosquito habitat. Hence mosquitoes are more common during warmer months and in moister environments. Some areas may have very long mosquito seasons. However it is important to note that mosquitoes can be around year long. Some cats infected with heartworm will never show any clinical signs. There are generally two phases in the expression of feline heartworm disease in animals which show clinical symptoms. The first, acute phase is associated with the arrival of immature adult worms in the pulmonary blood vessels. The expression of heartworm disease in cats can be quite different to that in dogs. Infected cats may show no symptoms or intermittent symptoms such as coughing, difficulty breathing, vomiting, lethargy, anorexia or weight loss. Symptoms in infected cats may resemble those of feline asthma or allergic bronchitis. The clinical signs seen during the acute phase of the disease usually subside, however long term histopathological respiratory lesions are left even in cats which clear the infection. Many infected cats will then show few, if any, symptoms until phase two of disease expression when the adult worms die. The death of adult heartworms causes acute pulmonary inflammation and thromboembolism which can result in sudden death of the infected cat. Another possible outcome in heartworm infected cats is aberrant migration of the worms into body cavities, the central nervous system and systemic arteries. This is fairly uncommon. Heartworm infection and disease in cats can therefore be fatal. Prevention, diagnosis and treatment therefore become areas of interest for the dedicated cat owner. Difficulties have abounded in this area in the past due to the difficulty in establishing reliable tests to detect heartworm infection in cats and for the tests to give meaningful information about the infection. Due to the differences between feline and canine heartworm infections different tests needed to be developed. Feline heartworm blood test kits are now available for use by veterinary practitioners. Veterinarians will however often also wish to combine other means of diagnosis and prognostic tests such as echocardiography and radiography. Since sudden death can be a result of feline heartworm infection and is due to the body's responses to death of the adult heartworms, institution of treatment aimed at killing these adults may be counterproductive as the treatment may itself lead to sudden death via the same mechanisms. Surgical removal of the adult heartworms is one alternate option. Supportive treatment of any clinical symptoms may also be required in critically ill animals. When considering the need to treat feline heartworm disease, the lack of clinical symptoms between the first and second stages of disease progression may cause some owners to not consider treatment due to the inherent risk noted above. Thus, prevention is an important component of managing feline heartworm disease in our domestic cat population. Feline heartworm preventatives are readily available. Before starting your cat on these products individual veterinary advice should be sought. Some products do not require a heartworm test to be performed prior to starting preventative medications, whereas others may. Your veterinarian can advise each owner according to their choice of product. Some of the available products used for feline heartworm prevention include: - Advocate for Cats a monthly spot-on heartworm preventative which also assists in prevention of fleas, some gastrointestinal worms and control of ear mites. - Revolution for Cats a monthly spot-on application to prevent heartworm infection, and also assists in prevention of fleas, ear mites, sarcoptic mites, and some gastrointestinal worms in cats. The ease of application of such products and the wide spectrum of activity against several internal and external feline parasites, make these heartworm preventatives a recommended form of protection for your cat. Preventing feline heartworm infection is a recommended course of action for maintaining optimal health for your cat. Owners should never use canine heartworm preventatives for their cat. An adjunctive method for assisting in the prevention of heartworm infection in cats involves ensuring that the environment in which they reside is not one which provides a mosquito friendly habitat. Removing pools of stagnant water from the area and having insect screens fitted to doors and windows may reduce the number of mosquitoes in contact with your cat. Although heartworm is not spread directly between animals, all dogs and cats in the household should be on heartworm preventative medication for their individual wellbeing. Mosquitoes can fly quite some distance so individual animal preventative medication should be the cornerstone of protecting your beloved cat from feline heartworm infection and disease. 1 2007 Feline Heartworm Guidelines 2007 Guidelines for the Diagnosis, Prevention and Management of Heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) in Cats. Prepared and approved by the Executive Board of the American Heartworm Society (Officers: Dr. Charles Thomas Nelson, President; Dr. R. Lee Seward, Interim Past President; Dr. John W. McCall, Vice President; Dr. Sheldon B. Rubin, Secretary-Treasurer; Dr. Lynn F. Buzardt, Dr. Wallace Graham, and Dr. Susan L. Longhofer, Board Members; Dr. Jorge Guerrero, Symposium Chair; Dr. Carol Robertson-Plouch, Symposium Co-Chair; Dr. Allan Paul, Editor; and Dr. Doug Caritbers, Ad-hoc Member.) American Heartworm Society (AHS) http://www.vin.com/Members/CMS/Misc/default.aspx?id=9355 2 Heartworm Disease: an introduction. The Merck veterinary Manual online. http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/11300.htm&word=... 3 Snap Feline Heartworm Antigen Test Kit. Idexx Laboratories. eMIMS IVS (AUS) 4 Advocate for Cats, product information Bayer Australia Ltd website, http://www.bayeranimal.com.au/default.aspx?Page=50&ItemId=3 5 Revolution for cats, product information Pfizer Animal Health Australia website, https://www.pfizeranimalhealth.com.au/products/354/revolutionreg-for-cat...
Formicidae, Hymenoptera, Insecta, Arthropoda, Animalia Minor worker: head length 0.55mm, head width 0.47mm, scape length 0.67mm, Webers length 0.66mm (n=1). Head rounded behind; mesonotal suture weakly impressed; short propodeal spines present; face and mesosoma foveolate except for smooth and shining areas on promesonotal dorsum and sides of pronotum; first gastral tergum smooth and shining; dorsal pilosity sparse, short, moderately stiff; color brown. Major worker: head length 0.92mm, head width 0.89mm, scape length 0.66mm (n=1). Face punctatorugose throughout; hypostomal margin straight, with median tooth, and a pair of slightly larger teeth about one half distance from midline to recessed teeth flanking mandible bases (Figure); dorsal pilosity sparse; head with abundant, suberect setae projecting from sides of head in face view. Contrast with rugiceps: minor worker with propodeal spines, and shiny patch on promesonotal dorsum equal to or greater than that on rugiceps; major worker with relatively longer, more erect setae on sides of head. These differences are slight, but the two forms are sympatric and distinct at La Selva and adjacent parts of Braulio Carrillo National Park. Variation: minor workers from Monteverde are larger (head length 0.68mm, head width 0.57mm, scape length 0.85mm, Webers length 0.87mm [n=1]); major workers from Monteverde have variable face sculpture, often much shinier, with few or no puncta, rugae often becoming faint posteriorly, and often radiating fan-like from median area between frontal carinae. Costa Rica: Atlantic slope and montane areas. This species is very common in Winkler samples from mature wet forest, from 50m elevation at La Selva to cloud forest areas in the Talamancas and Monteverde. Workers have been observed on the ground at night, and at baits during the day. Nests have been observed in and under dead wood on the ground. Winkler samples from Guanacaste Conservation Area (Pitilla), Volcan Arenal, Monteverde, Penas Blancas, La Selva, Braulio Carrillo to 900m, Hitoy Cerere, Cerro Pittier at 1600m, Fila Cruces near San Vito. John T. Longino, The Evergreen State College, Olympia WA 98505 USA. firstname.lastname@example.org Stefan Cover, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138 USA. email@example.com Last modified: 2 September 2003. Go to Ants of Costa Rica Homepage
Formicinae, Formicidae, Hymenoptera, Insecta, Arthropoda, Animalia Additional images: dorsal view of worker (original, reduced). Guatemala to Venezuela. Costa Rica: Atlantic and southern Pacific lowlands. Minor worker: Propodeum lacking spines or tubercles of any kind; propodeum somewhat box-like, dorsal and lateral faces flat or nearly flat and meeting at an approximate right angle; dorsal face of propodeum subrectangular; first gastral tergite with dense yellowish to silvery appressed pubescence (not as strikingly golden as textor); erect setae on mesosoma and head silvery or whitish; erect setae on first gastral tergite relatively short; uniformly dark brown to dark red brown; side of mesosoma densely punctate, not shining (nests in dead wood). This species is most common in lowland wet forests, although I have one record from Curu, a dry forest site on the southern tip of the Nicoya Peninsula. The species also occurs in mangrove habitats. The workers are commmon diurnal foragers on vegetation, often visiting extrafloral nectaries, and the species is common in canopy fogging samples from La Selva Biological Station. I have two nest observations. One nest was in a dead stick in a recent treefall at La Selva. Another was in Corcovado National Park, in the canopy of a tall Licania (Chrysobalanaceae) tree. A founding queen, two workers, and brood were in a rotten stick. Forel, A. 1899. Biologia Centrali-Americana; or, contributions to the knowledge of the fauna and flora of Mexico and Central America. Insecta. Hymenoptera. 3 (Formicidae). London. 169 pp. John T. Longino, The Evergreen State College, Olympia WA 98505 USA.firstname.lastname@example.org Go to Ants of Costa Rica Homepage
Scientists from the University of British Columbia (UBC) and McMaster University say they have developed what could be new bone implant material: a foamlike substance that can be injected into the body and provide scaffolding for the growth of new bone. “Chemically cross-linked cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) aerogels possess many properties beneficial for bone tissue scaffolding applications. CNCs were extracted using sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid, to produce CNCs with sulfate and phosphate half-ester surface groups, respectively. Hydrazone cross-linked aerogels fabricated from the two types of CNCs were investigated using scanning electron microscopy, x-ray micro-computed tomography, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, nitrogen sorption isotherms, and compression testing. CNC aerogels were evaluated in vitro with osteoblast-like Saos-2 cells and showed an increase in cell metabolism up to 7 days while alkaline phosphate assays revealed that cells maintained their phenotype. All aerogels demonstrated hydroxyapatite growth over 14 days while submerged in simulated body fluid solution with a 0.1 M CaCl2 pre-treatment,” wrote the investigators. “Sulfated CNC aerogels slightly outperformed phosphated CNC aerogels in terms of compressive strength and long-term stability in liquid environments, and were implanted into the calvarian bone of adult male Long Evans rats. Compared to controls at 3- and 12-week time points, sulfated CNC aerogels showed increased bone volume fraction of 33% and 50%, respectively, compared to controls, and evidence of osteoconductivity. These results demonstrate that cross-linked CNC aerogels are flexible, porous and effectively facilitate bone growth after they are implanted in bone defects.” “These findings show, for the first time in a lab setting, that a cellulose nanocrystal aerogel can support new bone growth,” said study co-author Emily Cranston, PhD, a professor of wood science and chemical and biological engineering who holds the President’s Excellence Chair in Forest Bio-products at UBC. She added that the implant should break down into nontoxic components in the body as the bone starts to heal. The innovation can potentially fill a niche in the $2-billion bone graft market in North America, said study co-author Kathryn Grandfield, PhD, a professor of materials science and engineering, and biomedical engineering at McMaster who supervised the work. “We can see this aerogel being used for a number of applications including dental implants and spinal and joint replacement surgeries,” said Grandfield. “And it will be economical because the raw material, the nanocellulose, is already being produced in commercial quantities.” The researchers say it will be some time before the aerogel makes it out of the lab and into the operating room. “This summer, we will study the mechanisms between the bone and implant that lead to bone growth,” said Grandfield. “We’ll also look at how the implant degrades using advanced microscopes. After that, more biological testing will be required before it is ready for clinical trials.”
When forests burn Wildfires, heat waves and less predictable weather are an undeniable part of life in 2020 and are intimately linked to climate change. Fires create unstable forest ecosystems which are dry, patchy and more vulnerable to future ignition events. Combined with man made triggers such as deforestation, including accidental and intentional burns, forest fires threaten ‘80%’ of land based animal, plant and insect ecosystems. In the USA over the last decade there has been ‘an average of 69,020 wildfires (about 85% which are human-caused) which burn an average of 6.63 million acres each year’ (Source EarthData). We must accept that as “human-induced climate change is making them more frequent, larger and more widespread” we all need to take a stand and act now to reduce future impacts (Source United Nations Environmental Programme). The United Nations Environmental Programme has been reporting that “our world’s forest are on fire” for decades now, tied to a rise in global average temperatures - ‘1.1 degrees celsius higher than at the beginning of the last century’. Data gathered by the World Wildlife Fund found that the ‘number of global fire outbreaks is up by 13%’ in 2020 and set to increase. Fires do cause local damage and Mike Barret at WWF-UK noted that annually ‘fires release roughly as much CO2 into the atmosphere as EU countries emit’. Recent fires across the globe You will have read about fires spreading across the West Coast of the United States right now, the continuation of blistering conditions on the surface of our planet this year. With the Amazon rainforest decimated and devastating fires also reported in Australia in January. There has been an increase of so-called ‘megafire’ events, where a single fire burns an area over 40,000 hectares, that’s 40,000 international rugby pitches. Photo: Wildfire (Source: Unsplash) The Global Forest Watch (GFW) is a world leading resource on current wildfire information. They made an interactive map using NASA data to make evident the interconnected nature of fires spanning across all of earth’s continents. The GFW sends out alerts to hotspot areas to warn local governments and communities of fire threats. The map shows how this is a global problem and how climate change mitigation, reforestation and ecosystem safeguarding is still the key to protecting our trees in the long term. How to help? The fires you hear about in the news is only the tip of iceberg of the true extent of the burning occurring everyday. Whilst some fires draw mainstream attention, often those in the developed world or key ecosystems, many do not and occur on fragile peripheries that also require immediate action and attention. With the scale and scope of current forest fires it is crucial that the Treeapp communities knows: WHERE to find current information WHAT we can do to help HOW to prevent future crises We have broken down the global forest fire problem into regions, so you can easily find out how you can help with wildfires in a particular area. This collection of resources highlights a) the emergency response to minimise immediate damage and b) the long-term sustainability and protection of forest ecosystems. Check them out here: - World Land Trust - Cool Earth - Rainforest Action Network - World Tree Trust - Rainforest Trust - Survival International - Rainforest Alliance - Forest Peoples Programme Key Ecosystems Resources USA West Coast
I’m trying to move my development stuff over to a small local Debian based server running ispconfig, and need to basically make it so that .dev is routed to a specific IP. So for example I went to http://some-site.dev it would go to 192.168.0.150 Is there any way of doing this without a fancy/expensive router? In Windows, I would say ‘modify your hosts file’. It turns out that my answer is exactly the same for Mac. The link will show you how to modify the HOSTS file in OSX, allowing you to resolve specific hostnames (such as http://site-name.dev) on a network where you have no DNS server. Since my answer was downvoted, I figured I might as well expand on WHY I think this is the best option for you. Here’s a Microsoft article explaining the concept of hosts files (it also touches on the idea that nix-based systems have the same file) and here’s a great blog post touching on the same thing, with the content focused on Mac’s. Before DNS was prevalent, the hosts file was the way to go for specific name resolution. Since you do not have a DNS server (and building one can be a PITA, and overkill for what you explained you needed) just use the hosts file. - Testing domains on intranet/local network? - In Webmin (BIND DNS), how do I make ns1.xx.com, ns2.xx.com point to 2 different IPs for multiple domains - Mac Os Server, how to make bind point www.mydomain.com to the same machine bind is installed on? - how to make local domain name available to people on LAN - How Do I Point 2 Domains to 1 Website Using DNS?
Passover commemorates a pivotal event in the history of the Jewish people: the transformation of a group of slaves into a community of free men and women with a common God and unified purpose. It is a holiday about freedom. The rituals surrounding Passover are designed to pass the memory of that event from generation to generation. The primary ritual of the holiday revolves around the retelling of the exodus of the Jewish people from their enslavement in Egypt. The Passover Seder is the holiday meal preceded by the telling of that story, following a script contained in a book called the Haggadah. But the Haggadah is not just a dry collection of prayers, it encourages participation by the whole family and strives to make the holiday center on the children who will be learning these lessons for the first time. In fact, tradition holds that the youngest child at the table asks "the four questions," which are designed to elicit answers about the reasons for the special Passover foods and observances. About 3,000 years ago, the Israelites were enslaved by the Egyptians under the rule of Pharaoh Ramses II. Their ancestors had migrated to Egypt during a famine in the time of Joseph. According to the biblical book of Exodus, God selected a man named Moses to approach pharaoh and demand the freedom of his people. Moses' plea of "let my people go" was ignored. Moses warned Pharaoh that God would send severe punishments to the people of Egypt if the Israelites were not freed. Again, Pharaoh ignored Moses' request of freedom. In response, God unleashed a series of 10 terrible plagues on the people of Egypt. - Lice (vermin) - Wild beasts (flies) - Blight (cattle disease) - Slaying of the firstborn Pharaoh was unconvinced and refused to free the Jewish slaves until the final plague, which killed Pharaoh's own firstborn son. When Pharaoh finally did agree to allow the Israelites to leave, they had to do so in a great hurry, with no time to bake their breads. So they packed the raw dough to take with them on their journey. As they fled through the desert they would quickly bake the dough in the hot sun into hard crackers called matzohs. Today to commemorate this event, Jews eat matzoh in place of bread during Passover. After the Israelites left Egypt, Pharaoh again had a change of heart and ordered his army to pursue them. It was then that a miracle occurred. The waves of the Red Sea parted and the Israelites were able to cross to the other side. As soon as they all reached the other side, the sea closed, trapping Pharaoh's army. Then, as the Israelites watched the waters of the Red Sea sweep away Pharaoh's army, they realized they were finally free.
Nathan Fulcher is a self-identified “white guy from Iowa.” He grew up in a small town and went to a Catholic high school with only 100 students in the whole building. The world of Fulcher’s upbringing couldn’t be any further from that of Santa Monica High School on Los Angeles’ west side, where today he teaches language and literature. With roughly 3,100 students in all nine-12th grades, Fulcher says the school’s greatest strength, and at times its biggest source of conflict, is the diversity of the student body. “I want to ensure that my students are capable of talking about race in a thoughtful and respectful way.” — Nathan Fulcher One of the courses that Fulcher (BA ’03) instructs is a senior African American literature elective, and given the subject matter, race is in the foreground of many class conversations. In his instruction, Fulcher uses historical literature to contextualize current events for his students and illuminate the perspectives that exist around race. “We read the play, The Ballad of Emmett Till, and it really gets to my students,” Fulcher says. “The play became even more relevant a few years ago in light of the Trayvon Martin case. Many of my students struggled that year trying to understand a play set 50 years ago while seeing the parallels play out in the online news.” Some colleagues were surprised when Fulcher first expressed interest in teaching African American literature, but for him, the subject built upon what he studied at the University of Iowa. Fulcher focused his major in African American literature, and the Harlem Renaissance was the subject of his final student-teaching project. Through Fulcher’s experience as a white teacher instructing African American literature to diverse students, he emphasizes the importance of modeling the dialogue for students when issues regarding race arise. “So often we are afraid to even have the conversations, so we tip-toe around them so as not to offend anyone. Or, we speak in broad generalizations and don’t get anywhere,” says Fulcher. “I want to ensure that my students are capable of talking about race in a thoughtful and respectful way when they leave my classroom.” In his classes, Fulcher is honest about his upbringing and identity. By confronting issues directly, he creates a safe space for his students to express their own identities and explore issues involving race. “I’m open with my students about who I am and what I believe, and they see that passion come through in my teaching,” Fulcher says. Fulcher’s experience growing up in a largely white community and later teaching at a vastly diverse school models what is becoming more and more the norm: across the nation, the racial make-up of K-12 students is changing, with more schools looking like Santa Monica High, and less like that of Fulcher’s youth. In 2014, for the first time ever, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reported that minority students outnumbered non-Hispanic whites in K-12 schools. Yet while the racial makeup of America’s schools is evolving, the NCES also reported that nearly 80 percent of all public school teachers and 90 percent of private school teachers identify as white. Through his work as a consultant and director of the White Privilege Conference, an annual event that examines “challenging concepts of privilege and oppression,” Eddie Moore, Jr. (PhD ’04) focuses his work on the evolving dynamics of diversity, power, privilege, and leadership in educational systems. “If you come from a place where you haven’t had a lot of diversity exposure, it doesn't make you bad, it just makes you ill-prepared.” — Eddie Moore, Jr. “The world that our parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents grew up in during the 20th century is just not the world of the 21st century,” Moore says. “We know people need global competency skills just to be productive and effective.” Through his consulting firm America & Moore, Moore works with a variety of different stakeholders — teachers, students, parents, administrators — to positively impact systemic issues involving diversity, power, and privilege. He says that being culturally competent and having the ability to engage in conversations around race are vital to success, not only in K-12 classrooms but also in college and the workplace. As U.S. classrooms become more diverse, College of Education faculty, students, and alumni like Fulcher and Moore are leading the way to model best practices for talking about and teaching race in 21st-century classrooms. As an associate professor in Higher Education and Student Affairs and the University of Iowa Chief Diversity Office’s inaugural faculty fellow, Sherry K. Watt focuses her research on innovative ways to create effective cross-racial dialogue in classrooms. She analyzes methods of engaging students and teachers across their differences, particularly in relation to race. Watt says that for many people, talking about race is difficult, but she emphasizes that productive dialogue is one of the most important aspects of building greater awareness and understanding around race in K-12 classrooms and beyond. For her, one of the most productive ways to instill an understanding of diversity is by starting conversations about race at a young age. “There’s a way to point out the complexities of the social context as it relates to race to young children so that they understand what they’re seeing and they understand that it informs the backdrop of society,” Watt says, noting that children can be more accepting of cultural difference than adults. Beyond the K-12 setting, having conversations in college classrooms around race can be challenging. Watt teaches a graduate class called “Multiculturalism in Higher Education” where she leads students to explore social constructs like race, gender, and sexual orientation, as well as how to model conversations around those topics. She says this class has been powerful in guiding students to understand privilege, the deep roots of racism throughout American culture, and the importance of dialogue across difference. “One of the saddest things I see is when white graduate and undergraduate students tear up and say that nobody ever told me this before, nobody ever told me that I live in a racist, sexist system,” says Watt. Watt’s students take her lessons with them after graduation, and she says stories of the experiences they have in their own classrooms help inform her future students. “I always tell students on the last day of class, when you have your ‘Aha!’ moment, or you’re in the field working and all of a sudden make the connection with what you learned here and how it’s impacted what you’re thinking about your life or your work, send me a note back, because remember: I’m back here working with the students that are struggling with or resisting conversations around race, and it will help all of us to know that this educational experience makes a difference” says Watt. Elizabeth Getachew, a doctoral student in Schools, Culture, and Society, teaches undergraduates studying to become teachers, and through her work she emphasizes the importance of looking for the good in each person, regardless of their background or culture. “I teach college students to understand each individual person, each student as their own, and not to classify their students as black, Hispanic, white, rich, or rural,” which Getachew says helps students break down stereotypes. When Moore speaks with universities and constituents preparing for work in the field of education, he emphasizes the importance of learning about diversity and obtaining cultural competencies. “I approach the diversity work from a skill-based perspective. It’s not about blaming people, shaming people, degrading people, pointing people out as bad, evil people,” Moore says. “If you’re coming out of a place or you come from a place where you haven’t had a lot of diversity training, or diversity exposure, or cultural competency opportunities, it doesn’t make you bad, it just makes you ill-prepared.” But Moore warns that as the U.S. economy becomes more global and the workforce more diverse, the inability to work with people of different backgrounds could be detrimental to success. “If you lack global cultural competency skills in the 21st century workplace it could cost you your job,” he says. Moore’s message about the importance of being culturally competent and having the ability to work with people of different backgrounds is especially true for education professionals. As recent events on campuses across the country have highlighted, teachers face some of the biggest pressures to be culturally competent. But learning about diversity later in life can mean having difficult conversations. Watt says that because many people aren’t taught to talk about race, especially beginning at a young age, when these conversations arise, they aren’t prepared and tend to retreat from the conversation in order to avoid a miscommunication that may lead to perceived racist comments, or alternatively they exhibit defensive behaviors that can inhibit productive dialogue. Through her experiences guiding these conversations, Watt knows that the practice of patience is an essential element during these dialogues. She recommends giving all involved the permission to misstep and misspeak in order to find a collective voice. She suggests that educators start by establishing ground rules and preparing the group for inevitable emotional and defensive reactions. Anticipating these reactions and having strategies for working through them can help teachers to better manage these difficult conversations. “I hope that there will be trust built among teams of teachers, or counselors and supervisors, or friends and family, where you have conversations with each other about where you’re at with these issues, how you can continue your development, how you can unlearn stereotypes that hinder relationships, and how you might be able to support each other when you run into a situation that you feel being triggered,” Watt says. While working as a counselor at Linn-Mar High School in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Laura Gallo (MA ’05), a doctoral candidate in Counselor Education and Supervision, began to notice that there were misunderstandings between students of diverse background and some of the teachers in her building. She decided to initiate proactive change in her building to positively impact the school’s climate and improve the learning experience for all. “I hope that there will be trust built, where you have conversations with each other about where you’re at with these issues.” — Sherry K. Watt Through her efforts, Gallo put together professional development activities — one-on-one meetings, group conversations, and interactive training sessions — that helped the counselors and teachers humanize their students and also quantify their own privilege. During one workshop, she included a survey that asked her colleagues questions like “has a member of your family ever been to jail,” which led to conversations about white privilege and helped the high school’s leaders become more in touch with the life situations of their students. “It helps to be aware of the values and assumptions we have without really thinking about it,” Gallo says. “It can give teachers a better understanding of the students, their families, where they’re coming from, and maybe some of the struggles they have.” Watt says that sometimes, even with the best intentions, the conversations don’t end up the way that Gallo’s did. In these moments, Watt says one of the most helpful tools can be an apology. “Admitting that you don’t know and that you’re uncomfortable is a good first step,” she says. “It helps bring authenticity to the moment, and in that moment you can work from there towards some kind of change.” As the 21st century progresses, it’s clear that working towards change in the nation’s increasingly diverse classrooms will become even more imperative. “It’s not just about liking black people; it’s not just about being able to work with a black kid. In today’s classrooms, there are going to be issues of race, religion, sexual identity, and sexual orientation involved with the students, and the families, and the communities with whom you work,” Moore says, noting that educators and students must build upon and expand their skills to work with people of diverse backgrounds to successfully move toward a better future. As to who and what defines diversity, Watt emphasizes that people need to keep learning and unlearning attitudes toward those who are different from them in terms of backgrounds, beliefs, sexual orientations, and skin colors. “These issues continually evolve, so you have to spend time exploring them and unlearning some of the things you’ve been taught about who people are, about stereotyping, and about marginalization,” Watt says. “The ways our minds have been imprinted with positive stereotypes associated with white people and negative stereotypes associated with marginalized people or people of low income — all that has to be intentionally thought about and unlearned.”
100. Introduction to Economics. A general introduction to the discipline of economics, including both microeconomics and macroeconomics. The course is designed to develop an understanding of how economic principles and analysis can be used to study social problems and issues. Topics include supply and demand, comparative advantage, inflation, unemployment, economic growth, money and the banking system. Applications and issues vary by section. Also offered through Peace Studies. 108. Economics for Environmentalists. An introduction to the basic concepts, tools and theories of microeconomics that are applied to problems typically associated with the use of the environment. The course begins with basic microeconomic principles, advances to important economic theories that are commonly used to describe environmental resource allocation problems and concludes with an examination of case studies such as air pollution and acid rain, destruction of rainforests, climate change, alternative sources of energy and waste disposal. This course does not count toward the major or minor in economics or economics-environmental studies and is not open to first-year students or students who have received credit for Economics 100, 101, or 102. Prerequisite: Environmental Studies 101 or permission of the instructor. Also offered as Environmental Studies 108. 115. Economics, Law and Government. This course examines the influence of government on markets and individuals’ economic decisions, focusing on how the U.S. Constitution and federal and state governments’ actions affect market outcomes. Alternative views of the appropriate roles of government in the economy are discussed. Economic perspectives and models are studied in the context of real-world events; topics and applications vary by semester. Past topics have included crime and punishment, regulation of monopoly, poverty and inequality, economics of free speech, and the government role in stimulating the economy. This course does not count toward the major or minor in economics or any combined major with economics. 200. Quantitative Methods in Economics. An introduction to mathematical and statistical techniques used in economic analysis. Topics include the representation of economic hypotheses, sources and uses of economic data, probability, hypothesis testing and regression analysis. Emphasis is on the application of statistical techniques to economic problems. Prerequisite: Economics 100. Students less confident in their mathematical skills should take Mathematics 113 prior to Economics 200. Also offered through Statistics. 209. The Economics of Gender. This course examines ways basic economic theory has been applied to questions of gender. It explores a variety of empirical and historical evidence about the economic status of women, the division of labor in the household, contemporary changes in labor markets, the economic forces affecting the ongoing evolution of the American family and the effects of government policy on all these. The course may also discuss the role of economics, as well as its limits, in understanding social phenomena. Prerequisite: Economics 100. Past Syllabi: S. Horwitz, Fall 2015 215. A Novel View of American Economic History. New York State was center stage in the 19th-century transformation of the American economy and a surprising number of the cast of characters were from northern New York. This course seeks a deeper understanding of American economic development by studying the “North Country” perspective. Novels by Gore Vidal, Irving Bacheller, Samuel Hopkins Adams and Carl Carmer and biographies of Silas Wright, David Parish and John Brown are included in the reading. Seminar format emphasizes discussion and writing. Prerequisite: Economics 100. 228. African Economies. An overview of sub-Saharan African economies with emphasis on basic economic principles, problems and indigenous institutions within an African context. Current development and structural adjustment issues are analyzed as well. Contrasts and comparisons with North American counterparts are made. Special emphasis is placed on exploring how cultural differences affect economic activities and institutions. Students learn of the diversity and complexity of economic relationships in African societies and increase their understanding of economics in their own society. Prerequisite: Economics 100. Also offered through African Studies. Past syllabi: R. Blewett, Spring 2013 234. Comparative Economic Institutions. This course offers a broad perspective on the history of the economies of the U.S./Western Europe, the former Soviet Union and the developing world by comparing the economic and political institutions in each. A historical look at the economic arguments for markets and planning provides theoretical framework for detailed exploration of the evolution of capitalism, the rise and fall of socialism and current attempts at reform in Russia and other countries, and the influence that both systems, along with colonialism, have had on the economic development of the rest of the world. The focus is on relationships among institutions societies adopt, the processes by which those institutions emerge, and the economic consequences that follow. Majors in other social sciences or area studies programs are encouraged to enroll. Prerequisite: Economics 100. Also offered through Global Studies and Peace Studies. Past syllabi: S. Horwitz, Fall 2012 236. Globalization Issues: Equity, the Environment and Economic Growth. Do globalization and economic growth contribute to increased inequality within countries and among them? Under what circumstances do global market forces contribute to the impoverishment of already disadvantaged nations and to the benefit of the already advantaged? What is the relationship between economic growth and damage to environmental resources? Under what circumstances do global market forces contribute to the degradation of the environment? This course endeavors to answer these questions and more, beginning with a study of recent literature by professional economists as well as by examining other data and evidence. Prerequisite: Economics 100. Also offered through Peace Studies. Past syllabi: E. Malikov, Fall 2014 251. Intermediate Microeconomic Theory. Expands upon basic models of supply and demand, consumer theory, the theory of the firm and production, and theories of market behavior learned in Introduction to Economics. Examines the role of prices in the allocation of resources and examines the effects of changes in policy on economic choices. Prerequisite: Economics 100. A study of economic aggregates, including the determination of national income, employment and the price level, the topics covered include inflation, unemployment, economic growth, international macroeconomics and the appropriateness and effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies. Prerequisite: Economics 100. 289, 290. Independent Project. Individual study of a topic under the supervision of a faculty member. Prerequisites: GPA of at least 3.0 in economics and permission of instructor. 305. Industrial Organization and Public Policy. A theoretical and empirical analysis of the structure, conduct and performance of American industry. Emphasis is placed on the use of microeconomic theory to analyze the effects of public policies on market incentives and resource allocation. Topics include theories of the firm, monopolization, mergers, antitrust law, price fixing, price discrimination and other contemporary problems. Prerequisite: Economics 200 and 251. 307. Law and Economics. This course analyzes the law using economic principles. In particular, it employs the techniques of microeconomic theory in the study of policy issues and legal rules. Topics such as property rights, externalities, contract law, tort law (accidents), product liability and criminal adjudication are critiqued in terms of how different incentive structures motivate economic actors. The course includes the study of how economic goals conflict with and complement other goals of the law, such as justice and fairness. Prerequisite: Economics 251. Past syllabi: A. Lockard, Spring 2016 308. Environmental Economics. An analysis of deficiencies of the market system and existing property rights structure that generates pollution problems in industrial society. Alternative policy options are considered, including incentive based approaches and cost-benefit analysis. Prerequisite: Economics 251. Also offered as Environmental Studies 308. 309. Labor Economics. A study of labor markets and the role they play in the determination of wages, employment and working conditions. The demand for labor by employers, leisure-labor supply decisions by households, investment in human capital, distribution of earnings among individuals and the effects of labor unions are discussed. Topics covered may include analysis of the role of government policy in the areas of income maintenance, unemployment, education, and occupational health and safety. Prerequisites: Economics 200 and 251. Past syllabi: I. Cho, Spring 2015 311. Banking and Monetary Policy. This course explores the roles of money, banks and government policy in promoting economic growth and stability in a modern economy. In particular, the course investigates the operational principles of modern banks and the Federal Reserve System and compares their strengths and weaknesses to other historical and theoretical banking systems. The course focuses on the effects of monetary institutions and policy on macroeconomic stability, including inflation and business cycles. Other topics may include the history of American banking, current issues in bank regulation, electronic money, the role of financial markets and international monetary economics. Prerequisite: Economics 252. This course is a standard course in investments. Among the subjects to be covered are the role of financial intermediaries and financial instruments, the time value of money, bond valuation, stock valuation, risk and return, market efficiency and investment companies. Special attention is devoted to hedge funds, options and futures. Prerequisites: Economics 251 and 200. Past syllabi: P. FitzRandolph, Spring 2016 315. Public Sector Economics. This course uses microeconomic tools and theory to examine the efficiency of markets and to enumerate potential roles for government when markets fail. The efficiency and equity of government expenditures and tax policies are examined by looking at their impact on individual behavior and the distribution of income. Current policies of state, local and federal governments are examined to see how real-world complications (like politics and information problems) can lead to outcomes that are very different from economic prescriptions. Prerequisite: Economics 200 and 251. 322. International Economics. This course focuses on the theory of international trade and finance and its application to current policy problems such as protection, intervention in foreign exchange markets, international debt and foreign investment. Prerequisites: Economics 251 and 252 or permission of instructor. Also offered through European Studies. Past syllabi: M. Jenkins, Spring 2016 330. History of Economic Thought. Analysis of the development of major economic concepts. Ideas are examined for their relevance both to their own time and to ours. Coverage extends from the ancient philosophers into the 20th century, with special emphasis on the original writings of Adam Smith and Karl Marx. Prerequisites: Economics 251 and 252 or permission of instructor. Also offered through European Studies. Past syllabi: J. Young, Spring 2016 333. Austrian Economics An introduction to the body of ideas known as the Austrian School of economics, which is associated with the work of Ludwig von Mises and F. A. Hayek. Once a prominent school of thought, the Austrians nearly disappeared after the rise of general equilibrium theory and Keynesianism in the 1940s. Since the mid-70s, the Austrians have experienced a significant revival. In this course we will explore the history of the school and how its approach to economics compares with the neoclassical orthodoxy. We will cover topics such as: the nature of human action, the role of knowledge in the market, the process of economic calculation, competition as a discovery process, the Austrian theory of the business cycle and its applications to the current recession, the problems of socialism and regulation, and the Hayekian critique of social justice. Prerequisites: Economics 251 and 252. Past syllabi: S. Horwitz, Spring 2016 336. Economic Development. This course examines the problems of economic growth and development in the less developed countries (LDCs) of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Although a variety of approaches to development economics are studied, the analysis of new institutionalist economics is emphasized. By the end of the semester, participants should be able to understand (1) the economic diversity, as well as the diversity of development problems, among LDCs, (2) the conditions necessary or conducive to economic growth and the institutional hindrances to growth, and (3) the economic implications of alternative development strategies and policies. Prerequisites: Economics 200, 251 and 252. Also offered through African Studies and Global Studies. Past syllabi: R. Blewett, Fall 2015 A study of statistical techniques economists have found useful in analyzing economic data, estimating relationships among economic variables and testing economic theories. Topics include multiple regression, probit and logit analysis, heteroscedasticity, autocorrelation and simultaneous equations models. Prerequisites: Economics 200, 251 and 252. Also offered through Statistics. Statistical methods for analyzing data that vary over time are investigated. Topics include forecasting systems, regression methods, moving averages, exponential smoothing, seasonal data, analysis of residuals, prediction intervals and Box-Jenkins models. Application to real data, particularly economic data, is emphasized along with the mathematical theory underlying the various models and techniques. Prerequisite: Math 136 or permission of the instructor. Also offered as Mathematics 343. 344. Mathematical Economics. A systematic study of the mathematical structure of economic theory, with emphasis on the application of calculus and linear algebra to economic analysis. Topics include optimization theory, comparative statistics analysis of market and macroeconomic models, general equilibrium analysis and game theory. Prerequisites: Economics 251, 252, Mathematics 205 and 217. 362. Topics in American Economic History. This course offers an overview of the economic development of America from the colonial period to the present and examines in detail several of the classic controversies of the new economic history including the economic causes of the American Revolution, the evolution of financial markets, the economics of slavery and Reconstruction, the Populist movement and the Great Depression. Emphasis is placed on the role economic theory can play in understanding pivotal events of the American experience. Prerequisites: Economics 251 and 252. Also offered as History 362. Past syllabi: S. Horwitz, Spring 2016 371. Behavioral Economics and Economic Psychology. This reading-intensive seminar on behavioral economics examines the ways in which decisions deviate from predictions of standard economic models, and considers its sister discipline, economic psychology, which tries to explain why people do not behave as economic models predict. Discussions involve whether market forces, learning and evolution can eliminate these human qualities and lead to rational behavior. We examine anomalies, or the ways in which people deviate from the standard models, and explore how behavioral concepts can be incorporated into those models and applied to a particular field (e.g. consumer economics, public economics, economic development or organization economics). Prerequisite: Economics 251. Past syllabi: M. Motika, Spring 2016 376. Experimental Economics Experimental economics is the study of how various kinds of experiments help economists improve their models. The course explores, and involves participation in, a wide variety of experiments that have contributed to our understanding of how markets clear, the effects of various public policies, and issues in human decision making in the field of behavioral economics. The emphasis is on learning research methods; each student will prepare and run at least one in-class experiment as well as writing an original proposal to study a topic of their choosing. This course provides excellent preparation for students interested in using the economics lab for summer research or senior projects. Prerequisites: Economics 200 and 251. Past syllabi: M. Motika, Fall 2015 384. Natural Resource Economics. This course complements Economics 308 (Environmental Economics). Standard economic approaches to problems of natural resources are presented and criticized from a variety of different perspectives to give students a deeper appreciation of the role of economic analysis in coping with natural resource scarcity. Specific topics include economics and population growth, economics and environmental ethics, ecological economics and sustainability, biodiversity and water resources. Prerequisites: Economics 200 and 251. Also offered as Environmental Studies 384. Individual study of a topic under the supervision of a faculty member. Prerequisites: GPA of at least 3.0 in economics and approval by the department. 450. SYE: Senior Seminar. The purpose of the seminar is to provide an integrative experience for senior majors that will allow them to use what they have learned in previous courses to study a particular issue in economics. Writing, speaking and research skills are emphasized. The issues and topics that form the basis of the seminar vary by semester and instructor. Prerequisites: Economics 200, 251 and 252, and senior standing. Course description will be provided in the Class Schedule. Individual study, under the supervision of a faculty member, that provides an integrative experience for senior majors, allowing them to use what they have learned in previous courses to study a particular topic in economics. Prerequisites: Economics 200, 251, 252, senior standing, GPA of at least 3.0 in economics and approval of the department prior to the semester the project begins. 495. Senior Research Seminar. Designed to prepare senior majors who are eligible for departmental honors, this seminar is focused on enhancing capabilities in conducting scholarly work in economics. The seminar is offered in the fall of each academic year and it is presumed that students enrolled plan to complete an honors thesis during the spring semester. Prerequisites: GPA of at least 3.5 in economics and approval of the department chair.498-499. These courses are for senior majors who are eligible for department honors. Each student plans and writes an honors thesis under the guidance and supervision of a faculty member. Prerequisites: GPA of at least 3.5 in economics and approval of the department.
When it comes to losing weight there certainly are a lot of voices clamoring for your attention. Not to mention “fad diets” and those “magic” diet pills advertised on TV everyday. Typically overlooked in the equation is the need for some physical activity. And yet, many people who do work out on a regular basis struggle to lose weight as well. So in the debate of diet versus exercise let’s take a look at some facts to determine what’s required to lost weight safely and effectively. A recent study tracked the physical activity, diet, and calorie expenditure of a “hunter-gatherer” tribe in Tanzania. What were they looking for? The common belief is that frequent physical activity should make us slim. In other words, if our lifestyle required more day to day physical activity (say similar to that of a tribal people) than it does now, the idea was that Americans would, quite naturally, be thinner than they are now. So what did the study find? Though the people studied did walk much more on average than we do each day, they were not burning off more calories than we do. It confirmed what repeated studies have shown in the past. Namely, many people who begin an exercise program lose little or no weight. Some even gain weight. In other words, the conclusion seems to be that an active lifestyle, on its own, is not enough to protect against obesity. That is, even active people will pack on the pounds if they eat like most of us “typically” do in America. So if exercise is not enough, surely that means that dieting alone is the answer? According to Dr. Timothy Church of the Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Louisiana: “it’s been known for some time that, calorie for calorie, it’s easier to lose weight by dieting than by exercise.” So that ends the debate. Or does it? If it’s true that diet enough helps us lose weight more readily than exercise alone, why is it that so few of us stick to a diet? In other words, how can we get off the lose weight – gain weight – lose weight roller coaster once and for all? Studies seem to indicate that people stick with low-calorie diets more readily than they continue with exercise to drop pounds. The question is why… And the answer may surprise you. People will stick with a program that provides them with results. The key is to have realistic expectations AND emotional support while changing diet — which involves a change in your lifestyle. And though studies seem to indicate that diet is more of a factor for losing weight, a combination of both promotes a healthier lifestyle. Sure, we like to find — and hear — easy answers. And if you had to choose just one option it would have to be diet versus exercise. However, the benefits of an exercise program are more far reaching than simply losing weight. Exercise gets our bodies moving which promotes better circulation, and helps create a better quality of life as we age. Are you searching for supportive nutrition counseling? If you live in Westchester, NY discover an holistic New York fitness program. Our FitMD program combines supportive nutrition counseling and personal trainers in Westchester helping you to lose weight, get in better shape, and lead a healthier lifestyle. For more information click the links above, or give us a call at 914-721-0071 today. After all, it’s your health and well-being…
In this work, Maria Montessori examines the educational concerns of the older child, the adolescence and even the mature university student. She considers each level and seeks the optimum method of facilitating growth. This work follows the child from the age of 7 through adolescence. Dr. Montessori's understanding of the adolescent's need for independence in thought and action is remarkable. Her comments on the state of education and its implications for the world at large are very modern and more relevant today than ever before.
The Androscoggin begins in northwestern Maine at Umbagog Lake, journeys through New Hampshire, then re-enters Maine near Bethel, eventually joining the Kennebec at Merrymeeting Bay. While the Penobscot was primarily a logging river and the Kennebec a transportation corridor, the Androscoggin has traditionally been Maine's principal industrial river. Thanks to a 1000 foot drop from its headwaters to the sea, the Androscoggin has an average descent of 8 feet per mile--a swift flowing, large volume river provides an excellent power source. Consequently, the Androscoggin has borne a heavy burden of pollution. The Maine DEP, communities, and industries have begun collaborating to improve the river, and the results so far have been promising. See a profile on the Rapid River. Read a first-hand account of the Source-to-the-Sea Trek down the Androscoggin. Androscoggin Land Trust Length: 164 miles Drainage Area: 3,450 square miles (2,730 in Maine) Discharge at Mouth: 4.19 billion gallons/day Visit the EPA page for the Lower Androscoggin watershed. Rivers and Streams in the Androscoggin Watershed: \|return to Watershed Profiles\|
1643 – Palacio de Santa Cruz, Madrid The Palacio de Santa Cruz was built between 1629 and 1643 by Juan Bautista Crescendi. The palace originally served as the royal prison. Many waited here for the verdict of the infamous Spanish Inquisition. The palace was renovated twice: first in 1846 when a fire destroyed much of the building and a second time in 1940 after the palace was damaged during the civil war of the 1930s. The Palacio de Santa Cruz is now home to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs who settled here in 1901.
Slippery surfaces are dangerous, especially in hazardous areas such as footbridges and stair treads. Some bridge surfaces feature slopes and may also be wet, making them unsafe for both cyclists and pedestrians. Most of the modern bridges are OSHA and ADA compliant, but most of the older bridges need some improvements to meet these standards. The use of anti-slip bridge surfaces is a low cost, low maintenance, and permanent solution to slippery surfaces. Modern anti-slip surfaces are permanent and will provide safety for years even after the paint have worn out. Below are some of the reasons why bridges need anti-slip surfaces. 1. Reduce Accidents Pedestrians and cyclist’s safety can drastically improve if anti-slip surfaces are installed on bridges. Slippery surfaces are a major cause of accidents on roads, factories, and homes. Cyclist accidents are very common on bridges and are sometimes serious and may sometimes lead to deaths. Some of the surveys conducted on cyclist accidents show that the most unsafe surfaces are wooden surfaces, especially when wet. The expansion joints found on bridges have a bumpy and uneven surface that are a risk to cyclists. The chances of mishaps on a slippery surface are very high, but there are cost-friendly anti-slip products available in the market. There is a lot of safety standards that a bridge must meet to get certified as safe for use. Some of these regulations include OSHA and ADA. OSHA is an international regulation that mainly deals with people’s safety, mainly when at work. The provisions strive at ensuring that all the hazards that may lead to accidents and injuries are identified and eliminated. One can meet the OSHA and DOT recommendations for minimum coefficient friction by installing high-quality anti-slip bridge surface covers. 3. Complete Control on the Appearance The anti-slip surfaces materials available in the market nowadays are very beneficial in maintaining the look and feel of concrete on bridges, offices, and homes. The anti-slip surfaces work on all kinds of surfaces, including concrete and steel surfaces mainly found on bridges. One can choose a material that will blend with the already existing architecture to increase the attractiveness of the surface. The anti-slip surfaces also come in different colours and can enhance the visual appeal of a surface. The anti-slip surfaces added on the surface of a bridge will also provide safety for long periods, even after some of the other parts have worn out.
Improved grades, fewer classroom struggles and a happier kid is what every parent can hope for at the start of a new school year. There are 5 secrets to a successful school year and you can master them all. As a parent, it’s your job to support what’s happening in the classroom and be sure your child has what they need to learn effectively. This is especially important for kids that may not ‘fit’ the education system. As you head into the school year I want to encourage you to go in with your eyes wide open and a determination to do whatever is necessary to help your child be confident in who they are, while being successful in the classroom. Here are 5 ways to become a powerful parent advocate: - Know who your child is and how they learn. Schools tend to educate the left side of the brain and our right-brain visual kids can struggle or become lost. There are things you can do, but it all starts with understanding who they are and what they need. - Know what’s happening in the classroom. Get to know your child’s teacher and their teaching style. Find out how many kids are in the class. Do they have recess, art, gym? How does their teacher teach? The more you understand the learning situation, the better you can support and supplement where needed. - Support the classroom teacher in any way you can. Teachers are professionals that love what they do, but there are a lot of circumstances beyond their control. Increased testing affects our children, but also affects the way our teachers might teach. Be supportive. Know what your kids are learning and find ways to help at home. - Get your child the tools they need to learn effectively. Children learn differently and there are only so many hours in a day for a teacher to reach everyone. Visual kids may need art and images, tactile children might need hands on work and auditory children might benefit from more reading time. - Choose enrichment classes or programs that support and round out their education. Budget cuts have led a lot of schools to cut art, music and even gym programs. Students have very few classes that include hands on activity that prepare them as learners but also satisfy their innate need to see, touch and do. Enroll your children in programs that provide a well-rounded experience while encouraging educational outcomes. My life changed when we sent our first child to elementary school. I’d been very involved our daughter’s early education. I thought now that she was in elementary school, it was time to step back a bit and let the school handle it from here. But the more I read about education, the stresses, the cuts, the testing, the rise of ADHD – the more I knew I better stay involved. I had to pay attention. I had to do my part. And after putting four kids through school, I am here to say – it was a good thing I was paying attention. My kids all did well, but as visual learners, there were many things we had to do to make that happen. Unfortunately, things are even tougher now, especially for visual kids, and we – parents and educators – need to up our game. I am dedicated to helping visual learners be successful. It’s my mission, my passion. I hope you’ll stay connected so we can get your visual kids what they need to learn, to feel great about who they are and to treasure the uniqueness of who they are.
The Different Meanings of the Word “World” The word “world” refers to a totality of entities, the entirety of reality, and everything that is. Though the concept has been used differently in different disciplines, a world has always been the concept that unifies all things. Some conceptions view the world as one, while others consider that there are many different worlds. In this article, we’ll consider the different meanings of the word “world.” To further understand the meaning of the term, let’s examine the definitions of the term. The word “world” has many meanings. It can refer to a single object, the entirety of reality, or anything that is. Throughout history, this concept has undergone many conceptualizations, ranging from the simple definition of the world as the universe to the more complex and metaphysical theories that explore the possibilities of the world. Some view the entire world as unique, while others talk about the existence of multiple worlds. Whatever way the term is used, the idea of a world has always had many ramifications. Traditionally, the concept of the world has been categorized into two groups: the First World and the Second. The First World was the United States and Western Europe. The Second World was the Soviet Union, while the Third was composed of China, Cuba, and Russia. The Third is a category that consists of nations that align with neither group. These distinctions have always been blurred and, in some cases, even the boundaries between the two groups have been distorted. B.R. Tomlinson summed up these categories with his essay, “The Concept of the Third and the Second” The Third World refers to nations that have not joined either group. The First World is a region where Western society exists, while the Second World is a continent where the Communist bloc dominates. The Third World is a space in between the First and Second Worlds. It is comprised of all nations in the world. If you want to know more about the world, you should read this book. It will help you to better understand the different meanings of the words and phrases. The term world is a general term for the whole of reality. It refers to the totality of all entities that are in it. The word can be defined as a single entity or it can be a collective world. It is often used as a synonym for “world.” The first world is the one where people have no language and no culture. The second is a country where people do not understand the meaning of the word. The third world is a country in which no one has language. The world is a concept that has many different meanings in philosophy. It can refer to everything that is in reality, the physical universe, and everything that is not. There are several interpretations of the term, and it has been attributed different names by different philosophers. The most popular of these is the First World. The Second is a cosmopolitan world. It is the only one that is non-communicated. But this doesn’t mean the world is not a nation.
An American National Standard, ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019: Safety Standard For Guided Industrial Vehicles, promotes safety for unmanned guided industrial vehicles and the automated functions of manned industrial vehicles. Automated Practices and Automated Industrial Vehicles – A History Automation is frequently envisioned in speculative narratives of the future, but it dates back long before the common baseline for the subject. In fact, even prior to the assembly line, there was automation. Automation even finds its way into mythology. In the Greek Pantheon, Hephaestus, the god of the forge, crafted weapons for other residents of Mount Olympus, as well as heroes and other select mortals (he makes the shield of Achilles at the end of Homer’s The Iliad). To aid him in such a taxing duty, he created automatons—basically autonomous machines, or robots, formed from metal. Much like Hephaestus in his workshop with his automatons, many work environments incorporate human personnel and machine or automated systems to enhance productivity, safety, and efficiency. Industrial vehicles have been equipped with automated systems for some time. This is reflected in the establishment of the B56.5 Subcommittee in the 1970s, which culminated in the first B56.5 standard in 1978. The American National Standard ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019 This standard has seen numerous revisions over the years, with the current edition being ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019. This version, like its predecessors, contains content distinguished for the user (found in Part II) or the system supplier and manufacturer (found in Part III). There is also a sizable section on automated functions of manned industrial vehicles (Part IV), as well as two appendices. In all, ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019 defines safety guidelines for the elements of design, operation, and maintenance of powered, not mechanically restrained, unmanned automatic guided industrial vehicles and the system of which the vehicles are a part. In addition, this standard applies to vehicles that may have originally been designed to operate in a manned mode, but were since modified to operate in an unmanned, automatic mode, or in a semiautomatic, manual, or maintenance mode. While this standard is meant to promote safety of unmanned guided industrial vehicles and automated functions of manned industrial vehicles, it may also be used as a guide by governmental authorities desiring to formulate safety rules and regulations. Changes to ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019 ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019 revises the 2012 edition of the same American National Standard for guided industrial vehicles. Continuing the tradition of keeping the document current, this revision has updated wording and provisions, with changes made to the glossary. Any user of this standard who wants to see each change can find the margin note (19) throughout the standard document. ITSDF: B56 Standards Committee Since 2005, the management of the B56 Standards Committee has been handled by the Industrial Truck Standards Development Foundation (ITSDF). The B56 Committee has the following scope: “Establishment of the safety requirements relating to the elements of design, operation, and maintenance; standardization relating to principal dimensions to facilitate interchangeability, test methods, and test procedures of powered and nonpowered industrial trucks (not including vehicles intended primarily for earth moving or over-the-road hauling); and maintenance of liaison with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in all matters pertaining to powered and nonpowered industrial trucks.” If you are interested in related standards for industrial trucks and forklifts, please refer to our past post on ANSI/ITSDF B56.1-2020: Safety Standard for Low Lift and High Lift Trucks or acquire other ITSDF Standards here. ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019: Safety Standard For Guided Industrial Vehicles is available on the ANSI Webstore.
World Science Day 2002 Proclaimed by the UNESCO General Conference (31C/Resolution 20), the World Science Day for Peace and Development (10 November 2002) is an annual event which will be celebrated all over the world to recall the commitment made at the UNESCO-ICSU World Conference on Science (Budapest 1999). The purpose of the WSDPD is to renew the national, as well as the international commitment to science for peace and development and to stress the responsible use of science for the benefit of society. The WSDPD also aims at raising public awareness of the importance of science and to bridge the gap between science and societies. United Nations' Secretary General's Message UNESCO Director-General's Opening Ceremony Address UNESCO Director-General's Message
What is heart disease? Heart disease in pets can have many origins. It can be caused by changes in the heart’s muscular walls, defects of the valves that separate the chambers of the heart, or narrowing of the vessels leaving the heart. As with humans, heart abnormalities can exist at birth or can develop late in life. Particularly for pets, heartworm is a major contributing factor. The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ that functions to pump blood around the body. Heart failure occurs when the heart fails to pump enough blood to meet the body’s demands. This causes changes in the body as it tries to support a faltering system. These changes include increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, and fluid retention. When the heart is unable to function correctly, there is a build-up of fluid pressure within the circulatory system. This can cause leakage of fluid into the chest or abdomen and is responsible for many of the clinical signs seen with heart disease. Clinical signs of heart disease: - difficulty breathing - engorgement of veins (visible in the jugular vein in the neck) - swollen abdomen (fluid in the abdominal cavity) - enlarged liver - weight loss - decreased exercise tolerance – the dog tires easily - pale or blueish mucous membranes - cool extremities (toes, tips of ears etc) - fluid swelling of lower limbs If you suspect your pet is suffering from heart disease, have them examined by your veterinarian. Diagnosing heart disease Diagnosis of heart disease begins with a thorough physical examination. Listening to the patient’s chest with a stethoscope can allow the veterinarian to identify any abnormal heart sounds, rhythms or lung sounds. If an abnormality is suspected, the next step is to X-ray the chest. Chest X-rays show the size and shape of the heart, any blood vessel enlargement within the chest, and any changes in the lungs. Ultrasound of the heart (also called ‘echocardiography’) is a technique that is used to see the size of the heart chambers and the degree of contraction of the heart. More advanced ultrasound machines can even show the direction of blood flow through the heart. An ECG (electrocardiogram) is another way to investigate heart disease. This device records the electrical impulses across the heart as nerves fire to stimulate the heart to beat. ECG’s are useful to determine any changes in the heart’s rhythm and can give an indication of changes of heart chamber size. Other tests such as blood and urine tests can help determine changes caused by this disease, and are often recommended before therapy for heart disease is started. Many different therapies for heart disease are available depending on the type and severity of the disorder. Most pets with mild heart disease respond well to therapy and can have an extended lifespan with treatment. Many heart conditions are progressive, which is why early diagnosis is crucial. Therapy for heart disease is lifelong and requires regular check-ups to assess development.
For many of us in El Paso, save for a lapse in payment or water main break, we expect water to come out of the faucet when we turn on our taps. But for many in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, potable water is a precious commodity – one that most locals do not take for granted. Malynda Cappelle, associate director of the Center for Inland Desalination Systems (CIDS) at the University of Texas at El Paso, spent her summer testing technology that could make a difference in the lives of thousands of people living in Honduras and eventually in other developing countries. Funded by a grant from Securing Water for Food, the solar-powered Zero Discharge Desalination (ZDD) system is a combination of two processes capable of achieving zero liquid discharge while desalinating water. Desalination is a process that removes salt and other contaminants from brackish water – resulting in clean drinking water and a waste discharge. ZDD leaves no liquid waste discharge at the end of the process but does produce a solid byproduct that can be used by farmers. The entire process is solar-powered. The team pilot-tested the technology at the Kay Bailey Hutchison Desalination Plant prior to leaving for Honduras. The UTEP researchers – Cappelle, W. Shane Walker and ZDD inventor Thomas Davis – earned a grant for the work after placing second (behind MIT) in the Desal Prize, a competition that challenged researchers to treat enough water for a small 40-acre farm. The technology they used had to be 100 percent powered by renewable energy. “We ran out of water in our apartment, and we had to wait for water to be delivered,” Cappelle said. “In the area where we lived, water is delivered to houses once or twice per month, so people are storing all that water in a tank above or below their homes.” Implementing the technology presented new challenges on a daily basis. “The goal of a pilot is to find limits, so you can find where to make your system more reliable,” Cappelle noted. The UTEP team worked with counterparts from the Universidad Politécnica de Ingeniería. The group also provided training sessions and tours with various officials and rural water systems. Once up and running, the ZDD system could treat approximately 8,250 liters of water in a 24-hour period. Future funding sources could be used to develop a company in Honduras that would build these ZDD systems and sell them to farmers and local communities. “One goal of our project was to evaluate ways to provide more municipal water because it’s something that everybody needs,” Cappelle said. Cappelle emphasized the cost efficiency of water desalination as compared to other options, such as importation. Her team will continue to collaborate with the Universidad Politécnica de Ingeniería to develop their technical knowledge of ZDD. “If you can make desalination energy efficient and you can reduce the waste, it’s going to be a great thing for the rest of the world,” she added. Cappelle said that in addition to providing a valuable service to Honduras and other developing countries, the ZDD technology has the potential to benefit EPWater and other users of desalination processes because of cost efficiencies over more conventional desalination processes.
Some people think cars are a better way of transportation around the city while others prefer cycling. Discuss both views and give your opinion. 40 minutes, 250 words at least. The variety of options to move around the city, starting from public transportation to owning a vehicle and walking on feet, make people argue about whether cars or bicycle is a better decision. In my perspective, cycling is the best choice due to its positive effect on health and the environment. To begin with, many people prefer cars for many numerous (avoid word repetition – many) reasons. First, cars are faster especially in moving to for longer distances. This is why many employees who work far from their houses spend a huge amount of money to own their private vehicle (This is not an explanation of the idea that cars are a faster mode of transport. Better write: While cycling from one corner of Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia, to another may take a few hours, the same distance can be covered in 30 minutes by a car. This saves a large amount of precious time.). Secondly, cars are beneficial to families duo due to its their (Subject is cars, a plural) capacity and convenience. Cars They can take up to 5 passengers depending on the car type. Therefore, family trips will be easier, and also safer to for children when it comes to crossing the roads. (The last two sentences can be merged to create a complex structure while following the rules of parallelism: They can make family trips easier by carrying up to five passengers comfortably and are safer for children in a city’s traffic.) On the other hand, cycling is believed to have positive results in for the environment and also humans bodies. Bicycle insures ensures (insure vs ensure) having a daily work out routine. By the urgent need (which urgent need?) to move around the city, your body will be forced to do some cardio, and it is a shortcut method to people who are busy or lazy to go to the gym (a number of issues piled up in a single sentence: urgent need, cardio, busy, lazy. Restrict yourself to one idea. Cycling to work in a city ensures a routine that forces an individual to exercise. An extremely busy urban lifestyle leaves little time to exercise. Cycling to work provides an opportunity to stay fit.). The next advantage is that the our environment would suffer from less air pollution. It is a well-known fact that cars are the second influencer to biggest source of air pollution after factories due to the smoke generated by engines after burning the fuel. Thus, cycling is considered a healthier an environmentally sustainable (This point is not about health but about the environment) transportation choice. Another point that favor bicycles is that they are cheaper than other vehicles. Bicycles guarantee no other future costs because it they only require only motion energy by a human being whereas cars are in a constant need to constantly consume fossil fuels. Accordingly, saving the money which you will spend on fuel to buy your own which would otherwise be spent on fuel is used for needs like groceries or clothes sounds like a better selection. To conclude, I personally prefer cycling because of the reasons mentioned above, yet cars are more suitable for people with specific circumstances like living away from their work. (Conclusion in these type of essays is an opportunity to denounce the other view and support your viewpoint: In conclusion, though cars have a few advantages in a city, they are a polluting and an extremely costly mode of transport. I strongly support cycling since it helps in keeping people healthy and maintaining the sustainability of the environment.) Please subscribe to my Youtube Channel. Contact me for writing polished and effective Statement of Purpose. Contact me for Editing Services and Document Writing Services.
Fever, usually at the beginning of the illness. A high fever does not mean the illness is more severe. Babies may have additional symptoms, including: A decreased interest in their surroundings. Listlessness and sleepiness. Fretfulness (irritability) and not sleeping well. Apnea, where breathing stops for about 15 to 20 seconds. This usually occurs only in babies who were born prematurely and who also have a history of apnea. It is hard to distinguish between a common cold and RSV infection. But unless you or your child has an increased risk of complications from RSV, it usually is not important to know which virus causes Coughing that is getting worse. A child may choke or vomit from Lethargy, increased tiredness, decreased interest in surroundings, or loss of interest in food. In this article This information is produced and provided by the National Institute (NCI). The information in this topic may have changed since it was written. For the most current information, contact the National Institute via the Internet web site at http:// .gov or call 1-800-4-CANCER. WebMD Medical Reference from Healthwise June 25, 2012 This information is not intended to replace the advice of a doctor. Healthwise disclaims any liability for the decisions you make based on this
The Chronica Boemorum (Chronicle of the Czechs, or Bohemians) is the first Latin chronicle in which the history of the Czech lands has been consistently and relatively fully described. It was written in 1119–1125 by Cosmas of Prague. The manuscript includes information about historical events in Czech land from ancient times to the first quarter of the 12th century. At the same time, the Chronicle is not limited to Czech national historiography, also revealing the relationship between various European states during the 10th–12th centuries. The author of the chronicle had been known as the dean of the chapter of St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague Cosmas of Prague. Being a valuable historical source, especially as it relates to events whose contemporary was Cosmas, the Czech Chronicle in many respects set the direction for the subsequent development of the Czech annals. The chronicler worked on the chronicle until his death in 1125. Despite of some inaccuracies and a vivid expression of the author’s own position, the scientific level is high for that era and the importance of the events described in it put Cosmas of Prague into one of the most significant chroniclers of medieval Europe. The Chronica was continued by various, collectively called Cosmas's continuators, down to 1300.
Q--How are the times of sunrise and sunset determined? Is the time at a given location exactly the same year after year for a particular day? A--In the good old days a rooster sufficed, but like everything else, it is more complicated now. Basically, sunrise and sunset are based on when the upper edge of the sun`s disc appears to touch the horizon. ``Appears`` is used because the sun`s rays are bent, or refracted, slightly by the Earth`s atmosphere. For precision`s sake, the times are calculated as the moments when the geocentrical center of the sun is 50 minutes of arc below the horizon--34 minutes as a set value for refraction plus 16 minutes for the semidiameter. Dr. Kenneth Franklin of the Hayden Planetarium in New York, who uses spherical trigonometry to calculate the times of sunrise and sunset, begins by determining the correct declination of the sun--that is, its position north or south of the equator, which changes moment by moment (the latitude of the observer does not change). Then he calculates its semidiurnal arc--how long it takes the sun, both rising and setting, to get from the horizon to the local meridian. This time is then corrected to relate to the standard time meridian, 75 degrees west of Greenwich, England. New York City, for example, is about 1 degree east of this meridian, and each degree translates to about four minutes` difference in sunrise and sunset times. His calculations, which are for an observer at sea level, are then rounded off to the nearest minute. At a given location and day of the year, the times of sunrise and sunset do not remain constant. This is because our measurement of time goes a little farther awry until corrected each leap year. Every four years the times should be about the same. Q--If June 21 is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and the sun is then highest in the sky, why isn`t that also the hottest day? Why is mid-August the hottest time? A--Because it takes several weeks for the atmosphere and oceans to warm up in spring and early summer, there is a lag in seasonal temperatures.
MOV Player & MOV Codec What is MOV file? The MOV file format is a multimedia container format that can store one or more tracks of data such as video, audio, text, and effects. Each track can either contain a digitally encoded media stream, playable using the appropriate codec, or a data reference to a media stream located in another file. There are some cool websites which have some really good information pertaining to MOV files. How to Play MOV files on the Computer? MOV is the filename extension for the QuickTime multimedia file format that supports many compression codecs such as MPEG-4, H.264, Sorenson and Avid DNxHD. Of course you can use Quick Time to play mov files, and now you have other alternatives. One is the QuickTime Alternative, which will introduce to you later, enables more players to play MOV files. 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Berlin, 15 November 2021 – The first-ever Global Corruption Barometer – Pacific released by Transparency International today reveals that corruption is a significant problem in the region. When it comes to corruption, the Pacific has been one of the most under-studied regions in the world. Representing the views of over 6,000 people across ten countries and territories, it is the most extensive public opinion survey on corruption ever gathered in the region. The results highlight some worrying trends. More than three in five people interviewed in the region believe that corruption is a problem in their government. Businesses were viewed as a major part of the problem, where government contracts appear to be a corruption hotspot. Moreover, almost half think there is little control over companies who extract natural resources, one of the largest industries in the region. Around a quarter of respondents have been offered a bribe for their votes and 15% received threats of retaliation if they did not vote in a specific way. The survey also uncovered that almost a third of interviewees had paid a bribe to receive public services. Receiving a quicker or better public service was named as the most common reason for bribery. These are worrying findings, especially given ongoing corruption concerns related to COVID-19 in the region. While a majority of respondents (54 per cent) felt that their governments had dealt with the crisis in a transparent manner, there have been allegations that some governments have used the pandemic to expand their powers, that certain emergency funds have been misused and that media freedom is being increasingly restricted. The good news is that over 70 per cent of respondents think that ordinary people can help fight corruption, and more than 60 per cent think their government is doing a good job combatting corruption. Pacific leaders are urged to harness this hopeful belief – and the powerful guidance this new data offers about where problems lie – and take immediate action to create fairer and more transparent societies. “This new data reveals for the first time the high levels of corruption directly experienced by people in the Pacific, which points to a pressing need for reform. Governments need to listen to their people and address their corruption problems to ensure they can vote freely and access quality public services easily, regardless of who they know and what they can pay, rooted in fairness and accountability.” Delia Ferreira Rubio, Chair of Transparency International. “Pacific leaders have made several positive steps by making public commitments and national initiatives to tackle corruption. By putting communities at the heart of positive change, governments can ensure they achieve meaningful reforms.” Mariam Mathew, Pacific Regional Lead, Transparency International. Notes to editors The Global Corruption Barometer surveyed 6,000+ adults of diverse age groups and backgrounds from February to March 2021. For details on the survey approach, please see the methodology note in the report. Detailed recommendations are also available in the report, as is a breakdown of the findings from each country or territory: the Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. Multimedia material is available for download, including video footage of the region, as well as interviews with national and regional Transparency International experts. Transparency International experts are available for interviews. For any press enquiries, please contact Transparency International Secretariat: [email protected]
Memory types defined We all know the basic difference between short-term and long-term memory. But why do some memories fade while others remain? Find out what’s happening inside your brain when you start having trouble with memory loss. In a nutshell When we talk about memory, we’re mostly referring to long-term memory. These are facts and experiences that we’ve known for days, weeks, months, years, decades or a lifetime. But there’s more to long term memory than meets the eye. For a start there are two different types 1. Conscious memory This is our memory of facts which can be consciously recalled – that is, we have to think about remembering them. It is sometimes called ‘declarative’ or ‘explicit memory,’ as the information is explicitly stored and ‘declared.’ Science fact: Conscious memories are stored in the temporal cortex after having been encoded or processed in the medial temporal lobe. Conscious memory can also be divided into two types. Episodic memory is our memory of experiences that happened to us personally. What does that mean? It’s the memory of times, places and emotions of things that happened in our past and which are permanently stored. Semantic memory is our memory of specific facts, meanings and concepts that we’ve learnt. What does that mean? For example, we learn that the capital of France is Paris. This is a fact and one that you may not have any real experience of unless you’ve visited it. It might take a few occasions for us to store the fact in our long-term memory, but once it is there, it’s usually there for good. 2. Unconscious memory Unconscious memory is our memory of how to do things which we’ve done so often they seem automatic. For example, tying our shoelaces, playing a guitar, riding a bike and even using a knife and fork. We acquire these memories (which are sometimes called ‘implicit’ or ‘procedural memory’) through repetition and practice but they become so ingrained that we don’t consciously think about them anymore when we do them. Science fact: Procedural memories are encoded and processed in the cerebellum, motor cortex, putamen and caudate nucleus – these are all areas in the brain that are involved with movement and instinctive actions. So why do we forget things from our long-term memory? Scientists have several theories about why this happens, here’s the main ones What it means: Over time, the memory trace that’s formed in your brain when you learn something new might begin to fade and, unless you make a conscious effort to practice or learn the action, it will disappear. But some psychologists disagree with this theory, believing instead that once you learn something you never forget because ‘it’s just like riding a bike.’ You might be a bit wobbly if you get on a bike after a few decades without practising, but the memory is so ingrained that you will still know how to do it. What it means: Some memories may compete and interfere with other memories, especially if they’re very similar, which can make it harder to remember them. Failure to store What it means: The brain fails to properly encode the memory into your long-term memory. This could be because the brain decided to only remember certain details, and forget others.
One of the reasons race cars are able to post such blistering track times is because they are so light. Of course, it's easy for a race team build a lightweight car when it doesn't need to haul more than one person or even have a full interior. But race car designers have utilized lightweight materials to help make their cars fast. Of course, it's not enough for the materials to be lightweight -- otherwise, race cars would all be made of paper. Race cars operate under extreme stress, so every material in them needs to be strong. One of the most high-tech materials in race cars is carbon fiber. Formula One race car bodies are almost entirely made out of carbon fiber. Carbon fiber is extremely light and strong, and it's starting to appear (in small amounts) on production cars, mainly as decorative accessories. Because it's so light, carbon fiber could radically increase fuel economy in production cars. The problem: It's too expensive to use on most cars. Aluminum is another lightweight, yet strong material that's often used in racecars, primarily for the engine block. Thanks to racing, aluminum engine blocks have been in production cars for some time now, but some automakers are beginning to use aluminum for select exterior body panels, too. In fact, aluminum hoods are becoming more common now than ever before. Since aluminum isn't as expensive as carbon fiber, aluminum components have been able to find their way onto production cars a little faster than the more expensive carbon fiber parts. Car manufacturers like aluminum because it lightens the car, which improves fuel economy, and doesn't take a toll on performance or durability. What's the number 1 car racing technology that's made it into everyday cars? It's a safe bet that it's something you might not be expecting. Read on to find out what it is.
Introduce your class to physical computing with micro:bit online and Tynker Blocks. The micro:bit is a tiny, microcomputer with programmable LEDs, light, and temperature sensors, physical connection pins, motion sensors, and wireless communication via radio and Bluetooth. Hands-on learning with Tynker’s curriculum engages students as they see their abstract programs come to life on a tangible physical device. Using a combination of interactive micro:bit lessons, concept explanations, videos, puzzles, quizzes, and DIY projects, this course teaches students to write block coding programs and then deploy the code to the micro:bit wirelessly. Students can use code to program physical buttons, display messages on the micro:bit, animate the LEDs, simulate dice and coin flips, and detect gestures and shakes. The micro:bit coding lesson plans in this course build and reinforce engineering, math, and science skills, while applying programming concepts such as repetition, events, conditional logic, variables, and functions with a physical computing device. Each lesson is designed for a class period of 45-60 minutes. All student work is automatically tracked and assessed, and you'll be able to monitor individual progress and mastery charts for your students. This course is recommended for students who are just starting to get familiar with block programming. More advanced students who are familiar with Python may enroll in MicroPython 101 where they use MicroPython, a Python-like text-based programming language to program micro:bit. This micro:bit code course is supported online as well as on an iPad through the Tynker app. Recommended Accessories: This course requires micro:bit devices (not included). You may purchase these separately at a variety of resellers. - micro:bit, USB cable, Battery pack, 2xAAA batteries (for each student or group) - micro:bit command library - Deploying code to the micro:bit - Types of loops - Reading sensor values - Conditional logic - Programming the LED grid - Lists and arrays * Online courses require a modern desktop computer, laptop computer, Chromebook, or Netbook with Internet access and a Chrome (29+), Firefox (30+), Safari (7+), or Edge (20+) browser. No downloads required. * Tablet courses require an iPad (iOS 10+) with Tynker or Tynker Junior app installed and Internet access
A full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a 1-kohms load operates from a 120-V (rms) 60-Hz household supply through a 10-to-1 step-down transformer having a single secondary winding. It uses four diodes, each of which can be modeled to have a 0.7-V drop for any current. What is the fraction of a cycle that each diode conducts? What is the average voltage across the load? What is the average current through the load? Since the 10-to-1 step down transformer is used, the output of the transformer will be: 120/10 = 12 V (rms) at 60 Hz. The voltage drop across each diode is 0.7 V. In the bridge rectifier, in each cycle, the half cycle current flows through two diodes and flows through another two diodes in the next. i.e. below 0.7*2 = 1.4 V potential drop, no current will flow. The output of the transformer can be given as: V = ... The solution below outlines the average current and voltage found in the circuit, after outlining the specific amount of diodes and how they conduct themselves with respect to voltage and current.
In this little book I have endeavoured to maintain the simplicity which is the ideal of this series. It is more difficult, however, to be simple in a topic which, even in its illustrations, demands of the reader more or less facility in the exploration of his own mind. I am persuaded that the attempt to make the matter of psychology more elementary than is here done, would only result in making it untrue and so in defeating its own object. first inscriptions of picture writing, up to the modern inventions in electricity, the complex constitutions of government, and the classic productions of literary art; and as revealing its possibilities finally in the brutal acts of the mob, the crimes of a lynching party, and the deeds of collective righteousness performed by our humane and religious societies. It would be impossible, of course, within the limits of this little volume, to give even the main results in so many great chapters of this ambitious and growing science. I shall not attempt that; but the rather select from the various departments certain outstanding results and principles. From these as elevations the reader may see the mountains on the horizon, so to speak, which at his leisure, and with better guides, he may explore. The choice of materials from so rich a store has depended also, as the preface states, on the writer's individual judgment, and it is quite probable that no one will find the matters altogether wisely chosen. A This book was first published in 1898 and is very dated. For example: the author writes about 'natural selection' and then mentions some groups that are not fit to be 'part of the social heritage of our fathers'. This book will be interesting for anyone who wants to know more about the history of psychology, it gives a fascinating look into past ideas about people, but it is too dated to be useful as a book to learn about current insights in psychology. As a book on the history of psychology I give this book 4 stars, but as a book on psychology only 2 stars because the information is too obsolete. The contents of this book: I. THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND--PSYCHOLOGY II. WHAT OUR MINDS HAVE IN COMMON--INTROSPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY III. THE MIND OF THE ANIMAL--COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY IV. THE MIND OF THE CHILD--CHILD PSYCHOLOGY V. THE CONNECTION OF BODY WITH MIND--PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY--MENTAL VI. HOW WE EXPERIMENT ON THE MIND--EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY VII. SUGGESTION AND HYPNOTISM VIII. THE TRAINING OF THE MIND--EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IX. THE INDIVIDUAL MIND AND SOCIETY--SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY X. THE GENIUS AND HIS ENVIRONMENT this was good
The Department of Energy is upping the ante on its push to make the nation's buildings more energy efficient, with $454 million in funding for innovative programs that can be used as nationwide models for energy efficiency retrofits. The "Retrofit Ramp-Up" program announced Monday will open up to $390 million to applicants that can show their neighborhood-scale projects can save big on building energy use and be replicated across the country. Winning applicants will "demonstrate a sustainable business model for providing cost-effective energy upgrades for a large percentage of the residential, commercial, and public buildings in a specific community," Monday's announcement stated. Possible approaches could include public-private sector partnerships, "utility retrofit and audit programs, alternative financing, retail partnerships, and others," the announcement stated. The program is seeking public comment until Sept. 28. The money comes from the DOE's $3.2 billion Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant (EECBG) program created by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, the stimulus package passed in February (see Obama Signs Stimulus Package). So far, the DOE has given out about $323 million in about 530 grants (see a full list here). As part of Monday's announcement, the DOE will make another $64 million available for local government that weren't previously eligible for those grants. The Retrofit Ramp-Up program isn't the only source of DOE funding for building energy efficiency. In June, it announced it would give out $346 million in stimulus funding for programs including advanced building systems research, energy efficiency retrofit job training and its "Net Zero Energy Commercial Buildings Initiative" aimed at making buildings that use efficiency and on-site power generation to reduce their draw on the power grid to nothing (see Green Light post). Buildings are a particular focus of Energy Secretary Steven Chu, who has cited them as not " just low-hanging fruit; it's fruit lying on the ground" as far as an opportunity to quickly and cost-effectively reduce the country's energy consumption. Buildings use about 40 percent of the energy consumed in the country today, and Chu has said he'd like to see that energy use scaled back by about 30 percent through energy efficiency retrofits, better building design and new building automation software and systems (see Making Building Automation Brainier). The DOE has also inked a partnership with China's Ministry of Urban-Rural Development to research, among other things, better building energy efficiency technology (see DOE, China to Research Greener Buildings, Vehicles, Energy). Learn how to differentiate your company through greener product lines at Greening the Supply Chain on September 17 in Boston.
I can say I'm ill or I'm sick. But what is the difference between the usage of these terms? I've heard that one can use sick for longer-term and ill for shorter-term, but is that really correct? How are these terms different for native speakers? While those might mean the same for the laymen, from a medical point of view, there is a difference between illness and sickness. Medical sociology has long made the distinction between illness and sickness. Illness is the objective diagnosis that an external impartial observer is able to make based on the constellation of symptoms which the patient presents. Sickness is the social role that the patient adopts as the patient and other concerned stakeholders, in relationship with the patient, interpret the meaning of the illness. From what I get of it, someone might see themselves as sick (with the social/role aspect of it) but not actually be ill (in a medical sense). Also, this paper might provide some useful reading. From a British perspective, I'm ill is more common and general term for when you're unwell. Being sick can refer to actually throwing up or vomiting, but it can also be used for being generally unwell. The formal range of meanings for each word is more or less the same, but they carry different connotations and usage. It may vary from region to region, but in the USA, it is fairly common to use ill for longer or more serious issues, like cancer, and sick for more immediate things, like the nausea involved in cancer treatment. Additionally, sick is used in some idiomatic expressions where ill would not fit native sensibility. “I am sick and tired of X,” is used to mean that somebody's patience is worn out. No native speaker would ever say ill and tired in this case. Likewise, if someone were to drink too much and vomit, one would say, “He got sick.” To get sick is so strongly connected with vomiting that you can even say, “He got sick on his shoes,” or “She got sick last night,” for instance and there will be no ambiguity among native speakers in the USA. Likewise, to fall ill is never worded to fall sick. To us, that would be just odd. Either word might be used to describe someone’s mental illness, such as “He is sick in the head,” or “He is mentally ill,” though the phrase “mental illness” sounds right to us, and you will probably not often hear an American, at least, use the exact phrase “mental sickness.” Illness refers to a medical condition. Sickness refers to the way one feels. Illness often makes one feel sick, so the terms are often used interchangeably in colloquial speech. But, one can be ill without being (feeling) sick. Likewise, one might feel sick after, say, seeing blood, without being ill. A related Australianism. Having a day off work - for the stated reason of being too ill to attend - is known as chucking a sickie. You would never call it 'chucking an illie'. To the question: the biggest difference is for definitions involving nausea in which case sick is used exclusively. Hence sicking up. Additionally, the colloquial meanings (ie not strictly related to being unwell) tend to use sick. For example, sick and tired (see Ryan's ans.); fully sick (meaning really good); sick to death (worse than sick and tired); you make me sick (you are disgusting, obnoxious or offensive to my sensibilities). In Indian context both can be used interchangeably. But there is a subtle difference between the two. Sick could be used if someone is annoyed by one's act or behavior. He'd be rather sick than feeling illness by the deeds of that person. Likewise if someone has done something wrong to me, then I'd be feeling sick. Whereas ill means that a person has been acquired by the disease. So it might be possible that, the person might be feeling sick(feeling frustration due to suffering). So this is the difference between the two. But I've seen that generally people conversing in colloquial language uses the both the terms interchangeably. A native speaker would interpret them as having the same meaning. You could say "I'm ill," or you could say "I'm sick". "I'm ill" could be classed as more formal language.
It is that time of the year when we need to really get going and put our flower beds, trees and shrubs to bed for the winter. We can not forget our fruiting plants either. Did you know that your strawberries already have their buds all ready for next year? This is why after a tough winter or if we forget to cover them up, we have fewer berries the following year. Strawberries are one of those types of plants that if they are covered too soon, then we can smother them and kill them. If we wait too long, the cold temperatures, as well as the freezing and thawing in the fall and spring, will also wipe some of them out. You sure don't want to use too heavy of mulch. Hay sometimes can become way too heavy, while straw seems to be a great alternative. We have found that in the spring, pushing the straw off of the bed and then coming back and mowing back over the straw, blowing it back into the bed, will help keep not only the moisture in the soil but also alleviate a lot of the weeds that can grow up in a strawberry bed. Leaves seem to work OK on strawberry beds but can become so pressed down and compacted that it may smother some strawberries in the springtime. Wrapping our young trees to help protect them from cracking and sometimes even from rodent (rabbit) damage will also need to be completed now; however, keep in mind that there are several alternatives to what you can use. We just need to remember that for the health of the tree - whatever kind of tree it is - we need to get out into the garden in April and remove that tree wrap as soon as possible so we don't damage the bark on young trees. Cracking happens on younger trees when their bark is not as tough as older trees. The sun heats up one side of the tree trunk - from reflecting off of the snow - then the sun goes down, causing the sap in the tree at that particular spot to cool and possibly cause cracking. There are many different kinds of products available and they all work very well. You can even use tinfoil. You just need to remember to put the shiny side out and use a little duct tape or electrical tape to keep it in place. If you really have a hard time with rodents or rabbits, in particular, eating away at some plants, you may want to put in place some fencing or chicken wire to help keep them at bay. There is still a lot of discussion whether wrapping trees is necessary, and there are still many experts on each side of the fence. Our flower beds are ready to go to sleep for the winter as well; simply mulching them is OK. You can let some, if not all, of the remaining parts of the plants to stay in the garden to allow them to catch snow which is probably the best mulch there is in keeping our plants safe from winter's harm. If you have had a plant or two that had a disease problem, you may want to prune these out and dispose of their plant material out of the garden so you don't spread disease throughout the garden. I usually leave leaves that have fallen and also rake in more leaves into my perennial flower gardens in order to keep them warm for the winter. They seem to be able to handle any matting that may occur from the leaves and it works great for mulch later in the growing season as well. So remember not to dispose of those leaves - you may know of someone that could use them in their garden! For more information about gardening, you can email me at Stephanie@starpoint.net
Breastfeeding-Intelligence Link Questioned WebMD News Archive June 4, 2002 -- Breast milk may be best for many reasons, but making your baby smarter is not necessarily one of them. A comprehensive review of research on the subject reveals that while several studies have shown a link between breastfeeding and intelligence in infants, most of those studies don't hold up to widely accepted research standards. "Although the majority of studies concluded that breastfeeding promotes intelligence, the evidence from higher-quality studies is less convincing," write the authors of the review, which appears in the June issue of Pediatrics. The researchers looked at 40 studies published between 1929 and February 2001, and found that 68% concluded that breastfeeding promotes intelligence. But many studies had flaws in how they were designed and conducted, and only two passed a test based on eight principles of scientific research. Of those two studies, one showed that breastfeeding had a positive effect on intelligence and the other did not. The problem is that it's nearly impossible to conduct a strong, rigorous scientific study when it comes to breastfeeding. The best medical research studies involve randomly assigning each person to receive a treatment or no treatment (often in the form of a placebo). And since most people in the medical field believe that breastfeeding is best, it's neither feasible nor ethical to withhold breastfeeding from some mothers and infants. "Therefore, the environment and the mothers of the breastfed children are inherently different from those infants whose mothers either choose not to breastfeed or experience difficulty breastfeeding," the researchers write. Lead researcher Anjali Jain, MD, from the University of Chicago's department of pediatrics, and colleagues say one of the biggest problems they found with most of the studies was that the investigators did not rule out other potential factors that affect intelligence -- such as socioeconomic status and how much stimulation the child received. Aside from the two "best" studies, the seven other studies that took these factors into account also came up with conflicting results. Three showed breastfeeding promotes intelligence and four did not. The authors say more rigorous research is needed to further examine the relationship between breastfeeding and intelligence. But whether or not a conclusive link is ever found, researchers agree that breastfeeding provides a host of other benefits -- including fighting infection and promoting a stronger bond between mother and child -- although the strength of these associations may be hard to measure in scientific terms.
Parent Township(s): Union Township was once a part of both Madison and Delaware counties. When Union County was formed in 1820, Union Township became one of its original three townships. First Settled: 1799 First Settler: George Reed Surveyed: Earliest surveys in this township date to 1799. Recorded: March 12, 1821 Past and Present Towns and Places of Habitation: Past and Present US Post Offices: One-Room Schools: St. Johns or Showwalter, Porter, Witter, Homer, Hathaway, Ax Handle Bend, Mitchell, Bigelow, Reed, Green, and Burnham. Buck Run - This village was never much more than a post office site. It is uncertain whether the post office was located in Allen Township or Union Township. Darby Ford - Darby Ford was the name of a community that arose at the site of present day Milford Center in the early 1800s. Settlers to the area constructed a ford across Darby Creek near the current site of the SR 4 bridge. After George Reed constructed a mill near this site, the area became known as Mill Ford. Flint - This is the name that the Milford Center post office was known by in the 1860s. Green Settlement - This was one of the Post Road Settlements. It was located between Irwin and Chuckery. One of the early schools in Union Township was held here as early as 1814 by Nehimiah Sabine. This school is noted as the first free school in the township. Homer - Homer was surveyed in October 1834 by Levi Phelps, County Surveyor, for Elisha Reynolds. It was recorded in the county office in November of 1834. In its peak, this town contained a a saw mill, a cheese factory, a general store, a blacksmith shop, a cabinet shop, a woolen carding mill, a furniture factory, and a wagon/carriage shop. The demise of Homer came about in 1855 when the railroad bypassed the village by three miles. Today all that remains is a few houses and a road named Homer. This town was located at the present-day intersection of SR 4/SR 36, and Homer Road. Irwin - Irwin was founded in 1808 by John Irwin. This town was originally called Irwin Station, and it was a stop on the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis Railroad. It was properly surveyed as a town, but it was never recorded as such in the county office. The first house was erected on the village site by James Miller. A post office was established in the early days of the village with David Clement serving as the first post master. A US post office is still maintained in the village today, with a zipcode of 43029. In its heyday Irwin supported a sawmill, a Methodist Church, a grain warehouse, a shoe shop, a tile factory, a blacksmith, and a physician. There is still a United Methodist Church in the village, known today as the Caldwell Memorial United Methodist Church. In 1880 a brick school was erected in the village of Irwin. This school district would eventually consolidate with the Milford Center School District to form the Union Rural School District. This school was chartered in 1928 and again in 1930. Irwin Station - This is an early reference Irwin. McCloud Settlement - This was another of the Post Road Settlements. It was located east of the Green Settlement. Milford - This is the precursor to Milford Centre. The word Centre was added to the town's name when the village was lobbying to become the county seat for Union County. Milford Center - The town of Milford Center has the distinction of being one of the oldest communities in what is now Union County. It is also the oldest town site in the county. The area was called Darby Ford for a while after early settlers cleared trees in the area to create a ford across the creek. This area is where the current State Route 4 bridge crosses the Big Darby Creek in Milford Center today. The area was later called Mill Ford, after George Reed erected the first mill in the area. The town of Milford was platted and recorded in 1816 for George Reed. The original survey of the site called for 40 lots in the village. In 1820, Milford Center became the first county seat of Union County when a small log court house was built here. However the county seat was moved by 1822. The US post office in the village was established in 1823, as Milford Center, with David Burnham serving as the first postmaster. In 1831 the Methodist Episcopal Church at Milford was established. Their first house of worship was erected in the village in 1835. The Presbyterian Church at Milford was established in 1808 as the Upper Liberty Presbyterian Church. This church was located on present day Orchard Road near the site of the Woods-Reed Cemetery. This congregation erected a brick church structure in Milford in 1834. The village was incorporated as Milford Center on March 3, 1853. Over the next several years the town ceased to operate as an incorporated town, and the village was reincorporated on August 4, 1866. By 1882 Milford Center had approximately 500 residents. At one time the village supported a school, three general stores, four groceries, two drug stores, one hardware store, one grist mill, one saw mill, one carriage factory, two blacksmiths, two livery stables, one grain warehouse, two shoe shops, two hotels, two barber shops, and four churches. This town also once boasted its own newspaper, The Ohioan. Today Milford Center is still home to a school district. The Fairbanks Local School District calls Milford Center and the surrounding area its home. The town also still maintains a US Post office with a zipcode of 43045. There are numerous churches in the area. And there are several businesses located in the village, including a convenience store/gas station and a pizza shop. A small one room schoolhouse was erected in the village prior to 1835. A large school house was erected in the village between 1880-1881. This school contained four rooms and cost approximately $10,000 to build. Prior to this, neighborhood one room schools served the area. This school district later consolidated with the Irwin School District to form the Union Rural School District. In later years, this school would consolidate with the Chuckery-Darby School District and the Watkins School District to form the Fairbanks Local School District. Milford Centre - This is a reference to Milford Center. Mill Ford - This is another early reference to present day Milford Center. Reed Settlement - This is believed to be an reference to the Upper Liberty area. It was the site of the first school in Union Township, erected and held sometime between 1806 and 1808. Rice City - Rice City or Ricetown, as it was sometimes called, was not a permanent settlement. Rather, it was a location where the pioneers typically would meet and temporary shelters and buildings. This area was located near the Hathaway Cemetery on the banks of Treacle Creek on present day Connor Road. One early mention of this village dates it to approximately 1816. Ricetown - This was another name for Rice City. Upper Liberty - This was the site of a pioneer settlement. There was once a church located here, the Upper Liberty Presbyterian Church. Today all that remains is the Woods-Reed Cemetery. This settlement was located on present day Orchard Road. Buck Run - This post office was first established on April 18, 1829. It closed on December 29, 1830. It reopened for the first time on April 3, 1832. The post office remained open until September 5, 1834. The post office reopened for the final time on June 3, 1839. The post office was finally disbanded on March 8, 1843. Flint - The Flint post office was established on July 13, 1865, one day after the Milford Centre post office was closed. The Flint name was used until January 30, 1866, when the name reverted back to Milford Centre. Irwin - This post office was established May 15, 1858. David Clements served as the first postmaster. The current zipcode for the village is 43029. Milford - The post office in this village was established in August 4, 1823. David Burnham was the first postmaster. Milford Center - This post office came into existence on June 14, 1893 with a change of spelling. This post office is still in existence today with a zipcode of 43045. Milford Centre - The Milford Centre post office opened on July 29, 1829.
1. How do you define a consumer market? What is the one most important reason for wanting to define a consumer market (i.e. Why) 2. What criteria should you use to determine the axes on a Product Position Map? Give an example of those axes for a bicycle retail store 3. How would you know who your competitors are? Who determines who they are? 4. What is the main problems companies face in high velocity markets? Give an example. 5. What is the product classification for a new TV set purchased by a consumer? Explain your choice. Consumer markets are markets that are designed with a focus on the general consumer--they are dominated by products and services with the consumer in mind. There are four types of consumer markets: consumer products, food/beverage products, retail products, and transportation products. The most important reason to define a consumer market is to know what is of value to the general consumer. If this is not identified, a business may be wasting ... Consumer markets in business are examined. The criteria should be used to determine the axes on a product position map are determined.
The Importance of Eating Fish During Pregnancy In the past few decades, researchers have been investigating the role of omega-3 fatty acids and optimum health. Studies have consistently proven that these healthy long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids play a key role in disease prevention, nourishing and protecting the brain, eyes, immune system, and cardiovascular system. Perhaps the most important discovery is the positive effect that omega-3 fatty acid has during pregnancy. Fish and seafood are some of the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids. They are direct sources of both EPA (eicosapentainoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) which are both derivatives of the primary source of omega-3’s – ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). American and British scientists found that children whose mothers had eaten twelve ounces of fish a week during pregnancy had higher cognitive abilities and less behavioral problems. Researchers have also linked stronger vision development in children whose mothers consumed adequate seafood. Omega-3 fatty acid is not only beneficial to developing fetuses, it is an essential part of early pregnancy nutrition. What exactly does this essential fatty acid do? Omega-3’s are needed for the development of the nervous system, the heart and respiratory system, the brain, and the eyes. They are known to prevent pre-term labor and to increase the overall health of pregnant women. Of the three grams of omega-3 fatty acid that a pregnant woman should eat in a day, a three ounce piece of fish can supply as much as one third. Wild salmon has about one gram; other fish and shellfish have less. Because of the mercury found in seafood, the FDA recommends that women only eat twelve ounces a week of fish during pregnancy. Mercury can cause neurological damage in a developing fetus. For this reason large predatory fish, such as swordfish, tilefish, shark, and mackerel should be altogether avoided. Pregnancy and Nausea The most important time in a woman’s life to eat baked salmon, tuna salad sandwiches, and fried shrimp, is when all these foods are absolutely repulsive to her. During the first trimester, pregnancy and nausea go hand in hand. Many women cannot stand to be in the same room as pungent odors such as cooking seafood, let alone eat a piece of fish. It is estimated that eighty percent of pregnant women experience some level of nausea, usually throughout the day. It begins around four weeks, and tapers off in the middle of the second trimester. Although the exact reason for nausea from pregnancy is unknown, it is believed to be due to the rapid shift in hormones, as estrogen and hCG levels rise dramatically early on. Even if it is undesirable to eat fish during pregnancy, it is still easy to consume enough valuable omega-3 fatty acids. Alternative Sources of Nutrition During Pregnancy The simplest way to supplement your nutrition needs during pregnancy is to take fish oil capsules. Fish oil is rich in both EPA and DHA. Flax seed oil, the next best source of omega-3 fatty acids, also comes in capsule form. Although supplements work well, also look for good sources of omega-3 fatty acids in whole foods. Hemp seeds and hemp oil, walnuts, tofu, soy milk, and eggs (only when the chickens were fed a diet of insects and greens) all supply omega-3 during pregnancy. Green leafy vegetables and olive oil also have a small amount. Another option is DHA-fortified milk. Make sure to eat a variety of sources every day. Salads are a wonderful food during pregnancy – they are refreshing and nourishing. Use dark green vegetables, and a dressing made from hemp seed oil. Try eating tofu twice a week – it is extremely mild and versatile, as well as a great source of protein and minerals. Also, snack on walnuts throughout the day – avoiding an empty stomach is actually one way to minimize nausea. Eventually, the nausea will subside, the smell of fish won’t turn your stomach, and you can enjoy seafood once again.
Trap-nesting wasps were collected from eight sites at distances of from 1.2-33.0 km from an aluminum reduction plant in western Tennessee. The sites had similar topographies, soils, and vegetation, but differed in their exposure to fluoride, which was emitted in large quantities from the plant. It was postulated that if fluoride emissions had greatly changed the insect community then relative densities of their predators would have varied accordingly. However, the degree of fluoride pollution was unrelated to the relative densities of the wasps and to the number of cells provisioned with prey. Monobia quadridens, Trypargilum clavatum, and T. lactitarse were found to have two complete generations in western Tennessee. Trypargilum collinum rubrocinctum has at least two generations, and Euodynerus megaera probably has three generations. Six other wasp species and a megachilid bee were also collected. \|Title\|\|Populations of trap-nesting wasps near a major source of fluoride emissions in western Tennessee\| \|Authors\|\|W. N. Beyer, G.W. Miller, W. J. Fleming\| \|Publication Subtype\|\|Journal Article\| \|Series Title\|\|Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington\| \|Record Source\|\|USGS Publications Warehouse\| \|USGS Organization\|\|Patuxent Wildlife Research Center\|
Growing Tomatoes in Greenhouses and Tunnels Greenhouses and less sophisticated tunnels provide excellent growing conditions for tomatoes, even when temperatures are not closely controlled. They provide protection from wind, rain, hail and of course from the sun and from excessively cold conditions. When tomatoes are protected from the elements, they can withstand lower temperatures than they normally would when grown out in the open – even though they do need to be heated if there is going to be protection for the plants and fruit from frost. Many commercial tomato farmers grow their crops in greenhouses which have a scientifically controlled micro-climate. But even a sheltered environment like a plastic-covered tunnel frame gives some natural “control” of both light and moisture. Choose a Protected Environment for your Tomatoes Original greenhouse designs originating during the Victorian era were expensive structures that were made with steel and glass. Over time a growing number of companies have manufactured less expensive structures, some of which are available in kit form. Many of these utilise polycarbonate materials instead of glass. Some are made with aluminium (or aluminum – depending where you live!) and either glass or polycarbonate sheeting. Greenhouses are permanent structures and can be very attractive features in the garden. The glass (or polycarbonate) transmits light during the day and can be capable of trapping quite a lot of heat at night. They are usually the same kind of height as a regular shed and so are tall enough to grow high-growing tomato plants. Large plants can grow up to 3 m or 10 ft! Windows are often incorporated in traditional greenhouse structures, aiding ventilation. However you will still need to water the plants, and may want to install an automatic irrigation system. In some countries, greenhouses are more commonly used when weather conditions are less than perfect, or to raise seedlings that are going to be planted out. Walk-in tunnels are a much more modern invention, but strangely not necessarily cheaper than a small greenhouse. The thing is that tunnels are usually quite large, having been developed for commercial use. But if you have the space for one, it could be a simple alternative to a greenhouse, and could enable you to grow some superb juicy tomatoes at home! Generally tunnels are made by stretching transparent polythene over a series of metal hoops that form the structure of the tunnel. There isn’t therefore the opportunity to make openings, except at the two ends. While tunnels are not quite as sophisticated as traditional greenhouses, they do a really good job. Another “advantage” some give is that, because they are not “permanent” you can move them if the soil becomes “diseased”. This is largely a fallacy since tunnels are BIG, and if you move them you will damage the plastic, which will then need to be replaced. At the end of the day a tunnel and a commercial greenhouse generally do the same thing. Pests and Diseases in Greenhouses and Tunnels Shelter in greenhouse and tunnel structures unfortunately doesn’t translate to protection from pests and diseases. One of the stock warnings professionals give when it comes to growing tomatoes in soil beneath a growing structure is that it needs to be sterilized or regularly replaced. Greenhouses, however, are more frequently built with a solid concrete floor and then the plants are propagated in growing bags. Tunnels are usually constructed on bare earth. Regular watering within a greenhouse or tunnel not only keeps the temperature regular and creates a nice humid environment, it also helps to curtail invasion by certain pests including the red spider mite. Funnily enough the damaging little whitefly is more of a pest in greenhouses that it is when tomatoes are grown out in the open. So why not do a bit more homework before you decide which way to grow tomatoes at home? It may not be worth spending money on structures; rather spend time and effort ensuring the soil in your veggie garden is good. If you are looking for detailed, easy to understand instructions on all aspects of growing tomatoes, don’t miss our great book, How To Grow Juicy Tasty Tomatoes.
Student Surveys in Maryland Youth Risk Behavior Survey Maryland's 2004 General Assembly mandated that the public schools in Maryland participate in the Center for Disease Control's (CDC) Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). This survey is conducted every other year to survey particpation of adolescents in at risk behaviors, their perception of safety in schools and healthy behaviors. The 2005 YRBS was conducted in Maryland for the first time. A copy of the 2005 National YRBS results is available online at www:cdc.gov/mmwr. MMWR Surveillance Summary includes results from the National YRBS and from state and local YRBS's. The Surveillance Summary and related resources are located at www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm. 2011 Maryland Youth RISK Behavior Survey 2011 Maryland Youth RISK Behavior Survey (2.1mb) Web Version (18.7mb) High Quality Version 2007 Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2005 Maryland YRBS Report and 2005 YRBS PowerPoint. Contact Richard Scott, School Counseling Specialist, at 410-767-0288 for more information. Maryland Adolescent Survey The Maryland Adolescent Survey (MAS) has been conducted since 1992. The survey is conducted every other year. It collects data to determine the nature, extent, and trend of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug (ATOD) use among adolescents and provides findings on: protective factors; knowledge about the consequences of ATOD use; parenting and peer influences; information about impaired driving among twelfth graders; and reveals how safe our students feel at school, going to or from school, and in their neighborhoods. Contact Peter Singleton, Specialist, Safe and Drug Free Schools at 410-767-0302 or at firstname.lastname@example.org
Planting bare root Dogwood hedging plants is an economic way to plant a native hedge without costing a fortune if you can spare the time for these plants to reach a greater height. These plants are all 60-80cm tall and come bare rooted, that is to say that they are dug straight from the field and are sold without any soil around their roots. These plants should be planted as soon as possible after purchasing to avoid the roots drying out and damage occurring to the hedge plants. Dogwood hedging (Cornus sanguinea) is also known as Common Dogwood. As a deciduous native hedgerow species, it is known for its attractive red bark that is particularly prominent on newer growth in the winter months and can add colour at an an otherwise brown time of year for most hedges. Its green leaves (which turn a rich crimson colour in the autumn) are ovular in shape and have distinctive curving veins running along each leaf. Dogwood hedging can be attractive as a standalone feature but it is found commonly throughout the UK as part of a mixed species native hedge and will grow extremely well with other species such as Hawthorn, Field Maple, Beech, Blackthorn, Dog Rose, Hazel and Hornbeam. Native hedges such as this can be found across much of the UK. These bare root native hedging plants should be planted 45cm apart in a single row or 60cm apart in a double row. As these are bare root plants, we recommend using Rootgrow which helps the plants produce a secondary system of roots. It is also important if deer and rabbits are prolific in your planting area to use spiral tree guards to protect them.
OCEAN EDUCATION RESOURCES The Smithsonian Institution Sant Ocean Hall NOAA Ocean Explorer Expeditions and a lesson bank NOAA Education - all things ocean NOAA Okeanos Explorer Education Materials Collection Hands-On Activities for Grades 5-12 Topics: Why Do We Explore? Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence National Marine Sanctuaries Media Library A comprehensive database containing a collection of high-quality still images and video footage featuring all 13 national marine sanctuaries and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. The database is fully searchable by keyword, category and location, and all the images are tagged with relevant information including resolution and usage rights. Mid-Atlantic Marine Educators Association (MAMEA) Join Maryland and other Mid-Atlantic educators at the annual conference at the National Aquarium in Baltimore! Click title for information about MAMEA and the conference. Ocean Literacy Standards National Standards for Ocean Education Oceans Live NOAA/National Marine Sanctuaries Lessons with free video clips NASA Ocean Motion Five modules with multiple lessons: Navigation, Traveling on a Rotating Sphere, Data and Information, Global Ocean Warming, Energy Balance NOAA Learning Objects The NOAA Ocean Exploration Program has released graphic-based oceanography Learning Objects. Each Learning Object includes a video demonstration and interactive activities/puzzles. The included lessons cover diverse topics ranging from plate tectonics to ocean currents to deep sea benthos. Sustainable Seafood - National Geographic How can we balance our tastes with what's right for the ocean? Ocean Literacy Principles - Seven Essential Principles for Ocean Literacy: An Activity Guide for Educators 28 activity-based lessons, one for each grade group for each of the seven OLPs. This activity guide is the first in a three volume series that will help teachers and informal educators for grades K-12th embrace the Ocean Literacy Principles (OLP) and put them into practice. American Museum of Natural History - Milstein Hall of Science Dive and Discover With Dive and Discover, your students are at the frontline of scientific inquiry as they join scientists—geologists, chemists and biologists—who are exploring the seafloor and making amazing new deep-sea discoveries. Instructional resources for grades PK-Post Secondary as well as professional development for teachers Coastal Ocean Observation Laboratory C.o.o.l. is a series of Internet-based instructional modules that link middle and high school classrooms with active research investigations at the Rutgers RMCS COOLroom SEA at Woods Hole K- 12 Lessons SEA's K-12 Lesson plans have recently been awarded the prestigious StudyWeb® Academic Excellence Award as, "one of the Internet's premier sites for educational resources for students and teachers." Sample Lesson: How to Hide in the Ocean VIMS The Bridge Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences and National Sea Grant This section links to sites with curriuclum units and large collections of lesson plans and/or classroom activities. Eyes on the Bay Maryland Department of Natural Resources Real time data on DO, salinity, HABs, turbidity; alerts; trends Oceans for Life Field experiences and resources for students and teachers Maryland Sea Grant Marine Science Education MBARI Module- Pelagic Predators During this unit, students will use evolving satellite technology to follow open-ocean animals along their migration routes and examine the connections between physical and biological requirements and animal behaviors. MBARI Module- Coastal Processes This activity uses realtime data from the MBARI LOBO ocean observatory project to introduce students to marine chemistry, environmental science and oceanography. Using this multidisciplinary approach, students will investigate their own questions about how agriculture and coastal processes affect estuarine waterways. Case Study: Upwelling Case Study: Elkhorn Slough Nitrogen Study more lessons... MBARI- Ocean Careers Sea Turtle Migration Satellite Tracking Travel to Underwater vents in Alvin Virtual Kelp Forest Visit Forces of Change –The Smithsonian Institution Ocean Planet Resources NOAA’s Virtual World On NOAA's island, one can soar through a hurricane on the wing of a research aircraft, rise gently through the atmosphere atop a weather balloon, or search for a hidden underwater cave on a side trip from a NOAA submarine.
The FDA need consumer help to define Natural Foods. FoodFacts.com really sat down and thought about this. We’ve decided that the government turning to the public for help defining natural foods is a good thing. That’s because it’s our opinion that they have managed to get more than a few things wrong in the world of food when left to their own devises. We’re hopeful that the public will weigh in on this with the same kind of gusto we’ve seen challenge the food industry for making untruthful claims. The government, or more specifically, The Food and Drug Administration is seeking your input to answer a question: How should the agency define “natural” on food labels? Disagreement over what “all natural” or “100 percent natural” means has spawned dozens of lawsuits. Consumers have challenged the naturalness of all kinds of food products. For instance, can a product that contains high fructose corn syrup be labeled as natural? What about products that contain genetically modified ingredients? The FDA has received three citizen petitions asking for clarification. And, beginning Thursday, the agency will ask us — the public — to weigh in. Comments can be submitted electronically. Developing a comprehensive, legal definition for this buzzword may be tough. After all, saying something is natural is a little bit like saying something is beautiful. The judgment is in the eye of the beholder. Ivan Wasserman, a lawyer with the firm Manatt, Phelps & Philips who tracks this issue was asked some questions. The Food and Drug Administration is asking people to weigh in on a definition for the term “natural” on food labels. Will this process lead to a new rule — a codified, legal definition? By requesting comments, the FDA is obligated to review them. So, [the agency] has certainly taken on a big project in simply announcing this. But it has not announced that it’s creating a new rule or definition. The FDA says it has had a long-standing policy on this issue and has “considered the term ‘natural’ to mean … nothing artificial or synthetic (including all color additives regardless of source).” So why is there still confusion over what counts as “natural”? This policy does not address a lot of these newer issues [such as GMO ingredients, or newer ways of processing foods]. If the FDA were to create a more strict, more comprehensive definition, it would give manufacturers a lot more guidance on whether or not they could use the term “natural” on their food products. There have been a lot of class-action lawsuits brought against companies that have labeled their products as “natural.” What are some of the most interesting examples? Some of the original cases were brought against companies that included high fructose corn syrup in their products — which is obviously an ingredient that comes from corn, but has been processed. And there have been lawsuits against companies for including genetically modified ingredients in their products. There are a lot of sides to this argument. And I think at the end of this process if the FDA does create a definition for “natural,” it’s going to be hard to satisfy everyone. Food companies may also like the looser language since it gives them more wiggle room to use the term “natural.” Can you think of any precedents here — in food law — of creating stricter standards for food labels? Yes: the organic label. If you see the [U.S. Department of Agriculture] organic seal on a food product, that has a very strict program [and set of rules] on what foods can bear that seal. So there is some precedent. But the term “natural” is a little more vague. Do you agree that natural is a vague term? We’ve always had an issue with the government definition for the ingredient “Natural Flavor.” By government definition it refers to a combination of ingredients that are derived from natural sources. There are some problems with that – in the first place that one ingredient, “Natural Flavor” is actually more than one ingredient. You’ll just never know which ingredients that manufacturer used to create the single “Natural Flavor.” You’ll also never know if you’re allergic to any of them … or if the manufacturer chemically processed a substance that was derived from natural sources. So there’s a big gray area concerning whether or not those ingredients are really natural. They may have started out that way, but you have no way of knowing exactly how it was processed to become part of that “Natural Flavor.” We actually find the government definition of “Natural Flavor” to be vague … not necessarily the word natural. In fact, we’re pretty sure we could come up with a definition – and we’re pretty sure concerned consumers can as well. Let’s all give the FDA our very specific ideas! We’re the people they need to hear from on this very important issue. So visit this link: http://www.fda.gov/Food/NewsEvents/ConstituentUpdates/ucm471919.htm and follow the instructions. Let’s tell them that GMO ingredients aren’t natural … that high fructose corn syrup isn’t natural … that natural flavor needs a more sensible definition – and the other actual facts surrounding this issue that in truth really aren’t vague at all!
Leading economics and science experts in the UK have called for an international push akin to the Apollo space mission to kick-start the deployment of renewable energy storage technology, PV-Tech reported. Speaking at an event at the UK’s House of Lords, Sir David King, the former UK chief scientific advisor, Lord Richard Layard, programme director at the London School of Economics, and Mark Maslin, professor of climatology at University College London, called for a campaign to secure international renewable energy storage funding. The event, ‘Running out of time – climate change’, hosted speakers and debate on resolutions to international energy issues. It was intended to explore solutions to energy problems ahead of the international climate change talks in Paris next year. King, now a climate change advisor to the UK’s foreign secretary William Hague, highlighted how storage had become an “obstacle” to the full exploitation of renewable energy sources. Layard urged governments to back initial storage technology funding, pointing out that most significant recent technological innovations were government funded, “not from the private sector”. King cited the effect of the UK’s solar feed-in tariff as a “miracle” for PV prices. He pointed out the opposite lack of incentive for crucial energy storage investment. King claimed 100 per cent of Italy’s current fiscal deficit is caused by soaring oil prices, and 80 per cent of the UK’s. Maslin said fossil fuels had “revolutionised society, but now fossil fuels are polluting the planet”.
Console Meaning in Bengali. Console শব্দের বাংলা অর্থ কি? English to Bangla online dictionary. Get the exact "Console meaning in bengali". Google Translate "Console". Console বাংলা অর্থ. What is the meaning of Console in English? What Console means? How do you use the word Console? What is another word for Console? What is the opposite of Console? See also in: Console Example in a sentence: The King endeavoured to console her, but it was not a matter where consolation could avail. Come; well rest under the trees and console ourselves with chess. He could not console her with a kiss and a caress, and a bonbon, of course. Desmond was very unhappy, though Tom and Archie did their best to console him. As long as our one cavalier has been lured away from us by Delia we might as well try to console one another, laughed Marjorie. My dear Joan, in the name of Heaven, explain first, and then console! Believe me the mother's as good as the daughter; recollection is often better than hope; console yourself with Lucrezia. Emma cried, and he tried to console her, adorning his protestations with puns. My dear, you must console yourself with the thought that she'll probably frizzle for it hereafter. I will keep my follies to console you after you have lost your daughter. History of: Console console 1690s, from Fr. consoler, from L. consolari "offer solace," from com- intensive prefix + solari "to comfort" (see solace). The Latin word is glossed in O.E. by frefran.
Birds were collected from wildlife rehab centers. Practically all predatory birds are impacted by rodenticides. Mortality of birds submitted from rehab centers between 2007 & 2009 were caused by: collisions (63%), lead poisoning (17%) and anticoagulant rodenticides (8%). However, these percentages are misleading because birds with broken wings are more likely to find their way to a rehab centers than a bird that is slowly dying from poisons but still mobile. Study conclusion: Knowing causes of deaths in predatory & scavenging species provides important data to help regulatory agencies be better informed about threats to species of birds that are vulnerable. CDF&W has compiled a long list of birds who have died due to eating prey animals laden with rodenticides. Golden eagles, Peregrine falcons, many species of hawks and many species of owls are particularly vulnerable. Take home: 25 to 49% of birds tested had elevated levels of lead in their livers and 84% had detectable rodenticide residues. Sampling was skewed towards testing birds with physical injuries because birds with injuries are more prone to find their way to rehab centers than sick but mobile birds. For more information, click here.
Radio emission and mass loss rate limits of four young solar-type stars MetadataShow full item record Reproduced with permission from Astronomy & Astrophysics, © ESO Aims. Observations of free-free continuum radio emission of four young main-sequence solar-type stars (EK Dra, p1UMa, ?1Ori, and ?1Cet) are studied to detect stellar winds or at least to place upper limits on their thermal radio emission, which is dominated by the ionized wind. The stars in our sample are members of The Sun in Time programme and cover ages of ~0.1-0.65 Gyr on the main-sequence. They are similar in magnetic activity to the Sun and thus are excellent proxies for representing the young Sun. Upper limits on mass loss rates for this sample of stars are calculated using their observational radio emission. Our aim is to re-examine the faint young Sun paradox by assuming that the young Sun was more massive in its past, and hence to find a possible solution for this famous problem. Methods. The observations of our sample are performed with the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) with excellent sensitivity, using the C-band receiver from 4-8 GHz and the Ku-band from 12-18 GHz. Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillitmeter Array (ALMA) observations are performed at 100 GHz. The Common Astronomy Software Application (CASA) package is used for the data preparation, reduction, calibration, and imaging. For the estimation of the mass loss limits, spherically symmetric winds and stationary, anisotropic, ionized winds are assumed. We compare our results to 1) mass loss rate estimates of theoretical rotational evolution models; and 2) to results of the indirect technique of determining mass loss rates: Lyman-a absorption. Results. We are able to derive the most stringent direct upper limits on mass loss so far from radio observations. Two objects, EK Dra and ?1Ori, are detected at 6 and 14 GHz down to an excellent noise level. These stars are very active and additional radio emission identified as non-thermal emission was detected, but limits for the mass loss rates of these objects are still derived. The emission of ?1Ori does not come from the main target itself, but from its M-dwarf companion. The stars p1UMa and ?1Cet were not detected in either C-band or in Ku-band. For these objects we give upper limits to their radio free-free emission and calculate upper limits to their mass loss rates. Finally, we reproduce the evolution of the Sun and derive an estimate for the solar mass of the Sun at a younger age. Showing items related by title, author, creator and subject. Callingham, J.; Gaensler, B.; Zanardo, G.; Staveley-Smith, L.; Hancock, P.; Hurley-Walker, N.; Bell, M.; Dwarakanath, K.; Franzen, T.; Hindson, L.; Johnston-Hollitt, M.; Kapinska, A.; For, B.; Lenc, E.; McKinley, B.; Morgan, J.; Offringa, A.; Procopio, P.; Wayth, Randall; Wu, C.; Zheng, Q. (2016)We present Murchison Widefield Array observations of the supernova remnant (SNR) 1987A between 72 and 230 MHz, representing the lowest frequency observations of the source to date. This large lever arm in frequency space ... Schnerr, R.; Rygl, K.; van der Horst, A.; Oosterloo, T.; Miller-Jones, James; Henrichs, H.; Spoelstra, T.; Foley, A. (2007)Context: Some O stars are suspected to have to have (weak) magnetic fields because of the observed cyclical variability in their UV wind-lines. However, direct detections of these magnetic fields using optical spectropolarimetry ... Lynch, Christene; Murphy, T.; Lenc, E.; Kaplan, D. (2018)Like the magnetized planets in our Solar system, magnetized exoplanets should emit strongly at radio wavelengths. Radio emission directly traces the planetary magnetic fields and radio detections can place constraints on ...
Written by Jo Rust \| Published on May 1, 2023 Artificial Intelligence Shaping Phishing Attacks In an eye-opening report, it was revealed that OpenAI's ChatGPT has the ability to craft seemingly legitimate phishing emails with ease. While AI's potential for innovation is unquestionable, this discovery highlights the need for increased cybersecurity and secure software development practices in the face of advanced threats. One such security measure is software escrow, which can help protect companies and users from potential data breaches and service disruptions. The ChatGPT Dilemma: A Tool for Good and Evil OpenAI's ChatGPT has been making waves for its incredible ability to generate human-like text. Although the technology was designed with a range of useful applications in mind, it appears to have a darker side as well. According to CNET, the AI can easily produce phishing emails that are indistinguishable from genuine ones, fooling even the most tech-savvy users. "It's scary easy to use ChatGPT to write phishing emails," says Seth Rosenblatt, senior editor at CNET. "This is something that organizations need to be aware of and take steps to protect themselves against." The Potential Impact of AI-generated Phishing Emails The rise of AI-generated phishing emails could result in a significant increase in cybercrime. With the ability to create more convincing emails, cybercriminals may find it easier to infiltrate networks, steal sensitive data, or even hold entire systems hostage. This underscores the importance of robust security measures and secure software development practices to protect businesses and users. According to a report by Accenture, cybercrime is estimated to cost companies $5.2 trillion globally over the next five years. The Role of Software Escrow in Enhancing Data Security In the face of these AI-generated threats, one potential solution lies in software escrow services. Software escrow involves placing the source code and other critical software components in a secure third-party repository. In the event of a vendor's inability to maintain or update the software, the escrow provider releases the source code to the customer, ensuring business continuity and protection against potential security breaches. Software escrow services can help in several ways: - Secure storage of source code: Escrow providers store the source code in a highly secure environment, protecting it from unauthorized access and potential cyberattacks. - Regular updates and verification: Escrow providers can verify the integrity of the deposited source code and ensure that it is updated regularly, helping to maintain the software's security. - Business continuity: Should a software vendor fail to provide support, the escrow provider can release the source code to the customer, allowing them to maintain and update the software as needed. This ensures continued protection against potential threats. A Path Forward: A Reflection on Data Security The news about ChatGPT's ability to create convincing phishing emails is undoubtedly concerning. However, it also serves as a reminder of the importance of robust data security measures, including software escrow. By placing their source code and software components in escrow, businesses can better protect themselves against potential cyber threats, ensuring their continued success in an increasingly digital world. While AI innovations like ChatGPT have undoubtedly brought about revolutionary advancements, they also present new challenges in terms of cybersecurity. As we move forward in the age of AI, it is crucial to strike a balance between innovation and security, ensuring the protection of sensitive data and the integrity of our digital systems. Implementing measures such as software escrow is a step in the right direction, helping to safeguard businesses and users from the ever-evolving landscape of cyber threats. Explore our software escrow solutions or schedule a demo call with one of our experts to discuss your business’ specific needs with one of our experts by simply clicking on the button below.
Technically speaking, the MPI standard does not define anything called an “eager limit.” An “eager limit” is term used to describe a method of sending short messages used by many MPI implementations. That is, it’s an implementation technique — it’s not part of the MPI standard at all. And since it’s not standardized, it also tends to be different in each MPI implementation. More specifically: if you write your MPI code to rely on a specific implementation’s “eager limit” behavior, your code may not perform well (or may even deadlock!) with other MPI implementations. So — what exactly is an “eager limit”? MPI implementations typically use (at least) two algorithms for sending messages between peer processes: - Eager: messages, including MPI match data, are sent as soon as possible. Typically used for “short” messages. - Rendezvous: a class of protocols based on “request to send” / “clear to send” (RTS/CTS) techniques. Typically used for “long” messages. CTS/RTS protocols are based on the idea that the sender sends the MPI match information to the receiver (i.e., the RTS). Once the receiver decides that it wants to receive the message, it sends back “ok, you can send now” (i.e., the CTS). The sender then transfers the bulk of the message payload to the receiver. “Eager” messages typically avoid this CTS/RTS round-trip overhead by just sending immediately, with little or no permission from the receiver. As such, eager protocols are useful when latency is important. For example, send a 4-byte MPI message eagerly across InfiniBand can take about 1.5us. If we add in a round-trip CTS/RTS to that cost, the total would be 4.5us. Ouch! Rendezvous protocols are typically used whem resource consumption — not latency — is important. For example, if a sender sends a 10MB message to a receiver, the receiver might not want to actually get the message until the application has posted a corresponding MPI_RECV, meaning that there is now a buffer available to receive that 10MB message. Conversely, if sender sender sent the 10MB message eagerly, the receiver might have to a) allocate a temporary 10MB buffer to hold it, and b) copy the message to the target buffer when the corresponding MPI_RECV gets posted. Double ouch! My next blog entry will talk about how Open MPI uses eager and rendezvous protocols.
OverviewLet's pretend for a moment that we didn't have such fantastic crypto primitives such as AES, SHA3 and so on, and we'd not (for some reason) never needed crypto, how would we go about building a 'modern' crypto system? Firstly, this is meant as a basic overview of how most crypto primitives that are in use today are put together. Not the "most interesting" bits, but the pieces that do all the heavy lifting -- the symmetric ciphers. What is a cipher suite, and what exactly is AES-128-CBC-HMAC-SHA1 ? We'll get into what these sort things mean, but first we have to start somewhere. Block ciphers typically take as input a key and a "block". A block is just a fixed-width collection of bits. The Data Encryption Standard (DES) takes 64-bits, and the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) takes 128-bits. The great thing about this is that they are reasonably easy to reason about, lend themselves to parallel usage (depending on the usage) and also relatively easy to implement in hardware. For a really basic block cipher, we'll be pinching Heys' SPN cipher from his Linear & Differential Cryptanalysis Tutorial. I've chosen it because it's reasonably easy to understand, implement and the design is small and freely available. Heys' paper does not specify a key schedule. I am going to decree that the key is 80-bits long, which gets broken into 5 16-bit subkeys to be fed wholesale into the relevant parts of the cipher. I have put my implementation up at on a Gist. We can use this a a basic implementation for some fun work. Note, I've used this cipher for an additional reason: to drive home the fact that you never, ever write your own crypto. That includes plugging together AES into AES-CBC mode, or making your own C-MAC from a block cipher. Just don't do it, this blog post is for demonstration purposes only. If you write your own crypto in production, you will lose the security game, your data is not safe. With that out of the way, let's move on. RandomnessIf we want to go down the route of academic correctness, we must first convince ourselves that our fancy new cipher is a Psuedo-Random Permutation (PRP). That basically means that an expected adversary (i.e. one with normal, classical computers) cannot distinguish the cipher from a random permutation function. We aren't going to go into what that exactly means, but a decent way to see how good a PRP our cipher makes is to turn it into a PRNG and see how well it handles the FIPS 140-2 PRNG tests. These just throw a small battery of statistical tests at our random data, and see how it fares. For reference, let's see about /dev/urandom: [Sat 13/09/14 21:52 BST][pts/3][x86_64/linux-gnu/3.5.0-37-generic][5.0.0] zsh/2 936 (git)-[master]-% cat /dev/urandom \| rngtest rngtest 2-unofficial-mt.14 Copyright (c) 2004 by Henrique de Moraes Holschuh This is free software; see the source for copying conditions. There is NO warranty; not even for MERCHANTABIL ITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. rngtest: starting FIPS tests... rngtest: bits received from input: 109576192 rngtest: FIPS 140-2 successes: 5474 rngtest: FIPS 140-2 failures: 4 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Monobit: 0 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Poker: 0 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Runs: 3 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Long run: 1 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Continuous run: 0 rngtest: input channel speed: (min=1.051; avg=42.559; max=19073.486)Mibits/s rngtest: FIPS tests speed: (min=956.476; avg=53182.979; max=71806.066)Kibits/s rngtest: Program run time: 4499000 microseconds A few failures are to be expected; it's supposed to be random, so "extreme events" do occasionally occur; they just should occur too regularly ;-) Let's make our cipher into a PRNG. We're going to simply write to a file E(0,i) where i is [1..b] so we end up with ~b random bytes. A quick implementation of this is available Let's run our small test: [Sat 13/09/14 21:51 BST][pts/3][x86_64/linux-gnu/3.5.0-37-generic][5.0.0] zsh/2 934 (git)-[master]-% cat randomBytes.txt \| rngtest rngtest 2-unofficial-mt.14 Copyright (c) 2004 by Henrique de Moraes Holschuh This is free software; see the source for copying conditions. There is NO warranty; not even for MERCHANTABIL ITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. rngtest: starting FIPS tests... rngtest: entropy source exhausted! rngtest: bits received from input: 2097152 rngtest: FIPS 140-2 successes: 0 rngtest: FIPS 140-2 failures: 104 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Monobit: 104 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Poker: 104 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Runs: 104 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Long run: 71 rngtest: FIPS 140-2(2001-10-10) Continuous run: 0 rngtest: input channel speed: (min=3.328; avg=74.461; max=19073.486)Mibits/s rngtest: FIPS tests speed: (min=1.056; avg=30.812; max=97.813)Mibits/s rngtest: Program run time: 93448 microseconds Note the line "rngtest: FIPS 140-2 failures: 104" and how many failures are listed, now back to /dev/urandom. Take that as a warning; this isn't even the DieHarder tests. A note on notation: E(k,P) means encryption a plaintext P under key k. D(k,C) means decrypting ciphertext C under key k. So for example, the statement D(k,E(k,P)) means encrypting and then decrypting a plaintext, P, under the same key. Incidentally, for any cipher, this should always result in P. Now, assuming we have our Heys' Cipher implemented, we can just start throwing bytes at it, right? So we have plaintext P = P1, P2, ..., PN (our plaintext is composed of several plaintext "blocks", each of length 16 bits), so we can just compute C = E(k, P1), E(k, P2), ..., E(k, PN) and have a sufficiently scrambled message. Decryption in this case is obvious. Well, you'd think, but it's actually a really, really Bad Idea. This is a cipher mode all to itself, and it is known as Electronic Code Book, or ECB. This is not so good. We know that E(k, p) is deterministic. This means that if C1 = C, and the attacker knows they were both encrypted under the same key, then the attacker knows that E(k, P1) = E(k, P) => P1 = P. The attacker can then do all sorts of fun things, such as re-sending the same block to cause havoc. So, how do we modify things so that we don't get this issue? First, let's modify our notation slighty, so that P[i] means the i'th block of the plaintext P, and we'll also use '+' to mean xor. A common way so to use something called Chained Block Cipher (CBC) mode. This is, in notation, expressed as C[i] = E(k, C[i-1] + P[i]). This basically means that for each block you wish to encrypt, you xor the result of encrypting the previous block with the current plaintext block. This works surprisingly well, but it has a fatal problem. How do you do P, the first block? Well, the normal way is to just generate a completely random block and to package that up in the clear with your message and send it on. This is known as an Initialisation Vector, or IV. There are also other issues with this, one of them is performance. You can't access C[i] until C[i-1] is computed. This mode is inherently serial, you can't get any faster by throwing processors at it, you have to simply buy a faster processor. Not good in today's CPU market. How do you get around this? Well, another mode of operation is Counter (CTR) mode. Conceptually, this is much simpler, and very similar to how I turned the Heys Cipher into a PRNG. It is expressed simply as C[i] = E(k, f(IV, i)) + P[i]. In words, this is encrypting an IV (often just 'nonce') with a counter of some sort. The resulting stream is then xor'd with each plaintext block. This is basically turning the block cipher into a stream cipher, and can be used as such. It should be noted that the function f in the above expression is almost always simple addition, however this was not always the case. This has a few benefits, the most obvious being that it is easily parallelised. So, we can easily construct a working cipher system, right? Well, not quite. In my next post, I'll go over authentication. Authentication is a crucial part of any modern cipher system. If you're involved in designing a cryptosystem, and you're not thinking about authentication, you probably should not be designing a cryptosystem.
This is my IELTS writing Task 2 essay. Please correct it and share ideas :3 : As people use internet or mobile phone to communicate, the number of face to face communication decreases. Do you agree or disagree? : There has been a controversy whether the frequency of face-to-face communication will decrease due to the advanced technology. Some argue that the Internet and mobile phones will become a predominant method in interpersonal interaction sooner or after. I, by and large, agree with this opinion for the following reasons. It is irrefutable that even though the technology regarding human communication is developed, people would still use a traditional way of communication. Communicators usually not only do verbal communication but also utilize a range of non-verbal ways, such as facial expression, gesture, eyes and even odor sense, in order to exchange their feeling and emotion, aside from having a conversation. That is the point where the conservative way of communication has its own significance, compared with the technology-based one that is deemed to remain in only a superficial degree. Nevertheless, the impact of the new communication method based on modern technology is getting greater and people are more and more interact in that way. To begin with, the new way, in comparison to the initial technology's limited functions that allowed people to use only text or voice, is approaching nearly the same level with the face-to-face communication. Users now even can interact seeing each other's faces through a vivid video chatting system, where they can feel like being with opponents in the same place. Furthermore, the technology-based communication is quite a suitable method in the ever-shrinking world. The new way can allow people to communicate regardless of time and space, which meets the needs and tastes of individuals who want to keep in touch with acquaintances in overseas or save time for visiting due to a busy life, or even telecommuters and multinational corporations. In conclusion, although the importance of traditional communication method cannot be wholly ignored, I believe that the usage of the new way will continue to increase, since it is now nearly the equal to the real interpersonal conversation as well as matches needs of the current world.
Mouse embyronic stem cells What’s the News: Reprogrammed stem cells—cells taken from an adult and turned back into stem cells—can be rejected by the body, at least in mice, suggests a new Nature study. Donated tissues and organs are often attacked by a patient’s immune system, since reprogrammed stem cells can be made from a patient’s own skin, researchers had hoped these cells offered a way to avoid such rejection by letting patients, in essence, donate tissue to themselves. But the new finding may be a significant setback to what is a promising line of treatment. How the Heck: - Researchers took embryonic stem cells and reprogrammed stem cells—called induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells—from two strains of mice. The mice in each strain were genetically identical to each other, so that mice within a strain would essentially recognize each other’s cells as their own. - As expected, mice rejected embryonic stem cells from the other strain, but not from their own strain. Embryonic stem cells from their own strain grew and formed teratomas, clumps of differentiating tissues that are a sign the stem cells are doing well and able to form various adult tissues. - When the researchers injected mice with iPS cells from their own strain, few teratomas formed, and those that did were quickly rejected, much as though they’d been stem cells from the other strain. What’s the Context: - iPS cells were thought to have two primary advantages over embryonic stem cells: They didn’t require the destruction of human embryos, thus circumventing those legal and ethical issues, and they could be genetically tailored to individual patients. - This was the first study to directly test whether the immune system would attack iPS cells. - It is not, however, the first problem with iPS cells that research has revealed. These stem cells sometimes retain epigentic traces of their past identities and are often riddled with errors in their genetic code, both of which could keep the cell from becoming a fully functional unit of a new tissue. - The fact that iPS cells can be rejected raises major questions about their treatment potential. “The path to the clinic just got a whole lot murkier,” stem cell researcher Robert Lanza told the New York Times. Not So Fast: - This study doesn’t mean the iPS cells will never be a useful treatment. It’s possible that iPS cells made from other tissues, or reprogrammed using a different technique, won’t be rejected. Reference: Tongbiao Zhao, Zhen-Ning Zhang, Zhili Rong, & Yang Xu. “Immunogenicity of induced pluripotent stem cells.” Nature, published online May 13, 2011. DOI: 10.1038/nature10135 Image: National Science Foundation
The production and use of energy have many well-known benefits to society, but they also have “hidden costs” or “externalities” that are not reflected in market prices, such as the harm to human health and the environment from local pollution. According to a recent assessment for the United States by the National Research Council, these hidden costs amounted to $120 billion in 2005. This figure represents an underestimate as it excludes some damage components that are difficult to quantify, such as damages to ecosystems. It also excludes greenhouse gases, whose external costs could vary between $10 and $100 per ton of carbon dioxide, depending on the rate at which future climate damages are discounted. As an illustration, using a damage estimate of $30 per ton of carbon dioxide emitted by burning fossil fuels would more than double the estimate of damages. Damages from Electricity Generation Coal, which currently accounts for nearly half of power generation, produces more hidden costs in aggregate than any other form of energy production. These damages include in particular the effect of air pollution on human health, crop yields, and building materials. Health damages include premature mortality, which was valued assuming a “statistical life” of $6 million, and morbidity (for example, chronic bronchitis and asthma). Non-climate damages from using coal to generate electricity came to $62 billion in 2005 or 3.2 cents per kilowatt hour (kWh), about one third of the average residential electricity price. Of these hidden costs, 94 percent represented premature mortality and 85 percent was caused by sulfur dioxide emissions (most of which are transformed into airborne particulates). The difference in damages among power plants were substantial: the 10 percent of plants with the highest damages produced 43 percent of aggregate damages from all plants; while the 50 percent of plants with the lowest damages produced only 12 percent of aggregate damages. Each group of plants accounted for 25 percent of electricity generated from coal; hence damages per kWh were almost 4 times higher for the highest 10 percent of plants than for the lowest 50 percent. Most variations in damages per kWh were due to differences in emission rates, although plant location also plays a role as this affects the size of the exposed population. Differences in pollution intensity reflect the more stringent regulations imposed on newer plants, which suggests there are wide possibilities for reducing damages, even with present technology. Damages for natural gas-fired plants are much lower than for coal plants. Non-climate damages from plants accounting for 71 percent of electricity generated from natural gas totaled about $740 million in 2005 or, on average, 0.16 cents per kWh (one twentieth of the damages per kWh from coal). As with coal, there are big differences among plants: The least-damaging 50 percent of gas plants, which accounted for 23 percent of net generation, produced 4 percent of the damages, while the most damaging 10 percent of plants, which accounted for 24 percent of net generation, produced 65 percent of the damages. Climate damages can range from 1 to 3 to 10 cents per kWh for coal plants, depending on whether damages per ton of CO2 are valued at $10, $30, or $100. A gas-fired plant produces roughly half this climate damage on a per kWh basis. Going forward, air pollution damages from coal-fired generation are projected to fall steadily to around $38 billion by 2030 based on expected technological change and pollution regulations. Projected reductions in pollution intensity from natural gas facilities are not as dramatic as for coal plants, but aggregate damages are still expected to fall by .05 cents per kWh. Other sources of electricity, such as wind generation, appear to have very low hidden costs in comparison with fossil fuel plants, though wind currently accounts for only 1 percent of power generation. Even for nuclear power (which currently provides 20 percent of electricity), the risk of accidents, security breaches, and releases of high-level waste appear to be very small with current technology. However, other hidden costs could not be estimated until the political process comes to a decision on storage facilities for disposal of spent fuel. In 2005, highway vehicles caused $56 billion in health and other non-climate damages, with light-duty vehicles (cars, minivans, SUVs) accounting for about 60 percent and heavy-duty vehicles (trucks and buses) the other 40 percent. Pollution from cars and trucks varies remarkably little from one technology to another, from a low of 1.2 to a high of 1.7 cents per mile. Perhaps surprisingly, less than a third of the highway-related damages are caused by the tailpipe emissions of cars, trucks, and buses. Most are incurred in producing and refining the fuel, and in manufacturing the vehicles. Congress has mandated the use of ethanol, most of which is currently made from corn, as a highway fuel. But the report showed that pollution costs from corn-based ethanol are similar to or slightly higher than costs from conventional gasoline, because of the energy required to grow the corn and turn it into fuel. Electric vehicles also produce some of the highest non-climate damages, as they rely on electricity powered largely from fossil fuel plants for their fuel and energy intensive battery manufacturing. Hybrid electric vehicles had some of the lowest costs (1.2 cents per vehicle mile) but as general vehicle efficiency increases, the differences between hybrids and gasoline vehicles are expected to shrink. In 2005, diesel had some of the highest costs when used in both light and heavy vehicles. As was the case for power generation from coal, the midrange figure used to illustrate climate damages ($30 per ton of CO2) marks the point at which climate-related damages from transportation are expected to equal or exceed non-climate damages. The report projected significant decreases in non-climate damages per mile traveled for heavy duty vehicles between 2005 and 2030. In 2005, damages per mile were three to four times higher for heavy than for light duty vehicles. Damages per mile for heavy duty vehicles are predicted to fall substantially by 2030 due to full implementation of the Highway Diesel Rule. Some broader costs were omitted from the damage assessment. Although dependence on imported oil has well-recognized implications for foreign policy, and some of the effects can be viewed as external costs, it is currently impossible to quantify them. For example, the role of the military in safeguarding foreign supplies of oil is often identified as a relevant factor. But the energy-related reasons for a military presence in certain areas of the world cannot readily be disentangled from non-energy-related reasons. The transmission grid that distributes the country’s electric power to consumers develops failures from time to time because it is overloaded and has inadequate reserve capacity. Those failures constitute another kind of hidden cost; measuring the social costs of these outages, however, is difficult. The possibility of grid failure underscores the importance of carefully analyzing the costs and benefits of investing in a modernized grid—one that takes advantage of new smart technology and that is better able to handle intermittent renewable-power sources. Government action has a potentially important role to play in reducing energy-related damages. For example, the full implementation of the federal diesel-emissions rule would result in a sizeable decrease in non-climate damages from diesel vehicles between 2005 and 2030. Similarly, major initiatives to further reduce emissions from coal-fired power plants or shift to a cleaner electricity-generating mix (such as renewables, natural gas, and nuclear) could substantially reduce hidden costs, including those from grid-dependent hybrid and electric vehicles. Maureen L. Cropper, a professor of economics at the University of Maryland and a former lead economist at the World Bank, has focused on valuing environmental amenities, estimating consumer preferences for health and longevity improvements, and the tradeoffs implicit in environmental regulations. National Research Council. 2009. Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Muller, N.Z., and R.O. Mendelsohn. 2007. Measuring the damages from air pollution in the U.S. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 54(1):1–14. Muller, N., R. Mendelsohn, and W. Nordhaus. 2009. Environmental Accounting for Pollution: Methods with an Application to the United States Economy. Working paper. May 26.
The song of the week is 'My Home's Across The Blue Ridge Mountains' in the key of G. The chord progression is: This is 'Prog. W5' on the 'Basic Chord Progressions' handout. Notice that the second half of the progression is identical to the first half of the progression. Therefore, there are really only 2 lines (8 measures) to memorize. You should not need to look at a written copy of the progression while playing the song at the jam. Take a glance at the progression before the song starts, and just remember that every second line starts with 2 measures of the 5 chord. All other measures in the progression are 1's. Be prepared, however, to add an extra measure or two of the 1 chord to the last line of the progression for a break that occurs right before the singing starts up again, and the progression starts again from the beginning. This is common in bluegrass arrangements of songs - the Flatt and Scruggs version of the song in the youtube link given below has examples of this. Each of the 3 breaks on the recording are played as: In the key of G: 1=G; 5=D. The G chord consists of the notes G, B, and D. The D chord consists of the notes D, F#, and A. Flatt & Scruggs - key of G From listening to the song in the version given here and/or from looking at the attached melody sheets, notice that the melody of the song has only 5 notes in it. In ascending order of pitch, these are: E, G, A, B, and D. (Note: to make the melody slightly more interesting, the banjo, in its intro break lowers the G note in measures 3 and 11 to the D below the E note that is the lowest note in the vocal melody; the dobro break which occurs in the song after the second chorus does this same thing in measure 3, but not in measure 11.) Make it a point to remember this sequence of notes, and be sure that you can locate them on your instrument: D E G A B D. There are many songs that, when played in the key of G, have this same range of notes (lowest note D, highest note the D an octave higher) and have no other notes than G's, A's, B's, D's, and E's. Songs like this on the beginner jam song lists include 'Foggy Mountain Top', 'Will The Circle Be Unbroken', 'Amazing Grace', Long Journey Home' and 'Handsome Molly'. Notice also that in the melody for 'My Home's Across The Blue Ridge Mountains', the only notes that are dwelt on for half a measure or more are notes that make up the chord being played at the time: G, B, or D notes during G chord measures, and A notes during D chord measures. It is because of those A notes at the beginning of lines 2 and 4, that a chord change occurs at the beginning of those lines, for the A note is not part of the G chord. It is typical, in the key of G, for a D chord to be played when the melody of a song dwells on an A note, for of the 1, 4, and 5 chords for the key of G, namely, G, C, and D, the D chord is the only one that contains an A note. Observe that in the breaks on the recording, the measures that have only one or two melody notes in them sometimes have what sound like extra 'melody' notes added to them in addition to the many filler notes that are placed around the melody, whereas the measures that have 4 melody notes in them often have one or two of these notes deleted from them, and when not deleted, they sometimes get displaced within the measure. For a slow-moving melody, as this song has, it will not work well to play for your break only what you see written on the attached melody sheets. In order to maintain good control of the rhythm, tempo, and feel of the song during your break, so that everyone who is playing backup during your break can be following you rather than the other way around, your break needs to consist mostly of eighth notes and quarter notes, not half notes and whole notes. If you don't know what other notes would work to put around the melody, then for lack of anything else to do, keep to the melody notes, but - on guitar, mandolin, and fiddle - change half notes to a quarter note followed by two eighth notes, and for whole notes, do this twice: i.e., quarter, eighth, eighth, quarter, eighth, eighth. To see what this rhythm looks like when written out, refer to the 'guitar break' in the attachment. I have not included a 'fiddle break' sheet or a 'mandolin break' sheet in the attachments, because the 'guitar break' tab suffices to show for the sake of all 3 of these instruments what the rhythm is that is being applied here to the melody. The banjo is a different story (repeating the same note several times in a row doesn't work very well when playing with finger picks), so I have included a 'banjo break' sheet in the attachments. This is a very basic break (a lot more is going on in Earl Scruggs' intro break on the recording than in the banjo break given in the attachments) which is given here to demonstrate how one can take one roll pattern (in this case, the alternating thumb roll) and place it around the melody, turning quarter notes into a pair of eighth notes, half notes into a series of four eighth notes, etc. To avoid the monotony that results from playing nothing but eighth notes in one's break, I have substituted for the roll in a few places a single quarter note followed by a quarter note double stop (called a 'pinch' on the banjo). On the break sheets, I have also included a pickup measure for each of the 4 instruments. You will need to use these, or something like them, in order to kick off the song effectively on your instrument without having to count into the song. Remember these three notes: d, g, a. These will work well as pickups for nearly any song in the key of G in which the first complete measure of the melody starts with a B note while a G chord is being played. The lyrics of 'My Home's Across The Blue Ridge Mountains' are quite repetitive and easy to memorize. For this reason, this is one of the songs I recommend learning to sing to those who wish to lead a song at the jam, but do not have much experience doing so. Other songs on the beginner jam song lists that are fairly easy to memorize include: Mama Don't Allow, New River Train, Hand Me Down My Walking Cane, Lonesome Road Blues, Long Journey Home, This Little Light Of Mine, Take This Hammer, and Worried Man Blues. For most of these songs, you need not know any more than 3 verses (in addition to the chorus for the songs that do have a chorus) in order to be ready to sing and play a complete arrangement of them at the jam. Notice that in the Flatt & Scruggs version of 'My Home's Across The Blue Ridge Mountains' there are only 3 verses sung (plus the chorus), yet, if you were to look online for lyric sheets for the song, you would come across some other verses for the song in addition to these 3. Jason's Beginner Jam Blog 2017 - 2018 Songs regularly called at the Beginner Bluegrass Jam and links from Jason's "Song of the Week" emails. (from Renee) in alphabetical order
from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. In the Brachiopoda, a convex plate which appears in mature stages of some of the species as an outside envelop of the cardinal process of the dorsal valve. It is analogous to the deltidium of the ventral valve, but is not homologous therewith either in origin or function. Sorry, no etymologies found. Sorry, no example sentences found. Wordnik is becoming a not-for-profit! Read our announcement here.
The Toyota Prius is one of the cars targeted by the new regulations. Late last week, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration said that it will now begin assessing new regulations for green cars, whose quiet engines may pose a danger to unaware pedestrians. This is the agency’s first major step towards implementing the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act, which requires automobile manufactures to equip new electric and hybrid vehicles with sound systems that alert pedestrians of the approaching machines. But the move has come under fire by some green car advocates, who stress a lack of studies showing that such warning systems would actually make the streets safer for pedestrians: The difficulty is that there’s simply not enough data on actual pedestrian injuries and deaths attributable to quieter cars. Part of that reflects a lack of categories to reflect such a problem, and the low incidence of pedestrian injuries in general. [A] 2009 NHTSA report highlighted its own weaknesses: It was based on data from only 12 states (the ones that record Vehicle Identification Numbers) and limited to injuries from 2000, when hybrids first entered the U.S. market. The result: a small, possibly non-representative sample set. Image: Flickr/M 93
Capitalizing on a growing body of evidence that comics can encourage reluctant readers to read more and talented students to gain in knowledge and creativity, The Maryland State Department of Education has partnered with Diamond Comic Book Distributors and elicited the help of members of local school systems, higher education, adult and corrections education, and libraries. The goal is to develop a Maryland plan and instructional strategies that support the use of graphic literature in elementary, secondary, adult, and corrections education. This initiative which is sponsored by State Superintendent Nancy Grasmick and the President of Diamond Comics, Steve Geppi. The Maryland Comic Book Initiative The Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) partnered with Diamond Comic Book Distributors, the nation's largest comic book distributor, to create a Maryland Comic Book Initiative called Comics in the Classroom. The purpose of the initiative is to introduce and encourage the use of award-winning and other credible graphic novels and comic book materials in classroom instruction. These materials are not to be a replacement of traditional texts and instruction, but rather an additional means to enhance reading instruction by motivating students to read more and better. The innovative programs developed for Phase 1 of the program include lessons and suggested materials for elementary grades first through fourth. These lessons are based on Maryland's Voluntary State Curriculum. Specialized instructional lessons designed with Disney Publishing Worldwide were piloted in Maryland and evaluated by the University of Maryland Baltimore County. These lessons and other parts of the program have received widespread national and international attention. The Disney/MSDE Comics in the Classroom Toolkit - Background Information In 2004, MSDE brought together a panel of distinguished teachers, principals, and comic book experts to brainstorm ideas related to the use of comics in Maryland classrooms. The idea was enthusiastically embraced and teacher team members and the MSDE scoped out an instructional program for Maryland. The MSDE then began contract work with Disney Publishing Worldwide to create an instructional toolkit featuring Disney characters that could be used by teachers to motivate students and expand their reading skills. The program which was developed is referred to as the Comics in the Classroom Toolkit. It is geared to third and perhaps fourth grade students and features ten lessons complete with lesson-by-lesson guidelines, reading, vocabulary, and writing exercises, along with comic book creation exercises and other handouts for students. Toolkit reading materials feature classic Disney characters such as Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck. A set of 30 comic books is included in each classroom kit. Sample lessons can be found the following URL: bookshelf.diamondcomics.com. Follow the link for Md Comic Book Initiative. Recently, eight Maryland elementary schools piloted this program at the third grade and we learned that the students LOVED reading graphic stories and gained important reading, writing, and thinking skills. The Disney materials were vetted by a state committee and evaluated by the education department at the University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC). The results of the evaluation were very positive. Project Continuation in 2008 In a new phase of the initiative starting spring 2008, approximately 200 Maryland third grade classrooms will work with MSDE in providing additional feedback on the Toolkit lessons. In addition, the Maryland Comic Book Initiative will continue to work with Diamond and numerous publishers to offer guidance and ideas for instructional programs utilizing graphic novels and comics for students of all ages. Steve Geppi, Darla Strouse, Dr. Nancy Grasmick, John Snyder of Diamond, and Jonathan Yaged of Disney Publishing Worldwide. May 3, 2007 Comics In The Classroom Video, May 3, 2007 Fourth graders from George Lisby Elementary at Hillsdale in Harford County visit the Geppi Entertainment Museum downtown by Camden Yards, as Schools Superintendent Nancy Grasmick launches the "Comics In The Classroom" initiative.
Code is everywhere. It’s part of the device you’re using to view this webpage, it’s part of the webpage itself, and it’s even part of the words you’re reading right now. Coding is something that has grown and changed throughout the years as tech continues to innovate. Likewise, the tech job market has continued to evolve as new jobs are created every year. Do coders make good money? Career Karma has the breakdown of how much money coders make, plus tips on how to become a coder yourself. What Do Coders Do? The term “coder” is a pretty broad term. A coder can be a blog builder, a game maker, an analyst, an app creator, a world changer, and much more. Regardless of what coders do with their knowledge, the basis of all of these titles is simply that every one of these people are able to communicate with machines through programming languages. Machines are inherently dumb when left on their own. When humans adapt and use technology, however, real change begins to happen. To summarize, a coder is someone with the ability to communicate with machines. Hourly Wages for Coders Coding is a vital skill that is needed in almost everything we do. So, how much can coders expect to earn for their knowledge? The average salary of a coder depends on a lot of factors, such as their years of experience and what type of coding they decide to work with. These are the top coding jobs and their respective hourly rates: - Computer Programmer – $40.52 per hour - Full Stack Developer – $36.20 per hour - Data Scientist – $35.84 per hour - Software Engineers – $34.62 per hour - Web Developer – $20.41 per hour These are just five of the many prominent jobs that you might come across as a coder. It’s important to reiterate that the above figures are just averages, and actual hourly wages can fluctuate greatly based on experience and your potential employer. How to Become a Coder Whether you want to code apps, build computers, or create a blog, coding is a vital skill that everyone should learn. So, where do you begin? There are thousands of different educational coding resources out there. While online resources and books are helpful, if you wish to make a career out of coding, there’s no better place to learn than a coding bootcamp. Coding bootcamps are designed to immerse you in the world of coding. You’ll learn a variety of skills that will help you land jobs in the tech industry. Career Karma can help connect you to the perfect coding bootcamp to suit your needs. In addition to matching you with a program, Career Karma also connects you with a group of peers who can support you throughout your coding journey. About us: Career Karma is a platform designed to help job seekers find, research, and connect with job training programs to advance their careers. Learn about the CK publication.
The US advisory commission on public diplomacy recently published a report titled “Can Public Diplomacy Survive the Internet: Bots, Echo-Chambers and Disinformation”. As the title implies, this report takes the view that the threats of digitalization may soon outweigh its benefits. Actors employing digital technologies can now stifle internal opposition, fracture and manipulate the media ecologies of other states and limit one’s access to diverse views and analyses. While the report deals with a range of issues, this blog post will focus on the ossue Bots and their impact on a diplomat’s ability to practice foreign policy analysis. What are Bots? According to Samuel Woolley, a contributor to the Commission’s report, Bots are computer programs that automate human tasks online ranging from generating ads for websites to matching two users of a dating application. Recently, governments and militaries have begun using bots to manipulate political communication. Internally Bots can be used to silence activists and opposition groups. Externally Bots can be used to manipulate public opinion and public discussions in foreign countries. Woolley argues that Bots are increasingly used by states during times of crises such as contentious elections, military stalemates and mass protests. The majority of such Bots are deployed on social media sites including Facebook and Twitter. Given that diplomats now increasingly rely on social media as an analysis tool, one has to wonder how Bots influence a diplomat’s ability to monitor events occurring in foreign countries and offer insight to policy makers. For instance, if Bots are used to stifle oppositions, diplomats may fail to recognize the true size and power of opposition groups. Conversely, if Bots are used to massively propagate pro-government views, diplomats may fail to recognize contentious political issues thinking that the a government enjoys popular support. Evaluating Bots’ impact on foreign policy analysis may be achieved by catagorzing Bots into three groups identified by Woolley: Follower Bots, Roadblock Bots and Propaganda Bots. Follower Bots are mainly used to artificially boost a politician’s number of followers on social media. In addition, these Bots share the politician’s online content thus increasing his onnline reach. Some might think that artificially boosting one’s popularity on Twitter is a minor issue. Yet in an age when political figures are judged by their ability to attract mass audiences online, the size of one’s social media following is a manifestation of political power. Follower Bots may influence foreign policy analysis in three ways. First, diplomats may over-estimate the importance of political figures. Such a miscalculation may be detrimental during elections or civil unrest. For instance, if one of the candidates during an election boasts millions of online followers, a diplomat may mistakenly assume that he may be a serious contender to win the elections when in-fact his actual political support is rather limited. Moreover, a diplomat may advise his government to engage with the politician in question so as to lay the groundwork for a fruitful relationship should he win. Yet this would be a waste of time and efforts. Conversely, diplomats may underestimate certain political figures given their small online following when in-fact these politicians enjoy a broad-based support but have simply failed to purchase Follower Bots. Follower Bots may also cause diplomats to miscalculate the staying power of leaders. Political crises often threaten a leader’s term in office. Diplomats using social media may over-estimate a leader’s staying power not just because of his online popularity, but because of the devotion of his followers who are always eager to share his social media content online. Follower Bots thus create the illusion that a leader has a passionate and dedicated follower base which could help him weather political storms. However, in reality, the leader may have very little support. Miscalculating a leader’s staying power could be quite detrimental to a country’s foreign policy as the ousting of leaders may bring about political and financial instability, civil unrest or even the emergence of new governments with new interests. The examples discussed thus far suggest that diplomats must become aware of the tension between reality and the depiction of reality online. According to Woolley, Roadblock Bots are used to demobilize and disrupt opposition groups or opposition activists. For instance, Roadblock Bots publish an awesome amount of tweets while using the opposition’s hashtag. This prevents the opposition from communicating online and organizing collaborative action. Roadblock Bots may have four implications for foreign policy analysis. The first is somewhat counter intuitive- diplomats now need to analyze a country’s Roadblock capabilities. A government’s ability to use Bots to disrupt and demobilize opposition groups increases its durability and weakens the opposition’s threat. Imagine that Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak had at his disposal a troll army and a mass array of Bots through which he could have flooded the hashtag Tahrir. This could have increased his staying power and prevented the opposition from rallying and coordinating their actions. In other words, foreign policy analysis must now include an assessment of a government’s offensive digital capabilities. Second, Roadblock Bots may cause diplomats to seriously under-estimate the size and power of opposition groups as these groups are unable to project their power online. This prevents diplomats from realizing that a tipping point has been reached and that mass protests are about to destabilize a country. Such lack of foresight can prevent nations from offering aid to opposition groups, calling for talks between governments and opposition groups so as to avoid violence and preventing crisis escalation. Finally, and most importantly, the deployment of Roadblock Bots itself might suggest that a government has come to regard certain groups as a potential threat. Similarly, the deployment of Roadblock Bots could suggest that government perceives a credible threat to its stability. Thus, foreign policy analysis may require that diplomats track the deployment of Roadblock Bots by governments. This example suggests that the use of Bots is in itself an important diplomatic signal that should be integrated in foreign policy analysis. According to Woolley, Propaganda Bots mimic humans while disseminating positive information about embattled governments or politicians and negative information about opposition groups. Russia allegedly used Propaganda Bots to boost pro-regime discourse and limit anti regime discourse both within Russia and in neighboring countries. Moreover, it is estimated that Azerbaijan and Iran used Propaganda Bots internally to limit anti regime discourse. The employment of Propaganda Bots could have four implications for foreign policy analysis. First, social media should be regarded as a competitive framing environment in which governments compete over online audiences and audiences interpretation of events. For instance, during the Crimea Crisis the US, Russia and Ukraine all narrated events taking place in Eastern Ukraine and all attempted to sway public opinion in their favor. By using Propaganda Bots, a nation may be able to dramatically increase the reach of its frames and the intensity of it framing as opposed to another actor. This, in turn, leads to a form of framing dominance. Imagine that Russia had employed Propaganda Bots when discussing Ukraine and that the US did not. This could have given Russia a substantial advantage in framing and narrating events in Ukraine and winning over online audiences. Thus, the Propaganda abilities of nations should be integrated into the analysis of military conflicts. Second, the employment of Propaganda Bots in favor of certain actors is also important for foreign policy analysis. Woolley writes that during the recent elections, the South Korean military used its Propaganda Bots to raise support for Park Geun-hye. This serves as an important signal for diplomats attesting to a politician’s ability to win an election and the level of support he or she enjoys from local powerful actors. Imagine that the Egyptian Military had thrown its Propaganda Bots behind a candidate in the 2012 Egyptian elections. This would have signaled that this candidate now enjoyed the support of the Egyptian king makers. Thus, an actor’s willingness to deploy Bots in favor of another should be incorporated into the practice of foreign policy analysis. Propaganda Bots may also cause diplomats to misevaluate local sentiment towards external actors. For example, local diplomats in Kiev may have deduced that the local population is in favor of Russia’s annexation of Crimea given the prevalence of pro-Russian discourse on social media. This would have influenced diplomat’s appraisal of the Crimean crisis and their governments’ measures to end the crisis. Conversely, Bots can fool diplomats into believing that a tipping point has arrived as Bots can boost pro-opposition rhetoric and stifle pro-government rhetoric. Yet this might simply be the result of sophisticated manipulation by an external actor. Imagine that country A wishes to destabilize country B by artificially propping up the profile of the local opposition. As a result, diplomats may advise governments to reach out to the opposition in country B which, in turn, strengthens that opposition and indeed leads to the ousting of the leader. This example suggest that straetgoc use of Bots can warp diplomats apprisal of reality. In this post I attempted to explore the manner in which Bots could impact a core function of diplomacy- information gathering and analysis. I attempted to argue that Bots can influence foreign policy analysis in three main ways. First, Bots create a false reality which leads to faulty analysis. Second, Bots can increase the narrating abilities of governments and thus should become part of crisis analysis. Lastly, the deployment of Bots by a government or military is in itself a diplomatic signal, such as when an Army uses its Bots to support a candidate or when a government deploys Bots to stifle a specific opposition group. Most importantly, this post argues that diplomats must come to regard social media as a strategic space in which reality and depictions of reality intersect. This means that diplomats must acquire new skills for critical evaluation of online content and must master new tools for identifying Bots and propaganda.
The tipical approach to the art of programming from the point of view of a scientist only rarely permits to reach good results in terms of computational performances. The basic knowledge about how a computer machine really works permits even to a naif programmer to better write his own code and eventually to optimize properly any kind of scientific program. This knowledge is way more important in the field of High-Performance Computing where the correct exploitation of the modern architecures is crucial to the achievement of scientific results. This code is addressed to C and Fortran programmers that, even without notions of computer science, have necessities to learn tricks and techniques to quickly debug and optimize codes without restarting from scratch. Aim of this course is to guide the user to analyze and improve performances of his software, by introducing techniques and tools used in the HPC world. Software and hardware profilers will be presented and it will be showed how to find bottlenecks and how to fix them. Typical techniques of optimization (cache reuse, unrolling, inlining, vectorization) will be presented the use of mathematical libraries will be discussed. Furthermore, the use of compiler flags on different architectures and compilers will be introduced. Computer architectures: cache memory, cache coherency, cache padding, memory alignment, pipeline, branch prediction. Introduction to compilers: what is and how a compiler does work. Optimization techniques: aliasing, interprocedural analysis, inlining, loop unrolling, intrinsic functions Profiling and debugging tools. Scientific libraries. Researchers and programmers interested to a quick and efficient debugging and to a knowledge of fundamental concepts of optimization. This course is particularly suitable for people approaching for the first time to issues of computer programming in the framework of scientific calculations. Knowledge of Fortran or C/C++. Elementary notions of Linux/Unix. The lunch for the three days will be offered to all the participants and some grants are available. The only requirement to be eligible is to be not funded by your institution to attend the course and to work and live in an institute outside the Bologna area. The grant will be 300 euros for students working and living outside Italy and 150 euros for students working and living in Italy (outside Bologna area). Some documentation will be required and the grant will be paid only after a certified presence of minimum 80% of the lectures. Further information about how to request the grant, will be provided at the confirmation of the course: about 3 weeks before the starting date.
ND Filters (Part 2) In the first part of this article I discussed the use of Neutral Density filters as a tool that enables photographers to create images with long shutters speeds during the day. This article is more for filmmakers and videographers for whom NDs are a fundamental creative and technical tool that allows the use of large apertures. Large apertures in daylight This second use is typical for shooting video, although the principles apply to still photography in exactly the same way. The reason why video is such a special case is that most filming needs to be done with one particular shutter speed. There are exceptions but as a rule most films that you see in cinemas or the programs you watch on TV were shot with a shutter speed of 1/50th of a second. That means that cinematographers cannot really use shutter speed as a technical means to control exposure! They are stuck with one number. They still have light, aperture and ISO to work with, but as you are probably aware, noise makes ISO the least preferred way to control the brightness of your shots. So, you are left with aperture and light. This is why light is everything for cinematographers: lamps are both technical and creative tools. On the one hand, lights create sufficient illumination to shoot a scene at a given ISO and a desired aperture. On the other hand, lights create mood and tell a story. The only other viable tool filmmakers are left with to control exposure is therefore aperture. But what if the technical need for controlling exposure goes against the creative need? How can you achieve shallow depth-of-field in broad daylight? Try this: On a bright or even on an overcast day try to see what is the largest aperture you can have if your shutter speed has to be 1/50th of a second. It will be a rather small aperture even at ISO 100 – probably somewhere between f/11 and f/22. But what if you want an image with shallow depth-of-field? You would need a large aperture for that,e.g. something around f/2.8 or f/4! But you can’t have it, not unless you pick a faster shutter speed. A big ‘can’t do’ for cinematographers. Remember: shallow DOF means a physically large aperture that lets in lots of light. In still photography you could balance this with a fast shutter speed. But not in filmmaking! The only solution is an ND filter. It absorbs so much light that you have to set a larger aperture. It is exactly for this reason that professional video cameras have built-in ND filters and that their use becomes second nature for every videographer. To see how this works in practise, have a look at the following video.
Women are the backbone of families, communities, and societies. Yet, too often, their own health and well-being take a backseat to the demands of daily life. It’s time to empower women to prioritize their health, understand their bodies, and navigate the unique challenges they face at every stage of life. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the various aspects of women’s health, from physical to mental well-being, offering insights and tips to empower women to lead healthy, fulfilling lives. Understanding Women’s Health Women’s health is a holistic concept that encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being. From adolescence to menopause and beyond, women experience unique health issues that require specialized care and attention. Understanding the usmle step 1 prep course female reproductive system, hormonal changes, and risk factors for conditions such as breast cancer, osteoporosis, and heart disease is crucial. Knowledge is power; by understanding their bodies, women can make informed decisions about their health. Adolescence: Building Healthy Foundations The teenage years are a critical period for building healthy habits that can last a lifetime. Proper nutrition, regular exercise, and adequate sleep are fundamental. It’s also essential for young women to understand their menstrual cycle and reproductive health. Open discussions about puberty, hygiene, and emotional well-being can promote a positive body image and self-esteem, laying the foundation for a healthy adulthood. Reproductive Years: Family Planning and Maternal Health During the reproductive years, women often face decisions about family planning, pregnancy, and childbirth. Access to reproductive healthcare, including contraception and family planning services, is essential for empowering women to make choices that align with their goals and lifestyles. Adequate prenatal care, emotional support, and postnatal care are vital for a healthy pregnancy and the well-being of both the mother and the child. Menopause and Beyond: Embracing Change Menopause marks a significant transition in a woman’s life, accompanied by hormonal changes and potential health challenges such as osteoporosis and heart disease. It’s essential for women to seek regular healthcare screenings, including mammograms and bone density tests. Managing menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes and mood swings, through lifestyle changes, hormone therapy, or alternative therapies can significantly improve the quality of life during this phase. Mental Health: Breaking the Silence Mental health is just as important as physical health, yet it is often stigmatized and overlooked. Women are more prone to conditions like depression and anxiety, partly due to hormonal fluctuations and social factors. It’s crucial to break the silence surrounding mental health issues, seek help when needed, and practice self-care. Supportive communities, therapy, and open conversations can provide solace and encouragement to women facing mental health challenges. Empowering Women Through Knowledge and Support Empowering women to take charge of their health requires access to accurate information, supportive healthcare providers, and a nurturing community. Education about reproductive health, regular check-ups, self-examinations, and preventive screenings are essential. Supportive networks of friends, family, and healthcare professionals can provide guidance, encouragement, and emotional support, helping women navigate the complexities of their health journeys. Conclusion: Your health, Your Empowerment Women’s health empowerment is about recognizing the inherent value of every woman’s well-being. It’s about understanding that investing in your health is not selfish but necessary for your overall fulfillment and the well-being of those around you. By prioritizing physical and mental health, seeking support, and embracing the changes that come with each life stage, women can lead empowered lives. Remember, your health matters, and your empowerment begins with the choices you make today. Embrace your journey, advocate for your well-being, and inspire others to do the same. Together, we can create a world where every woman is empowered to live a life of wellness and fulfillment.
Saudi Arabia, the country with the world’s highest per capita consumption of electricity, is hoping that solar energy can take some of the burden off of its petroleum resources, Arab News/Eqtisadiah report. Facing the very real possibility that all Saudi oil production would be needed to meet demand for electricity in the foreseeable future, steps have to be taken now to find alternative energy sources. And if Saudi Arabia has lots of oil, it has even more sunlight shining down upon it. This isn’t as straightforward an approach as it may seem at first, though. Major increases in the production of solar panels has led to a collapse in their prices. This has led to manufacturers, notably in China, cutting corners and sending out sub-standard products that fail quickly. The EU has recently imposed anti-dumping tariffs on Chinese producers who are trying to unload their overproduction at prices below their manufacturing costs. While the cost of producing electricity has dropped over the past 20 years, it is not yet competitive with other energy production methods and relies heavily on government subsidies. This is, in part, why Saudi Arabia is continuing on its path toward nuclear power generation. ‘Solar energy crucial to meet rising demand’ JEDDAH: ARAB NEWS/AL-EQTISADIAH An expert here believes that the Kingdom is likely to spend all its oil on electricity in the country by 2031 if current consumption continues, and has called for an urgent program to harness solar energy. “There must be real work done to benefit from this alternative energy in the Kingdom in light of climate changes, population growth and increasing electricity use,” said Abdel Malik Al-Junaidi, chairman of the mechanical engineering department at King Abdul Aziz University. He said Saudi Arabia has a “real wealth” of alternative energy but has not exploited it. He said Saudi Arabia could become a leading exporter of solar power. The Kingdom has this potential because it is located close to the equator, its skies are cloud-free and because the sun’s rays fall vertically onto the country. “Solar energy generation can be 1,000 watts for every square meter which requires stations to transfer this solar energy to electrical energy. (This is important) especially since Saudi Arabia by 2031 will need to use all its oil for electricity production.” Al-Junaidi said that Saudi Arabia has “the highest consumption of electricity in the world.”
Pentagon researchers have created a computer chip inspired by the human brain to power unmanned aircraft or robotic ground systems. Scientists, including one of Indian origin, are developing a computer chip that mimics the human brain. Scientists claim to have created a new optical device small enough to fit millions on a computer chip which could lead to faster, more powerful information processing and supercomputers. Indian-American Raj Dutt has developed a next-generation energy-efficient computer chip that has caught the attention of the Pentagon. Day in Pics: 25th December Showbiz World - December 25, 2014 Sunny Leone with Mastizaade
Finding the best and most healthy diet plan for your health may be a challenge if you’re not sure where to start. There are so many different kinds of foods these days and each one promises to provide the cure to all your health problems, but the truth is that some diets do more harm than good. This is why you need to have some specific knowledge about what to look for in a diet to be able to choose the best diet for you. Here are a few tips that will help you choose the best healthy diet with the help of best dietitian in Dubai. Know the basics of nutrition Nutrition is the science of knowing how much nutrition your body needs to function properly and be healthy. When you’re choosing a diet you must choose a diet that will provide the correct amount of nutrition and make sure that you’re getting all the nutrients your body needs. Your body requires a certain amount of energy each day just to maintain itself and stay at a healthy rate. If you don’t get enough energy, you won’t be able to exercise at all, perform your daily tasks, or even think straight. Know what foods you should avoid If you want to know how to choose a healthy diet, you need to know what foods you should avoid and what foods can be beneficial to your body. Fruits and vegetables are a great source of vitamins and minerals that your body needs to stay healthy. To make sure that you’re getting the right amount of vitamins and minerals from your food, you’ll want to eat a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. Foods such as apples, oranges, broccoli, carrots, and spinach are all excellent sources of vitamins A, C, and E. Fruits and vegetables also contain antioxidants which are good for your body because they neutralize free radicals that can damage your cells and cause diseases. Some fruits and vegetables you should keep an eye on include: papaya, pineapple, oranges, kiwi, mango, strawberry, and green beans. Include dairy products in your diet As far as the best healthy diet goes, dairy products should be a part of it. You can choose to buy low-fat or non-fat versions of dairy items. A good way to choose the best dairy products for you is to read up on the health benefits each one offers and then buy only those. For example, whole milk has proven benefits for strengthening the bones and the brain; some studies have even shown that it can lower the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.
Regular tobacco smoking doubles the risk that people who have been successfully treated for tuberculosis will develop it again, a condition known as "recurrent" TB, according to a research published today. The research provides critical insights on the harmful links between smoking tobacco and developing TB. The study which appears in the April issue of the International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease is the most robust ever conducted into how smoking tobacco increases the risk of recurrent TB. "More than ever before, we understand how tobacco harms people who have already been successfully treated for TB," said Dr Chung-Yeh Deng of National Yang-Ming University in Taipei, one of the authors of the study. Nearly 2 billion people are infected with TB every year and more than 20 per cent of global TB incidence may be attributable to smoking. "No one should undergo the long, complex treatment for TB only to unknowingly place themselves at heightened risk of getting the disease again", Deng said. The researchers followed a large sample of 5,567 TB patients in Taiwan, each of whom had TB confirmed through bacteriologic testing and went on to successfully complete TB treatment. Of those patients, 1.5 per cent developed a recurrent case of TB. The report showed that regular tobacco smokers are twice as likely to develop recurrent TB compared with former smokers and with individuals who had never smoked tobacco. Regular tobacco smokers were defined as individuals who smoked 10 or more cigarettes—equivalent to half a pack—per day. "Until this study was published, we didn't have a clear sense of how smoking tobacco posed risks to TB patients who have put in the hard work of completing their treatment," said Dr Paula Fujiwara, Scientific Director of the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, which publishes the journal. The research was announced on March 24 to coincide with World TB Day, which marks the anniversary of Prof Robert Koch's discovery of the bacteria that cause tuberculosis in Berlin. More than a century later, Koch's discovery is still considered among the most revolutionary in the history of medicine, since it paved the way to finding a cure for the disease known in the 19th century as "The White Plague". "You often see tuberculosis still referred to as an 'ancient' disease, but this study is further evidence that TB is a fully modern illness that is impacting people in new
Sea King's daughter from over the sea, Saxon and Norman and Dane are we, But all of us Danes in our welcome of thee, Alexandra!— A Welcome to Alexandra, Alfred, Lord Tennyson In 1848, King Christian VIII of Denmark died and his only son, Frederick ascended the throne. Frederick was childless, had been through two unsuccessful marriages, and was assumed to be infertile. A succession crisis arose as Frederick ruled in both Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein, and the succession rules of each territory differed. In Holstein, the Salic law prevented inheritance through the female line, whereas no such restrictions applied in Denmark. Holstein, being predominantly German, proclaimed independence and called in the aid of Prussia. In 1852, the great powers called a conference in London to discuss the Danish succession. An uneasy peace was agreed, which included the provision that Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg would be Frederick's heir in all his dominions and the prior claims of others (who included Christian's own mother-in-law, brother-in-law and wife) were surrendered. Her family had been relatively obscure until 1852, when her father, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, was chosen with the consent of the great powers to succeed his distant cousin, Frederick VII, to the Danish throne. At the age of sixteen, she was chosen as the Future wife of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the heir apparent of Queen Victoria. They married eighteen months later in 1863, the same year her father became king of Denmark as Christian IX and her brother was appointed to the vacant Greek throne as George I. She was Princess of Wales from 1863 to 1901, the longest anyone has ever held that title, and became generally popular; her style of dress and bearing were copied by fashion-conscious women. Largely excluded from wielding any political power, she unsuccessfully attempted to sway the opinion of British ministers and her husband's family to favour Greek and Danish interests. Her public duties were restricted to uncontroversial involvement in charitable work. On 24 September 1861, Crown Princess Victoria introduced her brother Albert Edward to Alexandra at Speyer. Almost a year later on 9 September 1862 (after his affair with Nellie Clifden and the death of his father) Albert Edward proposed to Alexandra at the Royal Castle of Laeken, the home of his great-uncle, King Leopold I of Belgium. Alexandra was highly popular with the British public. After she married the Prince of Wales in 1863, a new park and "People's Palace", a public exhibition and arts centre under construction in north London, were renamed the Alexandra Palace and park to commemorate her. There are at least sixty-seven roads and streets in the Greater London area alone called Alexandra Road, Alexandra Avenue, Alexandra Gardens, Alexandra Close or Alexandra Street, all named after her. Unlike her husband and mother-in-law, she was not castigated by the press. Funds that she helped to collect were used to buy a river launch, called Alexandra, to ferry the wounded during the Sudan campaign, and to fit out a hospital ship, named The Princess of Wales, to bring back wounded from the Boer War. During the Boer War, Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, later renamed Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, was founded under Royal Warrant. Alexandra's first child, Albert Victor, was born two months premature in early 1864. Alexandra showed devotion to her children: "She was in her glory when she could run up to the nursery, put on a flannel apron, wash the children herself and see them asleep in their little beds." Albert Edward and Alexandra had six children in total: Albert Victor, George, Louise, Victoria, Maud, and John. All of Alexandra's children were apparently born prematurely; biographer Richard Hough thought Alexandra deliberately misled Queen Victoria as to her probable delivery dates, as she did not want the queen to be present at their births. During the birth of her third child in 1867, the added complication of a bout of rheumatic fever threatened Alexandra's life, and left her with a permanent limp. She hid a small scar on her neck, which was probably the result of a childhood operation, by wearing choker necklaces and high necklines, setting fashions which were adopted for fifty years. Alexandra's effect on fashion was so profound that society ladies even copied her limping gait, after her serious illness in 1867 left her with a stiff leg. This came to be known as the "Alexandra limp". She used predominantly the London fashion houses; her favourite was Redfern's, but she shopped occasionally at Doucet and Fromont of Paris. Albert Edward and Alexandra visited Ireland in April 1868. After her illness the previous year, she had only just begun to walk again without the aid of two walking sticks, and was already pregnant with her fourth child. The royal couple undertook a six-month tour taking in Austria, Egypt and Greece over 1868 and 1869, which included visits to her brother King George I of Greece, to the Crimean battlefields and (for her only) to the harem of the Khedive Ismail. In Turkey she became the first woman to sit down to dinner with the Sultan (Abdülâziz). The Waleses made Sandringham House their preferred residence, with Marlborough House their London base. Biographers agree that their marriage was in many ways a happy one; however, some have asserted that Albert Edward did not give his wife as much attention as she would have liked and that they gradually became estranged, until his attack of typhoid fever (the disease which was believed to have killed his father) in late 1871 brought about a reconciliation. This is disputed by others, who point out Alexandra's frequent pregnancies throughout this period and use family letters to deny the existence of any serious rift. Nevertheless, the Prince was severely criticised from many quarters of society for his apparent lack of interest in her very serious illness with rheumatic fever. Throughout their marriage Albert Edward continued to keep company with other women, including the Actress Lillie Langtry; Daisy Greville, Countess of Warwick; humanitarian Agnes Keyser; and society matron Alice Keppel. Alexandra knew about most of these relationships, and later permitted Alice Keppel to visit the king as he lay dying. Alexandra herself remained faithful throughout her marriage. For eight months over 1875–76, the Prince of Wales was absent from Britain on a tour of India, but to her dismay Alexandra was left behind. The Prince had planned an all-male group and intended to spend much of the time hunting and shooting. During the prince's tour, one of his friends who was travelling with him, Lord Aylesford, was told by his wife that she was going to leave him for another man: Lord Blandford, who was himself married. Aylesford was appalled and decided to seek a divorce. Meanwhile, Lord Blandford's brother, Lord Randolph Churchill, persuaded the lovers against an elopement. Now concerned by the threat of divorce, Lady Aylesford sought to dissuade her husband from proceeding but Lord Aylesford was Adam Ant and refused to reconsider. In an attempt to pressure Lord Aylesford to drop his divorce suit, Lady Aylesford and Lord Randolph Churchill called on Alexandra and told her that if the divorce was to proceed they would subpoena her husband as a witness and implicate him in the scandal. Distressed at their threats, and following the advice of Sir william Knollys and the Duchess of Teck, Alexandra informed the queen, who then wrote to the Prince of Wales. The Prince was incensed. Eventually, the Blandfords and the Aylesfords both separated privately. Although Lord Randolph Churchill later apologised, for years afterwards the Prince of Wales refused to speak to or see him. Alexandra spent the spring of 1877 in Greece recuperating from a period of ill health and visiting her brother King George of Greece. During the Russo-Turkish War, Alexandra was clearly partial against Turkey and towards Russia, where her sister was married to the Tsarevitch, and she lobbied for a revision of the border between Greece and Turkey in favour of the Greeks. Alexandra and her two sons spent the next three years largely parted from each other's company as the boys were sent on a worldwide cruise as part of their naval and general education. The farewell was very tearful and, as shown by her regular letters, she missed them dreadfully. In 1881, Alexandra and Albert Edward travelled to Saint Petersburg after the assassination of Alexander II of Russia, both to represent Britain and so that Alexandra could provide comfort to her sister, who was now the Tsarina. Alexandra undertook many public duties; in the words of Queen Victoria, "to spare me the strain and fatigue of functions. She opens bazaars, attends concerts, visits hospitals in my place ... she not only never complains, but endeavours to prove that she has enjoyed what to another would be a tiresome duty." She took a particular interest in the London Hospital, visiting it regularly. Joseph Merrick, the so-called "Elephant Man", was one of the patients whom she met. Crowds usually cheered Alexandra rapturously, but during a visit to Ireland in 1885, she suffered a rare moment of public hostility when visiting the City of Cork, a hotbed of Irish nationalism. She and her husband were booed by a crowd of two to three thousand people brandishing sticks and black flags. She smiled her way through the ordeal, which the British press still portrayed in a positive light, describing the crowds as "enthusiastic". As part of the same visit, she received a Doctorate in Music from Trinity College, Dublin. Biographers have asserted that Alexandra was denied access to the king's briefing papers and excluded from some of his foreign tours to prevent her meddling in diplomatic matters. She was deeply distrustful of Germans, and invariably opposed anything that favoured German expansion or interests. For Example, in 1890 Alexandra wrote a memorandum, distributed to senior British ministers and military personnel, warning against the planned exchange of the British North Sea island of Heligoland for the German colony of Zanzibar, pointing out Heligoland's strategic significance and that it could be used either by Germany to launch an attack, or by Britain to contain German aggression. Despite this, the exchange went ahead anyway. The Germans fortified the island and, in the words of Robert Ensor and as Alexandra had predicted, it "became the keystone of Germany's maritime position for offence as well as for defence". The Frankfurter Zeitung was outspoken in its condemnation of Alexandra and her sister, the Dowager Empress of Russia, saying that the pair were "the centre of the international anti-German conspiracy". She despised and distrusted her nephew, German Emperor Wilhelm II, calling him in 1900 "inwardly our enemy". The death of her eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, in 1892 was a serious blow to Alexandra. His room and possessions were kept exactly as he had left them, much as those of Prince Albert were left after his death in 1861. She said, "I have buried my angel and with him my happiness." Surviving letters between Alexandra and her children indicate that they were mutually devoted. In 1894, her brother-in-law Alexander III of Russia died and her nephew Nicholas II of Russia became Tsar. Alexandra's widowed sister, the Dowager Empress, leant heavily on her for support; Alexandra slept, prayed, and stayed beside her sister for the next two weeks until Alexander's burial. Queen Alexandra's arms upon the ascension of her husband in 1901 were the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom impaled with the arms of her father, the King of Denmark. The shield is surmounted by the imperial crown, and supported by the crowned lion of England and a wild man or Savage from the Danish royal arms. Among foreign honours received by Queen Alexandra was the Japanese Order of the Precious Crown, delivered to her on behalf of Emperor Meiji by Prince Komatsu Akihito when he visited the United Kingdom in June 1902 to attend the coronation. At the same time she also received the Order of Nishan-i-Sadakat from the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, despatched to London by a special messenger together with their coronation representatives. Despite being queen, Alexandra's duties changed little, and she kept many of the same retainers. Alexandra's Woman of the Bedchamber, Charlotte Knollys, the daughter of Sir william Knollys, served Alexandra loyally for many years. On 10 December 1903, Knollys woke to find her bedroom full of smoke. She roused Alexandra and shepherded her to safety. In the words of Grand Duchess Augusta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, "We must give credit to old Charlotte for really saving [Alexandra's] life." Alexandra again looked after her grandchildren when George and Mary went on a second tour, this time to British India, over the winter of 1905–06. Her father, King Christian IX of Denmark, died that January. Eager to retain their family links, to each other and to Denmark, in 1907 Alexandra and her sister, the Dowager Empress of Russia, purchased a villa north of Copenhagen, Hvidøre, as a private getaway. In 1910, Alexandra became the first queen consort to visit the British House of Commons during a debate. In a remarkable departure from precedent, for two hours she sat in the Ladies' Gallery overlooking the chamber while the Parliament Bill, a bill to remove the right of the House of Lords to veto legislation, was debated. Privately, Alexandra disagreed with the bill. Shortly afterward, she left to visit her brother, King George I of Greece, in Corfu. While there, she received news that King Edward was seriously ill. Alexandra returned at once and arrived just the day before her husband died. In his last hours, she personally administered oxygen from a gas cylinder to help him breathe. She told Frederick Ponsonby, "I feel as if I had been turned into stone, unable to cry, unable to grasp the meaning of it all." Later that year, she moved out of Buckingham Palace to Marlborough House, but she retained possession of Sandringham. The new king, Alexandra's son George, soon faced a decision over the Parliament Bill. Despite her personal views, Alexandra supported her son's reluctant agreement to Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's request to create sufficient Liberal peers after a general election if the Lords continued to block the legislation. From Edward's death, Alexandra was queen mother, being a dowager queen and the mother of the reigning monarch. She did not attend her son's coronation in 1911 since it was not customary for a crowned queen to attend the coronation of another king or queen, but otherwise continued the public side of her life, devoting time to her charitable causes. One such cause included Alexandra Rose Day, where artificial roses made by people with disabilities were sold in aid of hospitals by women volunteers. During the First World War, the custom of hanging the banners of foreign princes invested with Britain's highest order of knighthood, the Order of the Garter, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, came under criticism, as the German members of the Order were fighting against Britain. Alexandra joined calls to "have down those hateful German banners". Driven by public opinion, but against his own wishes, the king had the banners removed but to Alexandra's dismay he had down not only "those vile Prussian banners" but also those of her Hessian relations who were, in her opinion, "simply Soldiers or vassals under that brutal German Emperor's orders". On 17 September 1916, she was at Sandringham during a Zeppelin air raid, but far worse was to befall other members of her family. In Russia, her nephew Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown and he, his wife and children were killed by Revolutionaries. Her sister the Dowager Empress was rescued from Russia in 1919 by HMS Marlborough and brought to England, where she lived for some time with Alexandra. In 1901, she became the first woman since 1488 to be made a Lady of the Garter. Other honours she held included Member First Class of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, Lady of the Imperial Order of the Crown of India, and Lady of Justice of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. On 1 January 1918, she was appointed a Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire. Alexandra retained a youthful appearance into her senior years, but during the war her age caught up with her. She took to wearing elaborate veils and heavy makeup, which was described by gossips as having her face "enamelled". She made no more trips abroad, and suffered increasing ill health. In 1920, a blood vessel in her eye burst, leaving her with temporary partial blindness. Towards the end of her life, her memory and speech became impaired. She died on 20 November 1925 at Sandringham after suffering a heart attack, and was buried in an elaborate tomb next to her husband in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The Queen Alexandra Memorial by Alfred Gilbert was unveiled on Alexandra Rose Day 8 June 1932 at Marlborough Gate, London. An ode in her memory, "So many true princesses who have gone", composed by the then Master of the King's Musick Sir Edward Elgar to words by the Poet Laureate John Masefield, was sung at the unveiling and conducted by the Composer. Queen Alexandra has been portrayed on television by Deborah Grant and Helen Ryan in Edward the Seventh, Ann Firbank in Lillie, Maggie Smith in All the King's Men, and Bibi Andersson in The Lost Prince. She was portrayed in film by Helen Ryan again in the 1980 film The Elephant Man, Sara Stewart in the 1997 film Mrs Brown, and Julia Blake in the 1999 film Passion. In a 1980 stage play by Royce Ryton, Motherdear, she was portrayed by Margaret Lockwood in her last acting role. Princess Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia, or "Alix", as her immediate family knew her, was born at the Yellow Palace, an 18th-century town house at 18 Amaliegade, right next to the Amalienborg Palace complex in Copenhagen. Her father was Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and her mother was Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel. Although she was of royal blood, her family lived a comparatively normal life. They did not possess great wealth; her father's income from an army commission was about £800 per year and their house was a rent-free grace and favour property. Occasionally, Hans Christian Andersen was invited to call and tell the children stories before bedtime.
Ask Dr. Math High School Archive Dr. Math Home \|\| Middle School \|\| High School \|\| Dr. Math FAQ See also the Browse High School Calculus Stars indicate particularly interesting answers or good places to begin browsing. Selected answers to common questions: Maximizing the volume of a box. Maximizing the volume of a cylinder. Volume of a tank. What is a derivative? - Solving a Differential Equation [6/5/1996] The integral looking somewhat like this: S ((e^u)/u) du has resisted every attack on my part. - Solving a Logarithm [6/29/1996] log a = -1.3 - Solving an Equation using Power Series [05/18/1999] How does one solve the differential equation (t^4)x'' + x = 0 for x? - Solving an Equation with Infinite Exponents [03/15/2007] If x^x^x^x^x^x^x^x^x^x^x...... = 2, solve for x. How can I solve that - Solving a Window Problem with Calculus [11/11/1995] My question is just like the Norman window question, but I have an isosceles triangle on top. Where do I start? 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Eduardo Chivambo Mondlane was born in the district of Manjacaze, Gaza province, on 20 June 1920 and died on 3 February 1969, aged just 49, the victim of a letter bomb assassination. He lost his father at an early age (1922) and was brought up by his mother and her family. At the age of 12, he began studying at a Presbyterian Church school. In 1936 he went to Lourenço Marques (now Maputo) to continue his studies, where he finished primary school. After completing primary school, he attended an agricultural course run by the Methodist church outside Maputo. While studying, Mondlane was involved in the work of the church. After completing the course in 1942, he returned to Lourenço Marques where the church gave him the task of teaching. In 1945, he got a grant from the church to study in South Africa, at the Douglas Lain Smith Secondary School, where he finished his secondary education in 1948. After completing secondary school, Mondlane enrolled in the same year at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, to study sociology, but with the rise to power of Daniel Malan’s Nationalist Party, which instituted Apartheid, he was expelled from South Africa. In 1948, as a result of many difficulties and frustrations, Mondlane founded NESAM – Núcleo de Estudantes Secundários de Moçambique (Centre of Secondary Students of Mozambique) together with other secondary school students who shared the same feeling of revolt against the injustices of the system. He continued his studies in Portugal on a scholarship offered by the University of Lisbon. There he met other African students who would become leaders of the nationalist and anti-colonial movements in various Portuguese-speaking African countries, namely: Mário Pinto de Andrade, Amílcar Cabral, Agostinho Neto and Marcelino dos Santos. He did his master’s and doctorate in the United States of America, where he married his wife Janet Rae Mondlane. In the USA, he worked at the United Nations, in the Curatorial Department, as a senior researcher on the events that led to the independence of African countries. At the same time, he taught history and sociology at Syracuse University, having resigned in 1963 to devote himself to the cause of independence. In 1961 Mondlane visited Mozambique, which allowed him to have contacts with some local nationalists in hiding. He was the consensus figure to lead the unified national resistance by the three Mozambican nationalist organisations that existed at the time, namely MANU (Mozambique African National Union), UDENAMO (National Democratic Union of Mozambique) and UNAMI (African National Union for Independent Mozambique). With the support of Julius Nyerere, president of Tanzania, this process led to the creation of the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), and at the first Congress, on 25 June 1962 in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, the President of Frelimo was elected, with Uria Simango as vice-president. He opted for dialogue as the first route to independence, but due to the intransigence of the Portuguese colonial regime, he came to the conclusion that it would not be possible to achieve independence for Mozambique without a liberation war, which began on 25 September 1964 in the district of Chai in Cabo Delgado. Over the course of the liberation struggle, Mondlane faced several crises motivated by the power struggle within FRELIMO. Some of the former leaders of UDENAMO, MANU and UNAMI did not passively accept the idea that they would no longer be in charge of FRELIMO. From this condition and situation, FRELIMO’s unity began to be questioned throughout the armed struggle for national liberation. Mondlane led Frelimo during the first six (6) years of the armed struggle, a period of deep fragmentation, in which two wings emerged in the movement, the one that saw the revolution as an essential component in the struggle and, on the other hand, the wing that saw the struggle for independence as a greater gain. At the same time, thanks to his experience at the United Nations, he was able to mobilise support for the liberation struggle from the international community. Despite the internal rifts within the party, Mondlane was re-elected at FRELIMO’s second congress, held in Mozambique in July 1968. On 3 February, Mondlane received a letter in his office in Dar es Salaam containing a bomb, for which he was killed. Those responsible for his death remain unknown to this day, although there are hypotheses that point to the Portuguese Security Police (PIDE/DGS), wings within FRELIMO that wanted to take power and even some Tanzanian political figures. His contribution to the process of building the Mozambican state began during the colonial period and the liberation struggle. In 1948 he founded the Núcleo dos Estudantes Secundários Africanos de Moçambique (NESAM), which, in addition to its academic aims, debated issues related to the Portuguese colonial administration system, such as equality, justice and freedom. He also contributed to the emergence of nationalist movements in Mozambique. The first president of FRELIMO, Mondlane is described as the architect of National Unity, an advocate of federalism and popular participation (democracy). He was an ecumenical leader with good relations with actors and individuals with different orientations, including nationalists and Marxists (Marcelino dos Santos, Amílcar Cabral and Agostinho Neto), international organisations (United Nations, Arab League) and religious bodies. Today, as a tribute, the country’s oldest and largest public university bears his name: “Eduardo Mondlane University”. Eduardo Chivambo Mondlane symbolises national resistance against Portuguese colonialism and all forms of colonial domination. With his death, a democratic, federal Mozambique with popular participation remains an ideal yet to be realised. ARAÚJO, Mária. M. (2012). Eduardo Mondlane e Nelson Mandela: A Autobiografia como Diagnose Social, Cultural e Política. Lisboa: IICT. BRAGANÇA, Aquino de, WELLERTEIAN, Immanuel. (1978). Quem é o Inimigo?. Lisboa: Iniciativas editoriais. CHEMANE, O. (2003). A Contribuição de Eduardo Mondlane na Educação em Moçambique: Entre a Tradição e a Modernidade. Maputo: UP. MONDLANE, Eduardo. (1995). Lutar Por Moçambique. Maputo. MUSSA, Carlos. (2021). Debates Históricos Contemporâneos sobre o Nacionalismo e Unidade Nacional em Moçambique: O Papel de Mondlane na Afirmação da Unidade Nacional (1962- 2020). In: Estudos Organizacionais. ISM: CIES. NHAMONA, Elídio. (2021). Mr. Maluleke & CO., de Eduardo Mondlane, e a Polémica do Álcool. Revista Científica da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Série: Letras e Ciências Sociais. NGOENHA, Severino. (1993). Das Indepedências as Liberdades. Maputo: Paulinas. Sofia Negrão, A VIDA, A LUTA E O ASSASSINATO DE EDUARDO MONDLANE, https://setentaequatro.pt/ensaio/vida-luta-e-o-assassinato-de-eduardo-mondlane
Vertebral fractures typically occur to the thoracic (mid) and lumbar (lower) areas of the spine or their junction in acute and traumatic fashion. High velocity impact accidents such as a car crash or fall from great heights are usually the culprit for the injury. Fractures to the vertebrae can lead to damage of adjacent nerves. Common Spine Fracture Indicators As with many injuries resulting from high-energy trauma, pain is the most common symptom. Nerve damage may also present itself in the form of: - Neurogenic shock - Spinal shock The general trunk, genital area and lower extremities are the most likely regions to experience neural deficits. Associated Clinical Examinations Patients with vertebral fractures due to high-energy accidents are at risk of internal bleeding and may require a series of blood tests and additional laboratory studies for proper evaluation of possible affected organs. Clinical examinations which may also be performed after a vertebral fracture to understand the full extent of the injury may include: - Urinalysis to rule out kidney damage - Evaluation of cardiac-marker, amylase, lipase and urine myoglobin, and serum creatine kinase levels Spinal surgeons will rely on the use of the following imaging tests to verify the severity of the injury: - Radiography – helpful in imaging fractures, although, radiographs may not be strong enough to outline hairline fractures - Computed tomography (CT) scanning – scans of this nature will pick up bony fractures with greater ease than radiographs - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – MRI is the tool of choice for detecting neural, tissue and bone damage concerning vertebral fractures Conservative and Surgical Treatment Nonsurgical Fracture Options The use of a spinal vest or brace for the prevention of rotational movement and bending for minor fractures and management of unstable spinal fractures is a common non-operative treatment method as surgery may not be required. Appropriate support is paramount for proper and effective rehabilitation. Surgical Fracture Options The objectives of surgical management are pressure relief of the spinal cord canal and adequate reduction of bones and stabilization of the vertebral column. The following surgical approaches are dependent on the fracture pattern: - Posterior approach – This method is helpful for stabilization and fixation of the rear bony elements of the spine. This approach is used when early mobilization is an option and decompression of the spinal canal is not the focal point. - Posterolateral approach – Is oftentimes used for high-level vertebral fractures such as when limited ventral exposure is needed. This method may be combined with the posterior approach. - Anterior approach – Vertebral bodies at multiple levels can be accessed through this frontal approach. It is most useful for pressure relief of injuries and spinal canal problems caused by vertebral fractures from trauma to the body. Trusted Professional Care Oftentimes, surgery may include metal screws, rods and cages to ensure proper spinal fixation and stabilization. Talk to a specialist in the field of minimally invasive spinal surgery at IGEA Brain, Spine & Orthopedics to explore your treatment options for painful spine conditions.
Let’s get outdoors! Hiking, camping, fishing, and canoeing are just a few things you can do outside to get in touch with nature. Explore the possibilities and have something to exhibit at your fair. The social recreation skills project area enables youth to gain a lifelong appreciation of the outdoors and nature. Ages and Stages of Youth Development Start by choosing their adventure and items needed to carry out a day hike. Learn basic first aid and nature safety rules and explore the ideas of basic nature etiquette. Plan an overnight trip for peers or family (hiking, camping, or fishing). Learn the differences in supplies needed for a longer adventure and practice appropriate nature etiquette on the trip. Plan a multi-day trip (camping, hiking, canoeing, or fishing). Prepare for their multi day adventure (food, clothing, cooking, emergencies, etc.). Share your outdoor knowledge and nature etiquette rules. 4-H Programming Priorities Planning for an outdoor activity gives youth responsibility and leadership roles outside of normal everyday activities. Health & Wellness Outdoor activities would increase the health and wellness of all youth by incorporating physical activity. Social recreation skills allow youth to explore science in a real life outdoor setting. Youth will recognize that agriculture is part of nature! - Illustrated talk on nature trails in your area - Demonstrate how to safely start a fire - Illustrated talk on "Leave No Trace" - Volunteer to mow and clean trails at state parks - Plan an afterschool program to explore nature in your town - Volunteer to be a camp counselor - Park ranger - Natural resources conservation district - Wildlands firefighter - Hunting lodge and guide service Educational displays or posters: - Nature trails - Hiking essentials - Leave no trace - Care of camping gear - Picking a camping site - Fishing lures
Public authorities spend public money when they procure products and services. The amount of this public money represents approximately 19% of the EU GDP or more than 2.3 trillion euros. Spending of such large amounts of money can have a significant impact on the market, and can create demand and spread the good example. Understanding the power of public procurement, the European Union, in all relevant strategic documents, highlights its relevance to ensuring sustainable development. In the light of this tendency nowadays public procurement is no longer treated as a mere administrative process for purchasing something, but also as a tool that contributes to reaching strategic goals. The UN, too, has highlighted the importance of public procurement under its Sustainable Development Goals (goal 12 on sustainable consumption and production). The European Commission aims to support the uptake of the new, green, innovative and circular procurement practices. Beside the development of green criteria for 21 product groups, several platforms are there to assist public authorities. The main purpose of the EU GPP Helpdesk, is to promote and disseminate information about the GPP, and to provide answers to stakeholders' enquiries. Another example is the Procurement of Innovation Platform, which is an online hub that targets public authorities, procurers, policy makers and researchers. The Platform consists of three elements: website, Procurement Forum, and Resource Centre. Innovation procurement is also addressed by the European Assistance for Innovation Procurement initiative which promotes the benefits of innovation procurement. The initiative also provides training and assistance to public procurers interested in implementing innovation procurements of ICT-based solutions across the EU. In its Circular Economy Action Plan the European Commission has called for an enhanced integration of circular economy requirements into public procurements. The new term “circular procurement” has been introduced and related approaches are being promoted. Circular procurement is a general public procurement process, which integrates aspects stimulating a transition to a circular economy during the whole procedure, starting from the preparatory/planning phase to the end-of-use phase. The basic principle for circular procurement is to apply a full lifecycle approach and to consider aspects like reparability, reuse, remanufacturing and recycling options, disassembling characteristics etc. Paradigm shifts, like moving from ownership to usership are also encouraged. The Interreg Europe Programme provides support to uptake innovative procurement approaches as part of the environment and resource efficiency topic. Two Interreg Europe projects – GPP4Growth and SYMBI – focus on procurement. Join a workshop on improving your regional policies or take part in a matchmaking sessions and talk to other public authorities about your needs. Looking to share or replicate good practices that enable citizens’ secure access to and sharing of health data across borders? Check this call for twinnings! On 20-21 June, an Interreg team visited Córdoba in Spain to film a reportage about sustainable waste management. University of Turin, on behalf of FINCH Project, will attend the annual EuroMed Academy Business Conference in Thessaloniki (Greece) next September. On 13 September 2019 the Policy Learning Platform is hosting a webinar on One-stop-shops for deep energetic refurbishment of private buildings. Register now. Meet us in Brussels for EURegionsWeek on 9 October: put forward your regional challenge for a matchmaking session or join our workshop and improve your policies
Admission is Free \| Open Wed–Sun Object Name: Tunic Place of Origin: Late Nasca culture, south coast of Peru. Date: Middle Horizon, 600-1000 CE Materials Used: Camelid-hair warp and weft (Z-spun, S-plied) with interlocked and dovetailed joins; discontinuous warp and weft (warp-predominant); woven added fringe Dimensions: 128 x 126 cm Credit line and Accession Number: Fowler Museum at UCLA. Gift of Nancy R. Pitt. X82.1030. Source: Elena Phipps, The Peruvian Four-Selvaged Cloth. Ancient Threads / New Directions. Fowler Museum Textile Series, No. 12, Los Angeles, 2013 Each of the two panels has all four selvages (in addition to the complete color sections). Dazzling zigzag designs in mismatched panels make up the tunic. The sides are stitched together with an area left open for the arms and neck. Woven with discontinuous warps and wefts, the bold monochrome color blocks creating the design were interconnected to one another through a scaffolding system that aided the color changes during the weaving process. The color palette and technique are typical of the south coast of Peru, and this large garment would have been part of a burial.
They don't know why, but scientists say some adolescent stars rebel against the norm by spinning more slowly than their peers. Normally, a young star gets smaller as its gravity pulls gas and dust in toward its center; the smaller the star gets, the faster it spins. But a scientist with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., and her colleagues have found that a significant percentage of adolescent stars do not spin faster as they shrink. "A young, shrinking star should behave like a skater who pulls in her arms to make herself smaller and spin faster," said Dr. Luisa Rebull, a staff scientist at JPL and the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, which manages JPL for NASA. "We don't know why some stars act differently, but we'd sure like to find out." Rebull offers four possible reasons for the odd behavior: 1 -- It is simply a quirk of the process by which the stars formed. 2 -- The stellar winds are carrying away the angular momentum, or spin. This is like a skater who extends her arms away from her body to slow down. 3 -- The magnetic field generated by the young stars locks their rotation to the slower rotation rate of the dust and gas disks around them, disks that might eventually form planetary systems. 4 -- The stars have already formed planets from their disks. In our solar system, the largest planet, Jupiter, has the most angular momentum, or spin. Maybe other planetary systems are operating the same way, with large planets "stealing the momentum" from the parent star. The fourth possibility intrigues scientists with NASA's Origins Program, which will hunt for Earthlike planets that might harbor life. If orbiting planets cause this odd stellar behavior, scientists might detect them by looking for this trait. Rebull is a scientist on a new Origins mission, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility. The mission will launch early next year on a mission which, as one of its many goals, will look for planet-forming disks around other stars. A subsequent Origins mission, the Space Interferometry Mission, will look for planets around young stars to investigate the planet hypothesis directly. For this current research, Rebull and her team studied more than 9,000 stars in the Orion Nebula and the Christmas Tree Cluster, also known as NGC 2264. They observed about 500 stars with large spots. The spots are like Sunspots, but much bigger, covering a large portion of the star's surface. As the stars rotate, the spots come into and out of view, causing tiny changes in the total light we see from the star. Some of these stars appear redder than expected. That might indicate they have dust disks around them, Rebull said, which could interact with the star to slow its rotation. This might support the third possible explanation. The researchers used the .76-meter (30-inch) telescope at the McDonald Observatory in western Texas. They also incorporated data from the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, Tucson, Ariz. The research paper, which Rebull co-authored with Drs. Sidney Wolff and Steven Strom of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, and Russell Makidon of the Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md., will appear in the July 2002 issue of the Astronomical Journal. JPL manages the Origins Program for NASA's Office of Space Science, Washington, D.C. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology. News Media ContactJPL/Jane Platt (818) 354-0880